Journal of Eurasian Studies Vol 1,2, Apr-Jun 2009

JOURNALOF EURASIANSTUDIES
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JournaloftheGborBlintdeSzentkatolnaSociety
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VolumeI.,Issue2./AprilJune2009
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JOURNALOFEURASIANSTUDIES
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Publisher FoundationStichtingMIKESINTERNATIONAL,establishedinTheHague,Holland. Account:Postbankrek.nr.7528240 Registered:Stichtingenregister:S41158447KamervanKoophandelenFabriekenDenHaag Distribution TheperiodicalcanbedownloadedfromthefollowingInternetaddress: http://www.federatio.org/joes.html If you wish to subscribe to the email mailing list, you can do it by sending an email to the followingaddress: mikes_intsubscribe@yahoogroups.com Thepublisherhasnofinancialsources.Itissupportedbymanyintheformofvoluntarywork andgifts.Wekindlyappreciateyourgifts. Address TheEditorsandthePublishercanbecontactedatthefollowingaddresses: Email:mikes_int@federatio.org Postaladdress:P.O.Box10249,2501HE,DenHaag,Holland Individualauthorsareresponsibleforfactsincludedandviewsexpressedintheirarticles. _____________________________________
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CopyrightMikesInternational20012009
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EDITORIALBOARD EditorinChief FARKAS,Flrin DeputyEditorinChief OBRUSNSZKY,Borbla Editors ALIMBAY,Nursan ARADI,va BRCZI,Szaniszl BR,Andrs CSORNAI,Katalin ERDLYI,Istvn HORVTH,Izabella KARATAY,Osman MARCZ,Lszl MARCANTONIO,Angela SECHENBAATAR UCHIRALTU ZOMBORI,Andor Almaty,Kazakhstan Budapest,Hungary Budapest,Hungary Budapest,Hungary Budapest,Hungary Gd,Hungary Hangzhou,China zmir,Turkey Amsterdam,Holland Rome,Italy Hohhot,China Hohhot,China Nagoya,Japan Budapest,Hungary TheHague,Holland
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CONTENTS
DearReader,______________________________________________________________________ 6 OurAuthors ______________________________________________________________________ 7
CHRONICLE _________________________________________________ 10
BRCZI,Szaniszl DatahorizonfromEurasiainthe1stMillenniumB.C. _______________________________ 11 OBRUSNSZKY,Borbla StatuetoGborBlintdeSzentkatolna ___________________________________________ 21
HISTORY ____________________________________________________ 23
OBRUSNSZKY,Borbla LateHunsinCaucasus __________________________________________________________ 24 ZOMBORI,Andor HeavenlyWhiteCastleofJapan __________________________________________________ 37
LINGUISTICS ________________________________________________ 40
BRCZI,Szaniszl GborCzak:InitiationintotheHungarianCastofMind ___________________________ 41 FERENCZI,Enik NewInterpretationoftheEthnicNameScythianandItsSignificance totheEtymologyoftheBasque _______________________________________________ 43 MARCANTONIO,Angela Belszsiainyelveamagyar? __________________________________________________ 68
ISHUNGARIANANINNERASIANLANGUAGE? _______________________________________________ 95
ANCIENTWRITINGSYSTEMRESEARCH_______________________ 97
MELLR,Mihly LinearADeciphered ____________________________________________________________ 98
GEOSTRATEGY _____________________________________________ 120

DEMETERM.,AttilaTONK,Mrton TheSystemofNormsofMinorityProtectionintheEuropeanUnion ________________ 121 _____________________________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________________________ DERRICK,Matthew TheImplicationsofClimateChangeforRussianGeopoliticsintheArctic ___________ 130 MAHAPATRA,DebidattaAurobinda IndiasCentralAsianConnections_______________________________________________ 137
LITERATURE _______________________________________________ 147

FARKAS,Flrin MirzaaPersianChronicleronthePolders _____________________________________ 148
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_____________________________________________________________________________________ DEARREADER,
It is a great pleasure for the members of the editorial board of our journal that so many readers reacted enthusiastically to the launch of the JOURNAL OF EURASIAN STUDIES. In the meantime some scholarsevensubmittedpapersthatyoucanreadinthisissue.Itisouraimtomakethisjournalavehicle for exchanging ideas, information, and views about the topics covered by it. Therefore we would like to drawtheattentionofourreaderstothefollowingpossibilities: We welcome comments, reviews, and criticisms on papers published in this journal or in other scholarly publications, so long as they are constructive and are not meant to hurt or insult. We would like to encourage everybody to submit to the Editorial Board (joes_cfp@federatio.org) papers in the fields covered by the Journal. The papers will be assessedsolelyontheiracademicmerits,andthesearethefewprerequisitestheauthorsand theirpapersshouldadhereto: Can be written in any language. However, if written in a language other than English, pleaseprovideanEnglishsummaryofatleastA4length. Abrief(max.10sentenceslong)professionalCVinEnglish.
