4

Coal Transportation
Since the distance between the energy supply point and the energy demand point for coal is often long, many coal utilization projects require that transportation technology and costs be considered. For long distances the cost of transportation can greatly exceed the mining cost. As the nation uses and exports greater amounts of coal from more remote locations, coal transportation will become a more important concern from an energy, economic, and environmental standpoint. Coal can be moved directly by railroad, truck, pipeline, barge or ship; energy obtained from coal can be transported as a liquid or gaseous fuel or as electricity. The environmental impacts of coal transportation include air pollution, water pollution, solid wastes, noise levels, safety and traffic hazards. Direct environmental impacts can occur at the mine, where the coal is being transferred, transported or loaded. lndirect environmental impacts from coal transportation largely result from the combustion of fuel for the transportation itself. This chapter discusses the different transport technologies, trends in coal transportation, and the potential environmental impacts from each transportation mode. In 1980 about 64% of all coal was transported by rail, II % by waterway, and II % by truck; to date very little coal has been transported by coal slurry pipeline. Of the rail modes, 20% of the total is by unit train, and 80% is by conventional rail. Barge transportation is the cheapest technique, but the cost depends upon the location of the inland waterways; in certain areas barges are not cost-effective. For example, coal from Wyoming could be transported by rail to St. Louis and then switched to barge for transportation to the Gulf Coast, but this would entail distances over 1,800 miles and would cost more than other alternatives.

56

Coal Transportation

57

Table 4-1 summarizes the magnitude and costs of various coal transportation modes in the United States for 1980. Figure 4-1 shows a representative distribution (for 1977) of transportation mode with respect to the consuming sector. Table 4-2 gives the origin and destination (by state) of the major consuming sector, electrical utilities. The estimated total coal transported in the United States in 1980 was 750 million tons, 64% of which was transported by railroad. The total coal movement measured approximately 200 billion net ton-miles. The average coal haul distance averaged 275 miles for all modes, with values ranging from 1 to 1,800 miles. 1-6 The average coal hauling cost was $0.019 per net ton-mile with costs ranging from $0.004-$0.145 per net ton-mile, as shown in Table 4-1. The major proportion of the coal traffic in the United States has traditionally been moved by railroad, a trend which is expected to continue in the future. The Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC),4 who recently conducted an in-depth evaluation of western coal hauling, estimated that the future coal moved by all major modes will range as high as 1,615 million tons per year, compared to a 1980 total of about 750 million tons per year. Figure 4-2 shows the major railroad routes from domestic coal fields; also shown is the location of major ports which connect with barge and ship facilities. Figure 4-3 projects future domestic coal movements; in the eastern states, total movement by railroad is expected to increase from 330 million tons per year in 1980 to 385 million tons per year in 1990 and 500 million tons per year in 2000,7 an increase of 52% over the 20-year period (or 2.1 % per year). A much more dramatic increase is indicated for western coal movements by rail,8 which have increased from 20 million tons per year in 1972 to 170 million tons per year in 1980. In the future, coal movement by railroad is expected to increase to 250 million tons per year in 1985, 470 million tons per year in 1990, and 650 million tons per year in 2000. The projected overall amount of western coal moved represents a rate of increase of 7.0% per year from 1980 to 2000. Coal movement by modes other than railroads for domestic consumption is expected to increase between 1980 and 2000 from an estimated 200 million tons per year to 470 million tons per year.8 This increase is 4.3% per year, if minemouth truck and conveyor movements are excluded from the total. Coal slurry pipeline movements could increase from the present 5 million tons per year to between 20 and 50 million tons per year by 1990, and from 50 to 100 million tons per year by 2000. Transportation Technologies

Alternative modes of coal transportation include railroad, pipeline, barge, truck, and conveyor for domestic movement, plus ship movement for overseas

U1

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Table 4-1 Estimates of Originated Coal Movements,

t

:J C.

