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Eddy Current Theory - Introduction

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Scope This document is only intended as a brief familiarisation course. It is not intended as a complete theoretical course in eddy current non-destructive testing, and a number of aspects are intentionally simplified. The bibliography at the end of the document details several appropriate reference books which should be consulted if a more complete understanding is required. Historical perspective Eddy current testing has its origins with Michael Faraday's discovery of electromagnetic induction in 1831. In 1879 Hughes recorded changes in the properties of a coil when placed in contact with metals of different conductivity and permeability, but it was not until the Second World War that these effects were put to practical use for testing materials. Much work was done in the 1950s and 60s, particularly in the aircraft and nuclear industries, and eddy current testing is now an accurate, widely used and well-understood inspection technique.
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Basic electrical principles Basic eddy current testing Typical instrumentation Applications Bibliography Eddy Current Applications NEW: Papers on "The Eddy Current Inspection Method"
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Eddy Current Theory, Principles - Hocking NDT, leaders in eddy current ndt
Eddy Current Theory - Principles

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Current flow in DC circuits When a voltage is applied to a circuit containing only resistive elements, current flows according to ohms law: I = V/R or V = I.R
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If a circuit consists of more than one element the overall voltages, resistance and capacitance can be calculated by simple algebra, for example, with two resistors in series:
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Current (I) must be the same for both resistors, so:

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V1 =I.R1, V2=I.R2, Vtot = V1+V2 = I.R1+ !.R2 = I (R1+R2) = I.Rtot so Rtot = R1+ R2 Electromagnetic induction In 1824 Oersted discovered that current passing though a coil created a magnetic field capable of shifting a compass needle. Seven years later Faraday and Henry discovered the opposite; that a moving magnetic field would induce a voltage in an electrical conductor. The two effects can be shown in a simple transformer connected to a DC supply as below:
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The meter needle will deflect one way when current is applied then back the other way when it is removed. A voltage is only induced when the magnetic field is changing. Such a voltage is also induced in the first winding, and will tend to oppose the change in the applied voltage. The induced voltage is proportional to the rate of change of current. A property of the coil called inductance (L) is defined, such that
If an AC current flows through an inductor, the voltage across the inductor will be at maximum when the rate of change of current is greatest. For a sinusoidal wave form this is at the point where the actual current is zero.
Thus the voltage applied to an inductor reaches its maximum value a quarter-cycle before the current does - the voltage is said to lead the current by 90 degrees. The value of the voltage and current can be calculated from the formula: V = I.XL where XL is the inductive reactance, defined by the formula: XL = 2 pi f L where f is the frequency in Hz. Current flow in AC circuits - impedance
As we saw above, for series DC circuits calculation of total resistance is simply a matter of adding the individual resistance values. For an AC circuit it is not so simple, but the same basic principles apply: the current though both elements must be the same, and at any instant the total voltage across the circuit is the sum of the values across the elements. However, the maximum voltage across the resistance coincides with zero voltage across the inductor and vice versa.
We can represent this graphically using a vector diagram:
The impedance of the circuit is therefore given by the formula:
and the phase angle between voltage and current is given by:
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Introduction Basic eddy current testing Typical instrumentation Applications Bibliography NEW: Papers on "The Eddy Current Inspection Method" Eddy Current Applications
Eddy Current Theory - Testing

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Simple coil above a metal surface When an AC current flows in a coil in close proximity to a conducting surface the magnetic field of the coil will induce circulating (eddy) currents in that surface. The magnitude and phase of the eddy currents will affect the loading on the coil and thus its impedance.
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As an example, assume that there is a deep crack in the surface immediately underneath the coil. This will interrupt or reduce the eddy current flow, thus decreasing the loading on the coil and increasing its effective impedance.
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This is the basis of eddy current testing, by monitoring the voltage across the coil in such an arrangement we can detect changes in the material of interest.
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Note that cracks must interrupt the surface eddy current flow to be detected. Cracks lying parallel to the current path will not cause any significant interruption and may not be detected.
Factors affecting eddy current response A number of factors, apart from flaws, will affect the eddy current response from a probe. Successful assessment of flaws or any of these factors relies on holding the others constant, or somehow eliminating their effect on the results. It is this elimination of undesired response that forms the basis of much of the technology of eddy current inspection. The main factors are: Material conductivity The conductivity of a material has a very direct effect on the eddy current flow: the greater the conductivity of a material the greater the flow of eddy currents on the
surface. Conductivity is often measured by an eddy current technique, and inferences can then be drawn about the different factors affecting conductivity, such as material composition, heat treatment, work hardening etc. Permeability This may be described as the ease with which a material can be magnetised. For nonferrous metals such as copper, brass, aluminium etc., and for austenitic stainless steels the permeability is the same as that of free space, i.e. the relative permeability (mr) is one. For ferrous metals however the value of mr may be several hundred, and this has a very significant influence on the eddy current response, in addition it is not uncommon for the permeability to vary greatly within a metal part due to localised stresses, heating effects etc. Frequency As we will discuss, eddy current response is greatly affected by the test frequency chosen, fortunately this is one property we can control. Geometry In a real part, for example one which is not flat or of infinite size, geometrical features such as curvature, edges, grooves etc. will exist and will effect the eddy current response. Test techniques must recognise this, for example in testing an edge for cracks the probe will normally be moved along parallel to the edge so that small changes may be easily seen. Where the material thickness is less than the effective depth of penetration (see below) this will also effect the eddy current response. Proximity / Lift-off The closer a probe coil is to the surface the greater will be the effect on that coil. This has two main effects:
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The "lift-off" signal as the probe is moved on and off the surface. A reduction in sensitivity as the coil to product spacing increases.
Depth of penetration The eddy current density, and thus the strength of the response from a flaw, is greatest on the surface of the metal being tested and declines with depth. It is mathematically convenient to define the "standard depth of penetration" where the eddy current is 1/e (37%) of its surface value.
The standard depth of penetration in mm is given by the formula:
where r is resistivity in mW.cm and f is frequency in Hz. From this it can be seen that depth of penetration:
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Decreases with an increase in frequency Decreases with an increase in conductivity Decreases with an increase in permeability this can be very significant penetration into ferrous materials at practical frequencies is very small.
The graph above shows the effect of frequency on standard depth of penetration. It is also common to talk about the "effective depth of penetration" usually defined as three times the standard depth, where eddy current density has fallen to around 3% of its surface value. This is the depth at which there is considered to be no influence on the eddy current field. The impedance plane Eddy current responses of a single coil may be conveniently described by reference to the "impedance plane". This is a graphical representation of the complex probe impedance where the abscissa (X value) represents the resistance and the ordinate (Y value) represents the inductive reactance.
Note that, while the general form of the impedance plane remains the same, the details are unique for a particular probe and frequency. The display of a typical CRT eddy current instrument represents a window into the impedance plane, which can be rotated and "zoomed" to suit the needs of the application. For example in the above impedance plane diagram a rotated detail of the "probe on aluminium" area would appear as below:
This shows the display when moving over a series of simulated cracks of varying depths. Note that in the example shown both the amplitude and the phase of response from the different sized cracks varies. Coil configurations Appropriate coil selection is the most important part of solving an eddy current application, no instrument can achieve much if it doesnt get the right signals from the probe. Coil designs can be split into three main groups:
1. Surface probes used mostly with the probe axis normal to the surface, in addition to the basic pancake coil this includes pencil probes and specialpurpose surface probes such as those used inside a fastener hole. 2. Encircling coils are normally used for in-line inspection of round products, The product to be tested is inserted though a circular coil. 3. ID probes are normally used for in-service inspection of heat exchangers. The probe is inserted into the tube. Normally ID probes are wound with the coil axis along the centre of the tube.
These categories are not exhaustive and there are obviously overlaps, for example between non-circumferential wound ID probes and internal surface probes. To this point we have only discussed eddy current probes consisting of a single coil. These are commonly used in many applications and are commonly known as absolute probes because they give an absolute value of the condition at the test point. Absolute probes are very good for metal sorting and detection of cracks in many situations, however they are sensitive also to material variations, temperature changes etc. Another commonly used probe type is the differential probe this has two sensing elements looking at different areas of the material being tested. The instrument responds to the difference between the eddy current conditions at the two points.
Differential probes are particularly good for detection of small defects, and are relatively unaffected by lift-off (although the sensitivity is reduced in just the same way), temperature changes and (assuming the instrument circuitry operates in a "balanced" configuration) external interference.
The diagram shows a typical response from a differential probe. Note the characteristic "figure of eight" response as first one probe element, then the other, move over the defect. In general the closer the element spacing the wider the "loop" in the signal. Lift-off should be cancelled out assuming that the probe is perfectly balanced, but there will still be a "wobble" response as the probe is moved and tilted slightly. Reflection or driver pick-up probes have a primary winding driven from the oscillator and one or more sensor windings connected to the measurement circuit. Depending on the configuration of the sensor windings reflection probes may give response equivalent to either an absolute or differential probe.
Main advantages of reflection probes are:

