Journal of Mining World Express (MWE)

Use of Remote Sensing to Assess the Environmental Setting of the Territories-Zones of Mining Complex Enterprises
G.V. Kalabin
Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Comprehensive Exploitation of Mineral Resources (RAS), Kryukovsky tupik, 4, 111020, Moscow, Russia kalabin.g@gmail.com
Abstract- The paper supports applicability of satellite imagery at regional and local level for rapid quantitative assessment of natural environment in zones of activity of mining complex enterprises. Exacerbation of environmental problems during mineral mining and processing associated with their scale and geography of field distribution through the vast territory of our country requires constant monitoring of natural environment status, which necessitates engagement of space surveillance nowadays. Remote sensing methods offer the most affordable and prompt approach for acquisition of information on land degradation. We quote and analyze the results of studies of the natural environment status by the example of three mining complex enterprises with different industrial infrastructure located in different climatic conditions. Keywords- Remote Sensing; Mining Complex; Technogenic Load; Environmental Assessment; Vegetation Index; Soil Phytotoxicity

importantly, RS allows obtaining independent operational real-time information. The simplest spectral methods are methods for determination of vegetation indices. Normalized Differential Vegetation Index (NDVI) [1] from a large group of vegetation indices is used most widely and it is calculated by the formula: NDVI=(KSB4 - KSB3)/( KSB4+KSB3) where KSB is coefficient of spectral brightness in the nearinfrared (IR) and red spectral channels. Spectral properties of plants depend on properties of leaves, their density and space orientation. Vegetation actively absorbs light in the blue and red regions of the spectrum having local maximum near 0.55 m, which defines green color of plants. Fast increase of KSB of vegetation is observed in the near-IR range. This is explained by the peculiarities of the spectral properties of chlorophyll. The subsequent run of a spectral curve in the infrared region is defined by the presence of free water in plants. Modern means of RS make it possible to identify different types of vegetation, such as coniferous and deciduous trees, ground cover, etc. using spectral characteristics. If a plant is under stress, its spectral properties change. KSB growth is observed in the visible and near-IR ranges [2], if vegetation is under stress (chemical or water). This method has become most common in the sphere of environmental management for global assessments of land cover of the Earth, as well as for solution of some practical problems in agriculture (e.g., assessment of yield of various crops, land desertification, soil erosion), forest science (taxonomic measurements of forest quality, damage assessment due to fires, etc.) [3]. Modern aerospace techniques and technologies for monitoring of different objects of oil and gas complex on land and water areas have received considerable development in the works of State Enterprise Scientific Center of Aerospace Monitoring Aerospace [4-6]. However, it is used for the first time as applied to the tasks of quantitative assessment of the environment status under the influence of technogenic loads in the area of activity of mining complex enterprises. It is proposed to implement monitoring of land cover and land use at regional and local level for the environmental assessment of a particular production or a production complex. To accomplish this, one shall determine dependence of NDVI change trends with the magnitude of technogenic load on source or multiple sources of environmental pollution in a particular territory. Thus, it is possible to provide real-time

I. INTRODUCTION It is known that Russia has become a major resource and raw power in the world from the middle of the past century and it has enormous stocks of natural resources for industrial use, including mineral ones. However, implemented technologies of mineral mining and processing allow using only pittance of valuable mineral mass extracted from the bowels of the earth (generally about 5-8%). The rest is waste, which becomes one of the most powerful forces of mantriggered environmental changes with accumulation and storage. As a result, quality of natural environment has considerably deteriorated in 50 mining regions of the country in recent years. However, environmental issues are still considered as external factors in relation to social and economic sphere. Therefore, the country loses control over its environmental future. The problem is also compounded by the fact that there is no effective system of environmental monitoring in the country. The system has not been modernized since the 80-ies and it does not allow an objective assessment of the environment status at the regional and local level. This requires extensive resources, and most importantly, long period of observation. Methods of Remote Sensing (RS) of the Earth, which are characterized by high rates of development and rapid obtainment of practically meaningful results, may become an alternative solution of the issue. The biggest advantage of remote sensing is that it can detect spatial patterns of landscape features, obtain information with different temporal resolution and in any scale, perform multiple analyses of explored territories and compare current events with the past ones. In addition, and perhaps most

