Hwa Chong Institution – H3 Physics 2009

Quantum Theory of Light and Matter Waves

Learning Outcomes
Quantum Theory of Light
Candidates should be able to:
i) show an understanding of what is meant by ideal blackbody radiation.
ii) apply Wien’s displacement law in related situations or to solve problems.
iii) discuss qualitatively the failure of classical theory to explain blackbody radiation at high
frequencies.
iv) describe qualitatively Planck’s hypothesis of blackbody radiation.
v) derive, using relativistic mechanics, the equation p = h/λ for a photon and use the
expression in related situations or to solve problems.
vi) show an understanding of the Compton shift effect and how it supports the concept of the
photon.
vii) derive, using relativistic mechanics, the Compton shift equation and use the equation in
related situations or to solve problems.
viii) show an understanding of discrete electron energy levels in isolated atoms (Bohr theory)
and use the terms absorption, spontaneous emission and stimulated emission to describe
photon processes involving electron transitions between energy levels, including the typical
lifetime of such transitions.
ix) recall and use the equation hf = E1 – E2 to solve problems.
x) apply the relation Nx = Noexp(–(Ex – Eo)/kT) to explain and solve problems on the
population distribution of atoms with energy Ex .
xi) describe the process of population inversion and explain why this cannot be achieved with
just two energy levels.
xii) use population inversion and stimulated emission to explain the action of a laser, using the
He-Ne laser as a specific example. (Details on the structure and operation of the laser are
not required.)
Matter Waves
i) show a qualitative understanding of the concept of wave-particle duality and the principle of
complementarity.
ii) show an understanding that a particle can be described using a wave function Ψ and give a
simple mathematical form of the free particle wave function.
iii) discuss qualitatively the probabilistic interpretation of the wave function and state that the
2
square of the wave function amplitude IΨ I gives the probability density.
iv) show an understanding of the normalisation of a wave function.
v) show an understanding that the resolving power of optical instruments is determined by the
wavelength of the radiation and use this to explain how electron microscopes can achieve
higher resolution than normal optical microscopes.
vi) describe the use of X-ray diffraction to probe crystal structures.
vii) recall and apply Bragg’s equation nλ = 2d sinθ to solve problems.
viii) extend the use of Bragg’s equation to electron diffraction in probing the surfaces of solids.
(Only non-relativistic cases are considered.)

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A Brief History
Throughout scientific history, light has been viewed alternately as either waves or particles.
Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens perceived light as waves propagating in a "medium" known as
the ether. While it is able to explain the wave behavior of light (interference and diffraction), it
eventually failed as ether is not detected. Then Isaac Newton came up with the corpuscular
theory of light which imagined light as consisting of small particles, while it can explain reflection
of light, it failed to account for interference and diffraction. Furthermore, English scientist
Thomas Young conducted a series of experiments, including the famous Young's double-slits
experiment that supported the wave nature of light. And when James Clark Maxwell formulated
the electromagnetic theory, establishing that light is not a disturbance of ether, but rather
fluctuations in the electromagnetic field, the scientific community had more or less embraced
the wave theory of light. However, by then there are new observations which the
electromagnetic theory was unable to explain, two phenomena that have puzzled scientists at
the end of the 19th century: the radiation spectrum of a blackbody and the photoelectric effect.

Phillip Lenard observed that electrons emitted from a metal surface when light is incident on it,
depended on the frequency of light, not the intensity of the light as predicted by classical physics.
Indeed, no electrons were emitted from the surface if the frequency of the incident radiation was
less than some threshold value that depended on the metal.

The shape of this blackbody spectrum had already been determined experimentally by the end
of the nineteenth century. However, a satisfactory theory of blackbody radiation should
provide a precise mathematical expression for the blackbody spectrum.

1900 – the history of quantum mechanics false starts with Max Planck

From 1895 onwards Planck tried to find a way to derive the blackbody radiation law after
partially successful attempts by Wien and Lord Kelvin.

Planck’s model went through successive refinements in his attempt to obtain a perfect match
between theory and experiment. He eventually succeeded, but only at the cost of incorporating
‘energy elements’ in his model. In this model, the total energy of all the oscillators in a blackbody
is divided into a finite (but very large) number of equal (but tiny) parts, determined by a constant
of nature, which he labelled h. This became known as Planck’s constant. In a letter to R. W. Wood,
Planck called his limited postulate “an act of desperation.”

1905 – The photoelectric effect

Lenard’s experiment was explained by Einstein in 1905 when he modeled light as photons with
energy E = hf . It was Einstein who made the bold assumption that light energy could also be
delivered as ‘packets’ we now call ‘photons’ and gave physical meaning to Planck’s constant.

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1913 – Bohr explains why atoms don’t implode

Ernest Rutherford had earlier proposed an atomic model in which he envisaged the atom as
having a central positive nucleus surrounded by negative orbiting electrons. Unfortunately,
Rutherford's model faced a very fundamental problem. Maxwell's electromagnetic theory
predicted that a charge undergoing acceleration will radiate EM waves, losing energy in the
process. This means that the orbiting electrons, which undergo centripetal acceleration, will lose
energy through EM radiation and rapidly spiral into the nucleus.

The Rutherford-Bohr model of the atom resolved the issue by making some new postulates.
Bohr speculated that each allowed orbit only had ‘room’ for a certain number of electrons so
that electrons further out from the nucleus cannot jump inwards if the inner orbits are already
full. The electrons closest to the nucleus were simply forbidden to jump right into the centre of
the atom. Although it is not yet the full quantum model, Bohr’s model was credible because it
predicted the positions of spectral lines for hydrogen – confirmed by observation.

1923 – Compton, the light quantum has not just energy, but momentum as well
In 1923 Arthur Compton (1892-1962) was scattering x-rays off graphite. He found that some of
the scattered radiation has smaller frequencies than the incident radiation which is dependent
on the angle of scattering. He could only explain his observations if he treated x-ray photons as
particles obeying the conservation of momentum and energy in their collisions with stationary
electrons. So his experiment and explanation confirmed that x-ray photons carry not only
‘energy’ but also ‘momentum’ of hf c .

1924 - Louis de Broglie, whose PhD earned him a Nobel prize

de Broglie combined two equations for the photon ( E = hf from the photoelectric effect and
E = pc from relativity) and expressed the result in terms of frequency f = pc h . He could
substitute this into c = fλ , re-arranged in terms of λ = c f = hc pc = h p .
What de Broglie’s equation tells us is that everything has dual wave-particle character but
because Planck’s constant is so small, the ‘waviness’ of an everyday object is so utterly tiny that
it can never be detected. Niels Bohr summarized the situation in his principle of
complementarity,

The wave and particle models are complementary; if a measurement proves the wave character
of radiation or matter, then it is impossible to prove the particle character in the same
measurement, and vice versa.