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Driver and pick-up coils can be separately optimised for their intended purpose. Wider frequency range than equivalent bridge connected probes. The larger driver coil gives a more even field, resulting in better penetration and lift-off characteristics.
Typical coil connections Bridge
The two coils (differential or absolute plus balancing coil) form the legs of a bridge. When the bridge is balanced the measured voltage will be zero. Any change in the condition of either coil will result in an unbalanced bridge, the degree of imbalance corresponds to the change in coil impedance. Driver pick-up
As can be seen the essential elements are the same for a driver pick-up configuration as for a bridge, the necessary changes can be achieved by simple switching or probe connection changes. Practical testing Any practical Eddy current test will require the following:
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A suitable probe. An instrument with the necessary capabilities. A good idea of size, location and type of the flaws it is desired to find.

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A suitable test standard to set up the equipment and verify correct operation A procedure or accept/reject criteria based on the above. The necessary operator expertise to understand and interpret the results.
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Introduction Basic electrical principles Typical instrumentation Applications Bibliography NEW: Papers on "The Eddy Current Inspection Method" Eddy Current Applications
Eddy Current Theory - Instrumentation

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There are a number of basic groups of eddy current instrumentation.

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Special purpose equipment: Coating thickness meters, conductivity meters (e.g. AutoSigma 3000). Generally designed to give a digital readout without demanding interpretation of an indication. "Crack detectors" Fairly simple equipment, generally operates at a restricted number of frequencies typically several hundred kHz, meter or bar-graph display. Suitable for surface crack detection and simple sorting applications only. e.g. Locator and QuickCheck These normally have some means of compensating for lift-off (e.g. phase rotation and/or fine frequency adjustment) so that only crack-like indications give a reading on the meter or bargraph. An alarm threshold is usually included. Portable impedance plane eddy current flaw detectors Give a real impedance plane display on a CRT or other electronic display (LCD, Electroluminescent, etc.) Generally have fairly extensive capabilities: wide frequency ranges from around a hundred hertz to several megahertz, extensive alarm facilities, general purpose units may have rate filtering (see below) some instruments may be capable of multifrequency operation, allowing combination of results at two or more test frequencies in order to reduce or eliminate specific interfering effects, e.g. Phasec 2200 and Phasec D62. "Systems" eddy current units Intended for factory operation, often in automatic or semi-automatic inspection machines. Generally similar operation to impedance plane portables but usually have extensive input and output facilities such as relays and photocell inputs. May be custom built for a specific purpose, in which case features not needed for the intended application are often omitted, e.g. Phasec D62 system. Meter/CRT instruments Typical examples (simplified). Hocking Locator UH
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Typical application: Surface crack detection in aircraft parts using absolute probe. Controls: Meter display indicates crack severity - imbalance from zero point. Zero - balance internal circuitry Zero Offset - shift zero point, useful for sorting/material verification applications. Train - zero and set lift-off compensation circuitry. Frequency - choice of three operating frequencies: 500kHz for Aluminium and carbon steel, 2 MHz for small cracks in Al + Stainless & carbon steels, 6 MHz for low conductivity Alloys, Titanium etc. Metal type - optimises lift-off compensation circuitry and adjusts sensitivity to match response curves from particular metals. Alarm Level - sets meter indication at which the alarm will light/sound. Phasec 2200
Typical applications: Surface crack detection, weld inspection, bolthole inspection with rotating probe drive, metal sorting, tube inspection etc. Controls: On, Help, Record, Freeze, Automatic Processing, Clear, Zoom, Display, Execute and Balance. Menu commands for: Sophisticated menu structure for adjusting all parameters relating to an inspection. Operating frequency: Selection of operating frequency is the primary eddy current test parameter under operator control. Frequency selection affects both the relative strength of response from different flaws and the phase relationship, Thus selection of operating frequency is very important in obtaining good resolution of flaw signals in the presence of other variables which may affect the test.
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Introduction Basic electrical principles Basic eddy current testing Applications Bibliography Eddy Current Applications NEW: Papers on "The Eddy Current Inspection Method"
Eddy Current Theory - Applications