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Journal of Mining World Express (MWE)

monitoring of the dynamics of change in environmental setting. Since the state of vegetation and biomass volume are determined by the quality of soils, we consider it necessary to compare changes in vegetation index with estimated soil phytotoxicity in the area of activity of enterprises of the natural resource complex at different distances from the source of contamination.
Indicators Total Emissions, Including so2 232.5 198.9 97.6 110 1990 248.3 1992 213.0 1994 107.8 1996 117.7

Objects of our research are: CJSC Karabashmed (Chelyabinsk region), JSC Kombinat Severonikel (Murmansk region) and Mining and processing complex (MPC) Vostok-2, part of JSC Primorsky GOK (Primorsky region), located in different climatic zones - moderate South, far North and Far East, respectively, with different production infrastructure (Table ).
1998 95.5 2000 52.4 2002 48.3 2004 41.5 2006 44.4 2008 40.0

TABLE I EMISSIONS OF OJSC PLANT NORTHNICKEL IN THE ATMOSPHERE, TONS / YEAR

88.3

45.3

43.5

37.5

40.3

35.9

substances, Including Nickel

15.8 2.7

14.1 2.68

10.2 1.96

7.7 1.36

7.2 1.34

7.1 1.25

4.8 0.8

4.0 0.7

4.1 0.45

4.1 0.49

Activities of the first two plants, including pyrometallurgy, associated with mining and processing of ores containing highly toxic (first and second class of danger) heavy metals (Pb, Cd, As, Cu, Ni, Co, etc.), are characterized by long-term and excessively high technogenic loads on the environment. Worldwide activities of mining and metallurgical plants producing nonferrous metals are associated with extreme negative impact on the environment, where huge amounts of gases (SO2, CO, NOx, etc.) and liquid waste are discharged into the atmosphere in addition to dust containing heavy metals (solid waste). Two above-mentioned plants are not the exception. Negative effects of impact of high technological loads were found in all ecosystems [7, 8]. Technogenic load significantly decreased on these plants during last 10 years due to various reasons, which allowed us to estimate the response of vegetation on the territory of plant location. Mining operations are performed in close-circuit mine workings during underground mining and they partly change state of lithosphere in the area of mining. In this regard, underground mining doesnt cause serious adverse effects on the state of the environment as a local source of disturbance of the environment. However, the degree of environmental risk is mainly determined by the infrastructure and technologies of surface facilities and structures defining local variability of natural components (biological communities). Mining and processing complex (MPC) Vostok-2 has just the same industrial infrastructure characteristic of mining enterprises: underground mine, processing plant and storage of plant rejects (tailings). To deliver ore to the plant, heavyduty diesel transport, which is a linear source of pollution, is used. Fixed mine air emissions into the atmosphere are effected by a mining fan after its cleaning from inorganic dust. In addition, crushing work of processing plant and local boiler plant operating on heavy fuel oil are also sources of air pollution. Ore and plant rejects are low toxic and belong to the third class of danger. On this basis, using our methodology [9] of a qualitative assessment of the environment status, we can evaluate technogenic load existing here as local and insignificant, since environmental risk does not exceed 0.25, as shown in Table , Position 4 [9]. Comparison of risks as such and determination of risk priorities means their ranking, but it does not address issues of acceptability of risk, necessary and specific forms of its control. All this becomes

clear during the subsequent stages of risk management procedure. To accomplish this, one shall have a quantitative estimate of the environment status in the study area.
TABLE SCALE OF ASSESSMENT OF TOXICITY OF PODZOLIC SOILS

Soil

(Ca+Mg)/Cu 30

(Ca+Mg)/Ni 20

Non-toxic

Slightly Toxic

10-29 9

5-19 4

Highly Toxic

Threshold Value

10

II.

