Prof.

Enrique Mateus Nieves

PhD in Mathematics Education
TAYLOR FRMULA
Introduction
The polynomials are among the simplest functions studied in analysis. They are suitable for working in
numerical calculations because their values can be obtained by performing a finite number of
multiplications and additions. Therefore, any other function can be approximated by polynomials
facilitates its study, including logarithmic, exponential and trigonometric functions, which cannot so
easily assessed.
We will see that many functions can be approximated by polynomials and that they, rather than the
original function can be used to perform calculations when the difference between the actual value of the
function and the polynomial approximation is sufficiently small. Several methods can be used to
approximate a function given by polynomials. One of the most widely used makes use of Taylor's
formula, named after the English mathematician Brook Taylor.
Brook Taylor: Born in Edmonton, England in 1685. He was a disciple of Newton. He continued his work
in the field of mathematical analysis. His Methodus et Direct incrementorum Reverse, the publication in
London in 1715, where he describes his formula, but not prove, which Mac-Laurin made. (Although this
formula was known to Gregory and Leibniz but had not been published). They examined the change of
variable, finite differences (which he defined as increases), and presented the series expansion of a
function of one variable. Such studies were not immediately known, but remained unknown until 1772,
when the French mathematician Joseph Louis Lagrange, stressed the importance for the development of
differential calculus. He also published several works on perspective, giving the first general treatment of
vanishing points, on the phenomena of capillarity, on problems of vibrating strings and swing centers,
which already in 1708 had given a solution. He died in London in 1731.
We will learn how the polynomial approximations and it is of great importance in order to then calculate
the logarithmic, exponential and trigonometric functions. And also, to give a broader view on this subject
the student, taking a language not so extensive and more focused on the practical and necessary to be
performed mathematical calculations such that the differential and integral calculus, we find many themes
sometimes not practice our attention. In class we will look in detail several of the issues mentioned
here. In polynomial approximations will see how easy it is.
Prof. Enrique Mateus Nieves
PhD in Mathematics Education
Approximation of functions by polynomials
We will deal with the local approximation f(x) given by polynomial functions P(x), to be searched. We
called "local" to this approach is performed for values of x close to a fixed point, the approaches will be
much better the closer you get x to value. To approximate f(x), we use polynomial functions, because as
we have seen in class, these functions are actually simpler and more suitable for numerical calculations.
To be winning precision polynomial functions must be taken as they are, each time, to a greater degree.
.
The best approximations is obtained if f(x) is sufficiently smooth, taking for P(x) polynomial functions
having at x = a derivative thereof (first, second, ....) where f(x); These , are called Taylor polynomials at
x = a of f(x). To measure the goodness of these approaches will need to know some kind of stage the
error f(x) P(x); hence, we obtain an expression for the difference, R(x), called the rest or
complementary term.
Local approximation of a function:
Be a function f(x) and a polynomial function P(x), where:
a. f(a) = P(a)
b. are n differentiable at x = a and verified:
f(a) =P(a); f(a) =P(a); f(a) =P(a);........f
n
(a)=P
n
(a). Then P(x) a local approximation of
f(x) at x = a. we have to , ) , ) 0 x P x f when a x . If we compare f(x)-P(x) with (x-a); with
, )
2
a x ; with , )
3
a x , , , )
n
a x ; is said to P(x) on an approximation of f(x) of the first order, second
order, ...., of order n, for if a x verified, respectively that:
, ) , ) , ) , )
, )
, ) , )
, )
, ) , )
, )
.
a x
x P x f
; ;
a x
x P x f
;
a x
x P x f
;
a x
x P x f
n
0 0
3
0 0
2

In short:
Given a function f(x), is said to be another function P(x) is a local approximation of order n f(x) near a
point x = a is met:
, ) , )
, )
0 =

n
a x
a x
x P x f
lim
Proof:
Prof. Enrique Mateus Nieves
PhD in Mathematics Education
Look at two things:
1. Both functions admit nth derivative.
2. This limit is indeterminate form (0/0)
In this limit we can apply the rule of L'Hospital (case 0/0), successively, at least up to order (n-1).
, ) , )
, )
, ) , )
, )
, ) , )
, ), )
, ) , )
, ) , ) , )
, ) , )
, ) a x
x P x f
n!
1
lim
a x 2 3 2 - n 1 - n n
x P x f
lim
a x n n
x P x f
lim
a x n
x P x f
lim
a x
x P x f
lim h
n 1 - n
a x
n 1 - n
a x
n
a x
n
a x
n
a x

=
=

' ' ' '
=

' '
=

1 1
2 1
1

Since , ) , ) a P a f
n n 1 1
= we have:
, ) , )
, )
, ) , ) , ) , )
, )
, ) , )
, )
, ) , )
, )
, ) , ) 0 0
1 1
1 1 1
= = =
(

=
=

n!
1
a P a f
n!
1
lim
a x
a P x f
a x
a P x f
lim
n!
1
a x
a P a f x P x f
lim
n!
1
a x
x P x f
n!
1
lim h
n n
a x
n 1 - n n 1 - n
a x
n 1 - n n 1 - n
a x
n 1 - n
a x
=
, ) , )
, )
0 =