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Surface crack detection Normally carried out with pencil probes or pancake type probes on ferrous or nonferrous metals. Frequencies from 100kHz to a few MHz are commonly used. Depending on surface condition it is usually possible to find cracks as small as 0.1 mm deep. Differential probes are sometimes used, particularly in automated applications, but care must be taken to ensure that the orientation of flaws is correct for detection. Typical instruments used would be the Phasec 2200 and Phasec D62. Non-ferrous metal sorting This is essentially conductivity testing and for dedicated applications a conductivity meter may be a better choice. From the impedance plane diagram it will be seen that the indication from a conductivity change is essentially the same as from a crack, and both meter and impedance plane type crack detectors can be successfully used to sort similar metals using a suitable absolute probe. The Hocking AutoSigma 3000 is an instrument that gives a direct reading of conductivity for non-ferrous metals. It should be remembered that widely different metals may be a similar conductivity and that the allowable values for similar alloys may overlap, so conductivity measurement should only be used as an indication that a metal is of correct composition or heat-treatment. Sub-surface crack/corrosion detection Primarily used in airframe inspection. By using a low frequency and a suitable probe eddy currents can penetrate aluminium or similar structures to a depth of 10mm or so, allowing the detection of second and third layer cracking, which is invisible from the surface, or thinning of any of the different layers making up the structure. Typical instrument used would be the Phasec 2200. Heat exchanger tube testing Heat exchangers used for petrochemical or power generation applications may have many thousands of tubes, each up to 20m long. Using a differential ID bobbin probe these tubes can be tested at high speed (up to 1 m/s with computerised data analysis) and by using phase analysis defects such as pitting can be assessed to an accuracy of about 5% of tube wall thickness. This allows accurate estimation of the remaining life of the tube allowing operators to decide on appropriate action such as tube plugging, tube replacement or replacement of the complete heat exchanger. The operating frequency is determined by the tube material and wall thickness, ranging from a few kHz for thick-walled copper tube, up to around 600kHz for thin-walled titanium. Tubes up to around 50mm diameter are commonly inspected with this technique. Inspection of ferrous or magnetic stainless steel tubes is not possible using standard eddy current inspection equipment.
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Dual or multiple frequency inspections are commonly used for tubing inspection, in particular for suppression of unwanted responses due to tube support plates. By subtracting the result of a lower frequency test (which gives a proportionately greater response from the support) a mixed signal is produced showing little or no support plate indication, thus allowing the assessment of small defects in this area. Typical instruments used would be the Phasec D62. In-line inspection of Steel tubing Almost all high quality steel tubing is eddy current inspected using encircling coils. When the tube is made of a magnetic material there are two main problems: Because of the high permeability there is little or no penetration of the eddy current field into the tube at practical test frequencies. Variations in permeability (from many causes) cause eddy current responses which are orders of magnitude greater than those from defects. These problems may be overcome by magnetically saturating the tube using a strong DC field. This reduces the effective permeability to a low value, allowing effective testing. Tubes up to around 170mm diameter are commonly tested using magnetic saturation and encircling coils. When tubes are welded this is usually where the problems occur, and so welded tubes are commonly tested in-line using sector coils which only test the weld zone. Typical instruments used would be the Phasec D62 system or QuickCheck. Ferrous weld inspection The geometry and heat-induced material variations around welds in steel would normally prevent inspection with a conventional eddy current probe, however a special purpose "WeldScan" probe has been developed which allows inspection of welded steel structures for fatigue-induced cracking. The technique is particularly useful as it may be used in adverse conditions, or even underwater, and will operate through paint and other corrosion-prevention coatings. Cracks around 1mm deep and 6mm long can be found in typical welds. Typical instrument used would be the MiniPhasec. Instrument set-up While the precise details of setting up an instrument will vary depending on the type and application the general procedure is usually the same, once the application has been tried the required values for many test parameters will be known, at least approximately.
1. Connect up the appropriate probe and set any instrument configuration parameters. (mode of operation, display type etc.) 2. Set the frequency as required for the test. 3. Set gain to an intermediate value. 4. Move the probe on/over the calibration test piece and set phase rotation as desired (e.g. lift-off or wobble horizontal on a phase plane display). 5. Move over the defects and adjust gain (and horizontal/vertical gain ratio if fitted) to obtain the desired trace size/meter indication. It may be necessary to rebalance after changing gain.
Further optimise phase rotation as required. Use filters etc. to further optimise signal to noise ratio. Set alarms etc. as required. Run over the calibration test piece again and verify that all flaws are clearly detected. 10. Perform the test, verifying correct operation at regular intervals using the calibration test piece.
6. 7. 8. 9.
Rate filtering Most eddy current tests involve movement. Therefore the indications obtained will vary with time in a way which is fairly consistent (assuming the movement is regular) and which can be interpreted in terms of the speed of probe movement over various discontinuities. For example, if an absolute probe with diameter 2mm moves over a narrow crack at a speed of 1 m/s the resulting indication will last for approximately 2 milliseconds. If the material composition or thickness is also varying gradually over a distance of say 50cm the indication from this will change much more slowly. Therefore a high-pass filter set to a frequency around 100Hz or so will pass the rapidly changing signal from the defect but not the slower indication from the material changes. The Phasec D62system has a comprehensive set of filters.
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Example of eddy current applications Introduction Basic electrical principles Basic eddy current testing Typical instrumentation Eddy Current Applications Bibliography NEW: Papers on "The Eddy Current Inspection Method"
Coating thickness measurement with eddy current NDT - Hocking NDT, leaders in eddy current NDT
Coating Thickness Measurement

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Coating thickness measurement is carried out for two main reasons:

site map 1. Quality Control - determining how thick a protective coating is. 2. Influence on an eddy current test - different coating thicknesses can cause a change in the sensitivity or the frequency needed for the inspection. Eddy currents are capable of determining coating thickness on non conductive coatings on a conductive base material. It is also possible to determine the coating thickness of non-magnetic metallic coatings on metallic bases providing there is a difference in material properties (conductivity and magnetic permeability). Eddy Current Probes Most eddy current probes can be used for coating thickness measurement, however, in practice it is important that the probe mechanically stable. For this reason it is recommended that flat faced or sprung probes, typically used in material sorting, are used.
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Sprung probe
e.g. 806P1
Flat faced probe

e.g. 720P1F4
Flat faced probe

e.g. 700P11A
Suitable Instruments Some Hocking instruments have non-conductive coating thickness measurement built in using a conductivity probe. These are: Locator 2s, Phasec 2s, Phasec 2d, Phasec 2200, Phasec D62 & Phasec D62s Other Information Eddy Current Applications Hocking probes Hocking instruments Hocking full probe catalogue
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Coating thickness measurement with eddy current NDT - Hocking NDT, leaders in eddy current NDT
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Dynamic automated inspections with eddy currents - Hocking NDT, leaders in eddy current NDT
Dynamic Automated Inspection

