A PROJECT REPORT PC BASED ELECTRICAL OVER LOAD CONTROL

REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN ELECTRONICS & TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY CHETAN OMPURI
B-TECH (FINAL YEAR) ELECTRONICS & TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

MAHATMA GANDHI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

SECTOR-62, NOIDA,

(2008-2009)

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project titled PC BASED OVER LOAD CONTROL is Degree of submitted by Mr. Chetan Ompuri Electronics & own work in the partial fulfillment of requirements for the award of Bachelor of Technology in Telecommunication, is a record of candidates carried under my supervision.

_______________ Faculty Guide

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is my great pleasure in expressing sincere gratitude towards my guide Mr. P.R. Bhattacharyya for his invaluable guidance in all phase of my project work. He has always been a source of inspiration to me and I am highly indebted to him for his kindness and help. I avail this opportunity to place on record my deep sense of gratitude towards my revered all those people who has been provided me support and current information onwards my completion of project report. Their perpetual inspiration, several patient discussions, constructive criticism and valuable guidance throughout, helped the research work to materialize. I take this opportunity to thank Sunny Electricals, Ludhiana, for all kind of support. I would also like to thank all those who have directly or indirectly helped me during my project. I am also grateful to my parents for constant inspiration and encouragement to carry on with the project work.

CHETAN OMPURI

CONTENTS
TOPIC

INTRODUCTION
OBJECTIVE OVERVIEW POWER SUPPLY MAKING PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD PC PARALLEL PORT COMPONENTS USED (I) (II) CAPACITOR DIODE

(III) RELAY (IV) RESISTANCE (V) TRANSFORMER

(VI) TRANSISTOR

PROGRAM

INTRODUCTION

A given electrical generating station has a fixed installed capacity i.e. it is capable of maintaining a stable operation with the load on it not exceeding its installed capacity. Hence, an electrical power system has fixed capacity to supply loads, if loads exceeds the capacity it effects its stability. Hence efforts should be made to ensure that the load does not exceed its capacity. In presenting this report on Overload control we have kept in mind this fact of the power system. We have represented total eight loads , of which the four of them are represented as VIP areas and the other four as non VIP areas .Our aim is to keep the total load on the system to be constant without making any changes in generating station by shedding some of loads, which in our case is the non VIP loads, as the VIP areas should get uninterrupted power supply.

OBJECTIVES 1) To design an overload sensing circuit that gives relay switching while overloading for four outputs. 2) To interface these outputs to PC as inputs and get the load connections for eight appliances at output port of PC using driver circuit. 3) To write a program in C or C++, which controls the inputs for different load indication, and switch the output loads for VIP and general categories area.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

OVERVIEW
8

The present circuit for overload control using PC interface is based on Load sensing devices to be sensed and interfaced using a software in C by graphical user interface GUI. In the circuit, 8 output loads are to be connected with PC parallel port for actual electricity supply distribution to the user end. Out of which four are V.I.P areas and rest four are in general category. In the system we have four input sensing devices that reads the overload at the supply end. As all the eight outputs connected to the same phase and single transformer distribution, the system reads the overload if happens on the same phase. As it happen, the first output relay from the general category is disconnected automatically and further for the more load sensing activation another general category output is going to be disconnected. In any case our V.I.P area loads are to be retained with continues supply.

UNDER/OVER VOLTAGE PROTECTION TO DEVICES

Here is a simple solidstate circuit which provides both under-voltage and over voltage protection to a household device. Various types of commercial stabilizers available in the market do not normally provide the cut-off at the extreme voltage limits, which is very important for devices. If the supply voltage varies within +10V, there is no harm done to a device. But protection is absolutely essential if the supply varies beyond these limits. The circuit described here cuts off the supply whenever it goes beyond the set limits. The base voltage of transistor T1 should be adjusted to just over 6V with preset VR1 so that the under-voltage relay RL1 just gets energized at the normal voltage. This relay should get released at the lower voltage limit. At normal voltage, RL1 should remain energized. Similarly, the base voltage of T2 should be adjusted to just under 6V by the corresponding preset VR2 such that RL2 just gets energized at the upper voltage limit and is released at the normal voltage.

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Normally open contact (N/O) of RL1 normally-closed contact (N/C) of RL2 are connected in series with the supply.