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0276Haul Unit Cost-CentslTon-Mile Total Haul 350 55 12 0.8-3.5 64 10-75 6.0-14.5 1.8 10.5 475 95 85 273 480 1.2 151-15 11.0 II I 0.4-1.1 1.0-3.0 8.0-12.5 0.6 =700 80 275 100 0.4-14.5 1.9 740 10 5 Distance-Miles Miles % 1,055,000 10-1,880 191,000 100-1,100 108-1,260 25,000 1,271,000 1-1,880 106 Tons/Year Average Range Range Average Network Transportation

Haul Distances and Transportation

Costs in the United States in 19801-4

Q.

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2-

Coal Transportation
Transportation
Tramway. conveyor. and private railroad 54(11%)

59

Consumer

ElectriC

uliJllies

37; (77%)

All rail 257 (53%) 194 (40'0)

81 (16'.)
49 (10'0)

Coke and gas plants 64(13%) 36 (7'o} 26 (501

"

All othersb 47(10%)

"' "'

27(601 14(3'01

Figure 4-1. Coal distribution by transportation tember 1977 (million short tons),

mode and end use, January-Sep-

ATlANTIC OClAN

Railroad Borge

Routes Routes

AT8.F BN SP UP WP

Sonta

Fe Northern Pacific Pacific Pacific

Bao
C8.0 CR N8.W

-Baltimore
Chesopeo~e ConRail

aQhio 8. Ohio

Burlington Southern Union Western

- Norfolk

8. Western

Figure 4-2. Major railroad routes and ports on the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific coasts for coal export from the United States to foreign countries.8

979.1 598.8 2,316 3,600 18,867 2,259.9 6,884.9 8,459.4 1,869 11,217.9 7,088.9 9,758.6 6,528.6 3,553.2 1,170 13,438.7 4,174 8,019.7 12.5 .1 481 8.6 534 83.8 186.4 3.7 484.4 695.3 903.9 665.6 637.9 753.2 44 148.1 234.9 132.7 765 434.3 16.6 29 770 520.3 10 Southwesttt Southern Midwest" 18,094.1 1,839.6 1,894.8 2,459.7 3,389.9 60 1,172.5 4,324.6 8,911.5 3,270.7 Control 1,056.5 2,908.6 5,491 4,813.3 37,225.5 23,307 West 19,549 1,002.3 19,043 5,253.7 5,079.3 4,643.3 1,984.4 1,553.4 1,163.9 22,271.4 3,036.6 1,436.4 21,989.1 5,086.8 7,144.4 8,510.2 38,436.9 12,019.3 21,784.4 1,778.7 16,678.6 Coal 3,070.5 Processing and Pollution Appalachiat Appalachia' Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming. ttIllinois, Arizona,Indiana, New and Texas. **t Missouri, and Oklahoma. Alabama, Georgia, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia. f Coal Deliveries toMexico, Electric Utilities in Tons 1976 (in Thousand per Year) Origin Table 4-2

- ----

-27.0 - 820.5

Coal Transportation

61

2,000

.-

1,500
Mine Mouth Total Production

1,000

-------

--Eastern States

500

---- -- --......

---..

---"'--

..

--

Western States

_11975 1980 1985

Calendar

1990
Year

1995

2000

Figure 4-3. Projected increases in coal production and transportation States: 1975-2000,

in the United

destinations.3 The transport mode used depends upon the amount to be moved, haul distance, capital and operating costs for the transport system, plus flexibility, reliability, and responsiveness to changes in end-user demand, An additional factor affecting the selection of a coal transportation mode is the resulting environmental impact: air pollution, water pollution, solid waste, noise levels, traffic congestion, and safety aspects. The following paragraphs discuss the different transportation technologies, Railroad Trains The two types of train configurations used for coal transport are general freight train and designated unit coal train. The general purpose freight train carries numerous types of cars, some of which can be coal-carrying hopper cars, with switching normally occurring along the line. General purpose freight trains typically handle from 1,500 to 6,000 net tons, with an average of about 3,000 net tons and a gross weight of 4,500 tons. Typical haul distances for coal being moved by general purpose freight trains is 100 to 500 miles, although greater distances may be involved, with speeds of 20 to 70 miles per hour. The specifically designated unit coal train only handles coal from a single origin to a single destination so that it is much faster and cheaper than the general