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Eddy current NDT is highly suited to high speed dynamic inspection becuase:
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it has high surface inspection speeds (up to 5m per sec) there is no need for a couplant (so there is minimal surface preperation) the probe can scan with a gap between itself and the test surface. This is most conveniently applied to conponents that are rotationally symmetrical such as: r tapered bearings r gudgeon pins r ball pins r axels r wheel hubs and so on
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Eddy Current Probes Probes for dynamic automated inspection are generally differentiated. This means that the probes contain two or more coils which are electrically arranged to be in opposition to each other. This arrangement minimises effects which act on both coils simultaneously (e. g. material variations, temperature). Other Information Eddy Current Applications Tube inspection Hocking probes Hocking instruments Hocking full probe catalogue
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Crack Detection, eddy current crack detection - Hocking NDT, leaders in eddy current NDT
Eddy Current Crack Detection

home Surface Inspection Eddy Current NDT is widely used for the detection of surface breaking defects in ferrous and non ferrous metals.
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our customers A high-frequency probe bing scanned across a calibration block Impedance plane analysis and display of the results of scanning block
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Sub-Surface Inspection By using low frequencies on non ferrous metals, eddy currents can be used to inspect for sub-surface defects on materials such as aluminium, stainless steel, titanium and so on. Defects typically detected by this method include sub-surface corrosion and cracks. Surface Inspection Probes (high frequency) Due to the extremely small size of the probe core they are able to inspect aras of poor accessibility. Probes can easily be designed to fit your specific application. See the Special Design Checklist for more infomation. The frequency is chosen to give a good phase seperation between the lift off signal and the defect indication. In practise, this means that generally good results can be achieved on:
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Aluminium with a 2 MHz probe Titanium with a 6 MHz probe and Ferrous materials with a 100 - 200 Hz probe
Shielded surface probe
Unshielded surface probe
Sub-Surface Inspection Probes (low frequency) The frequency of the test and the probe size determine the depth of the test , with lower
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Crack Detection, eddy current crack detection - Hocking NDT, leaders in eddy current NDT
frequency, larger diameter probes giving a deeper test.
Examples of sub-surface inspection probes Suitable Instrumentation Locator 2s, Phasec 2s, Phasec 2d, Phasec 2200, Phasec D62, Phasec D62s, QuickCheck Other Information Eddy Current Applications Hocking probes Hocking instruments Hocking full probe catalogue
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Fastener inspection using eddy current NDT - Hocking NDT, leaders in eddy current NDT
Fastener Inspection
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Eddy Current NDT can be used to detect defects around fastener holes with the fastener still in place. Inspections are applicable to all types of fasteners including screws, bolts, rivits and so on. Eddy Current Probes A range of probes are available for the inspection of fasteners:
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Ring or Doughnut Probe - most simple form of probe available Sliding Probe (Transmit/Receive Probe) - a more rapid form of inspection Hocking FastScan Probe - provides a dual frequency solution
Please see the table below for a comparison of the different types of probes: our customers Ease of use/ setup theory Ring Probe Sliding Probe FastScan Excellent Good Average Speed of inspection Good Excellent Average Sensitive to defects in all directions Excellent Average Excellent Sensitivity of inspection Average Excellent Excellent
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Ring/Doughnut Probe Suitable Instruments Phasec 2d
Sliding Probe
FastScan Probe
Application Notes Please contact us to receive an application note: AN9436 - FastScan Inspection of Fasteners for Sub-Surface Flaws
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Fastener inspection using eddy current NDT - Hocking NDT, leaders in eddy current NDT
Other Information Eddy Current Applications Hocking probes Hocking instruments Hocking full probe catalogue
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hole inspection, eddy current applications - Hocking NDT, leaders in eddy current NDT
Hole Inspection
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The inspection of holes in metals is often essential as the stresses around them are twice as high as in the rest of the material, causing fatigue cracks to grow.
Eddy Current Probes Eddy current probes provide an ideal solution as they can go into extremely small holes. They can be made to measure to fit any diameter - the smallest currently has a 1.6mm diameter. Manual Hole Inspection Probes
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Rigid - suitable for where there is no problems with access Flexible - suitable for areas of poor access as the probe shaft can bend around problematic geometry.
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talk to us! Rigid Manual Probe links Dynamic Rotary Hole Inspection Probes These are most suited where there are a large quantity of holes to inspect rapidly and with high levels of accuracy.
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Flexible Manual Probe
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Set diameter - suitable for applications where the hole diameter is known in advance. These probes are extremely robust. Flexible diameter - a split tip is provided for inspections where hole sizes vary or are not known in advance.
Set Diameter Rotary Probe
Flexible Diameter Rotary Probe
Hocking Probe Drive The MiniDrive has been specially designed for dynamic rotary hole inspections. It makes the inspection of fastener holes, even in confined spaces, simple and accurate and can help test the largest number of holes in the shortest amount of time. See MiniDrive data sheet
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hole inspection, eddy current applications - Hocking NDT, leaders in eddy current NDT
MiniDrive with Set Diameter Probe Suitable Instrumentation Phasec 2s, Phasec 2d Other Information Eddy Current Applications Hocking probes Hocking instruments Hocking full probe catalogue
MiniDrive with Flexible Diameter Probe
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Material sorting & conductivity measurement - Hocking NDT, leaders in eddy current NDT
Material Sorting / Conductivity Measurement

home Electrical conductivity of a material is a measure of the ease with which electrons will flow within it. A material having a high conductivity, e.g. copper, will permit eddy currents to flow more than a material having a low conductivity, e.g. lead or non-metals. Conductivity changes in materials can be caused by variations in:
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Heat treatment Chemical Composition Temperature
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Eddy currents can be used to measure conductivity, for the purpose of metal sorting or defining areas of heat damage. Eddy current instruments designed for measuring conductivity are usually calibrated in Percentage International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS). This is a standard whereby pure copper is said to be 100% IACS, all other conductivities being compared with it.
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Non Ferrous Materials Conductivity probes may be used for sorting non-ferrous materials. The main advantage of using conductivity probes is that a quantitative measure of conductivity is given. The probes are used for the following purposes.
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Alloy identification and verification Verification of heat treatment during manufacture and to detect in-service heat damage Detection of changes in material grade Metal sorting Determine the density of powder metal parts
Ferrous Materials Because of the ferrous materials magnetic permeability, it is not posssible to get a quantitative measure of conductivity, so a comparative method must be used to sort between good and bad samples.
Suitable Instrumentation AutoSigma 3000 - dedicated conductivity measurement instrument Phasec 2200, Phasec D62, Phasec 2s, Phasec 2d - crack & corrosion detection instruments with conductivity measurement capability
Other Areas of Interest See conductivity of common materials See conductivity reference blocks See conductivity correction for curved surfaces
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Material sorting & conductivity measurement - Hocking NDT, leaders in eddy current NDT
Application Notes Please contact us if you would like to receive one of the application notes listed below: AN0112 Detecting heat damage in aerospace alloys AN0109 Conductivity measurement with AutoSigma 3000 AN9603 Conductivity correction for curved surfaces
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Eddy current rail inspection - Hocking NDT, leaders in eddy current NDT
Eddy Current Rail Inspection