n
a x
a x
x P x f
lim
Taylor polynomial
Let f(x) a function n times differentiable at x = a; P(x) be a polynomial with local approximation of
order n of f(x) near x = a. P(x) is called the Taylor polynomial of degree n of f(x) being P(x):
, ) , )
, )
, )
, )
, )
, )
, )
, )
, )
n
n
a x
! n
a f
a x
!
a f
a x
!
a f
a x
!
a f
a f x P + +
' ' '
+
' '
+
'
+ =
3 2
3 2 1
Proof: by hypothesis we know that:
Prof. Enrique Mateus Nieves
PhD in Mathematics Education
f(a) = P(a); f(a) = P(a); f(a) = P(a);........f
n
(a)= P
n
(a) Express P(x) as powers of (x a) with
undetermined coefficients
, ) , ) , ) , ) , ) (1) a x p a x p a x p a x p p x P
n
n
+ + + + + =
3
3
2
2 1 0
We shall find the successive derivatives of P(x):
, ) , ) , ) , ) , )
, ) , ) , ) , ) , )
, ) , ) , ) , ) , ) , )
, ) , ) , ) , ) n 1 - n n n x P
a x p n 1 - n n a x p a x p x P
a x p n n a x p a x p p x P
a x p n a x p a x p a x p p x P
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
2 3 4 3 2 1
2 4 3 2 3 2
1 4 3 3 2 2
4 3 2
3
4
2
3
2
2
4 3 2
1 3
4
2
3 2 1
=
+ + + = ' ' '
+ + + + = ' '
+ + + + + = '

Substituting x by a, we have:
, )
, )
, )
, )
, ) , ) , ) , )
, )
, )
, )
, )
, ) , ) , ) , )

=
= ' ' '
= ' '
= '
=

=
= ' ' '
= ' '
= '
=
n
n
n
n
P n 1 - n 2 - n n a f
P a f
P a f
P a f
P a f
:: is hypothesis this
P n 1 - n 2 - n n a P
P a P
P a P
P a P
P a P
3 3 2 1
3 2 1
2 1
3 3 2 1
3 2 1
2 1
3
2
1
0
3
2
1
0

Hence it:
, )
, )
, ) , )
, ) , )
, )
, ) , ) , )
, )

=

=
' ' '
=

' ' '
=
' '
=

' '
=
'
=
=
! n
a f
n 1 - n 2 - n n
a f
P
!
a f a f
P
!
a f a f
P
!
a f
P
a f P
n n
n
3 3 2 1
3 3 2 1
2 2 1
1
3
2
1
0

Substituting in (1) we have:

Prof. Enrique Mateus Nieves
PhD in Mathematics Education
, ) , )
, )
, )
, )
, )
, )
, )
, )
, )
n
n
a x
! n
a f
a x
!
a f
a x
!
a f
a x
!
a f
a f x P + +
' ' '
+
' '
+
'
+ =
3 2
3 2 1
qdm.
Recall that P(x) is near f(x); ie: f(x) P(x)
Denote R (x) the difference between the values of the given function f (x) and the polynomial calculated.
, ) , ) , ) , ) , ) x R x P f(x) x P x f x R
n n
+ = = Developing, we have:
, ) , )
, )
, )
, )
, )
, )
, )
, )
, ) , ) x R a x
! n
a f
a x
!
a f
a x
!
a f
a x
!
a f
a f x f
n
n
n
+ + +
' ' '
+
' '
+
'
+ =
3 2
3 2 1
The term
, ) x R
n
goes by the name SUPPLEMENT OR OTHER TERM.
Where
, )
, )
, )
, ) x Q
! n
a x
x R
n
n

+

=
+
1
1
being , ) x Q a function we find
Taylor formula
Let be a function such that and its first n derivatives are continuous on the closed interval [a, b]. Also,
consider that f (x) exists for all x in the open interval (a, b). Then there is a number in the open interval z
(a, b). Such that:
, ) , )
, )
, )
, )
, )
, )
, )
, )
, )
, )
, )
, )
1
1
3 2
1 3 2 1
+
+

+
+ + +
' ' '
+
' '
+
'
+ =
n
n
n
n
a b
! n
z f
a b
! n
a f
a b
!
a f
a b
!
a f
a b
!
a f
a f b f
(1)
Equation (1) is also true yes b <a, in which case [a, b] is replaced by [b, a] and (a, b) is replaced by (b,
a). Note that when n = 0, (1) becomes: , ) , ) , ), ) a b z f a f b f ' + = where z is between a and b. This is the
conclusion of the Mean Value Theorem.
Prof. Enrique Mateus Nieves
PhD in Mathematics Education
If (1) is replaced b by x, we obtain the Taylor formula:
, ) , )
, )
, )
, )
, )
, )
, )
, )
, )
, )
, )
, )
1
1
3 2
1 3 2 1
+
+

+
+ + +
' ' '
+
' '
+
'
+ =
n
n
n
n
a x
! n
z f
a x
! n
a f
a x
!
a f
a x
!
a f
a x
!
a f
a f x f
(2)
Where z is between a and x.
The condition is met (2) is n and its first derivative are continuous in a closed interval containing a and
x, and (n + 1)-th derivative of exists at all points of the corresponding open interval. Formula (2) can be
written as: , ) , ) , ) x R x P x f
n n
+ = (3) where
, ) , )
, )
, )
, )
, )
, )
, )
, )
, )
n
n
n
a x
! n
a f
a x
!
a f
a x
!
a f
a x
!
a f
a f x P + +
' ' '
+
' '
+
'
+ =
3 2
3 2 1
(4) and
, )
, )
, )
, )
1
1
1
+
+

+
=
n
n
n
a b
! n
z f
x R
(5) where z is between a and x . The special case of Taylor's formula is
obtained by considering a = 0 in (2) is:
, ) , )
, )
, )
, ) , ) , ) , )
, )
, )
1
1
3 2
1
0
3
0
2
0
0
1
0
0
+
+

+
+ + +
' ' '
+
' '
+
'
+ =
n
n
n
n
a x
! n
z f
x
! n
f
x
!
f
x
!
f
x
!
f
f 0 f
Where z is between
0 and x.
This formula is called Mac Laurin formula, named after the Scottish mathematician Colin Mac Laurin
(1698-1746).