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Section One : Blackbody Radiation

1.1 Blackbody Radiation

All bodies absorb and radiate thermal energy. Isolated atoms (gases) produce discrete spectra
(emission or absorption) which arise from electronic transitions between discrete energy levels.
Dense bodies such as liquids and solids radiate continuous spectra (of any form and shape), in
which all frequencies are present, due to mutual interactions between the atoms in close
proximity with one another (Band Theory).

Different bodies have different rates of emission and absorption. A perfect blackbody can be
visualized as an ideal body that absorbs all electromagnetic (EM) radiation landing upon it,
regardless of frequency. More importantly, a blackbody is also the best emitter of radiation, and
the rate of emission (total energy per unit time per unit area) is a function of the absolute
temperature alone, as expressed in the Stefan-Boltzmann’s Law:

I = σT 4

where σ = 5.67 × 10 -8 W m -2 K 4 is called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.

A perfect blackbody can be modeled by a hollow body with only a small hole that allows entry
into the cavity inside. All EM radiation that enters the hole will be trapped inside the cavity and
will be absorbed. At the same time, the blackbody will also emit EM radiation of all possible
frequencies, which is characteristic of the radiating system only and not dependent upon the
type of radiation which is incident upon it. This is why blackbody radiation is also known as
cavity radiation. This model is especially useful in the attempt to formulate a theory for
blackbody radiation. The radiated energy can be considered to be produced by standing waves
or resonant modes of the cavity (see Fig. 1.2).

The spectrums of the radiation emitted from a blackbody at a few different temperatures are
shown in Fig. 1.1. Radiation of all wavelengths is present in the spectrums, but certain
wavelengths tend to dominate, denoted by the “peak” of the curve. The position of the “peak”
depends solely on the absolute temperature T of the body. The peak wavelength λmax can be
found using the Wien’s Displacement Law:

λmax T = 2.898 x 10 -3 m K
As T increases, the spectrum shifts towards shorter wavelengths.

We can therefore deduce the temperature of a body hot enough to be luminous by observing
the dominant colour of the radiation. For the body in this case, at 5000 K, the peak happens to
be in the visible range, around the yellow-orange region. Our more yellowish sun has a (surface)
temperature of about 6000 K, whereas the cool blue of the distant star Vega indicates a much

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hotter 10000 K. In 1965, Dicke, Penzias & Wilson used the blackbody spectrum of the cosmic
background radiation (CBR) to work out its temperature.

Fig. 1.1 Fig. 1.2

Fig. 1.2
Exercise: The peak of a cosmic blackbody radiation is measured to be at λ max ≈ 1 mm. What is

the temperature of the cosmic blackbody radiation? (Ans : 2.9K)

Exercise: At what wavelength does the human body emit its maximum temperature radiation?
List assumptions you make in arriving at an answer.
(Ans : 935nm)
1.2 Rayleigh-Jeans Law

British physicists John Rayleigh and James Jeans were able to derive a formula based on purely
classical considerations to explain the shape of the spectrum (Rayleigh-Jeans Law). However, the
formula has very significant disagreement with the observed distribution at high frequencies.

He considered light enclosed in a rectangular box with perfectly reflecting sides. Such a box has a
series of possible normal modes for em waves. It seems reasonable to assume that the
distribution of energy among various modes is given by the equipartition principle, (average

energy per mode, E = kT ) . However, the number of resonant modes per frequency interval

increases as the frequency increases ( n( f ) ∝ f 2 ). Hence, classical physics predicts that all the

energy in the blackbody spectrum should be at high frequencies – and this became known as the
‘ultraviolet catastrophe’ (Fig. 1.2).

2π ( kcT )
I(f) =
λ4
Planck solved this problem by introducing the
concept that energy be quantised.

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1.3 Planck Hypothesis

Max Planck was able to derive a formula (Planck radiation formula) that fits in with the observed
spectrum if he made the assumption that the energy levels of the blackbody are not continuous.

Planck assumed that only adding or removing a discrete amount or quantum of energy could
change the energy. He supposed that the magnitude of the energy quantum must be

proportional to the frequency of the wave ( ∆E = hf ).

The quantum argument assumes that the energy of a standing wave cannot increase
continuously under thermal agitation, but must climb a kind of ladder on which the distance
between the rungs depends on the wavelength. At long wavelengths, the rungs are close
together, many quanta will be excited and as we have seen, the classical case of continuous
energy is approached. At the other extreme, when the wavelength is very short, the rungs on the
ladder are further apart and the probability of even one quantum being excited is very low. In
this situation, the thermodynamic average energy of a standing wave is correspondingly very low.
The ultraviolet catastrophe would be avoided, if instead of the average energy per mode being
kT for all modes as required by classical physics, this average energy actually decreased rapidly
with increasing frequency:
hf
E = hf
e kT
−1
The Planck radiation can then be expressed in terms of spectral energy density (energy per unit
volume per unit frequency) as:

2πhc 2 1
I (λ , T ) = 5 hc
λ λkT
e −1

where h is Planck constant = 6.63 × 10 −34 Js, c is the speed of light, k =1.38x10-23 J/K is

Boltzmann constant, T is the absolute temperature, λ is the wavelength, and f is the frequency.
Incidentally, in keeping with the correspondence principle, Stefan’s law and Wein’s displacement
law can be derived from the Planck formula.

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Exercise
(a) What is the surface temperature of the Sun given that the peak of its blackbody spectrum is
λ max = 5.1 x 10-7 m? (Ans: 5682K)

(b) Given that it takes sunlight about 8 minutes to reach us, use Stefan’s law RT = σT 4 to work
out the solar constant (the solar radiation per unit area intercepted by the Earth’s disc). The Sun
have a mean radius of 6.95 x 108 m.

(Ans: 1400Wm-2)

(c) The average rate of solar radiation incident per unit area on the earth is or 338 Wm-2. Attached to
the roof of a house are three solar panels, each 1 m x 2 m. Assume the equivalent of 4 hrs of
normally incident sunlight each day, and that all the incident light is absorbed and converted to
heat. How many litres of water can be heated from 20°C to 80°C each day?
(Ans: 0.116l)

Exercise: Describe qualitatively how Stefan-Boltzmann law and Wien displacement

law can be derived from Planck radiation law.
(Ans: differentiate Planck Law wrt λ to get Wien’s Law)
(Ans: integrate Planck Law wrt λ to get Stefan-Boltzmann law)

Exercise: Show that Planck’s result for average energy per mode E = hf reduces to the
hf

e kT
−1

classical result E = kT at low frequency. (Ans: for small x, e x ∼ 1 – x)

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Section Two : Atomic Model

2.1 Bohr Model of the Atom

In 1913, Niels Bohr improved upon the Rutherford planetary model of an atom by making a
number of assumptions in order to combine the new quantum ideas of Planck and Einstein with
the traditional description of a particle in uniform circular motion.