62

Coal Processing

and Pollution Control

train for coal movement. Unit trains generally have one-way haul distances of 250 to 2,000 miles and carry from 7,500 to 12,500 net tons per trip. Unit coal trains employ from four to six 3,000-horsepower diesel locomotives as compared to between two and four similar-sized units in a typical freight train. A loaded train will have 80 to 120 cars for an average of 100 to 110 cars. The unit coal train is normally limited to a speed of 35 to 40 miles per hour to reduce excessive track wear. The average size hopper or gondola on a unit train car can carry 100 to 110 tons of coal per car, with a gross weight of 125 to 135 tons, compared to an average of 75 tons for a general purpose freight train. These large size hoppers cars are now commonly used for unit train movements from the western United States to the Midwest, West, South, and East. While most trains employ an oil-fueled diesel locomotive, an alternative means of railroad propulsion involves the use of electric locomotives.9 There are presently four electrically-powered railroads which haul coal from mines over short distances in Arizona, Ohio, and Texas. Electrified railroads have been proposed for a significant portion of the high traffic density lines in the United States between 1985 and 2000; such railroads would operate at higher fuel efficiencies, require coal instead of oil, and would be preferred environmentally. The Federal Railroad Administration has proposed 3 alternative electrified railroad networks of 10,000 route-miles, 26,000 route-miles, and 42,000 routemiles for possible full scale implementation by the year 2000.6 Coal Slurry Pipelines There is only one coal slurry pipeline currently operating in the United States. The Black Mesa pipeline, owned by the Southern Pacific Railroad, is 273 miles long and moves 4.8 million tons of coal per year from Kayenta, Arizona, to the 1,500 megawatt Mojave Power Plant near Laughlin, Nevada. Another coal slurry pipeline (no longer operational) runs from Cadiz, Ohio, to Cleveland, Ohio, and is owned by Consolidation Coal Company. This pipeline moved 1.3 million tons of coal per year from 1957 to 1963. By the year 2000, if planned coal slurry pipelines in the United States were implemented, up to 200 million tons per year (10% of total coal moved) would be so transported with a consumption of up to 135,000 acre-feet of water per year. In a coal slurry pipeline, the coal must first be ground to a uniform size of 100% -14 mesh with not more than 20% - 325-mesh by successive crushing and pulverization. The coal is then distributed in the liquid phase by agitation and mixing and passed through the pipeline to the end-use point. Coal slurry pipelines can make use of water, methanol, crude oil, or other liquid transport medium. The coal is separated from the liquid phase at the destination for subsequent use in combustion. The liquid may then be disposed of by reuse or as fuel, discharged to receiving waters or returned to the point where the coal is added to

Coal Transportation

63

the pipeline. Figure 4-4 presents the process flow diagram for a typical coal slurry pipeline.lO The pipeline can be either a nonrecirculating (one-way) or recirculating (twoway) system. Coal slurry pipelines require coal-liquid slurry preparation at the upstream end, coal-liquid separation facilities at the downstream end, and intermittent pumping stations along the route of the pipeline at intervals of 80 to 100 miles. Slurry storage tanks are usually located at the upstream end of the pipeline as a safeguard against downtime for the pipeline, and at the downstream end of the pipeline as a contingency for downtime of the coal-using facility. Pipelines are normally buried two to four feet below ground to minimize noise and lana disruption. The major variables affecting slurry pipeline throughput are pipe diameter, pipeline length, slurry velocity, and solids concentration.1O11 Slurry pipelines can range up to 48 inches in diameter and can have lengths ranging from 100 to 1,200 miles. 12 Throughput capacities for operational and proposed slurry pipelines in the United States are shown in Table 4-3. Solids flow velocity is about five feet per second. Slurry pipelines have the advantages of being able to move large amounts of coal over long distances cost-effectively with a minimum potential for en-route environmental disruption. Operating costs for labor are relatively low and energy consumption is somewhat lower for moving the same amount of coal as a railroad unit train. For large quantity long distance coal movements, the two major disadvantages of slurry pipelines compared to railroads are the greater upstream water requirements and the lower degree of operational flexibility. A source of water is required in the amount of 220 to 270 gallons per ton of coal moved for a one-way, once-through slurry pipeline. This water must come from the upstream source, which would normally be an arid region in the western states. The water separated from the operating coal slurry pipeline in Arizona is used as makeup water to the sulfur dioxide scrubber at the Mojave Power Plant. Water consumption can be reduced to between 50 and 75 gallons per ton of coal if a two-way recirculating slurry pipeline is employed.9 The makeup water can be added at any point along the two-way slurry pipeline, which obviates supplying water at an arid upstream point. However, the capital costs and energy requirements are increased substantially because of the need to pump the return water back to the source to transport the coal. Water consumption requirements can be significantly reduced if methanol or crude oil is used as the transport medium. An additional advantage of methanolcoal or oil-coal mixtures is that no downstream liquid-solid separation is needed prior to combustion, since both liquid and solid will burn. However, this requires a large source of crude oil or methanol; in the latter case, methanol for transport could be produced by gasification of coal and indirect liquefaction, as discussed in Chapter 8.