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POWER SUPPLY

In alternating current the electron flow is alternate, i.e. the electron flow increases to maximum in one direction, decreases back to zero. It then increases in the other direction and then decreases to zero again. Direct current flows in one direction only. Rectifier converts alternating current to flow in one direction only. When the anode of the diode is positive with respect to its cathode, it is forward biased, allowing current to flow. But when its anode is negative with respect to the cathode, it is reverse biased and does not allow current to flow. This unidirectional property of the diode is useful for rectification. A single diode arranged back-to-back might allow the electrons to flow during positive half cycles only and suppress the negative half cycles. Double diodes arranged back-to-back might act as full wave rectifiers as they may allow the electron flow during both positive and negative half cycles. Four diodes can be arranged to make a full wave bridge rectifier. Different types of filter circuits are used to smooth

12

out the pulsations in amplitude of the output voltage from a rectifier. The property of capacitor to oppose any change in the voltage applied across them by storing energy in the electric field of the capacitor and of inductors to oppose any change in the current flowing through them by storing energy in the magnetic field of coil may be utilized. To remove pulsation of the direct current obtained from the rectifier, different types of combination of capacitor,

inductors and resistors may be also be used to increase to action of filtering. NEED OF POWER SUPPLY:

Perhaps all of you are aware that a power supply is a primary requirement for the Test Bench of a home experimenters mini lab. A battery eliminator can eliminate or replace the batteries of solid-state electronic equipment and the equipment thus can be operated by 230v A.C. mains instead of the batteries or dry cells. Nowadays, the use of commercial battery eliminator or power supply unit has become increasingly popular as power source for
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household appliances like transreceivers, record player, cassette players, digital clock etc.

THEORETICAL CONCEPT
USE OF DIODES IN RECTIFIERS: Electric energy is available in homes and industries in India, in the form of alternating voltage. The supply has a voltage of 220V (rms) at a frequency of 50 Hz. In the USA, it is 110V at 60 Hz. For the operation of most of the devices in electronic equipment, a dc voltage is needed. For instance, a transistor radio requires a dc supply for its operation. Usually, this supply is provided by dry cells. But sometime we use a battery eliminator in place of dry cells. The battery eliminator converts the ac voltage into dc voltage and thus eliminates the need for dry cells. Nowadays, almost allelectronic equipment includes a circuit that converts ac voltage of mains supply into dc voltage. This part of the equipment is called Power Supply. In general, at the input of

14

the power supply, there is a power transformer. It is followed by a diode circuit called Rectifier.

The output of the rectifier goes to a smoothing filter, and then to a voltage regulator circuit. The rectifier circuit is the heart of a power supply.

RECTIFICATION

Rectification is a process of rendering an alternating current or voltage into a unidirectional one. The component used for rectification is called Rectifier. A rectifier permits current to flow only during the positive half cycles of the applied AC voltage by eliminating the negative half cycles or alternations of the applied AC voltage. Thus pulsating DC is obtained. To obtain smooth DC power, additional filter circuits are required.

15

A diode can be used as rectifier. There are various types of diodes. But, semiconductor diodes are very popularly used as rectifiers. A semiconductor diode is a solid-state device consisting of two elements is being an electron emitter or cathode, the other an electron collector or anode. Since electrons in a semiconductor diode can flow in one direction only-from emitter to collector- the diode provides the unilateral conduction necessary for

rectification. Out of the semiconductor diodes, copper oxide and selenium rectifier are also commonly used.

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER It is possible to rectify both alternations of the input voltage by using two diodes in the circuit arrangement. Assume 6.3 V rms (18 V p-p) is applied to the circuit. Assume further that two equal-valued series-connected resistors R are placed in parallel with the ac source. The 18 V p-p appears across the two resistors connected between points AC and CB, and point C is the electrical midpoint between A and B. Hence 9 V p-p appears across each
16

resistor. At any moment during a cycle of v in, if point A is positive relative to C, point B is negative relative to C. When A is negative to C, point B is positive relative to C. The effective voltage in proper time phase which each diode "sees" is in Fig. The voltage applied to the anode of each diode is equal but opposite in polarity at any given instant.

When A is positive relative to C, the anode of D 1 is positive with respect to its cathode. Hence D 1 will conduct but D2 will not. During the second alternation, B is positive relative to C. The anode of D 2 is therefore positive with respect to its cathode, and D2 conducts while D1 is cut off.

There is conduction then by either D 1 or D2 during the entire input-voltage cycle. Since the two diodes have a common-cathode load resistor RL, the output voltage across RL will result from the alternate conduction of D1 and D2. The output waveform vout across RL, therefore has no gaps as in the case of the half-wave rectifier.

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The output of a full-wave rectifier is also pulsating direct current. In the diagram, the two equal resistors R across the input voltage are necessary to provide a voltage midpoint C for circuit connection and zero reference. Note that the load resistor RL is connected from the cathodes to this center reference point C.

An interesting fact about the output waveform v out is that its peak amplitude is not 9 V as in the case of the halfwave rectifier using the same power source, but is less than 4 V. The reason, of course, is that the peak positive voltage of A relative to C is 4 V, not 9 V, and part of the 4 V is lost across R.

Though the full wave rectifier fills in the conduction gaps, it delivers less than half the peak output voltage that results from half-wave rectification.