1. An electron in an atom moves in a circular orbit about the nucleus under the influence of
the Coulomb attraction between the electron and the nucleus, obeying the laws of
classical mechanics.
2. Instead of the infinity of orbits which would be possible in classical mechanics, it is only
possible for an electron to move in an orbit for which its orbital angular momentum
L = mvr = n , for the nth orbital level.
3. Despite the fact that it is constantly accelerating, an electron moving in such an allowed
orbit does not radiate electromagnetic energy. Thus, its total energy E remains constant.
4. Electromagnetic radiation is emitted if an electron, initially moving in an orbit of total

energy , discontinuously changes its motion so that it moves in an orbit of total

energy . The frequency of the emitted radiation is equal to the quantity

divided by h.

The Bohr model is certainly not a full quantum mechanical description of the atom. The full
quantum mechanical model, or electron cloud model, describes the electron as a
three-dimensional shape ("cloud") where there is at least a minimal probabilty of finding the
electron.

2.2 Electronic Transitions

To incorporate Einstein's photon concept, Bohr theorized that a photon is emitted only when an
electron jumps orbits from a larger one with a higher energy to a smaller
one with a lower energy (Fig. 3.1).

When an electron in an initial orbit with a larger energy Ei changes to a

final orbit with a smaller energy Ef, the emitted photon has an energy of Ei
- Ef, consistent with the law of conservation of energy.
hf = Ei - Ef
where f is the frequency of the emitted light. This process is known as Fig. 2.1
de-excitation. This photon is emitted spontaneously when the atom de-excites and the electron
returns to its previous energy level. The lifetimes of excited states tend to be shorter for high
frequency transitions.

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Electrons can also jump from a smaller orbit to a larger orbit by picking up energy through
collision of atoms (which happens more often during heating), by acquiring energy when a high
voltage is applied, or by absorbing a photon of energy equal to the energy difference between
the two levels. This is known as excitation.

However, as well as exciting electrons, resonant photons can stimulate an excited atom to emit
photons of the same energy. This is something that Einstein recognised in 1916 and is called
stimulated emission. Stimulated absorption and emission is analogous to resonance in
mechanical systems. Spontaneous emission has no classical mechanical analogue. The
stimulated light is coherent (i.e. in phase) with the incident beam and hence amplifies it (i.e. the
intensity of the light after stimulated emission has occurred is greater than the intensity before).

For a two-level system with energies E1 and E0, there are three processes which can occur (Fig.
2.2).
• In spontaneous emission, an atom or a molecule in excited state E1 drops to the ground state,
emitting a photon in the process.
• In stimulated absorption, an atom or molecule in ground state E0 absorbs energy from a
photon with frequency given by hf = E1 − E0 and gets excited.
• In stimulated emission, an atom or molecule in excited state is perturbed by an incoming
photon with frequency f given by hf = E1−E0 so that it releases a second photon with the same
frequency, in phase with it.

Fig. 2.2

Stimulated emission and spontaneous emission are competing processes. So how do we know
which process will, in fact, occur when an excited atom is irradiated with resonant photons? It
depends on which process is fastest. Stimulated emission occurs more rapidly when the
stimulating photon beam is of high intensity. However, spontaneous emission is fast when the
lifetime of the excited state is short (i.e. those corresponding to high energy transitions).
Therefore, spontaneous emission competes more strongly with stimulated emission in
transitions that emit blue or ultraviolet light than for transitions that emit red or infrared
radiation.

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2.3 Boltzmann Factor

In a gas, the atoms can be in various excited states. The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution function,
f(E), determines the probability of finding an atom in the energy level E, and when multiplied by
the total number of atoms in the gas, gives the number of atoms in a particular excited state.

nex = Ae − Eex / KT

Where the Boltzmann constant, k = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K, T is the absolute temperature of the gas, A is
a constant, Eex is the energy of the excited state in Joules.

Rather than try and find the number of atoms in a particular excited state, it is often more useful
to consider the ratio of atom population in two states to check for the possibility of stimulated
emission in lasers. This ratio is then given by,

−( Ex −E y )
nx
=e kT
ny

For stimulated emission to occur, we require the ratio of atoms in an upper energy level to that
of a lower energy level to be sufficiently large. If not, a passing photon of appropriate energy will
be more likely to be absorbed then cause stimulated emission to occur.

Question
Estimate the relative populations in thermal equilibrium of two energy levels such that a
transition from the higher level to the lower level gives visible radiation of 550 nm at room
temperature of 300 K. (Ans: 1.16 x 10-38)

2.4 Experimental support for Bohr’s model

Bohr’s model of electronic transitions between energy levels, thereby emitting photons of
specific amount of energies is verified experimentally. Experimental measurements of emitted
light from hydrogen gas have wavelengths given by

1 1 1 
Lyman Series = R 2 − 2  , n = 2, 3, 4, …
λ 1 n 

1  1 1 
Balmer Series = R 2 − 2  , n = 3, 4, 5, …
λ 2 n 

1  1 1 
Paschen Series = R 2 − 2  , n = 4, 5, 6, … R = 1.097 x 107 m-1
λ 3 n 

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According to Bohr’s model, these photons are emitted from electronic transitions from energy
level n to level 1 for Lyman series, level n to level 2 for Balmer series, level n to level 3 for
Paschen series etc. That means the energy of each level is given by the general formula
hcR
En = .
n2

Comparing with the theoretical expression for energy of the nth level according to Bohr’s model,

1 me 4
En = − ,
ε o2 8n 2 h 2

me 4
we have an expression for the Rydberg constant, R = 2
, which agrees with
8ε o h 3 c
experimental value of R up to 4 significant figures.

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Section Three : Compton Effect

3.1 Associated Momentum of a Photon

Einstein built on the work of Planck and proposed that all EM radiation exists and travels as
discrete quanta, known as photons. Each photon is associated with radiation of a single
frequency f and its energy is directly proportional to f:
hc
E = hf =
λ
where h is the Planck’s constant. This is known as the quantum theory of light.
While a photon has zero mass, it has momentum due to its motion at the speed of light. From
relativity we know that

(
E 2 = c 2 p 2 + m0 c 2 )
2

⇒ E = c p (since m0 = 0)
hc h
Equating E = (wave model) with E = c p (particle model) , ⇒ p =
λ λ
Hence the momentum p of a photon is inversely proportional to the wavelength λ of the
associated light wave.

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3.2 Compton Scattering

Besides the photoelectric effect, another phenomenon which constitutes very strong evidence in
support of the quantum theory of light is the Compton Effect.

Arthur Compton observed the scattering of X-rays from electrons in a carbon target and found
that scattered X-rays have a longer wavelength than that incident upon the target. In his
experiment, Compton targeted a block of carbon with a beam of X-ray of a well-defined
wavelength (from an X-ray tube). A detector measured the intensity and wavelength of scattered
X-rays at various scattering angles. The results for four different scattering angles are shown in
Fig. 3,1. At each scattering angle (other than 0°), there are two distinct intensity peaks
corresponding to two different wavelengths. The wavelength of incident X-rays always appears
but a second peak corresponding to a longer wavelength also appears. The difference in the two
wavelengths is known as the Compton shift, which varies with the scattering angle.

