UNIVERSITY OF Q U E E N S L A N D

Department of Mechanical Engineering

BAGASSE COMPACTION - INTERIM REPORT D.S. MacARTHUR Research Report No. 5/81

QUT Library

BAGASSE COMPACTION - INTERIM REPORT D.S. MacARTHUR Research Report No. 5/81

.1.

INTRODUCTION The aim of this report is to gather together in one document all the information collected to date on the University of Queensland Bagasse Compaction Project, because of the impending departure from Australia of the author. Most of the experimental work has been reported in detail in a paper to be presented at the 1981 ASSCT Conference, attached as Appendix II. A much broader review of the whole bagasse compaction project, including much of the work done at the Sugar Research Institute, is to be presented at the 1981 ANZAAS Congress, and a copy of this paper is attached as Appendix I. It is suggested that any reader unfamiliar with the background to the project should read this paper first. The main body of this report therefore serves to record as much as possible of the subsidiary information gathered during the project, such as some of the minor experiments, the format of the stored data of the compression tests (if future analysis of this is desired), and some of the opinions or "feel" developed by the author during the project. TRI-AXIAL COMPACTION Early in the project, it was suggested that ideally, the compaction should be tri-axial rather than uni-axial; it was thought that higher densities should be possible because of better packing, and that the pellets should be more stable and stronger because of the better interlocking of the fibres. This was supported by the evidence that uni-axially compacted pellets were very weak in the plane perpendicular to the compaction axis. Three attempts at tri-axial compaction were made: (a) True hydrostatic compaction was attempted by enclosing the bagasse in a plastic bag inside a pressure vessel full of water. The mouth of the bag was tied around a tube leading out to the atmosphere, to allow the void air to escape while water was pumped into the pressure vessel. This was not successful, as the plastic bags always split before high pressures were reached. Pseudo-hydrostatic compaction, in 6 steps (two steps on each of three axes) was attempted using an arrangement of plattens and a frame to give compaction down to a cube of side 50 mm. This gave encouraging results, with slightly higher final densities than for the equivalent uni-axial compaction. More importantly, the pellets were much more robust. These two experiments are described in Lab. Report by M. Just, R. Cressey, and J.G. Loughran. Much later in the project, when the low speed compaction rig was operational, a further attempt was made. This time tri-axial compaction was approximated by a first stage of radial compaction of a cylindrical sample, followed by axial compression. The apparatus was simply a sheet of thin steel, wrapped around itself to make a cylinder of larger diameter than the 76 mm diameter test cylinder. It was filled with loose bagasse at this starting diameter, and then compressed circumferentially (and hence radially) by means of slowly screwing up a number of hose clamps around it, until the bagasse charge could be pushed out into one of the standard test cylinders. The results of this experiment are shown in Figure 1, and indicate that a slight improvement in both density and durability is achieved with a moderate amount of radial pre-compaction, and no further improvement is gained with a greater amount of pre-compaction.

(b)

(c)

COMMENTS on PRESSURE, PACKING and WALL FRICTION The low speed compaction apparatus used a platten and load cell to measure the pressure over a central circular area of half the pellet diameter, on the bottom face of the pellet. This was done for two reasons. Firstly, a 5-tonne load cell was available, and secondly, it was thought that by measuring the pressure over this central area only, wall effects due to friction and different packing of fibres would be avoided. In retrospect, this was not the best arrangement. While this platten will indeed measure the true pressure on that central area of bagasse, which may well be different from the mean pressure over the whole base because of these effects, it is not possible to use this "improvement" in measuring technique to derive a more accurate pressure - density relationship, because one must assume uniform packing in order to calculate the density! Thus two effects of unknown magnitude but probably opposite sign are affecting this measured central bottom pressure: wall friction will tend to make the bottom pressure less than the top pressure, while the effect of the walls on the packing of the cylinder is thought to result in higher density (and hence higher pressure) in the centre. However, the recorded results indicate that these two effects are either small or roughly equal, as the bottom pressure is usually within -13% to +5% of the top pressure. Since the results show a linear dependence of density on log pressure, the error is very slight. Nevertheless, it would have been preferable to have been able to measure the average pressure over the whole bottom face, as then some measurements of wall friction could have been made. PRESSURE - DENSITY DATA The recorded pressure - displacement data for some 150 pellets is stored on floppy discs on the Apple microcomputer system. This data was recorded with two aims in mind: firstly, to give the simple results of density under pressure, actual maximum pressure, and actual dwell time used in the main experimental analysis, and secondly, to provide a data base for subsequent analysis of visco-elastic behaviour, which has not yet been carried out. This section of the report will give enough information on the storage format of this data to allow later analysis if required. Two channels of data were recorded via the Biomation Waveform Recorder: Channel 1: Channel 2: The output of the displacement transducer ( i . e . pellet height) The output of the load cell, measuring the force on the platten in the base of the cylinder (i.e. bottom pressure).

The Biomation unit is a very flexible digital data recorder, capable of extremely fast sampling rates (5 MHz), though these were not needed for this application. Unfortunately, it is more suited to its intended task of high speed, semi-quantitative waveform recording, than low speed, accurate data recording. Offsets are not easy to adjust or. reset, and the nominal scaling varies between channels and ranges, by up to 6%. With only 8-bit resolution, care must be taken to use as much of the dynamic range as possible. Incidentally, the timebase was found to be consistently out by a factor suspiciously close to 1.024

.3.

for all ranges over 1 ms, while being accurate at the faster sampling rates! For almost all the pellet data recorded, the sampling rate was a constant 50 ms/sample, which with 2048 samples per channel, gave about 105 secs of recording time. This covered the compression and dwell at reasonable time resolution, and relaxation for over 70 secs, while avoiding the complexities of the dual timebase facility. The raw data was transferred to the Apple microcomputer, checked visually and by the machine for errors, and stored as a binary file, using the program INFAST, the author's modification of Ken Staib's program FAST INTERFACE (which, among other things, plotted upside down!). Both programs call the assembly language routine ASS1, renamed ASS1 A$16FC L$52 by the author to give the relocation information needed for copying. These binary files of pellet data are known as P-files, with names such as P1234. The pellet numbering code is given in Figure 2. They consist of 4096 8-bit numbers in sequence, being the 2048 samples from Channel 1 (displacement) followed by the 2048 from Channel 2 (pressure). However, because of the way ASS1 was written, in the interest of fast execution, the whole data is actually stored backwards on disc. To use this data, the appropriate P-file should be BLOADed with a suitable starting address (e.g. A24576) and then accessed backwards, starting at the location 4095 higher. Thus: Channel 1 (displacement element I1 is at (28672 - I1) for I1 = 1 to 2048 and Channel 2 (pressure) element T2 is at (26624 - I2) for 12 = 1 to 2048.