-~.":'"

en

.;.

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Slurry

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Figure 4-4. Schematic flow diagram for a one-way water coal slurry pipeline.

Table 4-3 Design and Operating Characteristics

Location 273 900 108 1,260 1,100 1,200 1,500 1,036 (miles) Pipeline 183 Name Alton-Nevada Black Mesa Cadiz, Ohio ETSI Florida Gas HNG-San Marco Interstate-Northwest Wytex Canada Origin Alton, Ut Kayenta, Ar Cadiz, Oh Gillette, Wy Kentucky Walsenburg, Co Gillette, Wy Gillette, Wy Alberta Destination Las Vegas, Nv Laughlin, Nv Cleveland, Oh White Bluff, Ar Florida Houston, Tx Boardman, Or Houston, Tx Minnesota

for Existing and Proposed Coal Slurry Pipelines in the United States1,4-6,11
Length 20,000 30,000 15,000 10,000 7,000 8,000 25.0 11.6 18 1970 4.8 24 15.0 12 1959 1.3 21 24 48 45.0 1 0.0 5.0 38 Diameter Water Use 22 Year 3,000 1,000 Throughput Startup (Inches) (ac-ft/yr) (10S tons/yr)

() o ~ -i ~ :J
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66

Coal Processing

and Pollution Control

The second major operational problem with coal slurry pipelines is the limited degree of operational flexibility because of the critical transport velocity. Slurry velocities of coal pipelines are optimum at between five and six feet per second, or three to four miles per hour, to minimize pipe diameter for capital cost and pressure drop for operating cost. Operation in excess of this velocity range can lead to excessive pipe erosion while operation on the low side can cause coal particle settling and pipe plugging. It is also economically desirable to operate at as high a solids concentration as possible without causing slurry separation. Once constructed, the coal slurry pipeline is essentially fixed in terms of its carrying capacity. The major legal constraints to future coal slurry pipeline development are questions about rights-of-way and conflicts over water resource allocations. 13 Railroads have traditionally opposed granting the power of eminent domain to pipeline companies for coal slurry pipelines. They have to date successfully resisted action at the federal level to grant t~e power of eminent domain for coal slurry pipelines; such power already exists for oil and gas pipelines. Seven states now have eminent domain laws for coal slurry pipelines, including Texas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, North Dakota, Ohio, North Carolina, and West Virginia. The present statutes in Utah and Colorado allow for slurry pipeline construction. However, laws in Colorado and Nevada would require the replenishment of any water used for one-way coal slurry pipelines by an equivalent amount so that only two-way pipelines or out-of-state water makeup would be feasible. Water rights is the second serious legal problem facing coal slurry pipelines. In the generally arid western states of the Rocky Mountains, between 70% and 90% of the water is used for agriculture. The conflicts over surface water resources for coal slurry pipeline development are especially severe in the Colorado River and Missouri River basins, both of which are at near capacity in terms of agriculture and other commitments. Groundwater resources such as the Madison Aquifer in Wyoming are a potential water source, but there are legal restrictions against such use. The use of brackish waters from some underground aquifers or oil field brines such as in the Overthrust Belt may provide at least a partial solution.