Compton scattering cannot be explained by classical electromagnetic theory. According to

classical theory, two effects should be observed,
i) radiation pressure should cause the electrons to accelerate in the direction of
propagation of the waves, and
ii) the oscillating electric field of the incident radiation should set the electrons into
oscillation at an apparent frequency that is different due to the Doppler Effect. Each
electron first absorbs radiation as a moving particle and then re-radiates as a moving
particle, thereby exhibiting two Doppler shifts in the frequency of radiation.
Because different electrons will move at different speeds after the interaction, depending on the
amount of energy absorbed from the electromagnetic waves, the scattered wave frequency at a
given angle to the incoming radiation should show a distribution of Doppler shifted values.
However, neither of these two effects are observed in the experiment.

If X-rays are interpreted as particles (photons) instead, the collision between an X-ray photon and
an electron (in a carbon atom) can be analysed using standard relativistic mechanics. Indeed this
was what Compton postulated and he managed to obtain a relationship between the Compton
shift and the scattering angle. For his effort, Compton was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in
1927.

3.3 Compton Shift Equation

To derive the Compton shift equation, Compton had to make two assumptions:

• The electron is considered free. The energy of a Molybdenum Kα X-ray photon is about
17.5 KeV, much higher than the binding energies of the outer electrons, which are
normally in the order of eV.
• The electron is taken to be stationary initially.

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From Fig. 3.2,

r
momentum of the photon before collision = p i

r
momentum of the photon after collision = p f

r
momentum of the electron after collision = p e

hc
energy of photon before collision = Fig. 3.2
λi

hc
energy of photon after collision =
λf

energy of electron before collision = me c 2 (rest mass energy, electron not moving)

energy of electron after collision = p e2 c 2 + me2 c 4

From the principles of conservation of energy and momentum,

hc hc
+ me c 2 = + p e2 c 2 + me2 c 4 - - - - - - - - - (1)
λi λf
r r r
pi = p f + p e - - - - - - - - - (2)

Rearrange equation (1), divide by c and square the result,

hc  hc 
pe2 c 2 + me2 c 4 = −  + me c 2 
λ f  λi 
h h 
pe2 + me2 c 2 = −  + me c 
λ f  λi 
h2 h2 hme c h2 hme c
pe2 + me2 c 2 = 2
−2 −2 + 2
+2 + me2 c 2
λf λi λ f λf λi λi
h2 h2 h2 1 1 
pe2 = + −2 + 2 hme c  −  - - - - - - - - - (3)
λ2f λ2i λi λ f  
 λi λ f 

But from equation (2),

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r r r r r r
(
pe2 = pe ⋅ pe = pi − p f ⋅ pi − p f )( )
r r
= pi2 + p 2f − 2 pi ⋅ p f
= pi2 + p 2f − 2 pi p f cos θ
h2 h2 h2
= + −2 cos θ - - - - - - - - - (4)
λ2i λ2f λi λ f

Equating equation (3) and (4),

h2 h2 h2 1 1  h2 h2 h2
+ −2 + 2 hme c  − = + − 2 cos θ
λ2f λ2i λi λ f   λ2 λ2
 λi λ f  i f λi λ f
1 1 
me c  −  = h (1 − cos θ )
 λi λ f  λi λ f
 
1 1 
λi λ f  −  = h (1 − cos θ )
 λi λ f  me c
 
h
Compton Shift Equation λ f − λi = ∆λ = (1 − cos θ )
me c

The Compton shift depends upon the angle of scattering and the mass of the scatterer, but is
independent of the wavelength of the incident X-rays. The shift ranges from a minimum value of

2h
0 ("glancing" collision; θ = 0°) to a maximum value of ("head-on" collision; θ = 180°)
me c

h
(compare with Fig. 2.1). The factor is known as the Compton wavelength and has a value
me c

of 2.426 × 10-12 m.

The peak near the initial wavelength is considered to be scattering off inner electrons in the
carbon atoms which are more tightly bound to the carbon nucleus. This causes the entire atom
to recoil from the X-ray photon, and the larger effective scattering mass proportionally reduces
the wavelength shift of the scattered photons. For a carbon atom, the nuclear mass is
approximately 22,000 times larger than that of an electron. In this case, the scattering equation
yields a wavelength shift almost 22,000 times smaller than that for an unbound electron, so the
wavelengths of the photons suffer minimal changes after being scattered.

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Section Four : Application of the Quantum Theory of Light - Lasers

Laser is an acronym for light amplification by the stimulated emission of radiation. Lasers have
found many applications because of their particular properties. A laser beam is intense,
monochromatic, narrow and highly directional, with little lateral dispersion. Its properties
depend on many atoms being stimulated to emit radiation which are of equal frequency and
phase, and travel in the same direction. The radiation can be made to gain energy exponentially
through amplification in an optical cavity (resonant cavity). The optical cavity also accounts for
the directionality of the laser beam.

4.1 Population Inversion and Metastable States

Let begin by examining the requirements for lasing.

Stimulated emission produces identical photons that are coherent and directional, but for
stimulated emission to take place a "passer-by" photon whose energy is just equal to the
de-excitation energy must approach the excited atom before it de-excites via spontaneous
emission. Typically, a photon emitted by the spontaneous emission serves as the seed to trigger
a collection of stimulated emissions. Still, if the lifetime of the excited state is too short, then
there will not be enough excited atoms around to undergo stimulated emission. So, the first
criterion for lasing to occur is that the upper lasing state must have a relatively long lifetime,
otherwise known as a metastable state. The mean lifetime of an excited atom is about 10-8 s.
Decays from so-called metastable states may be much slower, some as long as 10-3 s.

In addition to the requirement of a long lifetime, the likelihood of absorption of the "passer-by"
photons needs to be minimized. This likelihood is directly related to the ratio of the atoms in
their ground state (or a lower energy state) versus those in the excited state. The smaller the
ratio, the more likely the "passer-by" photon will cause a stimulated emission rather than get
absorbed. So, to satisfy this requirement, a population inversion is needed: create more atoms

in the excited state than those in the ground state: n 2 > n1 .

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Consider a system with two energy levels. At thermal equilibrium, the lower energy state is more

populated than the higher energy state (the Boltzmann factor): n 2 < n1 . As the temperature

increases, the population in the high-energy state (n2) increases, but will never exceeds n1; its
only at infinite temperature do n2 and n1 become equal. In other words, a population inversion

( n 2 > n1 ) can never exist for a two level system at thermal equilibrium. To achieve population

inversion therefore requires pushing the system into a non-equilibrium state.

Achieving population inversion in a two level system by pushing it into a non-equilibrium state is
not very practical. Such a task would require a very strong pumping transition that would send
any decaying atom back into its excited state; very energy costly and inefficient. To achieve
non-equilibrium conditions, an indirect method of populating the excited state must be used. In
order to maintain a population inversion, a third or even a fourth energy level is required. The
Helium-Neon laser is an example of a four level laser.