home The Inspection Problem The early detection of conditions in rail that may lead to a break is now a critical activity in the maintenance of rail worldwide. Understanding of these mechanisms is constantly improving and the evolution of a range of complementary NDT techniques now means that the engineer has a better choice than ever of tools for the task. In addition to the maintenance of the rail, there is a growing requirement for inspection techniques on the rolling stock itself. The rapid inspection of axels, wheels and bogies is essential for the safe operation of the rail network. This document aims to give you a brief overview of the different NDT inspection methods currently used on railways around the world. Eddy Current NDT will be introduced as a new method of complementing these inspections along with why and where this inspection method is needed to ensure rail integrity.
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NDT Inspection Solutions Type of Cracking & Where it Occurs Inspection of Rail Heads Inspection of Switch Blades WideScan Probe - the Eddy Current Solution Inspection of Welded Areas Inspection of Bolt Holes Inspecting the Rail Foot Summary Typical Rail Inspection Kit
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Eddy current rail inspection - Hocking NDT, leaders in eddy current NDT
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Rail inspection, type of cracking & where it occurs - Hocking NDT Ltd, leaders in eddy current NDT
Type of Cracking & Where it Occurs

home A number of main areas have been identified where cracking occurs): site map
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Rail Heads Switch Blades Bolt Holes Foot of the Rail Thermite Welds
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talk to us! Eddy Current Weld Inspection NDT Inspection Solutions Inspection of Rail Heads Inspection of Switch Blades WideScan Probe - the Eddy Current Solution Inspection of Welded Areas Inspection of Bolt Holes Inspecting the Rail Foot Summary Typical Rail Inspection Kit
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Inspection of rail heads - Hocking NDT, leaders in eddy current NDT
Inspection of Rail Heads

home Contact Stresses Cracking can be found in the head of all types of track, but is predominantly found on highly canted curves where stresses develop due to the extra pressure and wear of the wheel on the rail (see Figure 3).
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Figure 3 Contact Stresses on Tight Curved Track Water & Lubricants Water from rain, snow or dew can become trapped in defects in the rail along with oil and diesel. When a wheel runs over a track with entrapped fluid in a crack, a very high localised press at the crack tip will cause the crack to grow (see Figure 4).
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Figure 4 Trapped Fluids Causing Cracking to Worsen As the wheel approaches the crack the mouth opens up to draw water in. Then, as the wheel passes over the crack it closes up the entrance of the crack mouth, trapping water inside so that the crack tip stays open allowing further growth. Tongue Lipping
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Tongue lipping develops because surface-breaking cracks are already present on the rail. Stresses caused by trains passing over the rail cause the crack to develop into a tongue which will continue to grow (see Figure 5).
Figure 5 Tongue Lipping Developing from Existing Cracks Ultrasonic inspections cannot reliably detect the cracks that cause tongue lipping due to their shape, size and angle. However, eddy currents can. This means that the cracking that causes tongue lipping can be identified early enough for preventative action to be taken. Companies such as Railtrack in the UK carry out grinding on all their tracks to try and preempt the problem of tongue lipping. However, this raises a number of important questions all of which eddy current inspection can answer: i. When should the grinding take place? Regular eddy current inspections will identify when grinding will need to take place. Without inspecting the track first, expensive and time consuming grinding could be carried out for no reason. ii. How often should it take place? Currently many tracks are ground according to a schedule. However, this doesnt take into consideration factors that may cause more or less cracking to develop than is usual. E.g. environmental conditions, increased traffic, abnormal side loading etc. iii. Has it solved the problem of cracking? Without the use of eddy currents it cannot be determine whether grinding of the rails has even solved the problem. That is, it cannot be guaranteed all the cracking has been successfully remove. A quick post-grinding test will confirm success or highlight where extra works needs to be carried out.
Squats Squats and tongue lipping have a number of factors in common. Both start as surfacebreaking cracks and are bought about by similar causes. The difference is that squats usually develop at a point where high contact stresses occur as a result of a local irregularity in the rail head e.g. at a worn weld. Advantages of eddy current inspection: Faster than visual inspection Can identify cracking at a much earlier stage than ultrasonic testing allowing preventative measure to be carried out Wheel Burn Wheel burns are the result of frictional heating produced by a spinning wheelset. The effect of very rapid heating produced by the spinning wheel and subsequent rapid cooling is to change the structure of the rail head top layer into martensite. The presence of the martensite layer makes the rail un-testable ultrasonically. This layer is also very brittle with the result that it tends to spall off very easily. Additionally, the railhead surface irregularity will significantly increase dynamic impact forces and the likelihood of rail breakage will be raised. Although these areas cannot be tested ultrasonically, eddy current inspections can be applied. The screen shot (figure 6 below) shows a Locator 2s instrument with a WideScan probe clearly picking up cracking within an area of wheel burn.
Figure 6 Signal showing the detection of a crack in an area of wheel burn Eddy Current Weld Inspection NDT Inspection Solutions Type of Cracking & Where it Occurs Inspection of Switch Blades WideScan Probe - the Eddy Current Solution Inspection of Welded Areas Inspection of Bolt Holes Inspecting the Rail Foot
Summary Typical Rail Inspection Kit
Inspection of switch blades - Hocking NDT, leaders in eddy current NDT
Inspection of Switch Blades

home Switch blades are subject to a tremendous amount of stress due to the relatively thin section of metal carrying the weight of transport usually supported by much thicker track rail. Cracking is usually found along the top of the blade, and along the sides. As with thermite welding, a WideScan probe can be used for the head of the rail, while a WeldScan probe is suitable for the sides. The WideScan inspection trolley has a spring mechanism that lets it automatically adjust to the increasing blade width.
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Figure 7 Inspection of switch blades using WideScan and WeldScan probes Eddy Current Weld Inspection NDT Inspection Solutions Type of Cracking & Where it Occurs Inspection of Rail Heads WideScan Probe - the Eddy Current Solution
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Inspection of switch blades - Hocking NDT, leaders in eddy current NDT
Inspection of Welded Areas Inspection of Bolt Holes Inspecting the Rail Foot Summary Typical Rail Inspection Kit
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WideScan probe, the eddy current rail inspection solution - Hocking NDT, leaders in eddy current NDT
WideScan Probe the eddy current solution