Barge Transport The domestic navigable waterway system of the United States consists of a total of approximately 25,000 miles.4.5 The major waterways are the MissouriMississippi-Ohio- Tennessee River system in the Midwest, the Intracoastal Waterway along the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Coast, the Great Lakes, and the Columbia-Snake River systems in the Pacific Northwest. In 1976, approximately 70 million tons of coal moved by barge only with an additional 130 million tons moved at least partially by barge.

Coal Transportation

67

Coal is normally moved in open hopper barges which range in capacity from 1,000 to 3,000 net tons, with an average of 1,500 net tons. Ten to fourteen barges are normally located in series. A typical shipment will contain up to 30,000 net tons of coal moving in 10 barges at an average speed of 6 miles per hour with an average one-way haul distance of 480 miles. The normal direction of coal movement is downstream on the Ohio, Mississippi, and Missouri River systems, but there is also a significant upstream coal movement on the eastern end of the Ohio River. Terminal facilities for coal transport are involved with either the loading or unloading of barges, with loading capacities for coal ranging from 1,000 to 4,000 tons per hour. Unloading of coal can take place by bucket, or revolving scoop, with subsequent conveyor movement to storage silos, loading facilities, or end-use points. Fuel requirements for barge movement of coal can be as low as 300 to 500 Btu per net ton-mile for downstream movement for large barges, or as high as 800 to 1,100 Btu per net ton-mile for upstream movement or coastal movement in small barges. The potentially significant environmental impacts of waterways movement of coal are dust losses during loading, unloading or transport, oil losses from fuel systems of barges, and the emissions from towboat fuel combustion. Highway Truck Movement Coal can be moved by truck over regular highways in vehicles with 15 to 30 tons capacity. Coal can also be transported by large off-road trucks with capacities ranging from 100 to 200 net tons. These trucks are almost always dieselpowered with back or bottom dump. Specially constructed roads for coal hauling are extensively used for minemouth power plants in the west, south, and east, while the hauling of coal by trucks on highways is more concentrated at surface mines in the east, especially Appalachia.! Truck hauls on public highways in the United States typically range from 50 to 75 miles (average of 55) while off-road hauls are normally between 5 and 20 miles (average of 15). Trucks are the most versatile of all transportation modes for coal hauling because they can operate over the widest areas where roads are available. However, trucks do suffer from several disadvantages relative to other transportation methods: I. Highest unit energy consumption requirements 2. Highest net operating costs 3. Greatest external damage to highways Fuel consumption requirements for highway coal hauling are typically from 2,000 to 2,800 Btu per net ton-mile, with an average of about 2,500 Btu per net

68

Coal Processing

and Pollution Control

ton-mile. Fuel consumption requirements for off-road diesel trucks are lower, between 1,500 and 2,400 Btu per net ton-mile (average of 1,900). As a result, trucks are normally best only for short hauls of coal. The major adverse environmental impacts resulting from truck coal hauling are coal dust particle releases during coal loading or unloading, and coal dust entrainment during transport. Some coal will escape from the trucks during transport because the loads are normally uncovered. The coal dust tends to wash off roadways during rainstorms, causing aesthetic unsightliness and contamination of runoff waters. The air pollutant emissions from diesel fuel cQmbustion add to the emissions mentioned above. Conveyor Belt Transport Conveyor belts are normally used in mine-mouth power plants to bring coal from the mining area to the storage or usage area. Conveyor belts can be used for coal transport in hilly terrain where roads are relatively inaccessible, typically being used to move coal over 5-mile to IS-mile distances. Conveyors have the advantage of being relatively maintenance free but have the disadvantage of location inflexibility, making a truck haul still necessary. Movable conveyor belts have been developed and used in Europe, but not in the United States to date.5 The only adverse environmental impacts of conveyor belts for coal transport are coal dust losses during loading, unloading, or transport. Conveyor belts do not use water, except for belt cleaning; they can use plant electricity and do not require petroleum as the energy source. However, conveyor belts tend to be very energy-intensive, with unit fuel consumption requirements of 20,000 to 50,000 Btu per net ton-mile. As a result, conveyor hauls are normally limited to about ten miles. Long Distance Electrical Transmission As an alternative to solid fuel movement, the energy in coal can be sent indirectly to the point of end use via electrical transmission. Transmission of electricity can occur as either alternating or direct current, but in the United States it is usually done by high voltage alternating current. Electricity is normally transmitted at 138,000 volts (138 kv) near load centers, but is usually transmitted at either 345 kv or 765 kv over extended distances. Electricity transmission has been tested at 1,100 kv by the Bonneville Power Administration, and is now being transmitted at 1,500 kv in the Soviet Union. There are presently 360,000 miles of high-voltage transmission lines in the United States. Most extra-high-voltage transmission lines in the United States are in the east or on the west coast. These lines generate significant electric fields adjacent to the wires. As a result, the transmission towers must frequently be 200 to 300 feet tall to reduce electric field density to less than one volt per centimeter at ground