4.2 Action of a Laser – He-Ne Laser

This population inversion can be achieved by pumping and can be described using the
helium-neon (He-Ne) laser as an example. A tube contains a mixture of helium and neon gas. An
electrical discharge excites some helium atoms that cannot normally return to their ground state
(selection rules forbid it). However, by coincidence, there are excited neon levels at almost the
same energy as the excited helium level, and collisions between helium and neon atoms can
allow the excited helium atom to transfer its energy to the neon atom. (Collisional transitions are
not subject to the same selection rules that govern radiative transitions.) Thus the excited
helium atom returns to its ground state and the neon atom goes into one of its excited states.
This process can ‘pump’ a large number of neon atoms into the upper of the two excited levels
shown in Fig. 4.1, so that a population inversion exists between the excited neon level and the
almost empty lower level.

The laser process in a He-Ne laser starts with collision of electrons from the electrical discharge
with the helium atoms in the gas. This excites helium from the ground state to the 23S1 and 21S0
long-lived, metastable excited states (using Paschen notation). When the excited helium atoms
collide with the ground-state neon atoms, there is a transfer of energy to the neon atoms,

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exciting them into the 2s and 3s states. The transfer is possible due to a coincidence of energy
levels between the helium and neon atoms.

Fig. 4.1

This process is given by the reaction equation:

He* + Ne → He + Ne* + ΔE where (∗) represents an excited state, and ΔE is the small energy
difference between the energy states of the two atoms, of the order of 0.05 eV.

The number of neon atoms entering the excited states builds up as further collisions between
helium and neon atoms occur, causing a population inversion between the neon 3s and 2s, and
3p and 2p states. Spontaneous emission between the 3s and 2p states results in emission of
632.8 nm wavelength light, the typical operating wavelength of a He-Ne laser.

After this, fast radiative decay occurs from the 2p to the 1s energy levels, which then decay to
the ground state via collisions of the neon atoms with the container walls. Because of this last
required step, the bore size of the laser cannot be made very large and the He-Ne laser is limited
in size and power.

With the correct selection of cavity mirrors, other wavelengths of laser emission of the He-Ne
laser are possible. The 3s→3p and 2s → 2p transitions give infrared operation at 3.39 µm and
1.15 µm wavelengths, and a variety of 2s → 1s transitions are possible in the green (543.5 nm),
the yellow (594 nm) and the orange (612 nm).

4.3 Properties of Laser

The laser beam is intense because the light beam between the mirrors passes many times
through the amplifying medium.

High-power lasers are used for cutting, and for welding sheets of metal together. Lasers are
being used to generate sufficient energy to initiate nuclear fusion. Lasers fire simultaneously and
their beams intersect to deliver 200 kJ of energy to a fuel pellet in less than a nanosecond (10-9 s).

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The aim is to make the implosion so rapid that individual nuclei in the pellet are driven into
contact with one another with enough force to overcome their mutual Coulomb repulsion.

The laser beam is monochromatic and is described by an almost pure sine wave. This is because
the beam, moving to and fro between the mirrors, forms a standing wave. Thus an integral
number of half-wavelengths must fit exactly between the mirrors. No other wavelengths can be
amplified. This makes laser light much more monochromatic than light emitted by spontaneous
emission.

The fact that laser light is highly monochromatic ensures that any interference patterns
produced will be very clear and easy to interpret. This has an application in compact disc (CD)
players, where an interference pattern is produced between a reference laser beam and a laser
beam that is reflected from steps cut in the playing surface of the disc. Another famous
application of interference of laser light is the production of holograms or ‘three-dimensional
photographs’.

Laser light forms a narrow, well-directed beam, which spreads at large distances by diffraction

only. The spread by diffraction is through an angle of only about λ d where d is the beam

diameter. This angle is normally only a few milli-radians. The high directionality is explained by
the fact that all the photons produced by stimulated emission travel in the same direction.

The fact that laser light forms a narrow beam can be used in eye surgery. It can also be used to
measure distances to extreme accuracy. For example, the Apollo 14 astronauts left behind a
special reflector on the Moon’s surface. By firing a laser through an Earth-bound telescope at
this reflector, the time of flight of its round trip can be measured, confirming that the Moon is
receding from us at the rate of a few centimetres per year.

Question
A laser emits a beam of light with a circular cross-section of diameter 1 mm (and wavelength λ =
633 rim). How big is the spot 100 m away? (Ans: circle of radius 6.33cm)

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Section Five : Wave nature of Particle

Wave-Particle Duality applies to matter as well as radiation.

- De Broglie

Louis de Broglie postulated in 1924 that, since light waves could

exhibit particle-like behaviour, matter can also exhibit wave
behaviour. He proposed that all moving particles can be
mathematically modeled as a wave with wavelength given by,
h
λ=
p
where p is momentum of the particle. i.e. p = mv,
λ is the de Broglie wavelength of the particle,
h is the Planck constant, h = 6.63 x 10- 34 J s

E
Note that for particles, p = 2mE and for photons, p = . These two relationships to
c
energy are not interchangeable because photons are massless and particles do not travel at the
speed of light.

Radical as the idea seems, it directly translates into the quantization of angular momentum that
was assumed in Bohr’s atomic model. If electrons are indeed waves, then they should form
standing waves around their orbit. This imposes the condition that the circumference of the
orbit, must be a multiple of the electron’s wavelength, ie,
h
2πr = nλ = n
mv
h
Rearranging yields, mvr = n .
2π

de Broglie's idea was confirmed

experimentally in 1927 by American physicists
Clinton J. Davisson (1881–1958) and Lester H.
Germer (1896–1971). When they bounce a
stream of electrons off a nickel crystal, they
obtained strong maxima in the intensity of
reflected electron beam occurring at specific
angles, instead of a smooth variation of
intensity with angle as expected for particles.
This pattern is characteristic of diffraction
pattern from waves reflecting off a diffraction
grating.

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Exercise :
Calculate the de Broglie wavelength for
(a) a proton of kinetic energy 70 MeV kinetic energy
(Ans : 3.4 x 10-15 m)
-1
(b) a 100 g bullet moving at 900 m s (Ans : 7.4 x 10-36 m)

Section Six : Bragg Reflection

Röntgen discovered X-rays in 1895. Early experiments suggested that they were electromagnetic
waves with wavelengths of ~ 10-10 m. It was also strongly suspected that atoms in crystalline
solids were arranged in a regular lattice, with the spacing between planes of atoms about the
same as the wavelength of x-rays. Max von Laue (1879-1960) put these ideas together in 1913 by
suggesting that a crystal might serve as a three-dimensional diffraction grating for x-rays.

The interference pattern obtained by x-rays (wave) is the same as that by using electrons
(particle) thus showing that electrons can exhibit wavelight behaviour.