Two other files of data exist for each pellet, the D-file and the E-file. These are essentially the same, the E-file being a copy of the D-file with some further data calculated by the program PD*. These files are sequential text files of 61 elements. The elements and their units are identified by two common files, DATA INDEX and UNIT INDEX. The data stored in the D-and E-files includes pellet weight, moisture content, nominal (and in the E-files, actual) pressure and dwell, and calibration data. This calibration data, in elements 44 to 51, consists of 4 pairs of numbers, giving high and low inputs to the recording set-up (pellet heights of 83 and 23 mm, from setting pieces, and set voltages corresponding to 35.04 and s MPa), and the corresponding 8-bit integers recorded on the Biomation. Linear calibration equations can therefore be set up (see lines 3000 to 3090 in the program PD*). The 8-bit integers were determined using the program BIOCAL, as described below. A further useful data element in the E-file is element 52, the sample number of zero time (defined as the end of the dwell). The above information should enable full access to this recorded data for any future analysis. Using the calibration data in the E-file, the P-file can be converted into pairs of pressure and height/density measurements at 50 ms intervals during the compression and relaxation of the pellet. An example of the procedure is given in the program LOGP-DMD, which does this, and then plots log pressure against density. PROGRAMS The programs and files written by the author which may be of interest to later users are listed below with brief comments:

Biomation operation: INFAST Reads data from Biomation unit. Plots each channel for visual checking, then writes to a named file on disc. Performs error check by re-reading Biomation, and reading data from disc, and comparing. Calls assembly routine ASS1 A$16FC L$52. Data is stored backwards. (See comments under "Pressure Density Data" above). Used to calibrate the Biomation unit. It reads a binary file from disc and displays/prints the actual numbers (for brevity, the sums of 10 consecutive samples). To use for calibration, a recording is made on the Biomation of some known inputs (e.g. using the setting pieces for displacement and preset voltages for pressure). This data is transferred to disc using INFAST, and then examined using BIOCAL. The corresponding pairs of calibration numbers are then calculated and stored in a CAL-file using the program MAKE CALXX. Copies a P-file or any other 4 k-byte binary file.

BIOCAL

P-COPY

Pelleting Data: DFILE* Creates a D-file for each pellet by keyboard entry of data. Calibration data, common for several pellets, is copied from a CAL-file by specifying the CAL-file number. Sequential text file of 61 elements, identifying the corresponding elements in D- and E-files. Ditto, giving the corresponding units. Creates a CAL-file from keyboard entry of Biomation set-up and calibration data. DFILE* copies this data into each D-file. The main data-processing program used. For each pellet, it loads the P-file and the D-file. By examination of the data, it calculates quantities such as the sample no of zero time (the end of the dwell), the actual dwell period, the mean bottom pressure during the dwell, the density at the end of the dwell and at various times during relaxation. These results are printed, and also filed as an E-file. The raw data from the two channels are plotted for visual assessment. (As the Apple will only plot Y-coordinates up to 191, and the raw data ranges up to 255, values from 192 to 255 are reflected from the top of the plot. This is preferable to scaling the data, as one-to-one correspondence is maintained, with the full resolution available, and . no truncation ambiguities). The printed outputs from this program are filed along with the pellet data sheets.

DATA INDEX

UNIT INDEX MAKE CALXX

PD*

LOGP-DMD

Plots log (bottom pressure) against dry matter density for the compression record of selected pellets. It inputs the P-file and E-file for each pellet, with a pause and a bell to allow disc changing if necessary. As above, but plots pressure against dry matter density raised to the power Q (input from the keyboard). Produces a plot of compression energy vs. pressure from keyboard input of DMD's at 2 and 32 MPa, derived from the output of LOGP-DMD. It assumes that log P is linear with DMD in this range.

P-DMD~Q

W0RK4

General Purpose: CTRL FIND The program given in the Apple manual to display normally invisible control characters. Lists, prints and/or copies sequential text files. elements must be known. The number of

COPY TEXT

PRESSURE - DENSITY RELATIONSHIPS Some analysis of the compression behaviour of the test pellets was carried out, using a program P-DMD, P-DMD^Q, and LOGP-DMD. Sample results are shown in Figures 3-6, for a selected group of 6 pellets, nos. 5500, 5200, 5300, 5100, 5400 and 5000. These all had a moisture content of 10.7% and a nominal maximum pressure of 32 MPa, at temperatures of 40, 60, 80, 100, 120 and 140C respect ively. Figure 3 is a straightforward plot of pressure vs. dry matter density, showing the expected steeply rising curves (indicating exponential or power law relationships) . It is seen that the pressure required to reach a given density falls rapidly with temperature. Figure 4 shows the same data plotted on scales of log pressure vs. density. The lines are fairly straight, particularly at the high temperatures, indicating an approximately exponential relationship between pressure and density. The lines are also roughly parallel, showing that at any given density, the pressure required at 40C is roughly 2.5 times higher than at 100 - 140C. Figures 5 and 6 show the same data plotted on scales of pressure vs (density)Q from Q = 3 and 4 respectively. These power law relationships also fit the data well, with an index of 3 being a better fit at 40-80C, while an index of 4 is closer at 100-140C.

COMPRESSION AND EXTRUSTION ENERGIES Some estimates of compression energy were made. Because of the low resolution of the Biomation unit, the pellet data records do not cover densities below 300 kg/m3. An early test on dry bagasse at room temperature gave a pressuredensity curve for the low density region, which on integration gave a nearly linear relationship between compression energy and pressure at pressures up to 2 MPa: Energy = 0.9 kJ/kg per MPa This will be an over-estimate, as at higher temperatures and moistures, the pressure/density curve will almost certainly be lower. The energy at the higher pressures was calculated by the program W0RK4, using the assumption that log pressure is linearly related to density, and using data measured from the plotted outpt of LOGP-DMD. This produced the lower set of three curves shown in Figure 7, representing an estimate of the energy required to compress 10% moist bagasse to a given maximum pressure, with no side wall friction. These curves must be regarded as approximate, and probably overestimate the true compression energy, because of the low pressure part of the curve, which is a significant part of the total (20%). However, at 100C, the total compression energy to 32 MPa will be around 8 - 1 0 kJ/kg. Also shown on the same figure is the extrustion energy required by a Hausmanntype open-ended die extrusion machine. It is assumed that the bagasse is compressed against a rigid plug of previously compacted bagasse, until the maximum pressure is reached, whereupon the rest of the stoke is completed at that constant back pressure (set by the hydraulic loading on the die). The extrusion energy at pressue P, giving a density at that pressure of p p , is therefore simply P/p . As p decreases with pressure, curves of the form shown are obtained, and the extrusion energy is seen to be some 2 - 2 . 5 times the compaction energy. The sum of these two curves is also shown. It represents an estimate of the minimum total energy for an extrusion machine, with no friction losses other than in the extrusion itself. For the pressures of interest, the power required by such a machine can be approximated by

PELLETING MACHINE DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS The experimental program has given considerable data on the effects of temperature, pressure, moisture content and dwell time. Before a machine can be designed, two things must be specified - the pellet size and the required density. From a user viewpoint, the pellets should ideally be as small and as dense as possible. As small pellets are more difficult to make (at the same tonnage throughput), and as higher densities are also more difficult to achieve, some compromise must be made. Without full design studies and prototype testing of different options, the "optimum" size and density must be subjectively assessed.