Beginning with the next issue we intend to launch a new column entitled News Brief. The newsbriefsectionfeaturesthelatestnewsfromthepastthreemonthspriortopublicationof each Journal of Eurasian Studies issue in the areas of anthropology, archaeology, ethnology, folklore, genetics, and linguistics with a special focus on Asia and the interaction between various European and Asian peoples. News pieces outside the threemonth period or our scope of focus may also be included if they are found to be of great value and relevance by our editorial board. Please submit a short summary of those newsbytes (max. 100 words) in English to the following emailaddress: joes_newsbrief@federatio.org, indicating the source as well (also URL if applicable). The column will be edited by one of our editors, Andor Zombori. If the original news is only available in hardcopy, please send us a copy to the following address: Journal of Eurasian Studies, P.O. Box 10249, 2501 HE, Den Haag, Holland. The names of the contributors will be published in the journal unless they ask otherwise. If you wish to subscribe to the electronic mailing list, you can do it by sending an email to thefollowingaddress:mikes_intsubscribe@yahoogroups.com FlrinFarkas EditorinChief TheHague,June15,2009
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OURAUTHORS
BRCZI,Szaniszl Physicistastronomer who made a new synthesis of evolution of matter according to the material hierarchy versus great structure building periods. This model is a part of his Lecture Note Series Book on the Etvs University. He also organized a research group on evolution of matter in the Geonomy Scientific Committee of the Hungarian Academy of Scince (with Bla Lukcs). He wrote the first book in Hungary about planetary science From Crystals to Planetary Bodies (also he was the first candidate of earth sciences in topics planetology). He built with colleagues on the Etvs university the Hungarian University Surveyor (Hunveyor) experimental space probe model for teachers training proposes and development of new constructionsinmeasuringtechnologies. DEMETERM.,Attila Senior lecturer at the BabeBolyai University in Kolozsvr/Cluj/Clausenburg, focusing on politicalphilosophy.HecommencedhisacademicstudiesatthePolytechnicFaculty(Mechanics) in Kolozsvr/Cluj/Clausenburg, which was then followed with a BA then MA studies at the BabeBolyai University in Philosophy (19921997). Mr. Demeter earned his Ph.D. degree from the same university in philosophy in 2001. He is chairman of the Pro Philosophia Foundation, founderandmemberoftheeditorialboardofthephilosophyperiodicalKellk.Authorofseveral booksandarticles. DERRICK,Matthew
PhD candidate in Geography at the University of Oregon (USA). He also holds two masters degrees, the first in Russian Area Studies and the second in Geography, from the University of Oregon. Focused mainly on the Russian Federation, and especially its nonRussian regions, his scholarly interests include ethnoterritoriality, nationalism, regionalism,andgeopolitics.Healsonurturesaninterestincartographyandgeographic information systems (GIS). Most recently, his articles have appeared in the Journal of Central Asian and Caucasian Studies and the Central Eurasian Studies Review. With the support of a FulbrightHays Fellowship, he is currently conducting fieldwork in Kazan, Russia, where he is investigating the relationship between Islam, nationalism, and territoriality.
FARKAS,Flrin Electricengineer;MBA.ITandmanagementconsultant.LivingintheNetherlandssince1992.
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FERENCZI,Enik Born in 1955, in Kolozsvr/Cluj/Clausenburg (Romania). In 1979, she obtained her Bachelor Degree in philosophy and history. She was a teacher until she left her homeland for ideological reasons.From1989,sheislivinginSydney,Australia,wheresheobtainedherlibrariandiploma. Her first writings, philosophical essays, were published in her student years. After two decades of other preoccupations, she has resumed her original profession by participating in historical lectures, about Moldovian Hungarians and Scythians, in different cultural events of the Hungarian community of Sydney. Her poems and essays were published mostly in Transylvanian periodicals. She wrote a novel, A kert (The Garden) about her immigrational experiences, and a memoir, Kincseim vrosa (The Town of My Treasures), with vast historical background, about her childhood in the ethnical minority cleansing communist era. Currently sheisworkingonherhistoricalnovelaboutScythians. MAHAPATRA,DebidattaAurobinda Received a Ph.D. degree from the School of International Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. He is currently part of research faculty at Centre for Central Eurasian Studies, University of Mumbai, India. He is also associated with the Institute for Conflict Research, Belfast, International Mediating and Negotiating Operational Agency, Rome, Human Dignity and Humiliation Studies Network, and Journal of Alternative Perspectives in Social Sciences, Florida. Mr. Mahapatra was a research fellow at Moscow University in 20032004. He has written two books, coauthored two and coedited one. He has contributed over hundred papers to various national and international journals and magazines. His prominent works include India Russia Partnership: Kashmir, Chechnya and Issues of Convergence (2006), Central Eurasia: Geopolitics, Compulsions and Connections (2008) and The Peace Process and Prospects for Economic Reconstruction in Kashmir, Peace & Conflict Review (United Nations University of Peace, Fall 2008). His areas of expertise are conflict and peace building, Kashmir, terrorism and strategicaspectsofCentralEurasia. MARCANTONIO,Angela Associated professor of historical linguistics and uralic studies at the University of Rome La Sapienza. She is a founder of the socalled revolutionary school of FinnoUgric/Uralic studies. The results of her research are controversial, because she challenges the foundation of the field, that is, the validity of the conventional FinnoUgric/Uralic theory and related family tree. She is the author of several books and numerous articles (e.g.: The Uralic Language Family: Facts, Myths and Statistics, 2002; A trtneti nyelvszet s a magyar nyelv eredete. (Historical Linguistics and the Origin of Hungarian, 2006). Next to this, she is working on the origin and prehistory of Hungarian in close cooperation with colleagues from the Universities of Budapest and Amsterdam, and she is also publishing in Hungarian periodicals in the Netherlands like AmsterdamStudiesandMikesInternational.
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MELLR,Mihly Mathematician, Academia of Sciences, Belgrade. Since 1980 he is living in Australia, working as Australian Aboriginal and Papua New Guinean art and craft dealer, researching organic and endogencultures. OBRUSNSZKY,Borbla Historian, orientalist. She completed her studiesat the University Etvs Lornd in Budapest between 1992 and 1997 in history and Mongol civilization. This is followed by a postgradual study at the Mongol State University, where she is awarded a Ph.D. degree in 1999. Between 2000and2002sheworkedasexternalconsultantoftheAsiaCenterattheUniversityofPcs,and organized the Mongol programs of the Shambala Tibet Center. During this period she participated in several expeditions in Mongolia and China. Ms. Obrusnszky is member and/or founder of several Hungarian scientific associations and she is author of numerous books and articles, and regularly provides analyses on CentralAsia in the scientific press. Next to that she istheeditorinchiefofaneducationaljournal. TONK,Mrton Adjunct professor of the SapientiaTransylvanian Hungarian University. Since 2006 he is the DeanoftheFacultyofNaturalSciencesandArtsinKolozsvr/Cluj/Clausenburg.Nexttothathe istheDirectoroftheProPhilosophiaFoundation,alsoinKolozsvrandtheeditorofthejournal ofphilosophyKellk.Hismainareasofresearchinclude:historyofphilosophyofmoderntimes, history of the Hungarian philosophy, political philosophy. Mr. Tonk earned his Ph.D. degree with a thesis written on Sndor Tavaszy. He also published a book in this topic. Author of numerousarticles. ZOMBORI,Andor Born in Budapest. Living abroad since 1992 with periodical interruptions. First lived in Pennsylvania then moved to California in 1996 where acquired a B.A. degree in Japanese language and international relations in 2003 at the California State University, LongBeach. Next to that he studied Japanese language, culture, and international affairs for one year at the Osaka Gakuin University in Japan and Korean language and culture for another year at the Kyungbuk National University in Korea. Mr. Zombori is living in Japan since 2004 and working at a Japanese automotive industry consulting company as the editorinchief of an Englishlanguage publication.HisprimaryareaofspecializationistheChineseautomotiveindustryandmarket.