X – ray Diffraction Image Electron Diffraction Image

The situation can be modeled in two-dimensions using an array of posts in a ripple tank to
represent atoms in a lattice. The total interference pattern is the superposition of all the waves
scattered from these posts. Constructive interference can result in two ways; scattering from
adjacent atoms in a row, and scattering from atoms in adjacent rows. For the first case, we see
maxima in the pattern at angles where the angle of reflection is the same as the angle of
incidence to the plane. For the second case, there is constructive interference only when the
scattered radiation from each row is in phase (i.e. differs by an integer number of wavelengths).
The figure below shows that the path difference for adjacent rows is 2d sin θ .

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This leads to the Bragg equation nλ = 2d sin θ (n = 1, 2, 3 ….)

where d is the spacing between planes of atoms and θ is the scattering angle.

Exercise :
Derive the Bragg Equation.

At angles where this condition is satisfied, a strong maximum in the interference pattern is
observed. These ‘diffraction’ patterns are often referred to as Bragg reflections.

If the crystal lattice spacing d is known, we can determine the x-ray wavelength from the
diffraction pattern, just as we determined wavelengths of visible light using diffraction gratings.
Generally, for a crystal, there can exist several families of crystal planes, each with different
spacing.

Conversely, knowing the wavelength of light used, we can investigate the crystal structure of
solids. Indeed, x-ray diffraction was instrumental in determining the structure of DNA. X-ray
photographs by Franklin were the key. She did not get due credit and sadly she died (in 1958)
before others were awarded the 1962 Nobel prize that she should at least have shared.

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Exercise :
The Bragg angle for a certain reflection from a powder specimen of copper is 47.75º at 20ºC and
46.60º at 1000ºC. Calculate the coefficient of linear expansion of copper, α. (∆L=αL∆T)

(Ans: 1.91 x 10-5 K-1)

Given wave-particle duality, particles (electrons for example) can also be used in crystal
diffraction if they have de Broglie wavelengths comparable to the inter-atomic spacing (i.e.
sufficiently small momenta).

Exercise :
(a) Show that to achieve a de Broglie wavelength of 6.3 x 10-10 m, electrons would need a kinetic
energy of 38eV while neutrons would need 2 x 10-3 eV.
(b) Explain why, in practice, electrons would need higher energies than 38 eV.

Exercise :
A beam of x-rays with wavelength 0.154nm is directed at certain planes of a silicon crystal. As
you increase the angle of incidence from zero, you find the first strong interference maximum
from these planes when the beam makes an angle of 34.5° with the planes.
a) How far apart are the planes?
b) Will you find other interference maxima from these planes at larger angles?

(Ans: 0.136 nm, no other angles for maxima)

Unfortunately, much higher energies have to be used if we wish to observe electron diffraction
because the interaction of electrons with the atoms in a crystal is so strong that electrons with
energy of a few eV would be completely absorbed by a specimen. In order that an electron beam
can penetrate even a very thin specimen, say 100 nm thick, energies of the order of 50-100 keV
are needed.

In general x-ray diffraction is the cheapest and the most convenient method and is by far the
most widely used. X-rays can be detected photographically or with a counter. X-rays are not
absorbed very much by air and so the specimen need not be in an evacuated chamber. However,
they do not interact very strongly with lighter elements. Electrons are scattered strongly in air so
that diffraction experiments must be carried out in a high vacuum. However, electrons can be
focused into narrow beams by electrostatic or magnetic lenses. This enables the diffracted
beams to be used to form a direct magnified image of the structure, as in the electron
microscope. But why is there a need for electron microscopes?

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Section Seven : Application of Matter Waves - Microscopes

To view images at atomic scales, instruments can no longer use visible light to form images.
Instead, instruments use electrons instead of visible light as electrons have much smaller
associated wavelengths, allowing for the greater resolution needed for details at atomic scales.
Even then, wavelengths of the electrons are usually comparable to the object separation and
results in wave interference effects. These effects limit formation of clear images.

Exercise :
a) What is the wavelength of electrons accelerated by a voltage of 10kV? (Ans: 1.23 x 10-11m)
b) How does this compare to the typical wavelengths of visible light? (Ans:40,000 times smaller)

The diffraction patterns of two

point sources (solid curves) and
the resultant pattern (dashed
curve) for three angular
separations of the sources. (a)
The sources are separated such
that their patterns are just
resolved. (b) The sources are
closer together and their
patterns are barely resolved. (c)
The sources are so close
together that their patterns are
not resolved.

The resolving power of an optical instrument is

given by the Rayleigh criterion. This states that it
is possible to separate the images of two point
objects if the centre of the central maximum of
one image lies on the first dark fringe of the other.
This is illustrated in figure. The criterion is satisfied
when the central maxima are separated by an
angle given by the relationship:
1.22λ
sin θ = (for circular apertures of diameter D )
D
In most optical instruments the angles are so small that the criterion is usually written, with θ
in radians, as:
1.22λ
θ =
D
Clearly, the shorter the wavelength of light used, the closer two objects can be and still be
resolved. Using a wavelength of 500 nm, typical of visible light, no optical instrument can resolve
objects smaller than a few hundred nanometres.

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Exercise :
Light of wavelength 558nm is used to view an object under an optical microscope. If the aperture
of the objective in the microscope has a diameter of 0.900 cm, what is the limiting angle of
resolution? (Ans: 7.56 x 10-5 rad)

Application: Determining molecular structure of proteins

The main technique used to determine the molecular structure of proteins, DNA, and RNA is
x-ray diffraction using x-rays of wavelength of about 1.0 Å. It allows the experimenter to “see”
individual atoms that are separated by about this distance in molecules. The figure below shows
a classic x-ray diffraction image of DNA made by Rosalind Franklin in 1952, used to determine the
double-helix structure of DNA by F.H.C. Crick and J.D. Watson in 1953.

An x-ray diffraction photograph of DNA. The double-helix structure of DNA.

The cross pattern of spots was a clue that
DNA has a helical structure.

Application: Electron Diffraction (only nonrelativistic cases)

Electron diffraction is a technique used to study matter by firing electrons (particles) at a

sample and observing the resulting interference pattern.

This technique is most frequently used in solid state physics and chemistry to study the crystal
structure of solids. These experiments are usually performed in a transmission electron
microscope (TEM) or a scanning electron microscope (SEM) as electron backscatter diffraction.
In these instruments, the electrons are accelerated by an electrostatic potential in order to gain
the desired energy and wavelength before they interact with the sample to be studied. The
periodic structure of a crystalline solid acts as a diffraction grating, scattering the electrons in a
predictable manner. Working back from the observed diffraction pattern, it is possible to deduce
the structure of the crystal producing the diffraction pattern.

In order to show diffraction, an electron ‘wave’ must travel through a gap of the same order as
its associated wavelength. The atomic spacing in crystal atoms or powdered carbon (graphite)
provides such gaps.

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The circles correspond to the angles where constructive interference takes place. They are circles
because the powdered carbon provides every possible orientation of gap. A higher accelerating
potential for the electrons would result in a higher momentum for each electron. According to
the de Broglie relation, the wavelength of the electrons would thus decrease. This would mean
that the size of the gaps is now proportionally bigger than the wavelength so there would be less
diffraction. The circles would move in to smaller angles. The predicted angles of constructive
interference have been accurately verified experimentally.