Pellet size: The pellets should be as large as possible consistent with easy bulk handing. It is thought that a diameter of 75 mm (as in the experimental rig) is a comfortable maximum. Larger sizes than this would not flow so easily, would probably be less durable (as a square/cube law should apply to the strength/mass of pellets), and would involve much larger machine forces. Smaller pellets, say 50 mm diameter, would be better, but would require almost four times the production rate. There is also a strong argument in favour of designing a prototype machine to the same dimensions as the test results, to avoid any ambiguity over scale effects. Thus a pellet diameter of 75 mm should be chosen. The pellets should have a final L/D ratio of between 0.5 and 1 for durability, good packing, and good flow behaviour.

Pellet Density: The "optimum" density is more difficult to specify. Densities of 5-600 kg/m3 are very easy to achieve, and probably adequate for within-mill storage, giving a bulk dry-matter density of 3-400 kg/m3, a four-fold improvement on loose bagasse. These densities would also be adequate for short range road transport, i.e. between neighbouring mills. However, for an export market, much higher densities are required to reduce shipping costs. It may be that two different machines are required for the two duties. Experiments currently in progress indicate that densities of 750 - 950 kg/m3 are attainable with moderate compression parameters (32 MPa at 80 - 100C) provided that the pellet is restrained from expansion by a relatively light pressure (0.1 - 2 MPa) for a long dwell period ( 2 - 8 minutes). This would appear to be the best process for high densities, and should be attainable by either the proposed roller-conveyor or piston extrustion type machines. The author strongly favours | the extrustion-type machine, primarily because of the problems associated with breaking up a continuously formed slab into small, durable pellets. The roller-type machine is in principle more energy-efficient, as there are no friction losses. However, as shown in Figure 8 in Appendix I, although extrusion uses about three times more energy than the theoretical minimum, the total is still low compared with the drying and/or heating energies, and represents only a minor operating cost.

Density (kg/rn3)

PELLET NUMBERING CODE

Digit 1

Baaasse Batch Number (hence moisture content)

Digit 2

Temperature

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

140 100 60 80 120 40 160

Digit 3

Top P r e s s u r e

0 1 2 3 4

32 16 8 4 2

MPa MlPa MPa MPa MP a

Digit

Replications

APPENDIX

( F i g u r e s 4, 5, and 6 hove been o m i t t e d , as they are Figures 2, 1, arid 4 r e s p e c t i v e l y in Appendix II)

PELLETING

BAGASSE

D.S.

MacARTHUR

To be presented at the 51st ANZAAS Congress, Brisbane, May 11-15, 1981.

Bagasse, the fibrous residue from sugar cane milling, is an important energy and fibre resource, the usefulness of which is limited by a very low bulk density. If bagasse could be economically compacted into high density pellets, mills could store more of it, reducing their fuel oil consumption, and potential markets for surplus bagasse as a fuel or fibre source would become viable. The limitations of existing pelleting machines are mentioned, and the results of an experimental investigation of bagasse Compaction discussed, giving an insight into the mechanisms of pellet formation and guidelines for the design of improved machines.

INTRODUCTION This paper is about bagasse, a by-product of sugar manufacture. I will be telling you what bagasse is, how much of it is produced in Australia, what it can be used for, why pelleting is desirable, and the problems involved. The results of an experimental investigation of its compaction behaviour will be briefly discussed, giving an insight into the mechanisms of pellet formation, and guidelines for pelleting machine design. I will close by giving some figures on the relative energies involved in various parts of the process. WHAT IS BAGASSE? Bagasse is the fibrous residue from sugar cane milling. Sugar cane consists The Australian

of roughly 1/7 sugar and 1/7 fibre, the remainder being water.

Sugar Industry comprises 7200 growers, cultivating 350,000 hectares along 2100 km of coastal strip from Northern New South Wales to the North of Queensland, and 33 mills producing raw sugar. See Figure 1. The milling

process consists of shredding the cane, and then crushing it through a series of rollers, with intermediate washings to extract. 95% of the sucrose. final bagasse comprises 49% fibre, 48% water, and 3% dissolved solids. Bagasse "fibre" actually consists of 2/3 "true" fibre, and 1/3 pith. Both The

pith and true fibre have similar chemical compositions, being mainly cellulosic material, with around 20% lignin and 1-2% ash.

Bagasse is an excellent fuel, even in the moist state, with a net calorific value of approximately 7700 kJ/kg (wet basis). However, it is also

potentially useful as a fibre resource, for paper-making, or for animal feed. Production figures vary with world market demand, but typically 21 M-tonne/yr of cane is harvested to produce 3 M-tonne/yr of raw sugar (of which 75% is exported). Annual production of bagasse is therefore also around 3 M-tonne/yr To give an idea of the scale of this resource, if it were

(of dry matter).

all burned in power stations, it could supply 40% of Queensland's electricity consumption.

At present, all bagasse is burnt as a fuel in the sugar mill boilers, supplying 97% of the energy requirements of raw sugar manufacture. In fact, the sugar

industry is an almost perfect example of self-sufficiency in energy - the principal waste product of the operation is used as a fuel to raise steam, which supplies turbines to directly drive the mills, and other turbines to generate electricity. The low pressure exhaust steam supplies the process It is a fortunate

heat required to evaporate the water from the sugar juice.

industry to have a free supply of fuel, and nicely compatible requirements for power and process heat. In principle, there is enough bagasse to supply all the energy needs of the sugar factory. Yet sugar mills have historically burnt a significant amount Why is this?

of fuel oil - some 40,000 tonnes/yr, or 1% of the national total.

Unfortunately, although the total supply of bagasse is ample for all the energy needs, there are variations in both supply and demand for a number of reasons: (a) The percentage of fibre in the cane varies from week to week, and from the start to the end of the crushing season, typically from

13% to 15%, which is a 15% change in fuel rate. (b) The percentage of fibre in the cane also varies from area to area, averaging 13.3% in the wetter northern areas, and 14.6% in the south. (c) Southern mills therefore have about 10% more fuel available.

Short term fluctuations in both supply and demand are caused by mill stoppages, wet cane, and starting and stopping production at weekends.

Although most mills now have on-line storage of bagasse with capacities typically 400-1000 tonnes (wet), this is only enough to supply the boilers for a few hours, even if initially full. bagasse supply runs out, generally (a) (b) (c) (d) at the start of the season; at the start and finish of each week's crushing; when the fibre in the cane is low, and when wet weather or crushing problems result in wet bagasse. Thus fuel oil is burnt when the

It should be noted that fuel oil is also burnt for operational convenience rather than absolute necessity in some cases. For example, at the start

of a week's crushing, even if the bagasse bin contains ample bagasse, it is much easier and quicker to start up a boiler with fuel oil than to start and build up a fire with bagasse alone. If the mills could store large amounts of bagasse, particularly over the "slack" to use at the start of the new season, it would be possible to eliminate almost entirely the need for fuel oil. As well as saving money,

this would give the mills independence from a commodity not always reliably available. Bagasse is a loose, fibrous material with an extremely low bulk density, typically around 80 kg/m3 dry matter density. The average sugar mill burns

fuel oil equivalent to some 7000 tonnes of moist bagasse in a season.