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CHRONICLE

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BRCZI,Szaniszl DatahorizonfromEurasiainthe1stMillenniumB.C.
ScythianArchaeologicalTreasuriesinBudapestattheHungarianNationalMuseum TheaudienceofBudapestandHungaryisindulgedinthelasttwoyears,becausetheartisticheritage of the cavalry peoples of the Eurasian steppe was two times exhibited in the Hungarian National Museum. Two years ago the founder of the Mongol Empire, Genghis Khan, was the reason of the great Huntradition preserving exhibition entitled Genghis Khan and his Heirs and The Mongol Invasion of Hungary(springearlysummer2007).Recently,thegreatestancientEurasiansteppeheritageholders, the Scythians were visited by people who were eager to witness the new excavation treasuries. The title ofthisexhibitionwas:ScythianGoldTreasures(25March1June2009). It was remarkable that such a rich exhibition showed the most significant archaeological finds from the steppe equestrian people. As it was presented in the exhibition guide booklet, this second one was prepared for ten years.First of all we would like to congratulate the organizers fortheir huge work. The recent Scythian art and cultural treasury includes more than 1,300 artworks collected from museums of Russia, Ukraine, Romania and Germany. The homeland collection of the National Museum finds is also rich,containingwellknownandlessknownelements,too.
Fig.1.Beautifulhorsemountwith6horseheads:PhalerafromBratoljubskiKurgan,Ukraine.
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The common in these two exhibitions is that their material forms two comprehensive datasets of the Eurasian horizon. The younger horizon is that of Temjin who created the Mongol Empire and later conquered Central Asia, Persia, parts of Eastern Europe, and Northern China. Later his descendants extended the rule of the empire to Korea, SouthEast India, Indonesia, and whole China where they became the founders of the Yuan Dynasty. However, they considered themselves descendants of the Huns. That is why their exhibition contained so much Hun (Xiongnu) finds; many of them came from theHoppFerencEasternAsianMuseum,Budapest.
Fig.2.Bronzecauldrons(top:Uljap,Russiaandbottom:Scortaru,Romania)andswordsfromthe CarpathianBasin(Aldoboly,DobolideJos,Transylvania,RomaniaandMaroscsap,Pauca, Transylvania,Romania).
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Chinese yearbooks describe the fights of the Zhou Dynasty (the longest dynasty in Chinese history) against the northern nomadic people Rhong and Di. These fights happened mostly along the Yellow River, from the end of the 2nd millennium B.C. and lasted almost for 2000 years. The period of the 1st millennium B.C. is the time of the Scythians (Greek name of the steppe cavalry people) who were known first as Rong, Di, Shanrong, etc. and later got the names Hu, and Hun (Xiongnu) as horseriding peopleintheChineseChronicles. It is an important fact not mentioned in the exhibition guide booklet that those people, who were recognized as Scythians by WesternEurasians (Europeans, mostly by Greeks), are the same cultural heritage holders of the horseriding cavalry people of the Great Eurasian Steppe, as those who were named as Huns (Xiongnu, and all their previous names) by the EasternEurasians (the Chinese). The great written records both Greek and Chinese summarize the common characteristics of these high culture people, though they met them frequently in warlike conditions. That is the reason that the two datahorizons should be compared by museum visitors in case theywant to arrange the tremendous data shown in the two exhibitions. Ideally they should construct their own maps and fit data with other sources,becauseboththeMongoliansandtheHungariansviewedandcalledthesecavalrypeoplestheir ancestors and their traditions are alive in both countries until today. Now we introduce some of their mostsignificantrelicsand,atthesametime,wehopeyouwillrecognizetheexcellentcraftsmanshipand outstanding richness of the culture of the HunScythian ancient people of Eurasia, which can be discoveredbehindtheobjects,nowvisibleinBudapest,intheHungarianNationalMuseum.
Fig.3.BronzebowlandthreehorsebitsfromtheUljap4.kurgan,Russia(54thcenturyB.C.)
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The first article on display was both on the Genghis Khan exhibition and the Scythian Gold exhibitionaSiberianstonestele.Eventodaysmythictraditionspreservedtheimportanceofthedeer, the magic animal, carved in great numbers on the Siberian stone steles, on cliffs and stone walls shown inrichcollectionbythe bookofOkladnyikovandMartinov (1983).Ondisplaywecanwatchthesteleof ZuborskijhutorfromRussia(78thcenturyB.C.). Both the Genghis Khan exhibition and the Scythian Gold exhibition showed great number of bronze vessels in which the steppe people boiled the funeral soup. It is wellknown that the ScythianHuns boiled meats with vegetables and this cuisine still survives in the specialties of the Hungarian and Eurasian soups (Gulyssoup, fishsoup, halszl). Mikls rdy collected all the cauldrons throughout Eurasia (rdy, 2001). Other types of vessels, also from the Greek cultural connections can be seen on the Budapestexhibition.EventheimageoftheexhibitionontheposterwasabeautifulrhytonfromUljap,4. kurgan,Russia.