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BRIDGE RECTIFIER A more widely used full-wave rectifier circuit is the bridge rectifier. It requires four diodes instead of two, but avoids the need for a centre-tapped transformer. During the positive half-cycle of the secondary voltage, diodes D2 and D4 are conducting and diodes D1 and D3 are nonconducting. Therefore, current flows through the secondary winding, diode D2, load resistor RL and diode D4. During negative half-cycles of the secondary voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct, and the diodes D2 and D4 do not conduct. The current therefore flows through the secondary winding, diode D1, load resistor RL and diode D3. In both cases, the current passes through the load resistor in the same direction. Therefore, a fluctuating, unidirectional voltage is developed across the load.

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FILTRATION

The rectifier circuits we have discussed above deliver an output voltage that always has the same polarity: but however, this output is not suitable as DC power supply for solid-state circuits. This is due to the pulsation or ripples of the output voltage. This should be removed out before the output voltage can be supplied to any circuit. This

smoothing is done by incorporating filter networks. The filter network consists of inductors and capacitors. The inductors or choke coils are generally connected in series with the rectifier output and the load. The inductors oppose any change in the magnitude of a current flowing through them by storing up energy in a magnetic field. An inductor offers very low resistance for DC whereas; it offers very high resistance to AC. Thus, a series connected choke coil in a rectifier circuit helps to reduce the pulsations or ripples to a great extent in the output voltage. The fitter capacitors are usually connected in parallel with the rectifier output and the load. As, AC can pass through a capacitor but DC
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cannot, the ripples are thus limited and the output becomes smoothed. When the voltage across its plates tends to rise, it stores up energy back into voltage and current. Thus, the fluctuations in the output voltage are reduced considerable. Filter network circuits may be of two types in general:

CHOKE INPUT FILTER

If a choke coil or an inductor is used as the firstcomponents in the filter network, the filter is called choke input filter. The D.C. along with AC pulsation from the rectifier circuit at first passes through the choke (L). It opposes the AC pulsations but allows the DC to pass through it freely. Thus AC pulsations are largely reduced. The further ripples are by passed through the parallel capacitor C. But, however, a little nipple remains unaffected, which are considered negligible. This little ripple may be reduced by incorporating a series a choke input filters.

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CAPACITOR INPUT FILTER If a capacitor is placed before the inductors of a chokeinput filter network, the filter is called capacitor input filter. The D.C. along with AC ripples from the rectifier circuit starts charging the capacitor C. to about peak value. The AC ripples are then diminished slightly. Now the capacitor C, discharges through the inductor or choke coil, which opposes the AC ripples, except the DC. The second capacitor C by passes the further AC ripples. A small ripple is still present in the output of DC, which may be reduced by adding additional filter network in series.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

23

MAKING PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD (P.C.B.)

INTRODUCTIONMaking a Printed Circuit Board is the first step towards building industry. electronic A number equipment by any electronic

of methods are available for

making P.C.B., the simplest method is of drawing pattern on a copper clad board with acid resistant (etchants) ink or paint or simple nail polish on a copper clad board and do the etching process for dissolving the rest of copper pattern in acid liquid.

MATERIAL REQUIRED The apparatus needs for making a P.C.B. is :* * Copper Clad Sheet Nail Polish or Paint
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* * * USES

Ferric Chloride Powder. (Fecl) Plastic Tray Tap Water etc.

Printed Circuit Board are used for housing components to make a circuit for compactness, simplicity of servicing and case of interconnection. Thus we can define the P.C.B. as : Prinked Circuit Boards is actually a sheet of bakelite (an insulating material) on the one side of which copper patterns are made with holes and from another side, leads of electronic components are inserted in the proper holes and soldered to the copper points on the back. Thus leads of electronic components terminals are joined to make

electronic circuit.

25

In the boards copper cladding is done by pasting thin copper foil on the boards during curing. The copper on the board is about 2 mm thick and weights an ounce per square foot. The process of making a Printed Circuit for any application has the following steps (opted professionally): * * * Preparing the layout of the track. Transferring this layout photographically M the copper. Removing the copper in places which are not needed, by the process of etching (chemical process) * Drilling holes for components mounting.

PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD Printed circuit boards are used for housing components to make a circuit, for comactness, simplicity of servicing and ease of interconnection. Single sided, double sided and double sided with plated-through-hold (PYH) types of p.c boards are common today.

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Boards are of two types of material (1) phenolic paper based material (2) Glass epoxy material. Both materials are available as laminate sheets with copper cladding.

Printed circuit boards have a copper cladding on one or both sides. In both boards, pasting thin copper foil on the board during curing does this. Boards are prepared in sizes of 1 to 5 metre wide and upto 2 metres long. The thickness of the boards is 1.42 to 1.8mm. The copper on the boards is about 0.2 thick and weighs and ounce per square foot.