Not

all of this would need to be stored at once, but a large proportion of it, say 2500 tonnes, would need to be stored between seasons. This would 3 require a storage volume of some 16,000 m , or a pile 3 m high covering half a hectare! Compaction of the bagasse into a high density, easily handled

form has obvious advantages. At present, "surplus" bagasse is an embarassment, as no viable market for it exists, and it presents a serious disposal problem. Sugar mill boilers,

and the whole energy balance of the sugar factory, are set up to burn all the bagasse produced. The requirement for minimum fuel oil consumption is If bagasse could

balanced by the need to avoid surplus bagasse production.

be compacted and stored cheaply, a temporary surplus could be stored for later burning, saving fuel oil.

If a viable market for bagasse existed, sugar mills could adjust their operations to produce considerable quantities. A small amount, up to perhaps

10% of production, could be made available immediately at almost no cost, simply by altering boiler and process settings appropriately. Larger amounts,

25% of production or more, could be made available at some cost and at some future date, by installing new equipment (particularly boilers) designed for minimum energy (and bagasse) consumption. And if the market demanded it,

all 3 M-tonne/yr of fibre could be made available by installing coal fired boilers.

The main potential markets for surplus bagasse are: (a) as a fuel - probably limited to small scale, local use, or possibly within the sugar industry, from high fibre to low fibre areas; (b) mixed with molasses and used as animal feed, where the high fibre content is desirable;

(c)

papermaking.

This is potentially a very large market, and could

conceivably take the entire supply. For all of these, and particularly for export for papermaking, the economics depend heavily on transport and storage costs, and effective and cheap compaction of bagasse is essential.

Thus bagasse compaction offers immediate benefits to sugar mills by reducing their fuel oil consumption, and potentially large long term benefits by opening up new markets for bagasse. BAGASSE COMPACTION The Sugar Research Institute has investigated several alternative methods of bagasse storage, with and without compaction: Loose storage in the open is straightforward and cheap, if the land is available. Covering the bagasse piles with tarpaulins is desirable to This is at present the

protect the bagasse from rain and moderate winds.

most practical method for mills to u s e for bulk storage for their own use, though the effects of a cyclone on one of these piles has yet to be experienced. Bagasse can be baled and stored in stacks, in the open or under cover. machines vary from simple presses with manual strapping of the bales, to fully automatic but expensive machines. (wet) are convenient for handling. easily achieved. Disadvantages of bales include: (a) (b) they must be individually handled and stacked; they must be strapped with special high strength straps, which must be cut on reclaiming; Large bales of around one tonne are Baling

Dry matter densities of 270 kg/m

(c)

they must be broken up on reclaiming, though this is relativelyeasy, and

(d)

they still require covering to prevent rainwater increasing the moisture content too much.

However, tests have shown that fears of spontaneous combustion are unfounded, and microbiological deterioration is not too severe. Baling is, therefore, a less attractive alternative than loose storage under tarpaulins, unless storage space is severely restricted. Pellets are the ideal form of bagasse storage. If small, high density,

durable pellets could be made cheaply, they would offer the following advantages: (a) (b) easy bulk handling using conveyor belts, chutes, etc.; minimum storage volume, rendering storage in sheds, under cover, economic, and (c) lower transport costs, especially for shipping overseas.

The Sugar Research Institute has conducted trials on two different types of commercially available pelleting machines: One type of machine is the American Sprout Waldron design, which produces 10 mm diameter pellets by compressing the material between a roller and the inside of an annular die with radial holes (See Figure 2). Although such

machines work well with feedstuffs such as oats, the production rate with bagasse is relatively low. In most of the S.R.I, tests, a pelleting rate

of less than 0.3 tonne/hr was achieved, using a 75 kW version of this machine is reported to produce pellets at 3 tonne/hr using very finely hammer-milled bagasse and 18% molasses, but with severe wear and maintenance problems. It seems that the fibrous nature and high friction of bagasse conflict with

the operating principle of such machines, which requires the compressed material to separate and flow down a large number of small holes. The second type of machine, the Hausmann briquetting press (see Figure 3 ) , produces much larger pellets (50 to 110 mm diameter). It has a reciprocating

plunger, extruding material as a 'log' against the friction of a hydraulically loaded, open-ended die. In trials, good pellets with densities of 900 to 3 1100 kg/m were produced using bagasse at a moisture content of 12-6. However, the throughput (1000 kg/hr for a 50 kW, 90 mm bore press) was too low to be economic for this relatively expensive ($150,000) machine. Although the product rate achieved in the trials was limited mainly by feeding problems, the power consumption was near the maximum and much higher rates could not have been reached. The conclusion from these trials was that neither type of machine would produce bagasse pellets at a low enough cost to compete with either loose storage or baling, as far as within-mill storage is concerned. It was

also apparent that the effects of parameters such as temperature, pressure and moisture content were poorly understood. A research project was therefore

initiated at the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Queensland, to carry out a fundamental investigation of the compaction behaviour of bagasse, and to use the results to devise an improved pelleting process.

One further aspect of the S.R.I. investigation should be mentioned here. Bagasse will not form stable pellets at high moisture contents (e.g. 50% as milled), and though the optimum moisture content was not known, it seemed to be well below 20%. for pelleting. Thus drying of the bagasse is an essential prerequisite

The S.R.I. conducted tests on existing driers, designed,

built and tested two prototype driers, and have now completed a design study for a 5 tonne (fibre) per hour drier, using flue gas as the energy source. THE UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND BAGASSE COMPACTION PROJECT The major part of the work to date has been an experimental study of the compaction behaviour of bagasse under controlled conditions of temperature, pressure, moisture content and dwell time. The major problem with this

investigation was the control of moisture content at elevated temperatures, when obviously the bagasse tends to dry out. As loose bagasse is an

excellent insulator, the long heating periods required to achieve uniform temperatures will result in a significant loss of moisture. This problem

was overcome by designing special test cylinders as shown in Figure 4. These were gas tight, and could be heated in an oven to a uniform temperature without loss of moisture. As the seal was broken at the start of compaction,

some moisture was inevitably lost during compression, particularly at the higher temperatures. However, this still reproduces the behaviour of

bagasse which has that temperature and moisture content at the entry to the chamber of a pelleting machine.

The compaction rig itself, as shown in Figure 5, was a fairly straightforward arrangement of a long stroke hydraulic ram, with displacement and pressure transducers, and a pneumatic cylinder and lever arrangement to eject the pellet after pressing. The arrangement of a floating top piston, attached

to the displacement transducer, was devised to measure the relaxation behaviour of the pellet, particularly just after ejection. The density of the pellet

was also measured at 32 minutes and 24 hours after ejection, and the durability determined by tumbling for 3 minutes in a slowly rotating wire cage, and measuring the weight loss.