home As the stresses discussed so far are occurring on and near the surface of the material, it is virtually impossible to detect cracking with ultrasonics and relatively straightforward with eddy current. This capability has been enhanced with the development of the patented WideScan probe. The probe is contoured to the surface of the rail and runs along the surface transmitting results back to an eddy current instrument via a probe and cable. The instruments are able to store the information which can then be downloaded onto a computer for future analysis and records (figures 8&9).
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links Figure 10 Phasec 2s and a WeldScan probe being used manually on a section of rail
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Figure 10 shows Phasec 2s and a WideScan probe being used by hand to check a section of rail. The equipment can, however, be attached to an inspection trolley (see figure 11) or
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WideScan probe, the eddy current rail inspection solution - Hocking NDT, leaders in eddy current NDT
vehicle that runs along the track.
Figure 11 Trolley-mounted WideScan probe The WideScan probe is unique due to the large surface area it covers. This means that it can detect cracking over the entire rail head in just one sweep. It doesnt matter where on the head the cracking is as long as its surface breaking. Eddy Current Weld Inspection NDT Inspection Solutions Type of Cracking & Where it Occurs Inspection of Rail Heads Inspection of Switch Blades Inspection of Welded Areas Inspection of Bolt Holes Inspecting the Rail Foot Summary Typical Rail Inspection Kit
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Rail inspection, inspection of welded areas - Hocking NDT, leaders in eddy current NDT
Inspection of Welded Areas

home General Welds Welds are ground after welding which can lead to a slightly different profile around the weld than from that of the rest of the rail. The resulting change in rail profile has been found to have a significant effect on the contact stresses between rail and wheel, resulting in rolling contact fatigue. Subsequent cracking has been found at the edges of the weld or in the body of the weld itself. Thermite Welds Thermic welding is used on sections of continuously welded rail (CWR) where two rails are welded together by means of an exothermic reaction. This method introduces a weak point in to the structure of the rail. As a rule they are very rough as the flash (surplus weld) has not been removed and so could damage any fragile inspection probe. However, dressing (smoothing down) the weld can be time consuming and expensive, but may also weaken the weld itself. Hockings WeldScan range of probes has been designed specifically to test for surface breaking cracks in welds. What makes the probe so special is its ability to test even very rough surfaces covered with rust or coatings such as paint and oil. Eddy Current Weld Inspection NDT Inspection Solutions Type of Cracking & Where it Occurs Inspection of Rail Heads Inspection of Switch Blades WideScan Probe - the Eddy Current Solution Inspection of Bolt Holes Inspecting the Rail Foot Summary Typical Rail Inspection Kit
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Rail inspection, inspection of bolt holes - Hocking NDT, leaders in eddy current NDT
Inspection of Bolt Holes

home Bolt holes are positioned regularly along the length of the rail and are subject to cracking due to the stresses placed upon them. Rather than removing each bolt to inspect the hole underneath, an eddy current WeldScan or Pencil probe can be used to inspect the area around the bolt to determine whether any cracks are radiating from the area. Its important to note that no surface preparation is needed for this eddy current inspection, unlike most other NDT methods, e.g. MPI. If cracking is detected, the bolt can be removed and a special bolt-hole probe can be used to check the hole itself for confirmation of cracking and to determine the size and position of the crack (see figure 13).
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Rail inspection, inspection of bolt holes - Hocking NDT, leaders in eddy current NDT
Figure 13 Eddy Current inspection of bolt holes Eddy Current Weld Inspection NDT Inspection Solutions Type of Cracking & Where it Occurs Inspection of Rail Heads Inspection of Switch Blades WideScan Probe - the Eddy Current Solution Inspection of Welded Areas Inspecting the Rail Foot Summary Typical Rail Inspection Kit
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Rail inspection, inspecting the rail foot - Hocking NDT, leaders in eddy current NDT
Inspecting the Rail Foot

home Fatigue cracking due to the stress of trains travelling along the track often occurs around the foot of the rail. A special WideScan probe can be contoured so that it exactly fits the foot and checks for surface-breaking, fatigue cracking. The probe cannot test the areas around the clips or springs that attach the rail to the track, but a WeldScan can be used around these areas. The arrows in green (figure 14) show the areas of the foot where the WideScan probe can inspect. The arrows in white show where WeldScan must be used.
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Figure 14 Inspection of the foot of the rail Eddy Current Weld Inspection NDT Inspection Solutions Type of Cracking & Where it Occurs Inspection of Rail Heads Inspection of Switch Blades WideScan Probe - the Eddy Current Solution Inspection of Welded Areas Inspection of Bolt Holes Summary
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Rail inspection, inspecting the rail foot - Hocking NDT, leaders in eddy current NDT
Typical Rail Inspection Kit
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Rail inspection, summary - Hocking NDT, leaders in eddy current NDT
Summary
home Eddy current inspections form a vital part of checking rails for the cracks and faults that can lead to serious accidents. Ultrasonic inspections alone do not cover all areas the rail as the technique cannot see surface and near-surface defects. As many of the cracks appearing in rails are fatigue induced and thus surface-breaking, it is important to employ eddy current inspection methods in order to detect them. Throughout this document, solutions have been suggested for a number of applications. Below is a summary of which eddy current probes we believe are the most suited to those applications.
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Eddy Current Weld Inspection NDT Inspection Solutions Type of Cracking & Where it Occurs Inspection of Rail Heads Inspection of Switch Blades WideScan Probe - the Eddy Current Solution Inspection of Welded Areas Inspection of Bolt Holes Inspecting the Rail Foot Typical Rail Inspection Kit
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Rail inspection, summary - Hocking NDT, leaders in eddy current NDT
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Rail inspection, typical rail inspection kit - Hocking NDT, leaders in eddy current NDT
Typical Rail Inspection Kit