PC PARALLEL PORT

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The

standard

LPT

port

was

designed

for

printer

connection, in cooperation with printer manufacturers. Nobody expected a different use, so its design was kept very simple. Standard parallel port (SPP) uses a 25-pin female CANNON plug. There are eight data lines, four output lines (control signals), and five input lines (status). Normally, PC waits for the printer to send "I'm ready" signal (BUSY pin), sets the data lines according to a next character to be printed, sends "There's a new character for you" signal (pulse on STROBE), and waits for the printer again. In this worst case, the computer spends most of the time waiting. It is possible for the PC to do something else while the printer is busy, using a hardware interrupt - pin /ACK, IRQ 5 or IRQ 7 (interrupt has to be enabled via the appropriate register).

PC BIOS supports upto four printer ports (LPT's). However, only two I/O addresses are reserved for LPT's, 378h and 278h. The HERCULES company distributed their (very successful at that time) graphics adapters with a built-in printer port, which used the 3BCh address. This one was
28

later designated as a third I/O address for LPT; some manufacturers don't support it, though. During computer boot-up, BIOS looks for LPT ports on the above addresses in the same order. If a LPT is found, a number from 1 to 3 is assigned to it (so we get LPT1, LPT2 or LPT3). Usually, LPT1 uses IRQ7, and LPT2 use IRQ5, but don't rely on it. It should be noted that all LPT's could share a single IRQ together with a sound card or a modem. The problem is that some software drivers don't support interrupt sharing, and the above configuration won't work. Therefore, it's safer to assign a dedicated IRQ for each device, or to have LPT and a sound card share IRQ7 (works most of the time). LPT boards that are 2 years old or newer can be configured for different IRQ's and I/O addresses, either via jumpers on board or via software (BIOS SETUP on most machines).

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Standards called EPP (Enhanced Parallel Port) and ECP (Extended Capabilities Port) brought many enhancements. The most important one is the possibility of bi-directional communication over the data pins D0-D7, due to modified hardware design of these pins. The SPP data pin is wired according to picture 1 with 2 transistors, one pulling high & the other pulling low, one of them conducting at any time.

Picture 2 shows the EPP or ECP data pin circuit. The only difference between ECP/EPP and the "normal" SPP is, that the transistor pulling high has been replaced by a resistor (it's supposed to be 4700 Ohms, according to the

30

standards). Therefore, an ECP/EPP pin can be set to "read mode" by setting it to 1, so the transistor pulling low is open (non-conducting) and the actual logical level on the pin can be read. This system is backward compatible with SPP in most cases; some difficulties do arise.

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It should be clear now, that this port could be used for direct connection of two PC's without the need for network adapters and expensive networking software. Parallel port connection is generally 3 to 4 times faster than a serial port connection. However, the length of the connection cable is severely limited. Since all signaling uses 5V logical levels instead of current loops, cables longer than 3ft (1 meter) tend to be sensitive to interference. It is still possible to use cables up to 10 meters (30ft) in length, as long as certain

32

rules are observed. Unfortunately, software supporting ECP and EPP ports is not widely available yet. Most programs, like Laplink or Norton Commander, support only the SPP port (cable sometimes called '4BIT', since only 4 data bits are transferred at a time). Some software available on the Internet (e.g. EASYNET) can emulate an IPX-compatible network over a 4BIT cable. While this is ideal for occasional data transfer between a notebook or a desktop PC, it's not the best option for a stable network connection, as the price of network adapters has dropped significantly.

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ECP, EPP or SPP?

While new parallel port standards are backward compatible on the hardware level, it is possible, that they won't work in all cases (e.g., when a long printer cable is used). More, few printers take advantage of the bi-directional communication. Still, the most compatibility problems arise from faulty software for communication between the PC and the printer - sometimes, it accidentally switches data flow due to improper use of added control bits, etc. My experience with various name-brand manufacturers shows that, if the port is used for printer only, the best option is to switch the port to SPP mode. You can experiment with the extended modes, but the source of troubles is often here. However, EPP/ECP port shows its strengths if a CD-ROM, JAZ or ZIP drive, modem, or another such device is connected to it. The transfer speed goes up rapidly.

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HOW TO MAKE GOOD COMMUNICATION CABLES? Every data wire should be shielded, or separated from its neighbor by a ground line to reduce echos between neighboring wires. The cable can be longer and achieves faster speeds. For ribbon cables, the pinout of the parallel port connector suggests such wiring. Another good idea is to use a cable, where each pair of wires is twisted together use one of them for "live" data, and the other for ground.

PAY ATTENTION TO MAINS CONNECTIONS OF CONNECTED EQUIPMENT. Every PC has its cover, as well as the ground pins, connected to the center wire of the mains plug ("protective earth"). Often, this one is connected to the neutral wire. If you have two PCs connected to different mains plugs that you intend to connect together, it is possible that each of them is connected to a different branch of your home electrical wiring. Although these are connected together at the switchboard, they may have different voltages if a

35

heavy load is connected to one of them (e.g. washer, dryer, etc.) causing a voltage drop. Single pulse can reach the order of tens of volts. This voltage difference then appears at the inputs of the PC, EASILY DESTROYING the parallel or serial port, hard drive controller, sometimes even the whole mainboard. Therefore, it is a good idea to connect only PC's powered from the same mains plug, or at least connected by a single extension cord. The same applies to monitor, printer, notebook, and other connections. With some

notebook computers, the safest thing to do is to run on batteries while connected to a desktop PC; however, new notebooks should have no problems. Please note that communication cables are dangerous to notebooks; when an external disk drive, etc. connects via the parallel port, this port may not be fully compatible, and notebook damage may occur.

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MORE PARALLEL PORT HINTS.

Always use either shielded wires, or connect remaining wires in the cable to the ground. This applies especially for long cables used for fast data transfer (over 100kbit/s).

When making devices connected to LPT, always connect a pull-up resistor "ladder" to +5V to all data wires, preferably at the connector itself. This should reduce potential effect of RC networks in the cable. Usually, resistors between 4 and 10 k-ohms work the best.

For fast communication, always use D-type flip-flops (triggered by edge) instead of latches (triggered by logic level). The latter ones are sensitive to crosstalks, which can cause data errors. (For example, D-type IO's

37

are 74374, 574, 7474, ..., while latches are 74373, 573, etc.)

When writing software, always keep in mind-enhanced ports. For example, bits that are unused or "reserved" in SPP mode may have assigned meaning in ECP or EPP modes.

Don't try to power devices from the LPT, like a mouse is powered from the serial port. Sometimes, the voltage corresponding to logical 1 is about 3.5V, so, after adding voltage on the diodes, you can't even rely on circuits operating from 2.7V (due to current-carrying capacity).

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COMPONENTS USED
The various components used in making the project are:

CAPACITORS It is an electronic component whose function is to accumulate charges and then release it. To concept of understand the capacitance,

consider a pair of metal plates which all are placed near to each other without touching. If a battery is connected to these plates the positive pole to one and the negative pole to the other, electrons from the battery will be attracted from the plate connected to the positive terminal of the battery. If the battery is then disconnected, one plate will be left with an excess of electrons, the other with a shortage, or will and a

potential difference

voltage exists

39

between them. These plates will be acting as capacitors. Capacitors are of two types: - (1) fixed type like ceramic, polyester, electrolytic capacitors-these names refer to the material they are made of aluminium foil. (2) Variable type like gang condenser in radio or trimmer. In fixed type capacitors, it has two leads and its value is written over its body and variable type has three leads. Unit of

measurement of a capacitor is farad denoted by the symbol F. It is a very big unit of capacitance. Small unit capacitor are pico-farad denoted by pf (Ipf=1/1000,000,000,000 f) Above all, in case of electrolytic capacitors, it's two terminal are marked as (-) and (+) so check it while using capacitors in the circuit in right direction. Mistake can destroy the capacitor or entire circuit in operational.

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DIODE
The simplest semiconductor device is made up of a sandwich of P-type semiconducting material, with contacts provided to connect the p-and n-type layers to an external circuit. This is a junction Diode. If the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type material (cathode) and the negative terminal to the N-type material (Anode), a large current will flow. This is called forward current or forward biased.

If the connections are reversed, a very little current will flow. This is because under this condition, the p-type material will accept the electrons from the negative terminal of the battery and the N-type material will give up its free electrons to the battery, resulting in the state of electrical equilibrium since the N-type material has no more electrons. Thus there will be a small current to flow and the diode is called Reverse biased.

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Thus the Diode allows direct current to pass only in one direction while blocking it in the other direction. Power diodes are used in concerting AC into DC. In this, current will flow freely during the first half cycle (forward biased) and practically not at all during the other half cycle (reverse biased). This makes the diode an effective rectifier, which convert ac into pulsating dc. Signal diodes are used in radio circuits for detection. Zener diodes are used in the circuit to control the voltage.

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SOME COMMON DIODES ARE:1. Zener diode. 2. Photo diode. 3. Light Emitting diode.

1.

ZENER DIODE:A zener diode is specially designed junction diode,

which can operate continuously without being damaged in the region of reverse break down voltage. One of the most important applications of zener diode is the design of constant voltage power supply. The zener diode is joined in reverse bias to d.c. through a resistance R of suitable value.

2.

PHOTO DIODE:A photo diode is a junction diode made from photo-

sensitive semiconductor or material. In such a diode, there is a provision to allow the light of suitable frequency to fall on the p-n junction. It is reverse biased, but the voltage

43

applied is less than the break down voltage. As the intensity of incident light is increased, current goes on increasing till it becomes maximum. The maximum current is called saturation current.

3.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED):-

When a junction diode is forward biased, energy is released at the junction diode is forward biased, energy is released at the junction due to recombination of electrons and holes. In case of silicon and germanium diodes, the energy released is in infrared region. In the junction diode made of gallium arsenate or indium phosphide, the energy is released in visible region. Such a junction diode is called a light emitting diode or LED.