A series of experiments was conducted, covering pressures of 2 - 32 MPa, temperatures of 40 - 160C, moisture contents from 9 - 22%, and dwell periods of 1 - 64 seconds. The results of these experiments will not be presented in detail here. Very briefly, the main findings were: (a) both density under pressure, and final density, increase linearly with log pressure. by 60 - 80 kg/m3. (b) The final density increases roughly linearly with log (dwell time). 3 Doubling the dwell increases the density by 20 - 24 kg/m . Within the range 9 - 22% moisture content (wet basis), increasing moisture content reduces the final density, at a rate of 20 - 30 3 kg/m per 1% increase in moisture content. (d) Increasing temperature increases the density, in two distinct stages. (See Figure 6 ) . This behaviour will be discussed in Doubling the pressure increases the density

(c)

more detail in a moment. (e) Durabilities generally improved with parameter changes which increased final densities. In particular, moisture contents over

20%, temperatures below 60C, and pressures below 4 MPa gave very weak pellets. These results can be summarised by saying that stable, durable pellets can be formed under quite moderate conditions (e.g. 10% moisture content, 8 sec dwell, 60 - 100C, 8 MPa), though the densities are not high (440 - 480 kg/m3 3 dry matter density). Densities of 600 kg/m require 32 MPa, while higher densities than this would require some combination of much higher pressures, much longer dwell times, and higher temperatures. In looking for some insight into the mechanism of pellet formation, the shape of the curves of final density vs. temperature is interesting (see Figure 6 ) :

There is a rapid increase in final density as the temperature rises from 40C to 60C, and then little change until another rapid rise at temperatures over 120C. This suggests two different mechanisms of pellet formation.

At temperatures below 120C, the mechanism is one of plastic deformation of the fibres into an interlocked, compacted configuration. The pellet is held

together by a mixture of friction and positive interlocking of the fibres. Actual adhesion between the fibres is slight or non-existent. However, at

higher temperatures, it is thought that constituents of the bagasse, e.g. lignin, soften, and adhesion then plays a significant part.

This is supported by references in the literature to the softening point of lignin as being around 136C, and by a crude experiment conducted to test this: Pairs of bagasse fibres were clamped together and heated in an oven. They

were then pulled apart by hand and the adhesion between them rated subjectively on an arbitrary scale. The results showed that adhesion is almost non-existent

at temperatures below 130C, and moderate to good at temperatures above 160C (see Figure 7). Thus one way to get good pellets is to exploit this effect by using high temperatures. a fire risk. Examining the lower temperature end of these curves more carefully, it is seen that there is no increase in density between 60C and 100C. Indeed, However, high temperatures consume energy and constitute

most of the tests at moisture contents over 10% showed that densities were higher at 60 than at 100. This leads to the suggestion that there is a Temperatures above this make

critical softening temperature around 60C.

the fibres easier to deform (hence the observed increase in density under pressure), but also leave them more able to relax, allowing the pellet to expand. Perhaps better pellets can be made by a cycle consisting of heating

.11.

to over 60C, pressing, and then cooling under pressure to well below 60 before releasing the pressure? Tests showed that such treatment did indeed give much higher final densities, some 50% higher in fact at 880 kg/m3 . However, as the bagasse takes some

10 - 30 minutes to cool, it is difficult to separate this effect from that of the increased dwell time alone. By keeping the temperature constant

while holding under pressure for similar lengths of time, it is found that most (but not all) of this dramatic improvement in densities is indeed due to these unrealistically long dwell times.

However, the relaxation forces are very much weaker than the compression forces. Quite low pressures suffice to restrain the pellet from significant

expansion, and it is not necessary to maintain the full compression pressure during this long dwell period. Thus very good pellets can be made by taking

them through a cycle comprising a short period (1 to 8 seconds) at high pressure (32 MPa) followed by a long dwell (2 to 8 minutes) at a very much 3 lower pressure (0.5 to 2 MPa). Densities range from 760 to 930 kg/m ). Investigations along these lines are continuing, but the most significant feature of this behaviour is that the open-ended die extrusion pelleting machines such as the Hausmann briquetting press do, in fact, put the bagasse through a similar cycle. The bagasse spends a few seconds in the main die, The pressure

where it is subjected to repeated compactions at high pressure.

rapidly reduces as the pellet is extruded against, friction from the rest of the "log", and the pellet then passes into a long cooling line, where it is still lightly restrained for several minutes. Perhaps such a machine is the

best way to compact bagasse after all, and only needs improved feeding arrangements and careful control of pressures, temperatures, and moisture contents to be successful.

RATE EFFECTS AND AIR ESCAPE LIMITATIONS Obviously, the faster a given machine operates, the higher its output, and hopefully, the lower the unit cost. speed of compaction of the bagasse? Loose bagasse is 95% air by volume. On compaction from 80 to 1000 kg/m3 , What limitations are there to the

which requires a pressure of around 16 MPa, the void volume decreases by a factor of 34. This would result in an internal gas pressure of 3.4 MPa if An associated research

the compression were isothermal and no air escaped.

project investigated this phenomenon and its importance.

Measurements made of the permeability of compressed dry bagasse indicated 3 that it is very low indeed - at densities over 600 kg/m it is comparable to that of sandstone. Numerical modelling of the airflow, supported by some

experimental measurements, shows that if the air can only escape axially, rapid compaction results in such a rapid decrease in permeability that most of the void air is trapped inside at high pressure, and takes a significant time (one or two seconds) to diffuse away. The importance of this effect for a real machine is unclear, because it is difficult to estimate how much effect internal gas pressures of this magnitude would have on the expansion of the pellet. to arrange for the air to escape radially. However, it would seem desirable The transverse permeability is

thought to be much lower than in the axial direction because of the layering effect. The other major limitation to the speed of operation of a bagasse compaction machine would seem to be the need for long dwell times (albeit at low pressures) Feeding problems also become severe at very short cycle times. A large,

low speed, low power machine therefore seems preferable to a smaller, high speed, high power one.

ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS In closing, it is of interest to compare the energies involved in different parts of the pelleting process. Figure 8 shows these energies, converted

to common units of kilojoules per kilogram of dry matter.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS As noted above, much of the work on this project has been carried out by the Sugar Research Institute, and the research on Bagasse Compaction at both S.R.I. and the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Queensland has been funded by a grant from the National Energy Research, Development and Demonstration Council.

FIGURE 1 AUSTRALIAN BAGASSE PRODUCTION

720D

GROWERS produce

on 3 5 0 , 0 0 0 h e c t a r e s

SUGAR CAME from 33

21 which

M-tonne/yr

(1/7 sugar,

1/7

fibre,

5/7

water)

SUGAR W I L L S produce

RAW SUGAR and BAGASSE also

M-tonne/yr

(90%

r e c o v e r y - 75% e x p o r t e d )

lYl-tonne/yr of

(dry matter)

Which consists 4&% w a t e r 3% 49% dissolved "fibre" solids (in

f a c t 2/3

true

fibre,

1/3 1-2%

pith, ash)

both

mainly

c e l l u l o s e s , 20% l i g n i n ,

Higher C a l o r i f i c Lower

Value

(dry, (48%

ash f r e e ) moisture)

19,500 7,700

kj/kg kj/kg

C a l o r i f i c Value

(Eqivalent 40% of

to 2

M-tonne/yr

of coal, Which is for e l e c t r i c i t y generation)

Queensland's

consumption

FIGURE

ROTATING D I E PELLETING

MACHINE

(Sprout

Waldron).

DIE SPEED

450rpm

pELLET

DIE

"(Approx 500mm t.D.)