Coal Transportation

69

level. The transmission lines generate ozone although not in large quantities. High-voltage, long-distance transmission lines also result in energy losses of about 1% per 100 miles. Long distance transmission is often not competitive with other coal energy transport modes at distances of greater than 300 miles.6 Environmental Controls

Coal transportation does not require unique environmental control technologies but is usually integrated with extraction and utilization operations. The greatest single environmental problem from coal transportation is coal dust en- . trainment. Adding water to coal can significantly reduce dust entrainment; the critical dusting moisture content varies with the type of coal. The use of covered hopper cars is not considered practical for coal transport because of loading difficulties. Chemical additives as well as crude oil or kerosene can also be added to reduce dusting. These materials will generally add to the heating value of the coal, but may also add undesirable pollutants. Dust control at loading and unloading facilities generally involves cyclones in series with filters or scrubbers for the exhaust air. 3.14 These cyclones are normally designed as standard single-stage units to handle coal dust particles of an average size of 50 to 75 f.Lm,with sizes ranging from less than I to greater than 1,000 f.Lmin diameter. See Chapter 11 for a discussion of particulate control devices and their designs. Water used in coal dust suppression is usually recirculated and eventually added to coal going either into a transport vehicle or to an end-use point. Complete water recirculation is beneficial because it conserves both coal and water. The major drawback of water addition is a 1% to 2% reduction in heating value. The major liquid-effluent-disposal problem with coal transportation is from coal slurry pipelines. Coal in the coal-water mixture can be separated as shown in Figure 4-5 by centrifuging and thickening. 12 The water effluent from the clarification-thickening operation can then be used for ash sluicing or sulfur dioxide scrubbing makeup water without major treatment. This water can also be used for cooling system makeup to towers or ponds with some chemical addition, or with extensive softening for boiler feedwater makeup. After water removal the recovered coal from the centrifuging and thickening operations then passes to the pulverizers and boilers. For two-way slurry pipelines, water can be returned to the point of coal addition. Transportation Costs

Numerous studies have been conducted on the comparative costs of alternative coal transportation modes, with widely varying results (see References, 4, 6-8, 11, 12, 15). A particular point of controversy has been the rapid increase in coal transportation costs by some rail lines, caused in part by rapid escalations in rail

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UNDERFLOW,

20-26%

SOLIDS

HEATERS

20 P P m
SOLIDS SCALE CONTROL COOLING TOWERS CHEMICALS

SOFTENED

MAKEUP

WATER

CONDENSER

Figure 4-5. Wastewater treatment and reuse for a one-way coal slurry pipeline.10

Coal Transportation
13.0

71

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0.0 0.5 1.0 10.0 100.0 1.000.0 10,000.0

One-Way Haul Distance-Miles

Figure 4-6. Effect of haul distance on coal transportation costs for alternative

modes.

maintenance and diesel fuel costS.16 As a result, many utility companies favor local coals with high sulfur and ash contents at the expense of western coals with lower sulfur and ash contents. A summary of typical coal haul costs for the alternative coal transportation modes is presented in Table 4-1 and in Figure 4-6. Barge movement is generally the lowest cost mode, while truck movement is the highest cost mode. There is considerable controversy between railroad and slurry pipeline interests regarding comparative transport costs. The use of one-way slurry pipelines would probably result in lower operating costs than would diesel-powered trains but would use more water at the upstream end. The use of two-way slurry pipelines would substantially reduce the water consumption, but would almost double the transport costs mainly because of higher capital expenses. For equivalent energy delivery rates, rail costs are comparable to costs of a gas pipeline. However, it is inaccurate to compare solid transport costs with synfuel (gas or liquid) pipeline costs, since one must take into account the synfuel conversion efficiency. If a 40% loss in the heating value of coal occurs in the manufacture of SNG (coal gasification), only 60% of the energy content must then be