Fig.4.Doublefriezes:fromHoseutovo(topleft),Tenginszkaja1.kurgan,Kazakhstan,(leftedge), Ordos,Shaanxi,China(centreandcentrebottom),andbronzemirrorwithdeerandhorseornamentation (KulOba,Ukraine). Both the Genghis Khan exhibition and the Scythian Gold exhibition showed beautiful horse mounts. GyulaLszl(1942and1943)publishedinhisfamousbooksacomprehensivestudyonthehorsemount of the steppe people. The ScythianHun horse mounts decorated with animal style art can be found all over Eurasia in the Museums of St. Petersburg, Beijing, Tokyo, (even in Izumo, Japan). The animal style
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decorated horse mounts are the following: phalera, saddle mounts, bits, buckles. The author made drawings about these finds decorated with horse and deer, ibex, camel, bird of prey, fish, beasts as panther, wolf, and mythical beasts all in motion, in dynamism and grace, characteristic to the Scythian preciousmetal craftsmen. Also the weapons and jewels of the warriors are common in HunScythian tomb finds. However, the local fauna was different and that makes distinction between the two large groups. But the sources are common and sometimes mixed, like in the case of the famous belt buckle of the Hermitage, named Scythian, but characteristic Ordos type pair with the Resting scene of the Saint Ladislaus legend. These characteristic finds from ancient ScythianHun tombs are mostly made of bronze. These finds exhibit rich geometrical variation in their ornamentation which is also characteristic to the steppe arts and ornamental mathematics from the 1st millennium B.C. until the end of the 1stmillenniumA.D.(Brczi,2000,2004). In my view the visitors were mostly impressed by the rich find assembly from the Scythian royal grave mound of Arzhan 2, a huge kurgan from Tuva. The place is world famous since the discovery of the RussianGerman expedition, which excavated the earthen tumulus of 80 m in diameter in the Valley ofKings.ThiscanbefoundattheSouthWesternregionsoftheSayanMountainsinnorthTuva,nearthe town Turan. Arzhan2 is the richest Scythian grave found till today in Siberia. Although the visitors can watchallArzhan2eventsinamovie,theycanimaginetherichnessofthetomb,beneaththestonecircle surrounding the kurgan, while they follow the advance of the excavation. The 9,300 pieces of finds of which 5,600 was made of gold, inaugurates this archaeological find as the Tutankhamen of Eurasia. Just after this excavation Western Eurasian archaeologist were astonished by the real time scale and stratificationofEurasianculture.WhoborrowedfromwhominScythianart?
Fig.5.Thefirstpintadera,asealingclayformfoundintheCarpathianBasin, atBtaszk,Klvriahillin2007.
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Beyond Arzhan, several other new names are to be learned in the Scythian Gold Exhibition, where newfindswereexcavated;theseare:TagiszkenandUjgarak(Kazakhstan),AulUljap,KrasnodarDistrict (Russia),BarsuciiLogandSalbik,Hakastan,KrasznojarskDistrict(Russia),Hoseutovo(Russia),Csasztije Kurgan,KozelKurgan,(Russia),Scortaru(Romania),andfinally,Btaszk(Hungary). Common objects of the ScythianHun art are the bronze mirrors, two of them were decorated with horse and deer (alternating on the handle of the mirror) seen on display. The famous princeps jewels of gold deer were exhibited from Zldhalompuszta and Tpiszentmrton from Hungary. Their counterparts can be found in Southern Russian and Ukrainian Scythian kurgan excavations. Visitors could see the fabulous sword from Aldoboly, with a handle characteristic to the akinakes styled swords occurringalloverEurasiainthe1stmillenniumB.C.(Bakay,1997). Finally, the jewelry and clothing objects can be mentioned, also displayed in great richness in the exhibition. These are exquisite artifacts unearthed in Scythian burial mounds because they were preserved by the structure of the arrangement of gold ornaments. Decorative beautiful bonnets of the ScythianprincessesmayfindparallelsonlyintheTorockfolkart. For the Hungarian visitors the most exciting it is what can be seen as Scythian heritage in the Carpathian Basin. Beyond the two gold deers we mentioned earlier there are beautiful objects, like: bronze mirror from Pkfalva, Transylvania (Romania), iron dagger from Maroscsap, Transylvania (Romania), irod sword in akinakes style, Aldoboly, Transylvania (Romania), belt mount from Mtraszele, weapons from HatvanBoldog, Szirmabesny, and the most interesting: a baked clay printingplatewithagriffinanditschild.Itwasfoundin2007atBtaszk,attheKlvriahill.Thereare similarScythianobjectsnamedpintadera,however,thisisthefirstfromtheCarpathianBasin. The rich exhibition was worth to range over. Thanks to the organizers, good maps exhibited the vast Eurasian grassland space, which the horseriding people organized and enriched with their cultural gifts. They could live on the site, because they had the knowledge to live there, with couch, with horsemounting and riding, bronze industry and all other cultural heritage of the ancient language and music, dances and arts known until today. This entire heritage was distributed among the people of Eurasia and they can discover their common roots by this and other beautiful collections as that on display in Budapest in the Hungarian National Museum. Thanks for the organizers, and thanks for the foreign museums loaning their treasures to Budapest: from Saint Petersburg (Hermitage), from Moscow (State History Museum and State Museum of the History of Eastern People), from Kiev (Ukrainian Academy of Science and National History Museum of Ukraine) from Berlin (Museum fr Vor und Frhgeschichte und Deutsches Archologisches Institut), from Bucharest (Romanian National History Museum). Theformer directoroftheHungarianNationalMuseum raisedthequestioninhisarticle inthe guide booklet to the exhibition: Are the Scythians our relatives?, and he answered that with skepticism. To this attitude we can only make a proposition: study the rich Eurasian heritage and datasets and complement them with other existing sources. Based on this we may say, Watch the data: from east to west (Greek and Chinese) and you will get the answer, which is: yes.That is whywe can be grateful to the organizers: they helped us in reconstructing the true image. May we hope for a next exhibition on HunScythian(Xiongnu)artcomingfromChina?