OBJECTS AND METHODS OF RESEARCH

A. CJSC Karabashmed CJSC Karabashmed, assignee of Karabash copper plant, is currently the oldest of the existing businesses that make up copper complex of our country. The enterprise was launched in 1910 on the basis of the existing copper-pyrite ores, which were worked out using underground methods. In 1933, a processing plant was built. The initial capacity of the enterprise was 8 thousand tons per year and by 1975 it had reached 60-65 thousand tons of blister copper per year [9, 10]. The last mine, recovering local ores, was closed in 1991. One of the main consequences of the technological backwardness of the enterprise was its high environmental hazard. Sulfur dioxide was dumped untreated directly into the atmosphere. The maximum volume of emission was observed in 1965-1988, when the plant annually threw 162-164 thousand tons of pollutants. Since launch, the plant has produced 30 million tons of metallurgical slag; large storages of tailings, rock damps and metallurgical slag have been formed [10, 11]. All this led to a significant damage of vegetation and formation of large disturbed territories around the source of contamination (Fig. 1). In 2005, Phase I modernization of the enterprise was completed, which allowed significant reduction of technologic load on the environment [12].

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Currently, the plantan industrial site of JSC Kola Mining Company processes converter matte, a more environmentally friendly intermediate product, which allowed further to reduce SO2 emissions into the atmosphere. Due to the complex events at the plant, technogenic load had declined 5 folds already by 2000 (Table ), which led to a significant improvement in air and surface water quality indices. Concentration of heavy metals in the lake Imandra decreased more than 10 times by 2007 compared to the 1980ies [14]. C. JSC Primorsky GOK JSC Primorsky GOK is one of the largest enterprises for mining and processing of tungsten and copper ore Vostok-2, which was commissioned in 1965, is located in the north of Primorye Region, in Krasnoarmeysk district. In the same year, construction of a permanent settlement was started in the 7 km distance from the mine site of GOK. The upper part of the field-dump stocks in elevations of 900-720 m was worked out in the open pit in 1969-1987. From 2004 up to the present day, ore is mined by underground mining in a volume of 300 thousand tons of ore per year. Mined ore is transported to the processing plant by dumping trucks BelAZ. Ore processing is carried out using flotation technology. Tailings of the plant are subject to decontamination and they are sent to tailings storage. Water returns to the production cycle after conditioning. In addition to ore, the processing plant recycles part of refinement tailings (1.6 million tons) [15]. For a comparative assessment of the impact of mining complex enterprises with different industrial infrastructure on the environment in the absence of an effective system of environmental monitoring at local and regional level, we will use our proposed method of quantitative assessment of its condition, integrating biota responses to man-made, including technogenic, loads, that differ in magnitude, in real time [16]. We use remote sensing capabilities combined with ground measurements for real-time monitoring of the environment status. As an integral marker of environment ecodynamics for the areas, where industrial enterprises are located, normalized differential vegetation index NDVI (aerospace measurements) is taken both integrally for the study area, and for individual zones formed around the source of contamination. As a control, we used indicator of the degree of soil phytotoxicity (field measurements)ratio of exchange calcium and magnesium content (mg / kg) to the content of heavy metals in soil (mg / kg) [17]. Developed scale allows evaluating the degree of contamination of podzolic soils by metals and their possible flow into plants in quantities exceeding permissible limits (Table ). NDVI measurements were conducted at all three sites using the same method on data of the natural resource satellite system EOS. Measurements from Terra satellite (MODIS spectroradiometer) were used to obtain maximum time series, which allowed obtaining data regarding vegetation index from 2000. Standard product of MODIS / Terra Vegetation Indices 16-day L3 Global 250 m SIN Grid V005, that is maps in the sinusoidal projection representing a 16-day composite vegetation index (NDVI) with a resolution on the ground in 250 m, was obtained from the archives.
Fig. 2 16-day composite of vegetation index of the territory of location of JSC Kombinat Severonikel (left fragment) and the territory of location of JSC Apatit (right fragment). Time interval: July 27 August 11, 2000

Fig. 1 Areas of damaged vegetation under the influence of technogenic load of CJSC Karabashmed, marked using statistical approach

B. JSC Kombinat Severonikel JSC Kombinat Severonikel is the history of commercial development of sulfide ore deposits of Monchepluton, which were worked out by opencast method, beginning from 1930. Copper-nickel plant Severonikel came into service in 1938 and first commercial firing of nickel was obtained the following year. In 1950, design capacity for the production of cathode nickel was reached and production of nickel of the highest quality and metal nickel was launched [13]. This industrial infrastructure existed until 1969. Then, mining of local ore was stopped due to the depletion of own mineral resources and raw materials for metallurgical processing were received from Norilsk. Maximum level of emissions into the atmosphere (more than 232.5 thousand tons / year) was observed for sulfur dioxide in 1990, for heavy metals (more than 12 thousand tons / year) in 1986-1987. Fig. 2 shows space image of the territory of Monchegorsk (left) and Khibin (right) mountain massifs, separated by the lake Imandra (center). Dark purple coloration characterizes local areas, where there is no vegetation, both due to natural conditions mountain plateaus, and due to industrial pollution - industrial site of the plant, and also due to fires in coniferous forests.