72

Coal Processing

and Pollution Control

transported, thus effectively reducing the transportation costs. For the same reason, mine-mouth conversion of coal to solvent-refined coal, methanol, or synthetic crude is usually also favored logistically and economically over transport of coal plus conversion at the destination. However, the cost advantage can be greatly reduced if the cost of constructing a synfuels facility is larger at the source than at the destination. For example, installed-plant costs in Wyoming may be 40% larger than those for a similar plant erected in Texas. The unit energy requirements are a slightly different basis for comparison of various transportation technologies. Table 4-4 lists the long-distance energy re"quirements for each mode on a Btu per ton-mile basis. This takes into account the energy conversion efficiency discussed above. While the syncrude method requires more energy than that for SNG, the transport costs of syncrude are less. This is principally because smaller pipelines, and hence lower capital investment, are required for syncrude, due to its higher density. A final comparison of relevance is the water requirement for combined conversion plus transportation. Table 4-5 lists the direct water consumption for each technology; note that mine-mouth power production requires significantly more water than other technologies, even gasification, since power plant water requirements are much larger than water usage for coal slurry pipelines.

Coal Storage and Handling Coal storage is required whether the coal conversion plant is located at the mine-mouth or if rail transportation is required. 14 When the mine and plant are adjacent, mine operations can be dovetailed so that there is a balance between supply and demand of raw coal, although some storage is still necessary. If coal is received by rail over long distances, an emergency supply of coal is crucial. This coal supply should be placed in "dead storage" in order to minimize air pollution due to coal dust. This consists of a compacted and sealed pile not susceptible to dusting during wind activity. The coal storage pile is prepared by layering coal in 12-inch depths and compacting each layer to a bulk density of about 70 pounds per cubic foot. The height . of the pile is set at about 25 feet and the length and width are fixed by the tonnage to be stored. To monitor spontaneous combustion,3 thermocouples can be inserted throughout the pile. The outer surface of the pile can be sprayed with an organic polymer crusting agent to prevent dusting or rain erosion. Crusting also prevents rainwater penetration of the coal particles; thus, water runoff will have little or no contaminants, such as those found in mine waters. In addition, the coal pile should be located on a waterproof base to prevent water seepage into the ground. Thus, all runoff water will be contained and used in the process. Coal from "dead storage" will normally be taken only in an emergency when the normal supply of coal is interrupted.

Table 4-4 Unit Energy and Petroleum Consumption Requirements Coal Transportation Modes
Coal Transportation Mode Diesel Railroad Electric Railroad Steam Railroad One- Way Slurry Pipeline Two-Way Slurry Pipeline Truck Barge SNG (Coal Gasification) Syncrude (Coal Liquefaction) Electricity (Direct Transmission) NOTES: Energy Consumptiont Btu/Net Ton-Mile Typical Range

of Alternative
Petroleum Consumption" Btu/Net Ton-Mile Typical Range

670 650 1,100 500 1,050 2,400 500 250 375 1,100

280-900 250-900 800-1,400 240-600 800-1,200 1,400-2,800 300-1,100 200-300 300-500 1,000-1,200

122
o

50-160

o o o 440
88

252-504 52-198

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ii3

* Data from Reference 9.

t Based on on board fuel as burned.

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Based on a I,OOO-mile shipment distance.