home Below are details of the typical eddy current equipment used in rail inspections. site map PRN 3K003 applications 39I002 39DH01 products 39A030 39A035 distribution 39A001 39A024 39A038 our customers Country Depentant Plus On request 39A005 39A005 links 800P04ND1P 801P04ND1P
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Item Locator 2s Starter Kit comprising of: Locator 2s single frequency eddy current instrument Operating Manual Lithium-ion battery pack Battery Charger/Eliminator Locator probe lead, Lemo 7 way to Microtech 1.5m long RS232 Lead, Lemo 0B 5 way to D Type 9 way PC Supervisor Software CD ROM Disc Power Cord, 2m long
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Inspection Trolley WideScan Probe Lead for WideScan WeldScan Probe WeldScan Probe with Right-angled Tip Pencil Probe Lead for Pencil Probe
105P4 39A001
Please contact us for futher details Eddy Current Weld Inspection NDT Inspection Solutions Type of Cracking & Where it Occurs Inspection of Rail Heads Inspection of Switch Blades WideScan Probe - the Eddy Current Solution Inspection of Welded Areas Inspection of Bolt Holes Inspecting the Rail Foot Summary
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Rail inspection, typical rail inspection kit - Hocking NDT, leaders in eddy current NDT
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Thread inspection with eddy current NDT - Hocking NDT, leaders in eddy current NDT
Thread Inspection
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Threads are commonly used to connect mechanical items together and forms a likey location for fatigue cracks. Eddy Current Probes In order to inspect the root of the thread, specially shaped tipped probes must be used. Both male and female threads may be inspected.
Pencil-type probes are available for hand-held manual inspection, but for more rapid and repeatable inspections, saddle and plug-type probes must be used, suitable to the thread form.
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Semi-automated bolt hole inspection is also available in the form of the Inconel Bolt Hole Tester. Please contact us for more information. Other Information Eddy Current Applications Hocking probes Hocking instruments Hocking full probe catalogue
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Eddy current tube inspection - Hocking NDT Ltd, leaders in eddy current NDT
Eddy Current Tube Inspection

home Heat exchanger tubing is subject to a number of problems, the nature of which is usually a characteristic of the material and application. Typical problems found include the following: Corrosion is the most common problem, while tubing materials are generally chosen to resist attack from the fluids passing around them, those fluids are seldom pure. In power station condensers using sea water as a coolant the most common problem is hydrogen sulphide produced by bacteria metabolising sewage, this attacks most copper alloys. In petrochemical plants impurities such as hydrogen chloride or ammonia can also give problems. Stress Corrosion results when tubes containing residual stresses are exposed to a corrosive environment. The grains of the metal tend to separate when weakened by corrosion, exposing fresh sites for attack. This can lead to rapid cracking of the material, usually in a circumferential direction. Corrosion erosion or impingement attack results from the combination of corrosive agents with mechanical attack from suspended sand, foreign bodies, or from turbulent flow of the cooling liquid. This prevents the formation of a protective film on the surface of the tubing, greatly increasing the corrosion rate in the exposed areas. Mechanical damage may come from a variety of sources. Foreign bodies in the coolant may cause damage. Poorly designed condensers have inadequate baffling of steam, leading to erosion of tubing in the steam inlet areas. Improper operation of air conditioning systems may allow water to freeze in evaporators, resulting in "freeze bulging" or cracking. Many types of heat exchanger are subject to vibration, resulting in rapid damage to tubes loosened by corrosion or improper assembly. Mechanical damage due to vibration is quite common where Copper Nickel Alloy tubes have been replaced with thinner, less rigid titanium tubes, for which the support is marginally adequate. Heat exchangers designed for such tubing generally have support plates closer together. In extreme cases the vibration may be so severe that adjacent tubes collide, causing wear or cracking. Periodic eddy current testing of a heat exchanger assembly allows tubes with such problems to be identified before they lead to failure. With knowledge of the problems experienced in the application it is possible to determine which tubes are likely to deteriorate unacceptably before the next overhaul. These may then be plugged or replaced; resulting in a much higher level of confidence in the reliability of the heat exchanger. In addition to the detection of such defects, Eddy Current testing can also be used to monitor other conditions, such as the build up of external sludge and to verify the degree of expansion at tube sheets during manufacture. Suitable Instrumentation Please contact us for advice
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Eddy current tube inspection - Hocking NDT Ltd, leaders in eddy current NDT
Suitable Probes Galaxy range of encircling coils Application Notes If you would like a copy of one of the application notes shown below, please contact us stating the number of the note you are interested in. Number 9302 9303 9307 9401 9402 9407 9433 9434 9435 9437 9501 9602 9603 0005 0006 Description Eddy Current Inspection of Non-ferrous Heat Exchanger Tubing Interpretation of I/D Tube Testing Results I/D Probe Frequency Table Inspection of Mildly Magnetic Heat Exchanger Tubing Standard Heat Exchanger Tube Sizes Coil Selection Table for ANSI Pipe Sizes Inspection of Copper Tubing Using Driver-Pickup, I/D Probe Detection of the Angular Position of Longitudinal Weld Seams in Metal Tubing I/D Probe Coil Spacing to reduce Effect of External Fins I/D Differential Probe to Absolute, with Adaptor or a Switchable Cable Off-line Inspection of Steel Tube and Wire The use of low frequency Absolute probes on the Phasec 2200 Conductivity correction for curves Establishing minimum detectable defect for encircling coil inspection of aluminium tube Use of Dual Frequency testing to enhance the inspection of ERW welded Stainless Steel Tube
Eddy Current Applications Eddy Current Products
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Weld Inspection, Eddy current weld inspection looking for cracks and corrosion - Hocking NDT, leaders in eddy current NDT
Eddy current inspection of welds for cracks & corrosion

home The Importance of Weld Inspection The quality of welds is becoming increasingly important as customer expectations rise. Products and components are expected to be of a high quality and not to fail unexpectedly. Such failures have large financial and social consequences that can often be avoided with the proper inspection techniques. Inspecting welds can also reduce costs by detecting defects in the early stages of manufacture, reducing the cost of customer returns and extending the life of components by detecting and correcting any defects. Eddy Current Non Destructive Testing is a reliable, quick and inexpensive way to carry out preventative maintenance and ensure safety. Hocking's range of eddy current equipment has a world-wide reputation for its reliability and accuracy, while their service, support and training ensure that you make the most of your equipment. Eddy Current Testing on Welds In welding inspection there is a need to detect surface breaking defects. For magnetic material e.g. carbon steel, generally magnetic particle inspection is used. However, eddy current inspection offers a number of advantages:
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No consumables used - e.g. ink & contrast paint Ability to test areas with poor access No surface preparation required - e.g. paint doesn't need to be removed, saving time in preparation for the inspection and in any recoating of surfaces Improved sensitivity - ability to detect smaller defects using specially developed Hocking WeldScan probes.
WeldScan Probes Hocking NDT have developed the WeldScan range of probes specifically to check welds for cracks and corrosion. Examples of areas where it is currently used include:
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Offshore platforms
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Buildings Bridges Amusement park rides Ships, boats, submarines etc. Cranes Traffic signals Aircrafts
WeldScan probes have been designed to be extremely hard-wearing so that they can handle the rough weld surface while still picking up any faults in the weld. Advantages of WeldScan probes include:
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Faster then MPI (Magnetic Particle Inspection)