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RELAY Relay is a common, simple application of

electromagnetism. It uses an electromagnet made from an iron rod wound with hundreds of fine copper wire. When electricity is applied to the wire, the rod becomes magnetic. A movable contact arm above the rod is then pulled toward the rod until it closes a switch contact. When the electricity is removed, a small spring pulls the contract arm away from the rod until it closes a second switch contact. By means of relay, a current circuit can be broken or closed in one circuit as a result of a current in another circuit.

Relays can have several poles and contacts. The types of contacts could be normally open and normally closed. One closure of the relay can turn on the same normally open contacts; can turn off the other normally closed contacts.

45

Relay requires a current through their coils, for which a voltage is applied. This voltage for a relay can be D.C. low voltages upto 24V or could be 240V a.c.

A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under control of another electrical circuit. In the original form, the switch is operated by an electromagnet to open or close one or many sets of contacts. It was invented by Joseph Henry in 1835. Because a relay is able to control an output circuit of higher power than the input circuit, it can be considered, in a broad sense, to be a form of electrical amplifier.

46

These contacts can be either Normally Open (NO), Normally Closed (NC), or change-over contacts.

Normally-open contacts connect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is disconnected when the relay is inactive. It is also called Form A contact or "make" contact. Form A contact is ideal for applications that require to switch a high-current power source from a remote device.

Normally-closed contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is connected when the relay is inactive. It is also called Form B contact or "break" contact. Form B contact is ideal for applications that require the circuit to remain closed until the relay is activated.

Change-over

contacts

control

two

circuits:

one

normally-open contact and one normally-closed contact with a common terminal. It is also called Form C contact.

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48

OPERATION
When a current flows through the coil, the resulting magnetic field attracts an armature that is mechanically linked to a moving contact. The movement either makes or breaks a connection with a fixed contact. When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force that is half as strong as the magnetic force to its relaxed position. Usually this is a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low voltage

application, this is to reduce noise. In a high voltage or high current application, this is to reduce arcing. If the coil is energized with DC, a diode is frequently installed across the coil, to dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise generate a spike of voltage and might cause damage to circuit components. If the coil is designed to be energized with AC, a small copper ring can be crimped to the end of the solenoid. This "shading ring" creates a small

49

out-of-phase current, which increases the minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle. By analogy with the
[1]

functions

of

the

original

electromagnetic device, a solid-state relay is made with a thyristor or other solid-state switching device. To achieve electrical isolation, a light-emitting diode (LED) is used with a photo transistor. Relays are used

To control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of modems,

To control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter solenoid of an automobile,

To detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening and closing circuit

breakers (protection relays),

To isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two are at different potentials, for example when controlling a mains-powered device from a low-voltage switch. The latter is often applied to

50

control office lighting as the low voltage wires are easily installed in partitions, which may be often moved as needs change. They may also be controlled by room occupancy detectors in an effort to conserve energy,

To perform logic functions. For example, the boolean AND function is realised by connecting NO relay contacts in series, the OR function by connecting NO contacts in parallel. The change-over or Form C contacts perform the XOR (exclusive or) function. Similar functions for NAND and NOR are accomplished using NC contacts. Due to the failure modes of a relay compared with a semiconductor, they are widely used in safety critical logic, such as the control panels of radioactive waste handling machinery.

To perform time delay functions. Relays can be modified to delay opening or delay closing a set of contacts. A very short (a fraction of a second) delay would use a copper disk between the armature and moving blade assembly. Current flowing in the disk
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maintains magnetic field for a short time, lengthening release time. For a slightly longer (up to a minute) delay, a dashpot is used. A dashpot is a piston filled with fluid that is allowed to escape slowly. The time period can be varied by increasing or decreasing the flow rate. For longer time periods, a mechanical clockwork timer is installed.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

53

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

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The circuit is simple NPN transistor common emitter switching circuit. The transistor T-1 is supplied through negative at emitter. The base is conducted through the port output from computer and collector gives output to energies the relay commonly connected to +ve supply. The diode prevents back emf produced by relay while working.

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RESISTANCE

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Resistance is the opposition of a material to the current. It is measured in Ohms (). All conductors represent a certain amount of resistance, since no conductor is 100% efficient. To control the electron flow (current) in a predictable manner, we use resistors. Electronic circuits use calibrated lumped resistance to control the flow of current. Broadly speaking, resistor can be divided into two groups viz. fixed & adjustable (variable) resistors. In fixed resistors, the value is fixed & cannot be varied. In variable resistors, the resistance value can be varied by an adjuster knob. It can be divided into (a) Carbon composition (b) Wire wound (c) Special type. The most common type of resistors used in our projects is carbon type. The resistance value is normally indicated by colour bands. Each resistance has four colours, one of the band on either side will be gold or silver, this is called fourth band and indicates the tolerance, others three band will give the value of resistance. For example if a resistor has the following marking on it say red, violet, gold. Comparing these coloured rings with the colour code, its value is 27000 ohms or 27 kilo ohms and its tolerance is 5%. Resistor comes in various sizes (Power rating). The bigger, the size, the more power rating of 1/4

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watts. The four colour rings on its body tells us the value of resistor value as given below.