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Fig.6.Fishesandanimalfights(fromtoptobottom):Majkop,Russia, TatjaniaMogila,Ukraine,Stancesti,Romania,Wettersfelde,Poland(5thcenturyB.C.).
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Bibliography: Artamonow, M., Forman, W. (1970): Goldschatz der Skythen in der Ermitage (Szkta aranykincsek az Ermitzsban).Artia,PrgasSzovjetszkijHudozsnyik,Leningrd,1970; BakayK.(1997,1998):strtnetnkrgszetiforrsai.I.II.Miskolc; BrdiL.(1993):seinknyombanaTvolKeleten.ExpedciaSelyemtmentn.PannoniaK.Pcs; BenkE.(1984):Szkelykeresztriklyhacsempk.Kriterion,Bukarest; Brczi Sz. (1986): Escherian and NonEscherian Developments of New Frieze Types in Hanti and Old HungarianCommunalArt.in:M.C.Escher:ArtandScience(szerk.H.S.M.Coxeteretal.)349358.old. NorthHolland,Amsterdam(ISBN0444700110); Brczi Sz. (1987): Szimmetria s techn a magyar, avar s hanti dsztmvszetben. Leuveni Katolikus Egyetem,CollegiumHungaricum,(Katalgusakilltsokhoz).59old.Leuven; Brczi Sz. (2000): Katachi U Symmetry in the Ornamental Art of the Last Thousands Years of Eurasia. FORMA,15/1.1128.Tokyo; Brczi Sz. (2004): The Role of Curie Principle in Understanding Composite Plane Symmetry Patterns: New Ethnomathematic Relations in Ancient Eurasian Ornamental Arts from Archaeologic Finds of thePeriod1.M.B.C.and1.M.A.D.FORMA,19/3.pp.265277.Tokyo; BrcziSz.(2005a):AdathorizontokEurzsibanI.TKTE,Budapest; BrcziSz.(2005b):Szibriaimvszetek.TKTE,Budapest; Brasinszkij,I.B.(1985):Szktakincseknyomban.Helikon,Budapest; Chavannes,E.(1893):LaSculpturesurpierreenChineauTempsdedouxdinastiesHaan.Leroux,Paris; Czegldy K. (1969): Nomd npek vndorlsa Napkelettl Napnyugatig. Krsi Csoma Kisknyvtr 8. Akadmiai,Budapest; CsihkGy.(2000):DunhuangbarlangkpeisaSnsziagyagkatonknmazeneteaMagyarmveltsg gykereirl.ZMTE,BudapestZrich; CsomorL.(1996):felsge,aMagyarSzentKorona.Szkesfehrvr,(ISBN9630475170); Cosmo,N.Di(2002):AncientChinaanditsEnemies.CambridgeUniversityPress,Cambridge; DiszegiV.(1998):SmnoknyombanSzibriafldjn.TerebessKiad,Budapest; Ecsedy I. (1979): Nomdok s kereskedk Kna hatrain. Krsi Csoma Kisknyvtr 16. Akadmiai, Budapest; ErdlyiI.,SugrL.(1982):zsiailovasnomdok.Gondolat,Budapest; rdy, M. (1994): An Overview of the Xiongnu Type Cauldron Finds of Eurasia in Three Media, with HistoricalObservations.InternationalSymposium,Naples,IstitutoUnivOrientale;1992Nov.379438; rdy, M. (1991): A magyarsg finnugor shazja a trtnelem trstudomnyainak trkpekre vitt adatainaktkrben.(In:Szatmrielegyesholmi,szerk.tsJ.)Mtszalka;
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rdyM.(2001):Ahunlovastemetkezsek.Magyarorszgrt,desHaznkrtKiad,Szkesfehrvr; FitzGerald,P.(1989):AzsiKna.Helikon,Budapest; Fodor I., Kulcsr V. (2009): Szkta aranykincsek. (Scythian Gold Treasures.) Exhibition Guide for the HungarianNationalMuseum,Budapest; GamberO.von(1978):WaffeundRstunkEurasiens.KlinkhardtundBiermann,Braunschweig; GtzL.(1995):KeletenklaNap.Pski,Budapest; Groot J. J. M. de (1921): Die Hunnen der vorchristlichen Zeit. Chinesische Urkunden zur Geschichte Asiens.Berlin,Leipzig(Hungarianedition:Bakay,Csornai(2007):LszlGyulaTrtnelmiEgyeslet, Budapest); HajdP.,DomokosP.(1978):Urlinyelvrokonaink.Tanknyvkiad,Budapest; HajdP.(szerk.)(1975):Urlinpek.Corvina,Budapest; HalszZ.(1966):Romvrosokasivatagban.SteinAurlbelszsiaiutazsai.MraFerencK.,Budapest; HopplM.(2005,):SmnokEurzsiban.AkadmiaiKiad,Budapest; JettmarK.von(1964):DieFrhenSteppenvlker.BadenBaden; LaoCe:TaoTeKing(AztsErnyKnyve,ford.WeresS.,TkeiF.)Helikon,Budapest; LszlGy.(1974):AnpvndorlskormvszeteMagyarorszgon.Corvina,Budapest; Lszl Gy. (1943): A koronci lelet s a honfoglal magyarok nyerge. Der Grabfund von Koronc und der altungarischeSattel.Budapest; LszlGy.(1942):KolozsvriMrtonsGyrgySzentGyrgyszobrnaklszerszmja.Kolozsvr; LczyL.(1890):GrfSzchenyiBlakeletzsiaitjnaktudomnyoseredmnye.Budapest; Miniaev, S. (1995): The excavation of Xiongnu Sites in the Buryatia Republic. Orientations, 26, No. 10, Hongkong; Miniaev, S. (1995): New finds of Xiongnu decorative bronzes and a problem of origin of geometrical styleinXiongnuart.ArchaeologicalNews,4.SanktPetersburg; Miniaev, S. (1996): Xiongnu archaeology in Russia new finds and some problems. Arts Asiatiques, 51, Paris; Miniaev,S.(1981):AboutdefinitionofXiongnusitesofSiberia.ProceedingsoftheMethodicalaspectsof archaeologicalresearchesinWesternSiberiaconference.Tomsk; Obrusnszky B. (2006): A magyar trsadalomszerkezet keleti gykerei. (The Eastern Roots of the StructureoftheHungarianSociety).Turn,IX.vf.3.sz.738.; ObrusnszkyB.(2008):Hunok a Selyemton. Masszi Kiad, Budapest; OkladnyikovA.P.,MartinovA.I.(1983):Szibriaisziklarajzok.Gondolat,Budapest; RolleR.(1980):DieWeltderSkythen.Bucher,LuzernundFrankfurt;
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Rugyenko Sz. I. (1953): Kultura naszelnyija gornava Altaja v szkifszkoje vrmja. Akademija Nauk Sz. Sz.Sz.R.MoszkvaiLeningrad; Szsz B. (1943): A hunok trtnete. Atilla Nagykirly. (The History of the Huns. Atilla, the Great King.) BarthaMiklsTrsasg,Budapest(SzabadTrK.1994); SzemaCsien:Trtnetifeljegyzsek.; TalbotRice,T.(1965):AncientArtsofCentralAsia,ThamesandHudson,NewYork; TolsztovSz.P.(1950):AzsiChorezm.Hungria,Budapest. _________________ Thedrawingsofthisreportwerecreatedbytheauthor.Ed.JournalofEurasianStudies
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OBRUSNSZKY,Borbla StatuetoGborBlintdeSzentkatolna
Thanks to the Blint Gbor Association, which operates in the land of the Szeklers in Transylvania, Gbor Blint de Szentkatolna, the great explorer and oriental scholar got a bronze statue, which will be erected in the yard of the elementary school in Szentkatolna, the village where Gbor Blint was borne. The commencement will happen on June 13, 2009 with the participation of the whole cultural community in Szentkatolna. The sculptor, Andrs Vetr knows well Blints portrait; previously he made two plaques, too. One can be seen in the Hungarian Language Department of the BabeBolyai UniversityinKolozsvr/Cluj/Clausenburg,whereBlinthadworkedforalongtimeasHeadoftheUral AltaicDepartment.TheotherplaquestandsinBlintsformerhometownofSzentkatolna. Inhabitants of Szentkatolna never forgot his famous son. Pl Bakk, a local historian has collected storiesandmemoriesaboutthegreatscholarduringthe1960sandpublishedthatinHungarianjournals. After the Romanian revolution, around 1991, the director of the elementary school of that time, Joln Jakab succeeded in arranging that the school adopted Gbor Blints name. Shortly afterwards, at the centenary of Gbor Blints birth, the above mentioned Blint Gbor Association organized the first international Blint Gbor Conference in Szentkatolna, and collected papers printed in the frame of the TransylvanianMuseumAssociation.
ElementaryschoolinSzentatolna. BustofGborBlint.
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HISTORY

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OBRUSNSZKY,Borbla LateHunsinCaucasus
NewResultsinHunnishResearch During the past decade it had been accepted by the most historians and professional orientalists that 1 thefirststateinthestepperegionwastheHunnishEmpire. Moreover,theyrecognizedthestatementof 2 the Shi Ji chronicle that the Huns had a united state around 3rd century B.C. There are some disputes amongscholarsfromallovertheworldonsomeissues,namelywhenandunderwhichnameHunshad 3 appeared in the Chinese chronicles, and when their first state was established. Hereby I only show some craggy opinions. According to Deguignes, the Huns had appeared in the Chinese sources around 1200B.C.,andtheylivedinNorthernandCentralChina.GumilyovmaintainsthattheancestorsofHuns appeared only in the 7th century B.C. Mansag states that the Hun society and the state itself had been 4 5 createdduringalongperiod,between5000400B.C. Byvirtueofearlysources,Chinesehistoriansstate 6 that their first dynasty, Xia, was established by Huns; they recorded them as pre or early Huns. The researchers mostly agree with the date of the disruption of the Great Hunnish empire, during the 1st century A.D. If we take a look at how long small Hunnish states survived in Inner and Central Asia, from Northern China to Caucasus or around the Crimean peninsula, via India, we can see that until the 7th century A.D., some Hun kingdoms remained in operating throughout the vast steppe region. The historyofLateHunsintheCarpathianBasinisalsoanimportantandnotfullysolvedquestion.Soisthe historyoftheHunsontheterritoryofpresentdayMongolia.BatsaikhanhasprovedthatHunshavenot disappeared at the end of 1st century A.D. there, as previously historians thought, but they had an 7 independent state until the Ruanruan invasion, which took place in 410. The new Mongolian archaeological results contradict the old theory that Xianbei tribes would have ruled over Mongolia. Archaeologists have not found Xianbei graves or settlements at all in Mongolia, but the Chinese found hugeamountofXianbeirelicsinInnerMongolia.Itisverylikely,thattheXianbeiruledthatregion.The newest results of Chinese scholars proved, that the Southern Huns, who joined the Handynasty, have
1 2 3
Obrusnszky,2008. ShiJi.110,Barfieldstheory.In:Barfield,1981.
Lots of theories existed about the origin of the Huns. Chinese scholars think that the Xiadynasty, as most Chinese dynasties, belongedtoHuns.Onthesetheories:Obrusnszky,2006.b.
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Mansag,2005.55.
