BONDING IN METALS To explain the properties of metals like iron or sodium we need a more

sophisticated picture than a simple particle model of atoms all lined up in close packed rows and layers. A giant metallic lattice. The crystal lattice of metals consists of

ions NOT atoms surrounded by a 'sea of electrons' forming another type of giant lattice. The outer electrons (-) from the original metal atoms are free to move around between the positive metal ions formed (+). These free or 'delocalised' electrons are the 'electronic glue' holding the particles together. There is a strong electrical force of attraction between these free and mobile electrons (-) and the 'immobile' positive metal ions (+) and this is the metallic bond. Metallic bonding is not directional like covalent bonding, it is like ionic bonding in the sense that the force of attraction between the positive metal ions and the mobile electrons acts in every direction about the fixed (immobile) metal ions.

Explaining the physical properties of metals

This strong bonding generally results in dense, strong materials with high melting and boiling points. o Usually a relatively large amount of energy is needed to melt or boil metals. Energy changes for the physical changes of state of melting and boiling for a range of differently bonded substances are compared in a section of the Energetics Notes.

Metals are good conductors of electricity because these 'free' electrons carry the charge of an electric current when a potential difference (voltage!) is applied across a piece of metal. Metals are also good conductors of heat. This is also due to the free moving electrons. Non-metallic solids conduct heat energy by hotter more strongly vibrating atoms, knocking against cooler less strongly vibrating atoms to pass the particle kinetic energy on. In metals, as well as this effect, the 'hot' high kinetic energy electrons move around freely to transfer the particle kinetic energy more efficiently to 'cooler' atoms.

Typical metals also have a silvery surface but remember this may be easily tarnished by corrosive oxidation in air and water. Unlike ionic solids, metals are very malleable, they can be readily bent, pressed or hammered into shape. The layers of atoms can slide over each other without fracturing the structure (see below). The reason for this is the mobility of the electrons. When planes of metal atoms are 'bent' or slide the electrons can run in between the atoms and maintain a strong bonding situation. This can't happen in ionic solids.

For more on the properties and uses of metals see Transition Metals and Extra Industrial Chemistry pages and the note and diagram below.

Note on Alloy Structure

1. Shows the regular arrangement of the atoms in a metal crystal and the white spaces show where the free electrons are
(yellow circles actually positive metal ions).

2. Shows what happens when the metal is stressed by a strong force. The layers of atoms can slide over each other and the
bonding is maintained as the mobile electrons keep in contact with atoms, so the metal remains intact BUT a different shape.

3. Shows an alloy mixture. It is NOT a compound but a physical mixing of a metal plus at least one other material (shown by
red circle, it can be another metal e.g. Ni, a non-metal e.g. C or a compound of carbon or manganese, and it can be bigger or smaller than iron atoms). Many alloys are produced to give a stronger metal. The presence of the other atoms (smaller or bigger) disrupts the symmetry of the layers and reduces the 'slip ability' of one layer next to another. The result is a stronger harder less malleable metal.

4. The main point about using alloys is that you can make up, and try out, all sorts of different compositions until you find the
one that best suits the required purpose.

(a) Some General Physical Characteristics Generally speaking they are hard, tough and strong (compared with the Group 1 Alkali metals!) because of the strong metallic atom-atom bonding. Good conductors of heat and electricity (there have many free electrons per atom to carry thermal or electrical energy ). They are easily hammered and bent into shape. They are typically lustrous/shiny solids (or liquids). (b) High Melting Point and Boiling Point

The bonding between the atoms in transition metals is very strong (see metallic bonding notes). The strong attractive force between the atoms is only weakened at high temperatures, hence the high melting points and boiling points (again compare with Group 1 Alkali Metals).

Mercury is in another transition metal, but unusually, it has a very low melting point of -39 C. For example: iron melts at 1535C and boils at 2750C BUT a Group 1 Alkali Metal such as sodium melts at 98C and boils at 883C. (c) High density

Another consequence of the strong bonding between the atoms in transition metals is that they are tightly held together to give a high density. For example: iron has a density of 7.9 g/cm and sodium has a density of 0.97 g/cm (and floats on water while fizzing! water has a density of 1.0 g/cm ).
3 3 3

THE CHEMISTRY OF TRANSITION METALS Their chemical properties and chemical reactions (d)(i) Form coloured compounds and ions in solution They tend to be much less reactive than the Alkali Metals. They do not react as quickly with water or oxygen so do not corrode as quickly. Transition metals tend to form more coloured compounds more than other elements either in solid form or dissolved in a

solvent like water. Examples of the colours of some transition metal salts in aqueous solution are shown below (grey = colourless in the diagrams). These coloured ions/compounds often have quite a complex structure and indeed called complexes.

10

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Sc - scandium salts, such as the chloride, ScCl3, are colourless and are not typical of transition metals Ti - titanium(III) chloride, TiCl3, is purple V - vanadium(III) chloride, VCl3, is green Cr - chromium(III) sulphate, Cr2(SO4)3, is dark green (chromate(VI) salts are yellow, dichromate(VI) salts are orange) Mn - manganese compound - potassium manganate(VII), KMnO4, is purple (manganese(II) salts eg MnCl2 are pale pink) Fe - iron(III) chloride, FeCl3, is yellow-orange-brown. o Iron(II) compounds are usually light green and iron(III) compounds orange/brown.

Co - cobalt sulphate, CoSO4, is pinkish Ni - nickel chloride, NiCl2, is green Cu - copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4, is blue. o o Most common copper compounds are blue in their crystals or solution and sometimes green. The blue aqueous copper ion, Cu *[Cu(H2O)6]
2+ (aq) 2+ (aq),

actually has a more complicated structure:

and when excess ammonia solution is added,

2+

after the initial gelatinous blue copper(II) hydroxide precipitate is formed, Cu(OH) 2, it dissolves to form the deep royal blue ion: *[Cu(H2O)2(NH3)4]
(aq).

*are called complex ions and when coloured are typical of transition metal chemistry.

Copper(II) oxide, CuO, black insoluble solid, readily dissolving in acids to give soluble blue salts e.g. copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4, from dilute sulphuric acid, copper(II) nitrate, Cu(NO3)2, from dilute nitric acid and greeny-blue copper(II) chloride, CuCl2, from dilute hydrochloric acid.

o o o

Copper(II) hydroxide, Cu(OH)2, blue gelatinous precipitate formed when alkali added to copper salt solutions. Copper(II) carbonate, CuCO3, is turquoise-green insoluble solid, readily dissolving in acids, evolving carbon dioxide, to give soluble blue salts (see above) Copper's valency or combining power is usually two e.g. compounds containing the Cu However there are copper(I) compounds where the valency is one. This variable valency, hence compounds of the same elements, but with different formulae, is typical of transition metal compounds e.g. copper(I) oxide, Cu2O, an insoluble red-brown solid (CuO is black), or copper(I) sulphate, Cu2SO4, a white solid.
2+

ion.

10. Zn - zinc salts such as zinc sulphate, ZnSO4, are usually colourless and are not typical of transition metals.

(d)(ii) Some other odd bits of chemistry See Acids, Bases and Salts page for the preparation of Transition Metal Salts from insoluble oxides, hydroxides or carbonates (insoluble bases). Many of the transition metal carbonates are unstable on heating and readily undergo thermal decomposition.

o o o o o

metal carbonate ==> metal oxide + carbon dioxide e.g. copper(II) carbonate ==> copper(II) oxide + carbon dioxide or zinc carbonate ==> zinc oxide + carbon dioxide ZnCO3(s) ==> ZnO(s) + CO2(g) CuCO3(s) ==> CuO(s) + CO2(g)

o o o o

In general the equation is ... MCO3(s) ==> MO(s) + CO2(g) where M could be Fe, Cu, Mn or Zn The carbon dioxide can be confirmed by giving a white milky precipitate with limewater. Sometimes the two solids show a colour change eg for M = Cu: turquoise green carbonate ==> black copper(II) oxide for M = Zn: white carbonate ==> white zinc oxide, but yellow hot

Many transition metal ions (e.g. in soluble salt solutions) give hydroxide precipitates when mixed with aqueous sodium hydroxide solution. o These reactions can be used to help identify transition metal ions in solution

transition metal salt solution + sodium hydroxide ==> solid hydroxide precipitate + sodium salt ionically the precipitation reaction is : o o metal ion + hydroxide ion ==> hydroxide precipitate M
2+ (aq) -

+ 2OH (aq) ==> M(OH)2(s) M can be for the ... iron(II) ion Fe , pale green in aqueous solution, which gives a dark grey-green gelatinous precipitate of iron(II) hydroxide with sodium hydroxide solution ,
2+

e.g. iron(II) sulfate + sodium hydroxide ==> iron(II) hydroxide + sodium sulfate or iron(II) chloride + sodium hydroxide ==> iron(II) hydroxide + sodium chloride FeCl2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) ==> Fe(OH)2(s) + 2NaCl(aq) Fe
2+ (aq)

FeSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) ==> Fe(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

For these reactions the ionic equation is .. + 2OH (aq) ==> Fe(OH)2(s)
2+ -

or for the copper(II) ion Cu , blue in aqueous solution, which gives a blue copper(II) hydroxide precipitate with sodium hydroxide solution. e.g. copper(II) sulphate + sodium hydroxide ==> copper(II) hydroxide + sodium sulphate or copper(II) chloride + sodium hydroxide ==> copper(II) hydroxide + sodium chloride CuCl2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) ==> Cu(OH)2(s) + 2NaCl(aq) Cu
2+ (aq)

CuSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) ==> Cu(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

For these reactions the ionic equation is .. + 2OH (aq) ==> Cu(OH)2(s)
-

Note that the copper ion can be also detected by its flame colour of green-blue. The flame test is conducted by dipping a nichrome (cheap)/platinum (expensive) wire into a copper salt solution and placing the end of the wire plus drop into the hottest part of a roaring bunsen flame when you see flashes of blue and green colour.

and for the iron(III) ion Fe : giving a brown iron(III) hydroxide precipitate with sodium hydroxide solution, e.g.

3+

iron(III) chloride + sodium hydroxide ==> iron(III) hydroxide + sodium chloride FeCl3(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) ==> Fe(OH)3(s) + 3NaCl(aq) Fe (aq) + 3OH (aq) ==> Fe(OH)3(s)
3+ -

the ionic equation is ...

These hydroxide precipitates are basically solids, but of a somewhat gelatinous nature because they incorporate lots of water in their structure.

Also note that iron has two valencies or combining power giving different compound formulae. Multiple valency, hence multiple compound formation, is another characteristic (but not unique) feature of transition metal chemistry. o o o The valency of chlorine is 1 and iron can have a combining power of 2 (II) or 3 (III). FeCl2 iron(II) chloride (once called ferrous chloride) FeCl3 iron(III) chloride (once called ferric chloride) The number in Roman numerals is the valency or combining power e.g. oxygen's valency is 2 and copper, another transition element, has a valency of 1 (I) or 2 (II) so we have Cu2O copper(I) oxide (once called cuprous oxide) and CuO copper(II) oxide (once called cupric oxide). hence the need for the valency of the metal of the metal to be shown in Roman numerals.

There are more details and more tests on the Chemical Identification page (use the alphabetical list at the top).

(e) Catalytic Properties - Uses of Transition Metals

(1) The metallic elements themselves are used as catalysts Many transition metals are used directly as catalysts in industrial chemical processes and in the anti-pollution catalytic converters in car exhausts. For example iron is used in the HABER PROCESS for the synthesis of ammonia: o o Nitrogen + Hydrogen ==> Ammonia (via a catalyst of Fe atoms) or N2(g) + 3H2(g) ==> 2NH3(g)

Platinum and rhodium (in other transition series below Sc-Zn) are used in the catalytic converters in car exhausts to reduce the emission of carbon monoxide and nitrogen monoxide, which are converted to the non-polluting gases nitrogen and carbon dioxide.

2NO(g) + 2CO(g) ==> N2(g) + 2CO2(g) Nickel is the catalyst for 'hydrogenation' in the margarine industry. It catalyses the addition of hydrogen to an alkene carbon=carbon double bond (>C=C< + H2 ==> >CH-CH<). This process converts unsaturated vegetable oils into higher melting saturated fats which are more 'spreadable' with a knife! (2) Some compounds of transition metals are also used as catalysts

As well as the metals, the compounds of transition metals also acts as catalysts. EXAMPLES o For example manganese dioxide (or manganese(IV) oxide), MnO 2, a black powder, readily decomposes an aqueous solution of hydrogen peroxide: Hydrogen peroxide ==> water + oxygen 2H2O2(aq) ==> 2H2O(l) + O2(g)

A useful reaction in the laboratory for preparing oxygen gas.

Vanadium(V) oxide (vanadium pentoxide, V2O5) is used as the catalyst in converting sulphur dioxide into sulphur trioxide as a stage in the manufacture of sulphuric acid in the CONTACT PROCESS. 2SO2(g) + O2(g) ==> 2SO3(g) (via V2O5 catalyst) A very important industrial process because sulphuric acid is a widely used chemical in industry.

(f) More on the Uses of Transition Metals and their compounds Transition metals are extremely useful metals on account of their physical or chemical properties eg lack of corrosion and greater strength compared to the Group 1 Alkali Metals. Many are used in alloys, with a wide range of applications and uses. o An ALLOY is mixture of metal with at least one other metallic or non-metallic substances - usually other elements.

For catalysts - see above. Their strength and hardness makes them very useful as structural materials .

IRON, Fe Cast iron is used for man-hole covers because it is so hard wearing but it is brittle due to a high carbon content. When alloyed with 1% carbon iron forms mild steel which is not brittle, but is more malleable and corrosion resistant than cast iron. Mild steel is used for food cans, car bodies (but galvanising and several coats of paint help it to last!) and machinery etc.

Steel is an alloy based on iron mixed with carbon and usually other metals added too . There are huge number of steel 'recipes' which can be made to suit particular purposes by changing the % carbon and adding other metals e.g. titanium steel for armour plating.

CHROMIUM, Cr o Chromium steel (stainless steel, mixing and melting together Fe + Cr and maybe Ni too) with good anti-corrosion properties, used for cutlery and chemical plant reactors.

COPPER, Cu The alloy BRASS is a mixture copper and zinc. It is a much more hard wearing metal than copper (too soft) and zinc (too brittle) but is more malleable than bronze for 'stamping' or 'cutting' it into shape. easily. Copper is used for cooking pans because it is relatively unreactive to water and therefore doesn't corrode easily, readily Copper is used in electrical wiring because it is a good conductor of electricity but for safety it is insulated by using poorly

electrical conductors like PVC plastic. Copper is used in domestic hot water pipes because it is relatively unreactive to water and therefore doesn't corrode

beaten or pressed into shape but strong enough, it is high melting and a good conductor of heat. Copper is also used as a roof covering and weathers to a green colour as a surface coating of a basic carbonate is formed on corrosion. The alloy BRONZE is a mixture of copper and tin (Sn) and is stronger than copper and just as corrosion resistant, e.g. used for sculptures. Iron and steel are used for boilers because of their good heat conduction properties and high melting point.

Copper compounds are used in fungicides and pesticides e.g. a traditional recipe is copper sulphate solution plus lime is used to kill greenfly. Copper is alloyed with nickel to give 'cupro-nickel', an attractive hard wearing 'silvery' metal for coins. Steel, iron or copper are used for cooking pans because they are malleable, good heat conductors and high melting. NICKEL is alloyed with copper to give 'cupro-nickel', an attractive hard wearing 'silvery' metal for coins.

ZINC Zinc is used to galvanise (coat) iron or steel to sacrificially protect them from corrosion. The zinc layer can be put on the iron/steel object by chemical (seeelectroplating and below) or physically dipping it into a bath of molten zinc. Zinc sulphate solution can be used as the electrolyte for electroplating/galvanising objects with a zinc layer. Zinc is used as a sacrificed electrode in a zinc-carbon battery. It slowly reacts with a weakly acidic ammonium chloride paste, converting chemical energy into electrical energy. The alloy BRASS is a mixture copper and zinc. It is a much more hard wearing metal than copper (too soft) and zinc (too brittle) but is more malleable than bronze for 'stamping' or 'cutting' it into shape. Transition metal compounds (often oxides) of copper, iron, chromium and cobalt are used to pigments for artwork, and give bright colours to stained glass and ceramic/pottery glazes e.g.

Paint pigments: chromium oxide Cr2O3 green, iron oxide (haematite) Fe2O3 red-brown, manganese oxide MnO2 black, copper hydroxide-carbonates (malachite-green, azurite-blue) and titanium dioxide TiO2 white. Stained glass: cobalt oxide CoO blue, iron oxide/carbonate green, Cu metal red, CuO turquoise. NICHROME is an alloy of chromium and nickel. It has a high melting point and a high electrical resistance and so it is used for electrical heating element wires. NITINIOL: Titanium and nickel are the main components of Nitinol 'smart' alloys which are very useful intermetallic compounds. Nitinol belongs to a group of shape memory alloys (SMA) which can 'remember their original shape'. For example they can regain there original shape on heating (e.g. used in thermostats in cookers , coffer makers etc.) or after release of a physical stress (e.g. used in 'bendable' eyeglass frames, very handy if you tread on them!). The other main metal used in these

TUNGSTEN is used as the filament in light bulbs because its melting point is so high. Transition metals like platinum and rhodium are used as metal catalysts in the catalytic converters used in car vehicle exhausts to reduce carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxide polluting emissions. Bright, shiny and relatively unreactive copper, silver and gold are used in jewellery. There is a note about the bonding in metals and structure of alloys on another page.

(g) What about the uses of non-transition metals? Note on Aluminium Aluminium is NOT a transition metal !

o o o o o o o

e.g. it does not form coloured compounds, it does not act as a catalyst etc. BUT it is high melting, of low density and one of the most used and useful non-transition metals. It is rather weak BUT when alloyed with copper, manganese and magnesium and it forms a much stronger alloy called duralumin. It does not readily corrode due to a permanent Al2O3 aluminium oxide layer on the surface which does not flake off and protects the aluminium from further oxidation. Because of its alloyed strength, lightness and anti-corrosion properties it is used in aircraft construction, window frames, hifi chassis etc. Its a good conductor of heat and can be used in radiators. Its quite a good conductor of electricity, and also because its light, it is used in conjunction with copper (excellent electrical conductor) in overhead power lines (don't want them too heavy when iced up!). The cables however do have a steel core for strength! Poorly electrical conducting ceramic materials are used to insulate the wires from the pylons and the ground. Other non-transition metals and their uses

A mixture of tin and lead is mixed to give the alloy SOLDER which is a relatively low melting solid for electrical connections. Tin is an unreactive metal and is used to coat more corrodible metals like iron-steel. A 'tin can' is actually made of steel with a fine protective coating of tin metal over the surface of it. Lead is a soft, very malleable relatively unreactive metal used in roofing. 'Flashings' are used to seal sections of roofs e.g. between walls and the ends of layers of tiles or slates. Electrical cables can be encased in it. It is used with lead oxide in the manufacture of electrodes of road vehicle car batteries. Because of its high density it is used as a shield from dangerous alpha/beta/gamma radiation from radioactive materials and X-rays, so it is used in nuclear processing facilities etc. and radiographers wear a lead apron when you go for an X-ray on your bones.

PEWTER is an alloy of mainly tin plus small amounts of copper, bismuth (Bi) and antimony (Sb) , it is stronger than tin but is easy to etch and engrave. DENTAL AMALGAM ALLOY is a mixture of tin, mercury and silver (a transition metal). When first prepared its soft and malleable before hardening to that undesired filling! It has good anti-corrosion properties and resists the attack of acidic products produced by bacteria in the mouth. An amalgam is an alloy metal compound made from a mixture of mercury and other metals which may be liquid and set to a solid after preparation.

More on aluminium and iron - Examples of how metals be made more useful Extraction details page: Aluminium can be made more resistant to corrosion by a process called anodising. Iron can be made more useful by mixing it with other substances to make various types of steel. Many metals can be given a coating of a different metal to protect them or to improve their appearance. Aluminium is a reactive metal but it is resistant to corrosion. This is because aluminium reacts in air to form a layer of aluminium oxide which then protects the aluminium from further attack. o This is why it appears to be less reactive than its position in the reactivity series of metals would predict.

For some uses of aluminium it is desirable to increase artificially the thickness of the protective oxide layer in a process is called anodising. o o This involves removing the oxide layer by treating the aluminium sheet with sodium hydroxide solution. The aluminium is then placed in dilute sulphuric acid and is made the positive electrode (anode) used in the electrolysis of the acid.

Oxygen forms on the surface of the aluminium and reacts with the aluminium metal to form a thicker protective oxide layer.

Aluminium can be alloyed to make 'Duralumin' by adding copper (and smaller amounts of magnesium, silicon and iron), to make a stronger alloy used in aircraft components (low density = 'lighter'!), greenhouse and window frames (good anti-corrosion properties), overhead power lines (quite a good conductor and 'light'), but steel strands are included to make the 'line' stronger and poorly electrical conducting ceramic materials are used to insulate the wires from the pylons and the ground. o There is a note about the bonding and structure of alloys on another page.

The properties of iron can be altered by adding small quantities of other metals or carbon to make steel. Steels are alloys since they are mixtures of iron with other metals or with non-metals like carbon or silicon. Making Steel: o o (1) Molten iron from the blast furnace iron extraction process is mixed with recycled scrap iron (2) Then pure oxygen is passed into the mixture and the non-metal impurities such as silicon or phosphorus are then converted into acidic oxides (oxidation process) .. o e.g. Si + O2 ==> SiO2, or 4P + 5O2 ==> P4O10

(3) Calcium carbonate (a base) is then added to remove the acidic oxide impurities (in an acid-base reaction). The salts produced by this reaction form a slag which can be tapped off separately. e.g. CaCO3 + SiO2 ==> CaSiO3 + CO2 (calcium silicate slag)

o o o o

Reactions (1)-(3) produce pure iron. Calculated quantities of carbon and/or other metallic elements such as titanium, manganese or chromium are then added to make a wide range of steels with particular properties. Because of the high temperatures the mixture is stirred by bubbling in unreactive argon gas! Economics of recycling scrap steel or ion: Most steel consists of >25% recycled iron/steel and you do have the 'scrap' collection costs and problems with varying steel composition* BUT you save enormously because there is no mining cost or overseas transport costs AND less junk lying around! (NOTE: * some companies send their own scrap to be mixed with the next batch of 'specialised' steel they order, this saves both companies money!)

 o o o

Different steels for different uses: o High % carbon steel is strong but brittle.

Low carbon steel or mild steel is softer and is easily shaped and pressed e.g. into a motor car body. Stainless steel alloys contain chromium and nickel and are tougher and more resistant to corrosion. Very strong steels can be made by alloying the iron with titanium or manganese metal. There is a note about the bonding and structure of alloys on another page.

Steel can be galvanised by coating in zinc, this is physically done by dipping the object into a bath of molten zinc. On removal and cooling a thin layer of zinc is left on. The zinc chemically bonds to the iron via the free electrons of both metals - its all the same atoms to them! It can also be done by electroplating (details below).

Steel (and most metals) can be electroplated. o o o o The steel object to be plated is made the negative electrode (cathode) and placed in a solution containing ions of the plating metal. The positive electrode (anode) is made of the pure plating metal (which dissolves and forms the fresh deposit on the negative electrode). Nickel, zinc, copper, silver and gold are examples of plating metals. The details of copper purification amount to copper plating, so all you have to do is swap the pure negative copper cathode with the metal you want to coat (e.g. Ni, Ag or Au or any material with a conducting surface). Swap the impure positive copper anode with a pure block of the metal you want to form the coating layer. The electrodes dip into a salt solution of nickel, zinc, copper, silver or gold ions etc. and a low d.c. voltage passed through. If M = Ni, Cu, Zn .... At the positive (+) anode, the process is an oxidation, electron loss, as the metal atoms dissolve to form metal(II) ions. M(s) ==> M
2+ (aq) -

+ 2e

at the negative (-) cathode, the process is a reduction, two electron gain by the attracted metal(II) ions to form neutral metal atoms on the surface of the metal being coated. M
2+ (aq) -

+ 2e ==> M(s)
+

For silver plating it is Ag , Ag and a single electron change. Any conducting (usually metal) object can be electroplated with copper or silver for aesthetic reasons or steel with zinc or chromium as anti-corrosion protective layer.

Many other metals have countless uses e.g. zinc o o Zinc is used to make the outer casing of zinc-carbon-weak acid batteries. Zinc is alloyed with copper to make the useful metal brass (electrical plug pins). Brass alloy is stronger and more hardwearing than copper AND not as brittle as zinc.

Another transition metal - Titanium - How is it produced? What is it used for? Titanium is a very important metal for various specialised uses. It is more difficult to extract from its ore than other, more common metals. Titanium is a transition metal and is strong and resistant to corrosion . o o o o Titanium alloys are amongst the strongest of metal alloys. There is a note about the bonding and structure of alloys on another page. It is used in aeroplanes, in nuclear reactor alloys and for replacement hip joints. It is one of the main components of Nitinol 'smart' alloys. Nitinol belongs to a group of shape memory alloys (SMA) which can 'remember their original shape'. For example they can regain there original shape on heating (e.g. used in thermostats in cookers ,

coffer makers etc.) or after release of a physical stress (e.g. used in 'bendable' eyeglass frames, very handy if you tread on them!). The other main metal used in these very useful intermetallic compounds is nickel. Nitinol is an acronym for 'Nickel Titanium Naval Ordinance Laboratory' betraying, like so many technological developments, its military origins, but now acquiring many 'peaceful' uses. Titanium is extracted from the raw material is the ore rutile which contains titanium dioxide. The rutile titanium oxide ore is heated with carbon and chlorine to make titanium chloride o TiO2 + 2Cl2 + C ==> TiCl4 + CO2

After the oxide is converted into titanium chloride TiCl4, it is then reacted with sodium or magnesium to form titanium metal and sodium chloride or magnesium chloride. This is an expensive process because sodium or magnesium are manufactured by the costly process of electrolysis (electricity is the most costly form of energy). o o o o This reaction is carried out in an atmosphere of inert argon gas so none of the metals involved becomes oxidised by atmospheric oxygen. TiCl4 + 2Mg ==> Ti + 2MgCl2 or TiCl4 + 4Na ==> Ti + 4NaCl These are examples of metal displacement reactions e.g. the less reactive titanium is displaced by the more reactive sodium or magnesium. Overall the titanium oxide ore is reduced to titanium metal (overall O loss, oxide => metal)