9-5mm DIE HOLES

PELLET BREAKER _ FEED ROLLERS (on stationary shaft) MATERIAL TO BE PELLETTED (fed into this space)

FIGURE

Adhesion of Bagasse Fibres

FIGURE

ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS

SOME

RELATIVITIES

ENERGY VALUES ARE IN

KILOJOULES p e r KILOGRAM

of DRY MATTER

CALORIFIC VALUES: H.C.V. L.C.V. of dry f i b r e at 50% m o i s t u r e contenb (as m i l l e d ) 19,500 15,500

DRYING

ENERGY: recovery. 2,300 40

From 5 0 % m o i s t u r e t o 1 0 % m o i s t u r e ( l a t e n t h e a t , n o

For 1% change around 10% m o i s t u r e ( i n c l u d i n g s o r b t i o n e n e r g y '

HEATING ENERGY: To heat 10% (20%) moist bagasse from (no evaporation) 90 (120)

PELLETING ENERGY compression to 32 Extrusion at 32

THEORETICAL: ( SpdV ) ( P /p ) MPa 10 25 35

MPa MPa

Total t h e o r e t i c a l energy f o r an e x t r u s i o n machine at 32

PELLETING ENERGY

ACTUALLY ACHIEVED: Waldron) } } S.R.I, t e s t s , Miliaquin: 900 180

Rotating die (Sprout

(Not including hammer milling)

Florida, reported Foster:

Low speed e x t r u s i o n

(Hausmann B r i q u e t t i n g press, S . R . I , t e s t s )

180

ASSCT PAPER

APPENDIX II PELLETING BEHAVIOUR OF BAGASSE

by

D.S. MACARTHUR Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Queensland

SUMMARY Pelleting bagasse would reduce storage and handling costs, reducing fuel oil consumption at the mill and making alternative uses more viable. Existing pelleting machines are expensive and do not work well on bagasse. This paper reports the results of an experimental study of the compaction behaviour of bagasse under controlled conditions of pressure (2 to 32 MPa), temperature (40C - 160C), moisture content (9% to 22%) and dwell time (1 to 64 seconds). Dry matter densities at 32 min and 24 hr were found to be nearly identical. The final pellet density increases linearly with log

pressure and linearly with log dwell time, and decreases roughly linearly with increasing moisture content above 10%. The density increases with

temperature in two stages, from 40 to 60C and very rapidly at temperatures over 120C, with little change from 60C to 120C. Stable, durable pellets can be made at very moderate conditions. At 10% moisture, 60-100C, 8 sec dwell, and pressures from 8 MPa to 32 MPa, densities range from 450 to 600 kg/m3. If higher densities than this are

required much higher pressures and temperatures are indicated, increasing the cost of the machine and its energy consumption.

.1.

INTRODUCTION Loose bagasse has a very low dry matter density, (around 80 kg/m 3 ) making it difficult and expensive to store, handle and transport. Compaction of

bagasse into high density pellets has potential benefits in two areas (Cullen et al 1980) :

(a)

Reduced storage and handling costs would enable mills to store large amounts of bagasse cheaply, eliminating the need to burn fuel oil

(b)

Reduced transport costs would make more viable the utilisation of surplus bagasse for alternative purposes such as fuel, papermaking, or animal feed.

Briquetting machines for bagasse have been described as far back as 1936 (Tromp, 1936) but recent trials by CSIRO and the Sugar Research Institute on two commercially available machines were not encouraging, (SRI, 1 9 8 0 ) .

(All densities and production rates in this paper are reported on a dry fibre basis, and moisture contents on a wet b a s i s ) .

One type of machine is the American Sprout Waldron design, which produces 10mm dia. pellets by compressing the material between a roller and the inside of an annular die with radial holes. Although such machines work

well with feedstuffs such as oats, the production rate with bagasse is relatively low. In most of the S.R.I. tests, a pelleting rate of less than 0.3 tonne/hr was achieved, using a 75 kW machine with fuel oil or molasses as additives. In Florida, a 150 kW version of this machine is reported to produce very finely hammer-milled bagasse and 1 8 % It

pellets at 3 tonne/hr using

molasses, but with severe wear and maintenance problems (Foster, 1 9 8 0 ) . seems that the fibrous nature and high friction of bagasse conflict with the operating principle of such machines, which requires the compressed material to separate and flow down a large number of small holes.

.2.

The second type of machine, the Hausmann briquetting press, produces much larger pellets (50 to 110mm d i a . ) . It has a reciprocating plunger, extruding

material as a 'log' against the friction of a hydraulically loaded, openended die. In trials, good pellets with densities of 900 to 1100 kg/m 3 However, the

were produced using bagasse at a moisture content of 12%.

throughput (lOOOkg/hr for a 50 kW, 90 mm bore press) was too low to be economic for this relatively expensive ($150,000) machine. Although the production rate achieved in the trials was limited mainly by feeding problems, the power consumption was near the maximum and much higher rates could not have been reached.

These trials indicated the need for a fundamental

study of the compaction

properties of bagasse, to give an understanding of the compaction process and data to assist the design of a better machine,,

Although very little seems to have been published on the pelleting of bagasse, there is a large body of literature on the pelleting (or 'watering' or 'cubing') of forage (a) materials. There are two main types of paper:

experimental studies of the effects of one or more variables (pressure, moisture content, dwell time, temperature, e t c ) on the wafer properties (mostly h a y ) , (density and durability) of particular materials

(b)

modelling of the stress-strain behaviour of a material as a viscoelastic solid.

The results of these wafering experiments generally indicate that:

Final density increases with both pressure and dwell time (in a roughly logarithmic manner).

Moisture content affects the compression behaviour somewhat, and the expansion behaviour considerably. Increasing moisture content

in the range 10 to 30 per cent generally reduces the final density but in the range 0 to 10 per cent, conflicting trends are noted by

.3.

Increasing temperature improves both density and durability, even at quite moderate temperatures (e.g. 60C).

(Butler & McColly, 1959, Smith et a l , 1977, Dobie, 1975, and Hall and Hall, 1968)

The experimental study described in this paper had the following aims: (a) To investigate the effects of pressure, temperature, moisture content and dwell time on the density and durability of bagasse pellets. (b) To collect compression and relaxation data for later analysis of the mechanics of compaction (not reported here).

EXPERIMENTAL COMPACTION APPARATUS The apparatus is essentially a long stroke hydraulic press (see Fig. 1 ) . The hydraulic cylinder is controlled by solenoid valve and the maximum pressure regulated by a relief valve and measured with a semi-conductor pressure transducer. Pellet pressures of up to 36 MPa can be achieved, secs. Dwell periods up to 30 sec. are controlled

with a stroking time of 10 by a preset timer.

At the end of the dwell, the hydraulic ram starts to

rise slowly, and simultaneously a large pneumatic cylinder forces the bagasse containing cylinder rapidly upwards, ejecting the pellet and allowing it to expand without restraint from either side wall friction or end pressure.

The bagasse is contained inside a steel cylinder, with internal dimensions 76.2 ram dia x 381 mm long (L/D = 5 ) . This cylinder (see Fig.2) is designed

to be gas-tight, with 0-ring seals, allowing a moist bagasse charge to be heated to a uniform temperature without loss of moisture. as soon as pressing starts. The seal is broken

The sliding piston is a loose fit inside the It has a hook

cylinder, allowing air and steam to escape during compression.

for the wire of a long stroke displacement transducer (of the wire-wound drum type) to provide a continious record of the pellet height during compression and relaxation. (The hydraulic ram retracts, but leaves this

piston resting lightly on the now unrestrained pellet).

.4.

The base of t h e c y l i n d e r i n c o r p o r a t e s a l o a d - s e n s i n g p i s t o n , which b e a r s on a s t r a i n - g a u g e load c e l l when t h e c y l i n d e r i s i n p o s i t i o n i n t h e p r e s s . This

e f f e c t i v e l y measures t h e bagasse p r e s s u r e over t h e a r e a of t h i s p i s t o n , which is h a l f t h e diameter of t h e c y l i n d e r . Four i d e n t i c a l c y l i n d e r s were made.

The displacement and p r e s s u r e s i g n a l s were recorded on a micro-computer based d i g i t a l d a t a - l o g g i n g system.

PELLETING EXPERIMENTS - METHODS The Bagasse used was supplied by the Sugar Research Institute, having been dried to a very low moisture content in their experimental flue gas drier. It had been stored for several months at an equilibrium moisture

content of around 10%. Batches of 3-4 kg were made up to the required moisture content by thoroughly mixing while adding water from a spray bottle, and left to equilibrate for 3-7 days with several re-mixings. Samples were then taken and dried in a microwave oven to determine the actual moisture content of the batch. Each cylinder was tared, filled loosely with bagasse to a nominal dry matter density of around 80 kg/m3 (139 g of fibre) and the cylinder sealed and reweighed, before heating in an oven for 2 hours. (Thermocouple measurements

had shown that after this time, the centre temperature would be within 3-5C of the oven temperature). The relief value on the hydraulic supply was adjusted to give the required pellet top pressure. (The pressure transducer in the oil line had been

calibrated against a proving ring in the press to measure the axial load directly). The hot cylinder was positioned in the rig, and the pellet pressed, and ejected after the pre-set dwell. The relaxation of the pellet was recorded for 100 secs, Its height was measured in a jig with a It

after which the pellet was removed.

dial gauge and platten at 2 minutes, 8 minutes, 32 minutes and 24 hours.

.5.

was weighed at 3 minutes and 24 hours, and was then tumbled in the durability testing machine (a rectangular wire mesh cage, rotated at 13 rpm about a diagonal axis for 3 minutes - ASAE standard S 269.2) and re-weighed. The

durability is expressed as the percentage of the initial weight remaining inside the 12.7 mm mesh cage.

RESULTS Some 150 pellets were made in this apparatus, covering a range of pressures from 2-32 MPa, temperatures from 40 to 160C, moisture contents from 8.9% to 22.3%,and dwell periods from 1 to 64 secs. Obviously, it was not feasible to try every possible combination of parameters. However, preliminary tests had shown that reasonable pellets could be made at 10% moisture content, 60-100C, and pressures above about 10 MPa for a dwell of 10 seconds. Principal values of the controlled variables

were therefore chosen as 8 MPa and 32 MPa for pressure, 60, 100 and 140C for temperatures, and 8 seconds for dwell. These parameter values were used to investigate the effects of moisture content. The effects

of other temperatures, pressures and dwell times were investigated at moisture contents around 10% only. With a non-uniform material such as bagasse, some variability in the results is to be expected. However, it was generally found that for

nominally identical conditions, pellets made from the same batch of bagasse had very consistent measurements, replicate pairs usually agreeing within about 3% for densities at 32 mins/24 hrs (with even closer agreement for the density under pressure), and with differences seldom exceeding 5%. On the other hand, there were considerably larger discrepancies between the results obtained from different batches of bagasse, even at very similar moisture contents. For example, the 32-minute densities of nine pellets made at 8 MPa, 8 sec dwell and 100C from four batches of bagasse at 8.9, 10.0, 10.3 and 10.7% moisture content, span a range from 433 to 510 kg/m (16.2%) w h i l e t h e ranges w i t h i n each b a t c h a r e 0.6%, 2.9%, 6.2%and 1.8% r e s p e c t i v e l y

.6.

(See Fig. 3).

It is unlikely that these differences are more than partly

caused by these small changes in moisture content, and it is more likely that much of the difference is due to variations in uncontrolled properties of the bagasse such as particle size distribution and pith/fibre ratio. EFFECT OF PRESSURE: Figure 3 shows the density under pressure, the density at 32 mins, and the durability of pellets made at around 10% moisture content, 100C and 8 sec dwell plotted against Log pressure . Most of the points

plotted (the circles) are for one batch at 10.3% moisture content. Considering only the points from this batch, it is seen that both the density under pressure, and the density at 32 mins are very nearly linearly related to Log 4-32 MPa. pressure , at least over the range

The densities at 24 hr are so close to the 32 min densities, As

being generally 1-2% higher, that they have not been plotted.

might be expected, the scatter in the durability measurements is large, but the points generally indicate a curve of the form shown. Very similar relationships were found to hold at 60C and 140C, and these results have been combined with others in Figure 4. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE Figure 4 shows the effects of both temperature and pressure on pellet densities at 10.0% moisture content and 8 sec. dwell. Individual experimental points are not shown, because this is a composite graph combining the results from several series of tests on four batches of bagasse, from 8.9% to 10.7% moisture content. Hypothetical results for 10.0% moisture content were obtained by interpolation of plots against moisture content. As most of the results were at pressures of 32 or 8 MPa, the curves shown

.7.

for 16 and 4 MPa are in part derived by assuming that the Linear-Log relationships of Figure 3 hold, and interpolating and extrapolating from the results at 32 and 8 MPa. Durability curves at 8 and 32 MPa only are shown, and also a curve showing the average moisture content at 3 minutes from ejection. Several interesting aspects of bagasse compaction behaviour are evident from this figure: (a) The curves of final density against temperature show a rapid rise between 40C and 60C, followed by a plateau until another rapid rise at temperatures over 120C. (b) The durability of pellets made at temperatures below 60C is very low. At low pressure (8 MPa), the durability increases steadily with temperature. The minimum acceptable durability is probably around

90%, indicating a minimum temperature of 100C at 8 MPa. (c) The curve of 3-minute moisture content vs. temperature shows that at temperatures up to 100C, very little moisture is lost during and immediately after compaction. However, at 140C

or 160C, most of the moisture escapes as steam immediately pellet pressing starts, and the pellet is actually formed at a moisture content well below the nominal figure. EFFECT OF MOISTURE CONTENT: Figure 5 shows density under pressure, density at 32 min and durability plotted against moisture content for two pressures (8 and 32 MPa) and three temperatures (60, 100 and 140C). For clarity, only the mean values for the two or three pellets made at each set of condition have been plotted. Despite the scatter of points, particularly around 10% moisture content, the major trend in these results is quite clear: at all temperatures

and pressures, the final density of the pellets falls off markedly with

increasing moisture content above about 10%.