From Shi Ji 110: Xiongnu (Huns). Their ancestor was descendant of Xiadynasty, namely Chunwei. DeGroot, 2006. 23. In Suoyincommentarywecan read:TheEmperoroftheXiadynasty,Jiehadnotao,thatswhyTangexiledHimtoMingtiao.In the next three years He died. His son, Xunyun married wives and escaped northward and settled there, where wandered with herds. DeGroot, 2006. 24. By Jinshu (5th century AD) Hun Helian Bobo was descendant of Xia dynasty. Jin shu. 130. In: Wen. 2004.296.
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Wu,2005.9. TheMongolarchaeologistprovedhistheorybyusingarchaeologicalsourcesandhistoricalsources.Batsaihan,2006.
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not disappeared suddenly; moreover they lived in tribealliance system until the 8th century around the 8 big bend of the Yellow River. Chinese sources of that time proved, that the Southern Huns, under the leadership of Helian Bobo, the great Hunnish Emperor of the Da Xia kingdom, flourished in the Ordos 9 region, at the same time, when Attila spread his authority to Eastern and WesternEurope. In the past mosthistoriansandprofessionalorientalistsdidnotconsidertherelicsofCentralAsiaandIndia,despite thefactthatwiththehelpofthelocalhistoricalsources,andnumismaticfindsthehistoryofHunscanbe traced and dated very precisely. Therefore, it is clear that the Huns had states around the Lake Aral, 10 Khorasan and Kashmir until the 7th century. This means, that the Huns interconnected the vast Eurasian steppe from the Ordos to the Carpathian Basin from ancient times to the medieval period, and some states survived even the Turkic invasion, which took place in the middle of the 6th century. Concerning the Huns, I am interested in how long they had survived in the forefront of Caucasus after Attilas death. In order to investigate the question, I investigate contemporary historical sources mostlyArmenianandByzantineones. HunsinCaucasus Sometimes we learn from the literature, that after Attilas death, the Huns had been defeated by the Goths and their allies, and the former Hun territory the Carpathian Basin became Goth and Gepid land, and the Huns suddenly disappeared from there. According to the ancient Hungarian tradition, Attilas sons were defeated by enemies and that is the reason why his two sons returned to their ancestorsland:Dengizik,settleddowninLittleScythia,orpresentdayDobruja,hisyoungerbrother,or Attilas third son, Hernac (Irnek, or Hungarian Chaba) settled down in another Little Scythia, which 11 meanspresentdayDagestan. It is known from historical sources that Hun inhabitants remained in the CarpathianBasin, and some 12 of them lived under the authority of other peoples. Recently, Russian and Romanian archaeologists analyzed the traces of the Huns in the eastern part of the former Hungarian Kingdom. The Romanians accept the ancient HungarianSzkely historical tradition, i.e. the Szkelys are the direct descendants of 13 the Huns, who remained in the eastern part of the Carpathian Mountains. Not only archaeologists found data supporting the HunHungarian relationship, but historians, too. Authorized Meroving sourcesrecordedthatHungarians(Hungari)livedinPannoniaintheyearof561/562,whichprovedtwo
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DataofJinshu,Beishu,Weishu,etc.
TodayXian.HelianBobosentHissontoChangantobecomegovernor,hestayedinTongwancheng.
Nezak Hun Kingdom existed until 680. Strabon recorded that there were two types of Scythians: their original land can be located in present-day Dagestan, but when they moved to the lower-Danube region, they called that place as Little-Scythia, too. Thus, the Scythians brought geographic names to foreign places. Strabon VII. III. 5. Attilas third son has various names in historical sources. In Priscos fragment we find Hernac, but the Hungarian chronicles know him as Chaba, which refers to his title choban. Hernac must be his historical name. 12 Christian, 1998. 232. According to the author, as well as to other scholars, Attilas sons returned to the Ponti-steppe, Dengizik settled down in Little-Scythia or Dobruja and most of the Hun tribes lived in the region surrounding the Black Sea.
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Sergei Botalov, a Russian archaeologist began to research Hun relics in the Carpathian Basin. Romanian scholars presented papersattheInternationalHunconference,whichwasheldinSpeyer.
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things: first of all, Huns lived in their former center, secondly, Hungarians, who are the descendants of 14 Huns,livedthere300yearsearlier,thanHungarianhistorianshadthought. Wehaveothersubstantialdatatothehistoryofthatregion.Wolframhaswrittenamonographonthe history of the Goths, in which he recorded that the Goths became Scythians, or learned the Scythian wayoflifeandcustoms,duringtheirstayontheEasternEuropeansteppes,andwhentheysettleddown in the Carpathian Basin or even more westward, they followed the Hun fashion, even after Attilas death. The Austrian scholar paid attention to the fact that the Gepids did not rule the whole Carpathian Basin from the second half of the 5th century, and in the 6th century they controlled only presentday 15 Voyvodina. The Huns left traces on their former center the Carpathian Basin for at least one century; their material culture clearly can be shown in some findings, which are regarded as Gepid 16 treasures. It is likely that independent Hun tribes and tribal alliances remained in the Carpathian 17 Basin, as Eastern and Western sources mention them. Other important theme to be researched is the land,whereHernakortheHungarianChabareturnedto.ThatisthenorthernpartoftheCaucasus Mountain. For some historians the great migration in 463 which brought entirely new inhabitants to thatregionisahingewhendealingwiththeHunslatehistory.Theycountthatdateasthemomentin time when Huns disappeared from the historical sources and they link to this the appearance on the scene of the Turkicspeaking tribes, the Ogurs. Let us investigate, whether new tribes or peoples indeed hadarrivedtherefromCentralAsia. HunsandOgurs In the literature dissimilar opinions can be read concerning the late history of the Huns and Ogurs. Most scholars agree that the Huns played a significant role until the 7th century in the Caucasus region, right there, from where the Hungarian chronicles originated the Huns and Hungarians. Fortunately, we have many written sources from that period and places, which make easier our research. If Hun Kingdoms controlled the vast territories of Central Asia and some parts of Eastern Europe, how was it possible for new tribes namely Ogurs to arrive into that region? If they did venture into a big migration and won a victory over the Huns, especially the strong Hephtalite Kingdom, why the written sources of that time had not recorded that? Even more, who were the Ogurs and where did they come from? If we want to answer these questions very shortly, we have to look only at the Byzantine sources about Ogurs. They say that the Ogurs belonged to the Huns, but the Persians later identified them with 18 the Turks, as Hunnish people. Most probably, the Persian sources and Priscoss fragment disordered
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Kirly,2006.146.