(1) Transmission electron microscope (TEM)

A practical device that relies on the wave characteristics of electrons is the electron microscope.
The first transmission electron microscope (TEM) with magnetic lenses was constructed by
electrical engineers Max Knoll and Ernst Ruska. It is a device that focuses electron beams with
magnetic lenses and creates a flat-looking two-dimensional shadow pattern on its screen.

(a) Schematic drawing of a

transmission electron
microscope with magnetic
lenses.
(b) Schematic of a
light-projection microscope.

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In the past, light microscopes have been used mostly for imaging due to their relative ease of use.
However, the maximum resolution that one can image is determined by the wavelength of the
photons (recall Rayleigh’s criterion) that are being used to probe the sample. Visible light has
wavelengths of 400-700 nm; larger than many objects of interest. Ultraviolet could be used, but
soon runs into problems of absorption. Even shorter wavelengths such as X-rays exhibit a lack of
interaction, both in focusing and interacting with the sample.

No microscope can resolve details that are significantly smaller than the wavelength of the
radiation used to illuminate the object. The electron microscope has a much greater resolving
power than light microscopes because it can accelerate electrons to very high kinetic energies,

 h 
giving them very short wavelengths  λ =  . Typically, the wavelengths of electrons are
 2mE 
about 100 times smaller than those of visible light; falling in the x-ray region of the spectrum.

Electron microscope picture (with

magnification of about x 200) showing a
family of dust mites gently grazing in a field.

The high energy electron beam in an electron microscope is controlled by electrostatic or

magnetic deflection, which acts on the electrons to focus the beam to an image. Rather than
examining the image through an eyepiece as in an optical microscope, the viewer looks at an
image formed on a fluorescent screen.

(a) Diagram of a TEM for viewing thin samples. (b) An electron microscope.

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iAlthough electron microscopes have much higher resolution than optical microscopes, there are
some disadvantages. Electron microscopes are expensive and hard to maintain. As they are
sensitive to vibration and external magnetic fields, suitable facilities are required to house them
so as to achieve high resolutions. The samples have to be viewed in vacuum as the molecules
that make up air would scatter the electrons.

(2) Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

A second type of electron microscope with less resolution and magnification than the TEM, but
capable of producing striking three-dimensional images, is the scanning electron microscope
(SEM). Such a device might be operated with 20 keV electrons and have a resolution of about 10
nm and a magnification ranging from 10 to 100,000. As shown in figure, an electron beam is
sharply focused on a specimen by magnetic lenses and then scanned (rastered) across a tiny
region on the surface of the specimen. The high energy primary beam scatters lower energy
secondary electrons out of the object depending on specimen composition and surface
topography. These secondary electrons are detected by a plastic scintillator coupled to a
photomultiplier, amplified, and used to modulate the brightness of a simultaneously rastered
display CRT.

SEM micrograph showing blood

cells in a tiny artery.

The working parts of a SEM.

SEM usually image conductive or semi-conductive materials best. In order to image

non-conductive materials, a common preparation technique is to coat the sample with several
nanometers layer of conductive material, such as gold, from a sputtering machine. However,
this process has the potential to disturb delicate samples.

Exercise:
Smaller objects may be distinguished in electron microscopes than in optical microscopes
because
A electrons are smaller than visible quanta.
B the electrons travel much faster than light.
C there is no chromatic aberration with electrons.
D the electron wavelength is much shorter than that of visible light.
E the electrons are not diffracted.

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Section Eight : So what exactly is a matter wave?
To appreciate what we meant by the wave nature of matter, let us consider the following three
experiments.
Experiment 1: Using bullets
Experiment 2: Using water waves
Experiment 3: Using electrons
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The experimental set-up is shown on the left of the figure and the
results of three different experiments on the right. It is shown that
bullets passed through slit 1 as open circles and slit 2 as black
circles. The column labeled P1 shows the distribution of bullets
arriving at the detector boxes when slit 2 is closed and only slit 1
open. The column labeled P2 shows the distribution of bullets
arriving at the detector boxes when slit 1 is closed and only slit 2
open. The result obtained with both slits open is showed in
column P12. The important point to notice is that the total obtained
in each box when both slits are open is just the sum of the
numbers obtained when only one or other of the slits is open.
P12 = P1 + P2
The detectors are a line of small floating buoys whose jiggling up
and down provides a measure of the wave energy. The wave
crests spreading out from each slit are shown and column I1
shows the smoothly varying wave intensity obtained when only
gap 1 is open. Notice that this is very similar to the pattern P1
obtained with bullets. The column labeled I2 shows the wave
intensity pattern when gap 1 is closed and gap 2 open. The result
obtained with both gaps open is showed in column I12. It is
dramatically different from the pattern obtained for bullets with
both slits open. It is not equal to the sum of the patterns I1 and I2
obtained with one of the gaps closed. This rapidly varying
intensity curve is called an interference pattern.
I12 = (h12)2 = (h1 + h2)2 , where I1 = (h1)2 and I2 = (h2)2
Electrons always arrive with a flash at the phosphor detector at
one point, in the same way that bullets always end up in just one
of the detector boxes rather than the energy being spread out, as
in a wave. Electrons that have gone through slit 1 are represented
as open circles, like the bullets. The column labeled P1 shows the
pattern obtained when slit 2 is closed and only slit 1 open. The
column labeled P2 shows the same thing when slit 1 is closed and
only slit 2 open, the electrons indicated by black circles. The
difference lies in the column P12 which shows the pattern obtained
for electrons when both slits are open. It is not the sum of P1 and
P2 and so we cannot say which slit any electron goes through.
2 2 2
P12 = ψ 1 + ψ 2 where P1 = ψ 1 and P2 = ψ2
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For the electrons to have the same distribution pattern as that of a wave would mean that each
electron somehow passes through both slits at the same time just like a water wave. Yet we
know that the electron is a particle and cannot possibly do that.

This can be resolved in the following way. Since we do not know which slit the electron passes
through, it is analogous to the situation to someone who is blindfolded, trying to guess the
location of the electron as it moves towards the slits. The best the person can do is to describe
the probability of the electron at each location as a probability wave which as waves do,
interferes after passing through the slits to generate the observed distribution pattern.

What if we remove our blindfolds then? Will we see the electron transform into a wave as it
passes through the slits?

To test this, the electron experiment is repeated but this time a light is placed at the slit so that if
the electron passes through the slit, we will see a flash as light scatters off the electron and so
we will know for each electron which slit it passes through. When this is done, what we observe
is that the electron remains as a particle as it goes through one of the slits. However, it is the
resulting distribution that changes! What we get, is no longer that of water waves but amazingly
the same distribution as that of the bullet experiment!
We may now conclude the following,
i) If we do not observe which slit the electron passes through, we have to represent
the electron as a probability wave which interferes as waves do when it passes
through the slits, generating the same distribution as water waves.
ii) If we observe which slit the electron passes through, the electron can be precisely
located and as a particle, goes through the slits generating the same distribution as
the bullet experiment.