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74

Coal Processing

and Pollution Control

Table 4-5 Direct Water Consumption Requirements for Long Distance Coal Energy Transshipments
Water Consumption gal/ton coal

Transshipment

Method

Electrified Railroad Diesel Railroad Diesel Truck Conveyor Belt Barge Slurry Pipelines one-way two-way Coal Liquefaction Coal Gasification Direct Transmission

0.2-0.5 0.2-0.5 0.5-1.5 0.3-0.8 0.1-0.2 190-270 45-60 90-950 360-900 1,000-1,500

For rail delivery of coal, a track loop capable of holding an entire unit train while it is being unloaded can be provided at the plant site. The coal is dumped by a rotary car dumper into a double compartment track hopper. The car dumper is housed in a structure that has dust collecting equipment to control particulate emissions to the atmosphere at acceptable limits. The cars can be emptied and shifted at about 25 to 28 cars per hour. At this rate a complete train load of 12,000 tons of coal can be processed in less than 5 hours. Under normal operating conditions, coal is conveyed from the track hopper directly to concrete closed storage bins. Coal is delivered to each row of bins, which have a cylindrical design with a cone bottom, by covered conveyors.3 Each bin and the house itself should be connected to a dust collecting system to control dust emission and to negate the possibility of fires or explosions. In addition, a vacuum cleaning system can be provided in these houses. The coal is next transferred to surge bins which are fed by a totally enclosed belt conveying system originating at the concrete coal storage day bins. Coal from a surge bin is delivered to a pulverizing, classifying, and drying system in which the coal is pulverized, washed (if necessary), and dried.

References 1. Coal Data Book, President's Commission on Coal, Washington, D.C., (1980) . 2. Coal Facts: 1978-1979, National Coal Association, Washington, D.C., (1980) .

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3. Thompson, T. L., and F. B. Raymer, "Transportation, Storage, and Handling of Coal," Chemistry of Coal Utilization, M. A. Elliott, (Ed.), Wiley, New York, (1981), Ch. 9. 4. "Draft Environmental Impact Statement, Ex Parte No. 347, Western Coal Investigation - Guidelines for Railroad Rate Structure," Interstate Commerce Commission, Energy and Environmental Branch, Washington, D.C., (October 19, 1979). 5. "Final Environmental Impact Statement Fuel Use Act," Report No. DOE/EIS-0038, U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Environment, Washington, D.C., (April 1979). 6. White, D. M. and O. B. Clemons, "Coal and Lignite: Mining, Transportation and Utilization Needs for Texas," Report No. 77-003, Texas Energy Advisory Council, Austin, Texas, (June 1977). 7. Cooper, H. B. H., "A Detailed Technical Review of the Draft Environmental Impact State in the Ex Parte No. 347 on the Western Coal Evaluation - Guidelines for the Railroad Rate Structure," prepared testimony submitted to the Interstate Commerce Commission on behalf of the Office of the Attorney General of the State of Texas, Energy Division, Austin, Texas, (February 20, 1980). 8. Wilson, C. L., Coal-Bridge to the Future: Report of the World Coal Study, Ballinger Publishing Company, Cambridge, Massachusetts, (1980). 9. Cooper, H. B. H., "Environmental and Energy Impacts of Coal Energy Transshipment through Railroad Electrification," Paper No. C-75-351-2lA, Proceedings of the ASME-IEEE Joint Railroad Conference, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, San Francisco, (April 14-16, 1975). 10. Aude, T. D., et aI., "Slurry Piping Systems: Trends, Design, Methods, Guidelines," Chemical Engineering, Vol. 69, No. 13, (June 28, 1971), p. 74. 11. Wasp, E. J. and T. L. Thompson, "Slurry Pipelines-Energy Movers of the Future," The Oil and Gas Journal, Vol. 71, No. 52, (December 24, 1973), p. 44. 12. Wasp, E. J., "Coal Slurry Pipelines for the Next Decade," Mechanical Engineering, Vol. 101, No. 12, (December 1979), p. 38. 13. Lynch, J. F., "Prospects for Coal Slurry Pipelines in California," Proceedings of the Conference on Coal Use for California, sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy and the California Energy Commission, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, (May 9-11, 1978), p. 123. 14. Landers, W. S. and D. J. Donoven, "Storage, Handling, and Transportation," Chemistry of Coal Utilization, H. H. Lowry, (Ed.), Wiley, New York, (1963), Ch. 7.

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15. Campbell, T. C. and S. Katell, "Long Distance Coal Transport: Unit Trains or Slurry Pipelines," Information Circular 8690, U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Morgantown, West Virginia, (1975). 16. Gibson, P., "A Railroad for the Long Haul: Burlington Northern," Forbes, Vol. 127, No.9, (April 27, 1981), p. 120: