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Chapter 10

Automatic Solar Tracking System

10.1 Purpose
Nowadays the importance of solar cells and R&D in this field is steadily increasing. The most important parameter of a solar cell is the generated power, which can be enhanced by use of solar tracking. The sun's position in the sky varies both with the seasons and time of day as the sun moves across the sky. Solar powered equipment works best when pointed at or near the sun, so a solar tracker can increase the effectiveness of such equipment over any fixed position, at the cost of additional system complexity. A solar tracker is a device for orienting a day lighting reflector, solar photovoltaic panel or concentrating solar reflector or lens toward the sun.

Implementation
OVERALL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Many factors influenced the component selection and the design of the MPPT. In terms of optimal functionality, the barrier between the two LDR should be adjusted based on the location where to implement. To protect the photovoltaic array from damage, protection diodes were employed. Two 12V lead acid battery banks were utilized. Only one battery bank will be charged at a time. (The other will be employed to run other components circuit). In order to trickle charge the batteries, a voltage exceeding 10V must be fed to the bank. Voltage regulators may need a very large heat sink to operate properly.

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Fig 51: Proposed solar tracking system is being configured

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Fig 52: Proposed Solar Tracker
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10.2 System Description

This is a power generating method from sunlight. This method of power generation is simple and is taken from natural resource. This needs only maximum sunlight to generate power. This project helps for power generation by setting the equipment to get maximum sunlight automatically. This system tracks maximum intensity of light. When there is decrease in intensity of light, this system automatically changes its direction to get maximum intensity of light. In this work we present a microcontroller-based automatic position control scheme based on solar energy as primary source and batteries as secondary source. This solution permits a simple solar panels moving from east to west and returning from west to the east, within the angle regulation range of 0-80deg. The solar energy conversion unit with tracking module consists of an array of solar panels, battery, charge controller, LED, relay, a stepper motor, a driver, an AC mains power source and a microcontroller based control unit. There are two sensors in two directions to sense the direction of maximum intensity of light. The difference between the outputs of the sensors is given to the microcontroller unit. The microcontroller will process the input voltage from the comparison circuit and control the direction in which the motor has to be rotated so that it will receive maximum intensity of light from the sun. The power generated from this process is then stored in a lead acid battery and is made to charge an emergency light and is made to glow during night.

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10.3 How it works: Flow Chart

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Fig 53: Schematic Diagram of Automatic Solar Tracker

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10.4 Advantage
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This increases the amount of energy gathered from the direct component of the incoming light. Independent on PV array characteristics. High convergence speed Easy to construct Parts are available Reliable Simple Design

10.5 Software

double ADC_RES_1=0,ADC_RES_2=0; short s=1,i=0,j=0,k=0,CW[4]={12,6,3,9},ACW[4]={12,9,3,6}; { DDRD &=~(1<<PD2); MCUCR |=(1<<ISC01); GICR |=(1<<INT0); } void config_INT1() { DDRD &=~(1<<PD3); MCUCR |=(1<<ISC11); GICR |=(1<<INT1); } void configure_timer_1() {

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#include <avr/io.h> #include <util/delay.h> #include <avr/interrupt.h> #define delay_1 2000 #define delay_2 1000

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10.6 Code

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The AVR Microcontroller chosen had sufficient memory to meet the demands of the design. The ADCs were also included in the AVR, which reduced the amount of additional external parts. We use AVR Studio as the program compiler.

Automatic Solar Tracking System TCNT1L=0x7C; TCNT1H=0xE1; TCCR1B |=(5<<CS10);

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} void configure_adc() { ADCSRA |= (1<<ADPS0) | (1<<ADPS1) | (1<<ADPS2) | (1<<ADEN); } ISR(INT0_vect) { while(!(GIFR & (1<<INTF1))) { PORTB =ACW[k]; _delay_ms(delay_2); k++; k %=4; } } ISR(INT1_vect) { PORTC =0xFF; PORTB =0x00; _delay_ms(delay_2); }

ISR(TIMER1_OVF_vect) { s++; s %=2; if(s==0) ADMUX = (1 << REFS0) | 0x02; else ADMUX = (1 << REFS0) | 0x03; TCNT1L=0x7C; TCNT1H=0xE1; ADCSRA |= (1<<ADSC); while(ADCSRA & (1<<ADSC)); if(s==0) ADC_RES_1 = ADCL | (ADCH<<8); else

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Automatic Solar Tracking System ADC_RES_2 = ADCL | (ADCH<<8); if(ADC_RES_1<ADC_RES_2) { PORTB =CW[j]; _delay_ms(delay_1); j++; j%=4; PORTC =0x00; } else { PORTB=ACW[i]; _delay_ms(delay_1); i++; i%=4; }

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} int main() { DDRA &= ~(1 << PA3); DDRA &= ~(1 << PA2); DDRB =0xFF; DDRC =0xFF; config_INT0(); config_INT1(); configure_adc(); TCNT1L=0x7C; TCNT1H=0xE1; configure_timer_1(); TIMSK |= (1 << TOIE1); SREG |= 0x80; while(1) { } } return 0;

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10.7 Components
Microcontroller (ATmega32) [20] 3-Terminal Positive Voltage Regulator (L7805) [21] Stepper Motor (35BY412-16) [22] Crystal Oscillator (12MHZ) Relay (SRD-12VDC) [23] High-Voltage, High-Current Darlington Arrays (ULN2804) [24] LDR [25] Capacitor

10.8 Components Description

Microcontroller Description

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The ATmega32 is a low-power CMOS 8-bit microcontroller based on the AVR enhanced RISC architecture. By executing powerful instructions in a single clock cycle, the ATmega32 achieves throughputs approaching 1 MIPS per MHz allowing the system designer to optimize power consumption versus processing speed. The AVR core combines a rich instruction set with 32 general purpose working registers.

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Fig 54: Pin configuration

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Fig 55: Block diagram
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Automatic Solar Tracking System Pin Description VCC : Digital supply voltage. GND : Ground. Port A (PA7..PA0) : Port A serves as the analog inputs to the A/D Converter. Port A also serves as an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port, if the A/D Converter is not used. Port pins can provide internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The Port A output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source capability. When pins PA0 to PA7 are used as inputs and are externally pulled low, they will source current if the internal pull-up resistors are activated. The Port A pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running. Port B (PB7..PB0) : Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The Port B output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port B pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port B pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running. . Port C (PC7..PC0): Port C is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The Port C output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port C pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port C pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running. If the JTAG interface is enabled, the pull-up resistors on pins PC5(TDI), PC3(TMS) and PC2(TCK) will be activated even if a reset occurs. Port D (PD7..PD0) : Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pullup resistors (selected for each bit). The Port D output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port D pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port D pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running.

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Automatic Solar Tracking System RESET : Reset Input. A low level on this pin for longer than the minimum pulse length will generate a reset, even if the clock is not running. Shorter pulses are not guaranteed to generate a reset. XTAL1 : Input to the inverting Oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit. XTAL2 : Output from the inverting Oscillator amplifier. AVCC : AVCC is the supply voltage pin for Port A and the A/D Converter. It should be externally connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is used, it should be connected to VCC through a low-pass filter.

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Oscillator Characteristics

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XTAL1 and XTAL2 are input and output, respectively, of an inverting amplifier which can be configured for use as an On-chip Oscillator, as shown in Figure 12. Either a quartz crystal or a ceramic resonator may be used. The CKOPT Fuse selects between two different Oscillator amplifier modes. When CKOPT is programmed, the Oscillator output will oscillate will a full rail-to-rail swing on the output. This mode is suitable when operating in a very noisy environment or when the output from XTAL2 drives a second clock buffer. This mode has a wide frequency range. When CKOPT is unprogrammed, the Oscillator has a smaller output swing. This reduces power consumption considerably. This mode has a limited frequency range and it can not be used to drive other clock buffers. For resonators, the maximum frequency is 8 MHz with CKOPT unprogrammed and 16 MHz with CKOPT programmed. C1 and C2 should always be equal for both crystals and resonators. The optimal value of the capacitors depends on the crystal or resonator in use, the amount of stray capacitance, and the electromagnetic noise of the environment.

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AREF : AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter.

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Figure 56: Crystal Oscillator Connections

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the relay creates a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts. The coil current can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and most have double throw (changeover) switch contacts as shown in the diagram. Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely separate from the first. For example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay to switch a 230V AC mains circuit. There is no electrical connection inside the relay between the two circuits; the link is magnetic and mechanical.

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10.9 Relay

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Automatic Solar Tracking System The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA for a 12V relay, but it can be as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate from lower voltages. Most ICs (chips) cannot provide this current and a transistor is usually used to amplify the small IC current to the larger value required for the relay coil. The maximum output current for the popular 555 timer IC is 200mA so these devices can supply relay coils directly without amplification.

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10.10 High-Voltage, High-Current Darlington Arrays

Darlington pair

This is two transistors connected together so that the current amplified by the first is amplified further by the second transistor. The overall current gain is equal to the two individual gains multiplied together: Darlington pair current gain, hFE = hFE1 hFE2 (hFE1 and hFE2 are the gains of the individual transistors).This gives the Darlington pair a very high current gain, such as 10000, so that only a tiny base current is required to make the pair switch on. A Darlington pair behaves like a single transistor with a very high current gain. It has three leads (B, C and E) which are equivalent to the leads of a standard individual transistor. To turn on there must be 0.7V across both the baseemitter junctions who are connected in series inside the Darlington pair, therefore it requires 1.4V to turn on.

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Fig 57: Relay

Circuit symbol for relay

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Fig 58: Darlington Pair Here we use ULN2804 to solve this purpose

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The eight NPN Darlington connected transistors in this family of arrays are ideally suited for interfacing between low logic level digital circuitry (such as TTL, CMOS or PMOS/NMOS) and the higher current/voltage requirements of lamps, relays, printer hammers or other similar loads for a broad range of computer, industrial, and consumer applications. All devices feature opencollector outputs and free wheeling clamp diodes for transient suppression. The ULN2803 is designed to be compatible with standard TTL families while the ULN2804 is optimized for 6 to 15 volt high level CMOS or PMOS.

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10.11 Voltage Regulator

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A Voltage Regulator (also called a "regulator") has only three legs and appears to be a comparatively simple device but it is actually a very complex integrated circuit. A regulator converts varying input voltage and produces a constant "regulated" output voltage. Voltage regulators are available in a variety of outputs, typically 5 volts, 9 volts and 12 volts.

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Fig 59: ULN2804

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Fig 60: Voltage Regulator How it Works:

All of the interfaces described on this site have protection diodes connected into the power supply circuit to prevent damage due to incorrect polarity. Generally a 1N4004, 1 amp power diode is connected in series with the power supply. If the supply is connected the wrong way around, the regulator will be protected from damage. Input Voltage: As a general rule the input voltage should be limited to 2 to 3 volts above the output voltage. The LM78XX series can handle up to 30 volts input, but the power difference between the input voltage/current ratio and output voltage/current ratio appears as

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Reverse polarity destroys the regulator almost instantly. To avoid this possibility you should always use diode protection of the power supply. This is especially important when using nine volt battery supplies as it is common for people to 'test' the battery by connecting it one way and then the other. Even this short 'test' could destroy the regulator if a protection diode is not used.

The transformer drops the 220-240 volt 'mains' voltage to 8.5 volts. The diode 'bridge' rectifies the 8.5 volts AC from the output side of the power transformer into DC. The 2500uF capacitor helps to maintain a constant input into the regulator. As a general guide this capacitor should be rated at a minimum of 1000uF for each amp of current drawn and at least TWICE the input voltage. The 0.1uF capacitor eliminates any high frequency pulses that could otherwise interfere with the operation of the regulator. Voltage regulators are very robust. They can withstand over-current draw due to short circuits and also over-heating. In both cases the regulator will shut down before damage occurs. The only way to destroy a regulator is to apply reverse voltage to its input.

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Automatic Solar Tracking System heat. If the input voltage is unnecessarily high the regulator will get very hot. Unless sufficient heat-sinking is provided the regulator will shut down. MC78XX/LM78XX/MC78XXA 3-Terminal Positive Voltage Regulator Features Output current to 1.5a Output voltages of 5; 5.2; 6; 8; 8.5; 9;10; 12; 15; 18; 24v Thermal overload protection Short circuit protection Output transition soa protection

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Fig 61: Connection Diagram of Voltage Diagram

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Fig 62: Schematic Diagram of Voltage Regulator

10. 13 Light Dependent Resistors (LDR)

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Fig 63: Light Dependent Resistors LDRs or Light Dependent Resistors are very useful especially in light/dark sensor circuits. Normally the resistance of an LDR is very high, sometimes as high as 1000 000 ohms, but when they are illuminated with light resistance drops dramatically.
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10.13 Stepper Motor Systems

Stepper Motor Systems Overview Motion Control, in electronic terms, means to accurately control the movement of an object based on speed, distance, load, inertia or a combination of all these factors. There are numerous types of motion control systems, including; Stepper Motor, Linear Step Motor, DC Brush, Brushless, Servo, Brushless Servo and more. This document will concentrate on Step Motor technology. In Theory, a Stepper motor is a marvel in simplicity. It has no brushes, or contacts. Basically it's a synchronous motor with the magnetic field electronically switched to rotate the armature magnet around. A Stepping Motor System consists of three basic elements, often combined with some type of user interface (Host Computer, PLC or Dumb Terminal):

Fig 64: Stepper Motor Overview The Indexer (or Controller) is a microprocessor capable of generating step pulses and direction signals for the driver. In addition, the indexer is typically required to perform many other sophisticated command functions. The Driver (or Amplifier) converts the indexer command signals into the power necessary to energize the motor windings. There are numerous types of drivers, with different current/amperage ratings and construction technology. Not all drivers are suitable to run all motors, so when designing a Motion Control System the driver selection process is critical. The Step Motor is an electromagnetic device that converts digital pulses into mechanical shaft rotation. Advantages of step motors are low cost, high reliability, high torque at low speeds and a simple, rugged construction that operates in almost any environment. The main disadvantages in using a step motor is the resonance effect often exhibited at low speeds and decreasing torque with increasing speed.

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Fig 65: Hybrid stepper motor combines features of the permanent magnet stepper and the variable reluctance stepper motors. STEPPING MOTORS

Types of Stepper Motors

Variable Reluctance The variable reluctance motor does not use a permanent magnet. As a result, the motor rotor can move without constraint or "detent" torque. This type of construction is good in non industrial applications that do not require a high degree of motor torque, such as the positioning of a micro slide.

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There are basically three types of stepping motors; variable reluctance, permanent magnet and hybrid. They differ in terms of construction based on the use of permanent magnets and/or iron rotors with laminated steel stators.

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Fig 66: Variable Reluctance The variable reluctance motor in the above illustration has three "stator pole sets" (A, B, C,), set 15 degrees apart. Current applied to pole A through the motor winding causes a magnetic attraction that aligns the rotor (tooth) to pole A. Energizing stator pole B causes the rotor to rotate 15 degrees in alignment with pole B. This process will continue with pole C and back to A in a clockwise direction. Reversing the procedure (C to A) would result in a counterclockwise rotation.

The permanent magnet motor, also referred to as a "canstack" motor, has, as the name implies, a permanent magnet rotor. It is a relatively low speed, low torque device with large step angles of either 45 or 90 degrees. It's simple construction and low cost make it an ideal choice for non industrial applications, such as a line printer print wheel positioned. Unlike the other stepping motors, the PM motor rotor has no teeth and is designed to be magnetized at a right angle to it's axis. The above illustration shows a simple, 90 degree PM motor with four phases (A-D). Applying current to each phase in sequence will cause the rotor to rotate by adjusting to the changing magnetic fields. Although it operates at fairly low speed the PM motor has a relatively high torque characteristic.

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Fig 67: Permanent Magnet

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Permanent Magnet

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Hybrid Hybrid motors combine the best characteristics of the variable reluctance and permanent magnet motors. They are constructed with multi-toothed stator poles and a permanent magnet rotor. Standard hybrid motors have 200 rotor teeth and rotate at 1.80 step angles. Other hybrid motors are available in 0.9and 3.6 step angle configurations. Because they exhibit high static and dynamic torque and run at very high step rates, hybrid motors are used in a wide variety of industrial applications.

Motor Windings Unifilar

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Fig 69: 4 Lead Unifilar Motor
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Unifilar, as the name implies, has only one winding per stator pole. Stepper motors with a unifilar winding will have 4 lead wires. The following wiring diagram illustrates a typical unifilar motor:

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Fig 68: Hybrid Motor

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Automatic Solar Tracking System Bifilar Bifilar wound motors means that there are two identical sets of windings on each stator pole. This type of winding configuration simplifies operation in that transferring current from one coil to another one, wound in the opposite direction, will reverse the rotation of the motor shaft. Whereas in a unifilar application, to change direction requires reversing the current in the same winding. The most common wiring configuration for bifilar wound stepping motors is 8 leads because they offer the flexibility of either a Series or parallel connection. There are however, many 6 lead stepping motors available for Series connection applications.

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Figure 70: 6 and 8 lead Bifilar Motor Winding Step Modes:

Full Step

Standard (hybrid) stepping motors have 200 rotor teeth, or 200 full steps per revolution of the motor shaft. Dividing the 200 steps into the 360's rotation equals a 1.8 full step angle. Normally, full step mode is achieved by energizing both windings while reversing the current alternately. Essentially one digital input from the driver is equivalent to one step.

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Stepper motor "step modes" include Full, Half and Microstep. The type of step mode output of any motor is dependent on the design of the driver.

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Automatic Solar Tracking System Half Step Half step simply means that the motor is rotating at 400 steps per revolution. In this mode, one winding is energized and then two windings are energized alternately, causing the rotor to rotate at half the distance, or 0.9's. (The same effect can be achieved by operating in full step mode with a 400 step per revolution motor). Half stepping is a more practical solution however, in industrial applications. Although it provides slightly less torque, half step mode reduces the amount "jumpiness" inherent in running in a full step mode. Microstep Microstepping technology controls the current in the motor winding to a degree that further subdivides the number of positions between poles. AMS microstep drives are capable of rotating at 1/256 of a step (per step) which corresponds to 51200 steps per revolution (for a 1.8 step angle motor).

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Microstepping is typically used in applications that require accurate positioning and a fine resolution over a wide range of speeds. MAX-410/MAX-420 microstep drives integrate state-of-the-art hardware with "VRMC" (Variable Resolution Microstep Control) technology developed by AMS. At slow shaft speeds, VRMCs produces high resolution microstep positioning for silent, resonance-free operation. As shaft speed increases, the output step resolution is expanded using "on-motor-pole" synchronization. At the completion of a coarse index, the target micro position is trimmed to 1/100 of a (command) step to achieve and maintain precise positioning.

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Fig 71: Microstep

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Automatic Solar Tracking System Design Considerations The electrical compatibility between the motor and the driver are the most critical factors in a stepper motor system design. Some general guidelines in the selection of these components are: Inductance Stepper motors are rated with a varying degree of inductance. A high inductance motor will provide a greater amount of torque at low speeds and lower torque at higher speeds. Motor Stiffness By design, stepping motors tend to run stiff. Reducing the current flow to the motor by a small percentage will smooth the rotation. Likewise, increasing the motor current will increase the stiffness but will also provide more torque. Trade-offs between speed, torque and resolution are a main consideration in designing a step motor system. Motor Heat

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10.14 Power Supply

Voltage

The higher the output voltage from the driver, the higher is the level of torque versus speed. You can think of the voltage as the driver of the current. The higher the voltage, the faster will the current in the windings reach its new target value from one step to the next. Therefore it is conceivable why a higher voltage will result in better speed performance.

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Step motors are designed to run hot (50-90 C). However, too much current may cause excessive heating and damage to the motor insulation and windings. AMS step motor products reduce the risk of overheating by providing a programmable Run/Hold current feature.

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Fig 72: Speed in Full Steps per Second The torque versus speed behavior varies strongly across stepping motors. Parameters such as the inductance of the coils and their resistance play an important role. The higher the inductance, the worse the performance will be at higher speeds. When selecting a motor for an application, make sure that it is capable of delivering adequate torque at one target speeds of operation. If anyone has to use bifilar motors with 6 or 8 leads, one may be able to optimize performance by selecting either the series or parallel configuration. The voltage applied to the step motor should be higher than the rated motor voltage. It is common to use a voltage that is 3 to 25 times the rated motor voltage. As an example, for a motor that is rated at 3.7V, supply voltages in the range of 11V to 92V are typical. Again, the higher the voltage, the better the performance will be. The rated motor voltage does not represent the maximum voltage that can be applied to the motor. In fact, the motor will normally not operate properly at the rated motor voltage. Type

Unregulated power supplies are best suited for step motor applications. Their behavior is superior to other power supplies such as switching power supplies especially in situations where there is a sudden increase in current demand. These instances can occur in step motor applications depending on usage. Nevertheless, switching power supplies are also successfully used in many step motor applications. They tend to be attractive due to their price competitiveness. An important consideration in the design of such power supplies is the buffering capacitor. It needs to be adequately sized to provide the required current during the response time of the power supply.

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10.15 Overview of the Solar Tracker:

Equipment/ Component Solar Panel Charge Controller Battery Stepper Motor 9 Volt Capacity 5 Watt peak Quantity 1 1 1 1 35BY412-16 Lead Acid Motor Type Hybrid Unifilar Half Step 7.5 48 Model SLP005-12 Other Specifications Vmp = 17V Imp = .29 A

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1 Input:

Driver

Resistors

Voltage Regulator

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upto 30 5 Volt

Microcontroller Unit

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Output 470 220 33 pf 22 pf 100 f

2 5 2 2 1 2 1 VAC54 SRD-12VDC Used for Filtering

Capacitors

LDR Relay Crystal Oscillator 12 MHz

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Step Mode Step Pulse ULN2804 ATmega32 LM7805

Motor Winding

Rotations

High-Voltage, HighCurrent Darlington Arrays

3-Terminal Positive Voltage Regulator