COLOURS

CODE:

Black----------------------------------------0 Brown--------------------------------------1 Red------------------------------------------2 Orange-------------------------------------3 Yellow--------------------------------------4 Green---------------------------------------5 Blue-----------------------------------------6 Violet---------------------------------------7

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Grey-----------------------------------------8 White---------------------------------------9

The first rings give the first digit. The second ring gives the second digit. The third ring indicates the number of zeroes to be placed after the digits. The fourth ring gives tolerance (gold 5%, silver 10%, No colour 20%). In variable resistors, we have the dial type of resistance boxes. There is a knob with a metal pointer. This presses over brass pieces placed along a circle with some space b/w each of them.

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Resistance coils of different values are connected b/w the gaps. When the knob is rotated, the pointer also moves over the brass pieces. If a gap is skipped over, its resistance is included in the circuit. If two gaps are skipped over, the resistances of both together are included in the circuit and so on. A dial type of resistance box contains many dials depending upon the range, which it has to cover. If a resistance box has to read upto 10,000 , it will have three dials each having ten gaps i.e. ten resistance coils each of resistance 10. The third dial will have ten resistances each of 100. The dial type of resistance boxes is better because the contact resistance in this case is small & constant.

TRANSFORMER

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PRINCIPLE OF THE TRANSFORMER:Two coils are wound over a Core such that they are magnetically coupled. The two coils are known as the primary and secondary windings. In a Transformer, an iron core is used. The coupling between the coils is source of making a path for the magnetic flux to link both the coils. A core as in fig.2 is used and the coils are wound on the limbs of the core. Because of high permeability of iron, the flux path for the flux is only in the iron and hence the flux links both windings. Hence there is very little leakage flux. This term leakage flux denotes the part of the flux, which does not link both the coils, i.e., when coupling is not perfect. In the high frequency transformers, ferrite core is used. The transformers may be step-up, step-down, frequency matching, sound output, amplifier driver etc. The basic principles of all the transformers are same.

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MINIATURE TRANSFORMER

CONVENTIONAL POWER TRANSFORMER

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TRANSISTOR

The name is transistor derived from transfer resistors indicating a solid state Semiconductor device. In addition to conductor and insulators, there is a third class of material that exhibits proportion of both. Under some conditions, it acts as an insulator, and under other conditions its a conductor. This phenomenon is called Semi-conducting and allows a variable control over electron flow. So, the transistor is semi conductor device used in electronics for amplitude. Transistor has three terminals, one is the collector, one is the base and other is the emitter, (each lead must be connected in the circuit correctly and only then the transistor will function). Electrons are emitted via one terminal and collected on another terminal, while the third terminal acts as a control element. Each transistor has a number marked on its body. Every number has its own specifications.

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There are mainly two types of transistor (i) NPN & (ii) PNP NPN Transistors: When a positive voltage is applied to the base, the transistor begins to conduct by allowing current to flow through the collector to emitter circuit. The relatively small current flowing through the base circuit causes a much greater current to pass through the emitter / collector circuit. The phenomenon is called current gain and it is

measure in beta. PNP Transistor: It also does exactly same thing as above except that it has a negative voltage on its collector and a positive voltage on its emitter.

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Transistor is a combination of semi-conductor elements allowing a controlled current flow. Germanium and Silicon is the two semi-conductor elements used for making it. There are two types of transistors such as POINT CONTACT and JUNCTION TRANSISTORS. Point contact construction is

defective so is now out of use. Junction triode transistors are in many respects analogous to triode electron tube.

A junction transistor can function as an amplifier or oscillator as can a triode tube, but has the additional advantage of long life, small size, ruggedness and absence of cathode heating power. Junction transistors are of two types which can be obtained while manufacturing.

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THE TWO TYPES ARE: 1) PNP TYPE: This is formed by joining a layer of P

type of

germanium to an N-P Junction

P 2)

P This is formed by

NPN TYPE:

joining a layer of N type germanium to a P-N Junction.

Both types are shown in figure, with their symbols for representation. The centre section is called the base, one of the outside sections-the emitter and the other outside section-the collector. The direction of the arrowhead gives the direction of the conventional current with the forward bias on the emitter. The conventional flow is opposite in direction to the electron flow. OPERATION OF PNP TRANSISTOR:-

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A PNP transistor is made by sand witching two PN germanium or silicon diodes, placed back to back. The centre of N-type portion is extremely thin in comparison to P region. The P region of the left is connected to the positive terminal and N-region to the negative terminal i.e. PN is biased in the forward direction while P region of right is biased negatively i.e. in the reverse direction as shown in Fig. The P region in the forward biased circuit is called the emitter and P region on the right, biased negatively is called collector. The centre is called base.