To determine the boundaries of the impact of a particular enterprise on the vegetation based on wind rose diagram, zones of influence with center in the point of location of

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the source of contamination are separated. Calculations of statistical parameters of NDVI: average, standard deviation, median and some others - are carried out for these areas. According to the results of use of zonal method, it is possible to implement statistical method based on statistics of the background distribution of NDVI values. Region, where influence of the enterprise is not felt, was taken as the background. Further, average value and standard deviation of vegetation index are calculated for the entire observation period. The average value of NDVI is reduced by two standard deviations and all values of vegetation index below this threshold, with a probability of 95.0%, are considered as abnormal (ecosystems experienced technogenic impact). On this basis, areas with values of vegetation index below the threshold were separated and changes in their area over time were tracked. Area of the territory of negative impact of enterprises on the environment depends on many factors (climatic, geographic, industrial, technological, etc.). However, according to the results of our studies [18, 19] this area does not exceed 1000 sq. km. (30-35 30-35 km) under all conditions and consists of impact, buffer and conditionally background zones. The latter may vary in size for different enterprises, depending on production capacity, the height of the source of emissions of pollutants and their toxicity, orographic terrain, wind rose, etc. III. RESEARCH RESULTS For the territory of location of CJSC Karabashmed, eight years of observations from 2000 to 2008 were used and 13 composites were received for each year, starting from the day 81 and ending by the day 289, which covers the entire growing season of vegetation in the study area; for JSC Kombinat Severonikel, 10 years of observations from 2000 to 2010, during the whole growing season from May 24 to September 20 and seven composites were received for each year; for GOK Vostok-2, 10 years of observations from 2000 to 2010 for the period between March 21 and September 30 and 6 composites were obtained for each year. Fig. 3 shows obtained mean NDVI values for summer period on the territory of location of Vostok-2 GOK. Analysis of the results shows that maximum NDVI values are observed in summer season of the year. At the same time, NDVI takes values from 0.87 to 0.92 during the study period indicating absence of adverse environmental impacts associated with activities of the enterprise.

Fig. 4 presents analysis of seasonal changes in NDVI within the impacted zone (0-5 km.) on the territory of location of JSC Kombinat Severonikel. Obtained data show that the selected time range of observations throughout the year (between 81 and 273 day) characterizes the whole picture of seasonal development of vegetation. At the same time, the period of maximum development of the vegetation (between 113 and 257 days of the year) is the most sensitive to changes in the vegetation index under the influence of technogenic load, and the time interval from 129 to 193 days characterizes the response of vegetation to the load during its development.

Fig. 4 Seasonal changes of vegetation index within the impacted zone 0-5 km

Analysis of combined diagrams of dynamics of pollution emissions from JSC Kombinat Severonikel into the atmosphere and long-term variations of vegetation index averaged within the impacted zone (0-5 km) showed that NDVI growth trend (red line) has been recorded against a significant reduction of technogenic load (2000), which indicates the beginning of the overgrowth of the territory (Fig. 5), i.e. response of the biota with inertia in 5 years to reduction of technogenic load. Since 2005, its fluctuation around the value of 29% determined by regional weather conditions and instability of technological regime due to variations in the quality of the feedstock has been recorded.

Fig. 5 Long-term variations of vegetation index averaged within the impacted zone (0-5 km) at the territory of location of JSC Severonikel against decrease of technogenic load

Fig. 3 Mean NDVI values for summer season on the territory of location of Vostok-2 GOK (1-8 are numbers of valleys, isolated area around the mine and settlement, 9 is the average for the rest of the area)

Thus, process of vegetation recovery stabilized at achieved level of technogenic load equal to 35-40 thousand tons / year (See Table ). In this case, as the results of field studies show [20], phytotoxicity of soil as of 2007 has undergone changes: soils of impacted zone (0-5 km) still remained in the group of highly toxic, soils of buffer zone moved into the category of slightly toxic, i.e. decreased their phytotoxicity. Established dependencies confirm the data of space measurements, according to which NDVI values have a steady growth trend (Fig. 5).