Durabilities also fall off

with increasing moisture content, particularly above 20%. The density under pressure increases with moisture content at 8 MPa, but appears to decrease with moisture content at 32 MPa. This is at least

partly due to "solid" densities being reached at higher pressures and moisture contents, with the water filling all the void volume. //surprisingly, the final densities at 60C appear higher than those at 100C, at both pressures and all moisture contents above approx. 10%. The

differences are large enough (5 - 18%) and consistent enough that this is probably a real effect and not just experimental error. This would

tend to support the hypothesis suggested above, that at temperatures over 60C, up to perhaps 120C, the fibres are more able to relax, giving lower final densities, despite higher compressed densities.

EFFECT OF DWELL Two series of tests at 100C, 8.9/10.0% moisture, and 32/8 MPa applied pressure, examined the effect of dwell times from 1 to 64 secs. The results (not shown) indicate that the final density increases roughly linearly with Log dwell time .
3

At 32 MPa, the final density increases

by 20 kg/m (3%) per doubling of the dwell time, while at 8 MPa, the rate of change is slighly higher at 24 kg/m2 (5%) per doubling. The effect on density under pressure is similar but smaller. The durability

at 32 MPa was unaffected by dwell (being over 97% at all values of dwell) while the durability at 8 MPa fell markedly at dwell times less than 8 seconds.

.9.

DISCUSSION Two limitations of these results should be borne in mind. Firstly, the

variation between nominally identical batches indicates that the bagasse supply was not sufficiently uniform, and that the pith/fibre ratio or the particle size distribution may be important variables, the effects of which also require investigation. Thus in the interpretation of these

results, it is felt that although considerable confidence can be placed in the trends indicated for changes in pressure, temperature and dwell time, as these are generally derived from tests on one batch, the results presented for changes in moisture content are necessarily derived from different batches, and the trends indicated will be less accurate. The second limitation concerns the control of moisture content at elevated temperatures. Although the sealed cylinders ensured that no moisture was

lost during heating, they could not prevent loss of moisture during and immediately after pressing. Figure 4 shows that at temperatures up to

100C, the moisture lost in the first three minutes is negligible (< 1.6%). However, the large amount of moisture lost at temperatures of 140C and 160C raises the question of whether the much higher final densities at these temperatures are caused directly by temperature, or indirectly by its effect on moisture content. Both factors probably contribute to the

increased densities, but the important point is that Figure 4 represents the effect of temperature at a moisture content of 10% at the start of compaction, i.e. at entry to the die of a pelleting machine. The increase

of density at high temperatures is therefore real enough, whatever the mechanism involved. This may partly explain the rapid increase in final density at temperatures over 120C. However, the shape of the final density - temperature curves in Figure 4 suggests that "two different mechanisms are involved at different

.10.

temperatures.

It is suggested that at temperatures below 120C, the

mechanism is one of plastic deformation of the fibres into an interlocked, compacted configuration. A mini-mum temperature of 60C is needed to allow

the fibres to deform plastically, but at higher temperatures the fibres, although easier to deform, giving the higher densities under pressure, are also more able to relax. final density. The two effects balance out giving no increase in

It may be that there is a critical softening temperature

around 60C, and if the fibres cool below this quickly enough, the pellet will set at a higher density than otherwise. Further evidence for this

hypothesis is given by the anomalous behaviour noted in the comments on Fig. 5. At moisture contents above 10%, the density of pellets made at 60C is higher than for those at 100C. At temperatures over 120C, the dominant mechanism is thought to be one of adhesion, with constituents of the bagasse fibre such as lignin softening and bonding the fibres together. have a resin-like smell. At 160C, the pellets are discoloured and

CONCLUSIONS The compaction behaviour of bagasse has been examined under controlled conditions, and the effects of pressure, temperature, moisture content and dwell time determined. Stable, durable pellets can be formed under

quite moderate conditions (around 10% moisture content, 8 second dwell, 60 - 100C and pressures as low as 8 MPa), although the densities achieved are not high (440 - 480 kg/m3}. Densities around 600 kg/m3 require around

32 MPa, while increasing the temperature to 140 or 160C causes adhesive bonding, giving densities up to 940 kg/m3. Doubling the dwell time

increases densities by 20-24 kg/m3 while doubling the pressure increases densities by 60-80 kg/m3. Moisture contents much over 10% give much lower densities and durabilities, with final density falling by about 20-30 kg/m3 per 1% increase in moisture content.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PELLETING MACHINE DESIGN The design of a pelleting machine and the pelleting parameters needed will depend almost entirely on the required pellet density, which in turn will depend on the intended use. Pellet dry matter densities

around 550-600 kg/m3 are easily achievable with moderate pressure, low temperatures and even quite short dwell times. The corresponding bulk

densities of around 300-350 kg/m may be adequate for local storage and road transport, but for shipping, much higher pellet densities would be desirable. These would seem to require much higher pressures (100 MPa or so) Such high pressures make the pelleting

and/or much higher temperatures.

machine heavy and expensive, and consume much energy in an extrusion process, while high temperatures also consume energy, cause a fire risk and may render the bagasse useless for paper-making or animal feed. Further investigation of the "softening" behaviour around 60C is needed. A process in which pellets are formed at 80C, followed by rapid cooling under pressure to 40C may be desirable.

ACKNOWLEGEMENTS This project has been funded by the National Energy Research, Development and Demonstration Council. The assistance of various

members of staff at the Sugar Research Institute and the Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Queensland is also gratefully acknowledged.

.12.

REFERENCES

Butler, J.L., and McColly, H.F. (1959). of hay.

Factors affecting the pelleting

Agricultural Engineering, 4 0 , 442-6. The elimination of

Cullen, R.N., Murray, C.R., and Mason, V. (1980). fuel oil usage in sugar factories.

Aust. Inst, of Energy, 2nd Nat. Conf.

on "Petroleum, Policies and People", Melbourne, May 1980. Dobie, J.B. (1975). sources. Cubing tests with grass forages and similar roughage

Trans. A.S.A.E., 1 8 , 864-6. (1980) Bagasse storage, drying and pelleting at overseas

Foster, D.H. mills.

S.R.I. Tech. C i r c , 55, 14-23. (1968). Heated die wafer formation of alfafa

Hall, G.W., and Hall, C.W.

and Bermudagrass. Trans. A.S.A.E., 1JL, 578-81. Smith, I.E., Probert, S.D., Stokes, R.E., and Hansford, R.J. (1977). The briquetting of wheat straw. Sugar Research Institute (1980) generation in the sugar industry. Nov. 1979 - June 1980. Tromp, L.A. (1936) Machinery and equipment of the sugar cane factory. J. Agric. Eng. Res., 22 105-111.

Elimination of use of fuel oil for steam Progress report to N.E.R.D.D.D.C.,

London, Norman Rodger, 1936.

LOW

SPEED

COMPACTION

RIG FIGURE 1

BAGASSE

CYLINDER
Figure 2

FIGURE

EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON PELLET CHARACTERISTICS

Figure Effects

4. of Temperature and pressure on pellet characteristics

FIGURE

Effect of Moisture Content on Pellet Characteristics