We may try to explain the different distribution patterns obtained in the following way. In trying
to observe the electron, we shine a light on the electron and in so doing; the light interfered with
the electron and thereby affects its motion.

To affirm this, we now use light of an increasing wavelength (thereby reducing the amount of
interference on the electron). Initially we will still be able to tell which slit each electron goes
through and the resulting distribution resembles that of the bullet experiment. As the
wavelength of the light increases, we will reach a point where at a certain wavelength, the flash
at the slit becomes big and fuzzy such that we are unable to ascertain which slit the electron
goes through and at this point, the distribution pattern becomes that of a water wave! We may
now conclude that it is impossible to arrange the light in such a way that one can tell which hole
the electron went through and at the same time not disturb the pattern. It was suggested by
Heisenberg that the then new laws of nature could only be consistent if there were some basic
limitation on our experimental capabilities not previously recognized.

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Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

We have seen that quantum mechanics does not allow us the

comfort of being able to visualize the motion of a quantum
particle.

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle can be written down in a

precise mathematical form which relates the uncertainties in
position and momentum measurements as follows:

For position & momentum, ∆x∆p ≥ h or h

x
∆x∆px ≥
4π 2
h
(where h = )
2π
h
For energy & time interval, ∆E∆t ≥
2

Consider the following thought experiment introduced by

Heisenberg.

Suppose you wish to measure the position

and linear momentum of an electron as
accurately as possible by viewing the
electron with a powerful light microscope.
For one to see the electron and determine
its location, at least one photon of light
must bounce off the electron and pass
through the microscope into your eye as
shown.

When it strikes the electron, however, the photon transfers some unknown amount of its
momentum to the electron. Thus, in the process of locating the electron very accurately (that is,
by making ∆x very small), the light that enables you to succeed in your measurement changes

the electron’s momentum to some indeterminable extent (making ∆p x very large).

In making measurements on a quantum system, it is not possible to measure the quantities x

and p as accurately as we would wish.

Why is this so? Well, to determine the position very accurately, it is necessary to use light with a
very short wavelength – since the wavelength of the light determines the minimum distance
within which we can locate the particle. Very short wavelength light has a very high frequency

and according to the formula first guessed by Max Planck, E = hf where the constant of

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proportionality, h , is known as Planck’s constant.

We see that in order to locate the particle very precisely, we must use high frequency light with a

very large f , but such high frequency light will arrive in photons with a very large energy and

give the quantum system a very large ‘kick’. On the other hand, if we want to know the
momentum very accurately, we must give the system a very small kick and according to Planck’s
formula, this means using light of low frequency. Low frequency means long wavelength and this
in turn means a large uncertainty in the measurement of position.

In short, when one is trying to measure a quantum system, the act of measurement has
already disturbed the system.

Exploratory Question :
Since its impossible to measure precisely the position or momentum of a particle, is it valid then
to even discuss the position and momentum of a particle?

We are now almost ready to move into a formal introduction of Quantum Theory. But first, we
need to be introduced to the concept of probability amplitude.

Recall the intensity distribution pattern of

the electrons. After numerous electrons are
fired, the resulting intensity distribution
pattern represents the probability of finding
an electron at each location and can be
described by a probability function given by

2 2 2
P12 = ψ 1 + ψ 2 where P1 = ψ 1 and P2 = ψ 2

ψ (x ) is a complex valued function over space and is known as the probability amplitude

function, also known as the wave function. Note that at this point in time, ψ (x ) is simply a

theoretical construct we used to predict the resulting probability distribution of the two slit
experiment.

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Section Nine : The 1 Dimensional Wave Function ψ ( x, t )

The electron plays dice

The wave function (probability amplitude function) ψ ( x, t ) of

a particle is the de Broglie wave. It is a complex valued

function. For example, for a particle moving in the x direction
with a precise value of linear momentum and energy, we have

x 
ψ ( x, t ) = A sin 2π  − ft 
λ 

2
The squared wave function, ψ = ψ ∗ψ gives the

probability density function, which is the probability of

finding the particle at a particular location, x and time t.

(Note: if ψ = a + ib , then ψ * = a − ib .)

2
Mathematically, we state that P( x) dx = ψ ( x, t ) dx

∞
∫
2
Where ψ ( x, t ) dx = 1 (normalization condition)
−∞

Exercise :
i) Write down the expression for the probability of finding the particle in the interval a < x < b as
well as a ≤ x ≤ b .
ii) What is the range of possible values for the probability density function ψ 2 = ψ ∗ψ ?

ψ ( x, t ) can be used to predict measureable averaged values of the particle, such as its energy,
its position, its momentum and other quantities. Thus once the wave function of a particle is
obtained, we essentially know the state of the particle.
∞
Mathematically, we state that x = ∫ ψ * xψ dx
−∞

To obtain the wave function of the particle, we need to solve the Schrödinger equation,
proposed in 1926 by Austrian-German physicist, Erwin Schrödinger.

Exercise :

Imagine a particle with wavefunction ψ = A sin kx confined to an infinite square well with

a
∫ψ
2
walls at x = 0 and x = a. The normalization condition is 0
dx = 1 . Find the

normalization constant, A .

kwh May 19, 2009 Page 33 of 34

 Hwa Chong Institution – H3 Physics 2009

Case study : The wave function of a free particle

The plane wave representation for a free particle is

Ψk ( x, t ) = Ae i ( kx −ωt ) = A{cos( kx − ωt ) + i sin( kx − ωt )}

The wavenumber k and angular frequency ω of free particle matter waves are given by the
de Broglie relations

p E
k= and ω=
h h
hk 2
For non-relativistic particles ω is related to k as ω =
2m

which follows from the classical connection E = p 2 2m between the energy E and

momentum p for a free particle.

Exercise :
2
i) Show that the probability density Ψ (= A 2 ) is uniform.

ii) What does this say about the particle’s location at any instant in time?

Summary :

In this topic, we first began by establishing that light can be modeled as a particle as well as a
wave in explaining various characteristics of light behavior. We then move on to extend this
wave-particle duality for particles as well. Having established empirical evidence for particles
that can only be explained by modeling them as waves, we then moved on to consider several
applications of the use of electrons in designing optical instruments that can have a resolution
beyond that of light-based instruments. While we have at this point established the feasibility of
a wave model for particles, we still do not have an interpretation of this matter wave. What is a
matter wave? In a series of two-slit experiments, we furthered our understanding in that the de
Broglie matter waves are in actual fact referring to probability amplitude waves, which is a
theoretical construct used to generate the probability of finding the particle at a certain time
and location. With this understanding of matter waves, the mechanics governing the wave
function is developed, which shall be introduced in greater detail in the next topic, Quantum
Mechanics.

kwh May 19, 2009 Page 34 of 34