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Journal of Mining World Express (MWE)

process, have very high ash contents for upper soil layers (up to 84-97%), i.e. contain many mineral compounds. The organic matter in them is negligible. Humidity of samples is also very low due to such low content of organic matter. Content of calcium and magnesium exchange cations in the samples of soil is low indicating weak buffering capacity of soils. The amount of copper in the analyzed samples of soil in the layer 0-10 cm is very high, exceeding MPC of this element tenfold and even hundredfold. Despite the fact that the region has conditions for selfrecovery of territory vegetation in general, water and soil pollution remains highly toxic and it will remain so for a long time without elimination of negative impact of technogenic wastes accumulated in natural landscapes. To compare the degree of negative impact of enterprises under investigation on the natural environment we will tabulate all analyzed factors in Table , and the value of normalized vegetation index (NDVI) as an integral result. In addition, we will give values of specific emission of CO2 by soil cover for each area of enterprise location, which determines natural cycle of carbon [21]. Carbon cycle in terrestrial ecosystems is determined by balance between absorption of CO2 by terrestrial vegetation (to create organic matter) and release of carbon dioxide during respiration of soil. Biogeochemical cycles of other elements are associated with carbon cycle, and through the greenhouse effect and state of the atmosphere determining climate, hence, change of productivity of natural and artificial ecosystems [22]. Therefore, the higher specific emission of CO2 by soil cover and the longer duration of growing season, the higher bioproductivity of the territory, and as a result, the higher its natural potential.

Fig. 6 Change of normalized vegetation index of NDVI against dynamics of pollution emissions from CJSC Karabashmed into the atmosphere

Analysis of combined diagrams of dynamics of pollution emissions from CJSC Karabashmed into the atmosphere and long-term variations of vegetation index averaged within the impacted zone (0-5 km) showed that after 9 years of the plant standing idle and resumption of production of blister copper in 1998, NDVI systematically decreased with inertia in two years up to 2005 (Fig. 6). After that, NDIV growth was recorded against a significant reduction of technogenic load (2003), which indicates the beginning of overgrowth of the territory. In May 2007, there was an accident at the enterprise, in the result of which emissions of highly toxic lead and formaldehydes exceeded MPC 6 and 4 times, respectively, which led to NDIV decrease in 2008. Weak intensity of overgrowth of the territory is explained by high concentrations of heavy metals in soils from the previous plant activities, mainly of copper, zinc, lead, cadmium and nickel. All investigated soils, disturbed by technogenic

TABLE COMPARATIVE VALUES OF NORMALIZED VEGETATION INDEX ( NDVI) FOR MINING COMPLEX ENTERPRISES WITH DIFFERENT INFRASTRUCTURE

Infrastructure The Facility and the Term of Exploitation Initial Current

Production The Produc tivity Of The Ore, T.. T / Year

Emission C Toxicability of the Initial Raw Material Climatic Zone Duration of Vegetat ive Period , Days Soil [21] O2 of Soil Kg/Ga/Vege tation Perio d [21] NDVI, % (20082010)

CJSC "Karabakhco pper" (Chelyabinsk Region) 101 Years

Underground Mine, Procce sing Plant, Metallurgical Plant Metallurgi cal Plant N/A

Highly Dang erous (Cu, Pb,As, Cd, Au)

Temperate S outh 92

Dernew Podzols

2000-3000

27-38

OJSC "NorthNickel" (Murmansk Region ) 71 Years Undergro MPP "East-2" (PrimorSky Region) 46 Years Open Pits, Proccesing Plant Proccesin g Plant und Mine, 300 Little Dange rous (W, Bi, Ag, Au) Far East 112 Brownze my Mountain 4000-6000 Underground Mine, Procce sing Plant Metallurgi cal Plant Dangerous ( N/A Ni, Cu, Co, Au) Far North Podzols 900-1200 30-40