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Portability of equipment - light, handheld and easily transported

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Accepted method of use - see British and European Standard 1711:2000

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May be used by rope access technicians

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Approved for use by Lloyds Register, DNV and Bureau Vertias - certifying authorities for ships and offshore structures.
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Waterproof WeldScan probe range is available for sub-sea weld inspection

See more information on the WeldScan range of probes and download a datasheet. You can also request weld inspection application notes. Instrumentation The most common Hocking instrument used for weld inspection is the Locator 2s, although a wide range of our instruments support WeldScan probes. See more information on Locator 2s and download a datasheet. You can also visit the dedicated Locator 2s web site at www.locator2.com. Application Notes If you are interested in receiving any of the applications notes listed below, please contact us. 9304 9421 9422 9434 The Weld Quality Monitor - a brief guide Water Resistant WeldScan Probes WeldScan Probes with Long Leads Detection of the Angular Position of Longitudinal Weld Seams in Metal Tubing
9502 9909 0004 0006
Rotating WeldScan probes for MiniDrive Assessing the thickness of Non/Low conductivity surface coatings using a phase plane instrument Using WeldScan Probes Use of Dual Frequency testing to enhance the inspection of ERW welded Stainless Steel Tube
Aircraft wheel inspection - Hocking NDT, leaders in eddy current NDT
Wheel Inspection
home There are four main solutions for testing wheels depending on the volume, accuracy required, profile of wheel and so on. Solution 1 - Pencil Probe Standard surface inspection with a pencil probe & bolt hole inspection with a bolt hole probe. Solution 2 - Bead Seat Probe Bead seat probes are made to fit the bead seat area of wheel and scan a width of about 50mm which gives a more rapid inpsection than with a pencil probe. A bolt hole probe is needed to inspect the bolt holes. Solution 3 - WheelScan LT WheelScan Lt provides a semi-automatic solution for the inspection of small, low volume of wheels. More information on WheelScan LT Solution 4 - WheelScan 5 Automatic, fast and highly accurate wheel inspection solution. The best solution where accuracy and, therefore safety, cannot be comprimised. The WheelScan range is commonly used in the airline industry. More information on WheelScan 5 The table below shows the advantages and disadvantages of each of these options.
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Advantages Solution 1 Low Cost. Suits all types of wheels.
Disadvantages Very low volume inspection (about 2 wheels per hour). Poor surface coverage due to human factor. Low volume inspection. Reduced sensitivity to flaws. Different probe needed for each wheel profile. Cost. Doesn't cover entire wheel profile.
Solution 2
Low Cost. Slightly Faster.
Solution 3
Portable. Faster. More repeatable. Suits wide range of wheel profiles.
Solution 4
Very high volume inspection (about Cost. 10 - 20 wheels per hour). Highly accurate. Data recording of wheel test. Suits all wheel profiles.
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Aircraft wheel inspection - Hocking NDT, leaders in eddy current NDT
Aircraft Wheel Inspection

Aircraft wheels are subject to high level cyclic fatigue, particularly during landing. To ensure the safety of passengers and the aircraft, it is important that the wheels are maintained to the highest standard.
Eddy Current wheel inspection is widely accepted throughout the world as a rapid and reliable means of maintaining the integrity of aircraft wheels. Suitable Instrumentation WheelScan 5 WheelScan Lt
Automotive Wheel Inspection

Scanning wheels to prevent failure isn't restricted to the aerospace industry. Formula 1 racing teams have recently started utilising the same technology to ensure there isn't a failure during the middle of a race. Suitable Instrumentation WheelScan Lt
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Hocking - leaders in eddy current ndt - Links
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AEA Centre for NDT

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BSI Canadian Society for Non Destructive Testing (CSNDT) Can Offshore user of Hocking equipment specialising in offshore projects EPRI Projects European Organisation for Testing and Certification FLS Aerospace
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www.canoffshore.ltd.uk/inspection.htm www.epri.com www.eotc.be/index.htm www.flsaerospace.com www-gpi.physik.uni-karlsruhe.de/ www.dgzfp.de/dgzfp_e.html www.inspection.co.uk/isl/

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Geophysical Institute German NDT Society (DGZfP) Inspection Software Ltd International School of Aerospace Italian Sociaty of Non Destructive Testing (AIPnD) Journal of Non Destructive Testing GE Inspection Technologies Landings web site for all things aviation Lavender International NDT Training and Exam Services
www.aipnd.it/ www.ndt.net/
www.GEInspectionTechnologies.com
www.landings.com/ www.lavender-ndt.com
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NDE Institute (Canada) NDT Net NDT Newsgroup Home Page Links to the Usenet NDT Newsgroup at NDT.org NDT Online Commnity NDT Technologies Canadian distributor of Hocking equipment NDT Worldwide (Japan) New Zealand NDT Association NTIAC Pegasus Oil & Gas Directory
Physical Sciences Information Gateway
www.ndeinst.org/ www.ndt.net www.nde.swri.edu:8080/ www.ndt.org www.csndt.org/ndt-tech.html www.ricoh.co.jp/net-messena/NDTWW/ NDTWW.html www.winzurf.co.nz www.ntiac.com/ www.pegasusoil-gasdirectory.co.uk/
www.psigate.ac.uk
Radiatronics Research in Non-destructive Evaluation The research journal of the American Society for Non-destructive Testing (ASNT) Rigg Access This site caters for employers and employees of the many and varied aspects of Industrial Rope Access
South Seas Inspection SSI uses Hocking Locator 2 units when carrying out Rope Access Structural Surveys
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www.msc.cornell.edu/~rnde
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Stroud Systems Houston, Texas Distributor of Hocking instruments Westinghouse Nuclear Services Canada Inc Xavier Gros Homepage Research into NDT on Composites
www.stroudsystems.com/ www.westinghouse.nscd/links.com www.riam.kyushu-u.ac.jp/fracture/xav01. htm
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Hocking - Leaders in Eddy Current NDT

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Hocking - leaders in eddy current ndt

Eddy Current Theory - Introduction

Eddy Current Theory - Principles

Current (I) must be the same for both resistors, so:

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We can represent this graphically using a vector diagram:

The impedance of the circuit is therefore given by the formula:

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