The majority carriers (holes) of P region (known as emitter) move to N region as they are repelled by the positive terminal of battery while the electrons of N region

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are attracted by the positive terminal. The holes overcome the barrier and cross the emitter junction into N region. As the width of base region is extremely thin, two to five percent of holes recombine with the free electrons of Nregion which result in a small base current while the remaining holes (95% to 98%) reach the collector junction. The collector is biased negatively and the negative collector voltage aids in sweeping the hole into collector region.

As the P region at the right is biased negatively, a very small current should flow but the following facts are observed:1) A substantial current flows through it when the emitter junction is biased in a forward direction. 2) The current flowing across the collector is slightly less than that of the emitter, and

3)

The collector current is a function of emitter current i.e. with the decrease or increase in the emitter current a corresponding change observed. in the collector current is

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The facts can be explained as follows:1. As already discussed that 2 to 5% of the holes are lost in recombination with the electron n base region, which result in a small base current and hence the collector current is slightly less than the emitter current. 2. The collector current increases as the holes reaching the 3. collector junction are attracted by negative potential applied to the collector. When the emitter current increases, most holes are injected into the base region, which is attracted by the negative potential of the collector and hence results in increasing the collector current. In this way emitter is analogous to the control of plate current by small grid voltage in a vacuum triode. Hence we can say that when the emitter is forward biased and collector is negatively biased, a substantial current flows in both the circuits. Since a small emitter voltage of about 0.1 to 0.5 volts permits the flow of an appreciable emitter current the input power is very small. The collector voltage can be as high as 45 volts.

APPENDIX

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A program in C which controls the inputs for different load indication, and switch the output loads for VIP and general categories area. #include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> #include<dos.h> void main() { unsigned char c; int i; textmode(C40); _setcursortype(_NOCURSOR); gotoxy(9,2); printf("OVER LOAD CONTROL SYSTEM"); gotoxy(7,24); printf("PRESS INPUTS AND SEE RESULTS"); gotoxy(1,9); printf("OUTPUTS"); gotoxy(12,8); printf("%c",218); gotoxy(12,9); printf("%c",179); gotoxy(12,10); printf("%c",192); for(i=0;i<14;i+=2)

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{ gotoxy(13+i,8); printf("%c",196); gotoxy(13+i,10); printf("%c",196); gotoxy(14+i,8); printf("%c",194); gotoxy(14+i,9); printf("%c",179); gotoxy(14+i,10); printf("%c",193); } gotoxy(13+i,8); printf("%c",196); gotoxy(13+i,10); printf("%c",196); gotoxy(14+i,8); printf("%c",191); gotoxy(14+i,9); printf("%c",179); gotoxy(14+i,10); printf("%c",217); gotoxy(13,7); printf("2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9"); gotoxy(13,11); printf(" V I P 4 3 2 1 - Blk");

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gotoxy(1,17); printf("OVERLOAD SWITCH"); gotoxy(16,16); printf("%c",218); gotoxy(16,17); printf("%c",179); gotoxy(16,18); printf("%c",192); for(i=0;i<6;i+=2) { gotoxy(17+i,16); printf("%c",196); gotoxy(17+i,18); printf("%c",196); gotoxy(18+i,16); printf("%c",194); gotoxy(18+i,17); printf("%c",179); gotoxy(18+i,18); printf("%c",193); } gotoxy(17+i,16); printf("%c",196); gotoxy(17+i,18); printf("%c",196); gotoxy(18+i,16);

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printf("%c",191); gotoxy(18+i,17); printf("%c",179); gotoxy(18+i,18); printf("%c",217); gotoxy(15,15); printf("10 11 12 13"); gotoxy(15,19); printf("1K 2K 3K 4K"); while(!kbhit()) { c=inportb(0x379); i=c; switch(i) { case 127: for(i=0;i<16;i+=2) { gotoxy(13+i,9); printf("%c",219); } for(i=0;i<8;i+=2) { gotoxy(17+i,17); printf(" "); }

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outportb(0x378,255); break; case 63: gotoxy(13+14,9); printf(" "); gotoxy(17,17); printf("%c",219); outportb(0x378,127); break; case 95: gotoxy(13+12,9); printf(" "); // // gotoxy(13+14,9); printf(" "); gotoxy(17+2,17); printf("%c",219); outportb(0x378,63); break; case 111: gotoxy(13+10,9); printf(" "); // // // // gotoxy(13+12,9); printf(" "); gotoxy(13+14,9); printf(" "); gotoxy(17+4,17);

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printf("%c",219); outportb(0x378,31); break; case 119: gotoxy(13+8,9); printf(" "); // // // // // // gotoxy(13+10,9); printf(" "); gotoxy(13+12,9); printf(" "); gotoxy(13+14,9); printf(" "); gotoxy(17+6,17); printf("%c",219); outportb(0x378,15); break; } delay(125); } outportb(0x378,0); _setcursortype(_NORMALCURSOR); textmode(C80);

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