74

87-92

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Analysis of the data from Table is as follows: 1. Biogenesis of soils on the territory of JSC Severonikel is low, due to low biological activity of biological processes in podzolic illuvial-humus-poor (glandular) soils [8], and a short growing period (74 days) and low CO2 emissions by soil cover (900-1200). In this regard, despite the fact that technogenic load has decreased by 5 times over the last 7 years, the area is characterized by a low level of preserved natural capacity, impaired by long-term technogenic loads with dangerous toxicity. Therefore, this area is characterized by low values of NDVI (30-40%). 2. Biogenesis of sod podzolic soils on the territory of location of Karabashmed is high, climate of moderate South provides a long growing season (117days) with high specific emission of CO2. However, the area is characterized by a low level of preserved natural capacity, impaired by long-term (101 years) technogenic loads with a high hazardous toxicity. Therefore, this area is also characterized by low values of NDVI (27-38%) despite the fact that technogenic load decreased by 20 times in 2005 due to the modernization of production. 3. Mountain brown soils on the territory of location of GOK Vostok-2 are characterized by very favorable properties and have a high natural potential. Therefore, despite the fact that a pine forest has been partially cut down during the construction process on the territory of location of the plant, there was a rapid change of timber stands: deciduous forests appeared on the site of felling, which contributed to the rapid recovery of the natural potential of the territory. Due to small technogenic load and high level of natural potential, the area is characterized by the maximum possible value of NDVI, which is 87-95%. IV. CONCLUSION Research results given by the example of three mining enterprises located in different climatic conditions with different industrial infrastructure indicate the possibility of use of the proposed methodology for solution of a number of applied ecological issues, in particular ranking of enterprises according to the degree of negative impact on the environment, performance of independent evaluation of environmental viability of modernization of any given production, forecast of trends of the environment status considering existing technogenic load and determination of the value of permissible technogenic load. In addition, there appears a possibility of prompt monitoring of the dynamics of changes in environmental conditions at specific territories of location of production areas exerting negative impact on the environment in real time. Given qualitative and quantitative evaluations of environment status of the territories of location of mining complex enterprises support an opinion of many experts and specialists that mining enterprises (separate underground mines, open pits, processing plants) as such that mine lowpowered and medium-powered mineral deposits of any toxicity dont belong to a number of the most critical (major) sectors of the economy judged by a factor of negative impacts on ecosystems. However, as power of a deposit increases and industrial infrastructure becomes more complex, for example, combined with pyrometallurgical plant, hence with involvement of a

more powerful fuel and energy base and a developed transportation system, large mining complexes (MC) are formed, which leads to a synergistic effect of exposure to the environment and greatly increases risk of degradation of natural ecosystems in the region.
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[2] [3] [4]

[5]

[6]

[7] [8] [9]

[10] [11]

[12] [13] [14]

[15]

[16]

[17] [18]

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[21] [22] [23]

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Kalabin Gennady Valerianovich was born on July 27 1937 in the Krasnodar region. He graduated from the Moscow Institute of Nonferrous Metals and Gold (1955-1961 years).From 1961 to 2000 he worked in the Kola Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Sciences (KSC RAS). Defended his dissertation in Moscow in 1986 and received his degree of doctor of technical sciences in specialty "Protection and Safety." Received the title of professor in the 1995 in the specialty "Environmental protection and sustainable use of natural resources". Sphere of Scientific Knowledge environmental protection, preservation and rational wildlife management: Ecologically balanced and safe functioning of large mining complexes (the technogenic factor) in various climatic conditions (the natural factor), Decoding of satellite images and assessment of the environmental condition of location areas of large mining complexes. He is the Russian naturalist, founder and director of Russia's first multidisciplinary Institute of North Industrial Ecology Problems, RAS. He took part in field works on the Kola Peninsula, in the Chelyabinsk region. The last 10 years working in Moscow. At the present time the chief researcher at the Institute of Comprehensive Exploitation of Mineral Resources, RAS. He is author and co-author of more than 218 published works, including seven monographs, some of them: "Thermal aspects of the development of subsoil resources," Leningrad, Nauka, 1988), "Technological ecodynamics provinces of the North" (Apatity, RAS, Russia, 2000), "The Living Earth (Moscow, VNIIgeosystem",2010). Professor Kalabin member of two academies: the Academy of Natural Sciences and Academy of Mining Sciences, Renowed Statesman Scientist of Russian Federation.

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