In 568 Bayan Avarian khagan battled at Sirmium with Gepid powers, which means that the Gepids were not able to stop the AvarsinTransylvaniaorLowDanube.Wolfram,1980.25.
16 The Gepids had lived only on a part of the Carpathian Basin; they were concentrated in a region, which is present-day Voyvodina, Tiszntl (Beyond Tisa River) and Mezsg; Gepidian graves can be found there. They had no independent Gepidian culture, but the Hun arts and fashion survived among them. But it is sure that they had left no artistic or linguistic traces behind in the Carpathian Basin.
Sources recorded that the Sarmatians had a kingdom on Alfld (Hungarian Great Plain), and they also mention Hun chieftains,whoalliedwithEasternGothsagainsttheGepids.Wolfram,1980.322.
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ExamplesinShahname(Firdausi)Aradi,2005.45.
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the scholars the following way. Priscos described that around 463 new peoples Saragurs, Ogurs, and Onogurs appeared in Byzantine and stated that they migrated from their homeland, because they 19 battled with the Sabirs, who were chased by Avars. Historians thought that this was an element of a new big migration, and related those events to the appearance of the Turkic speaking Ogurs in the Northern Caucasus. Scholars from the 19th century created an Eastern connection for the Ogur tribes and identified them with the Tiele tribes, which lived in presentday Mongolia and around the Lake BaikalinearlyMiddleAges.Accordingtotheexplanation,OgurslivedontheKazakhsteppein350and 20 fromtheredepartedwestwardafter460. First of all, we must investigate, whether the Ogurs equal to the Tiele people. In the literature it is taken for granted that these two peoples are the same, despite historian sources of that time contradict this theory. Let us investigate the origin of the Turks. According to the Chinese sources, the ancestors of the Turks were the Dingling, who lived around the Lake Baikal and they belonged to the Donghu 21 alliance. It is likely that they were a tribe of the later Xianbei people. The above mentioned Tiele alliance system appeared in written sources only in the 5th century, when they lived around the Lake Baikal.Onesignificantgroupmovedsouthward,andtheygotanewnameasGaoche,orpeopleofhigh couch.Presumably,thereweretightconnectionsbetweentheDinglingandtheTiele,becausetheylived in one place, but we do not know, whether they belonged to the same ethnic group. Now, let us take a look at the Tiele question, and investigate some sources about them. The Weishu recorded that they 22 were Huns on his mother side. They spoke the Hun language, but they had a small accent. Tangshu 23 wrotethattheTieleconsistedof15tribealliance,andcontainedtheancestorsofTurksandUyghurs. It issure,that theTieleandtheGaochepeopleliveduntilthe5thcenturyA.D.inEasternInnerAsia,they did not equal to the Ogurs in the Caucasus region. The Chinese sources wrote about the history of the Turks very thoroughly. They lived in presentday Gansu province and their royal house, Ashina was of Hun origin, which belonged to the NorthernLiangdynasty, which controlled one significant sector of 24 the Silk Road. That dynasty itself was of Hun origin, but they were not member of the royal clans of 25 the Huns, so their kings wore only the title wang instead of danhu or shanyu. Suishu wrote that the 26 ancestorsoftheTurksweremixedHuns,andtheAshinaclanwasaHunnishtribe. Regarding the Gaoche, Weishu writes that their ancestor was Hong (Red) Di and Dingling; their languages was very similar to the Huns, but there are some differences, because they were the 27 grandchildren of Huns on the daughter lineage. The NorthernLiang dynasty had been beaten by Ruanruan and escaped to the Altai Mountain and after one century, or around 550 they attacked the
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Gyrffy, 1986. 53.
Czegldy,1969. Erdemt,2007.125. Erdemt,2007.470.AuthorreferstoShiratori. Erdemt,2007.127. HexicorridororCanyonofYellowRiverinpresentdayGansuprovince.
The title wang (king) originally was a Hunnic one; it is an unknown title in ancient Chinese history. It has relation with PersianbanorHungarianbn.Obrusnszky,2007.130131. Suishu,84.In:Erdemt,2007.467. Erdemt,2007.470.
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Ruanruansandgottheauthorityoverthesteppes.Aswesee,theTurksjustmovedfromtheAltaitothe Mongoliansteppeinthemiddleofthe6thcentury,theydidnotappearneartheCaucasus.Regardingthe socalledOgurmigration,besidesPriscos,otherrelevantsourceshadnotwrittenofnewpeople,evenwe can not find new archaeological culture around Pontus, which contradicts the migration theory. The fragments of Priscos text is not an original record, it remained in copy from the Sudalexicon of the 28 10thcentury,underthenameAbaris. Thecopymakersinsertedtheretheolddate,butwedonotknow, whether they altered it, because the Avars appeared only around 558 in Northern Caucasus, not in 463. Some historians paid attention to this mistake, but they tried to explain it by saying that Priscos date 29 referredtotheeventof350. Thistheoryisalsofalse,becauseduringthatperiodtheHunsoccupiedthe 30 vast territories of CentralAsia from the 2nd century A.D. under the name Kidarita or Hionita. Hindi and Persian sources recorded that around 350 the Huns spread their control over Bactria and 31 Tokharistan. If new people did not arrive, then only one solution remained the Ogurs, Saragurs, 32 Ugors, etc had lived there before. This theory is supported by Jafarov and Haussig. If we do not know of new people in Northern Caucasus after 453, Ogurs could only be people belonging to the Hun alliance, who after Attilas death in453, although appeared under independent tribe names as Ogurs, or 33 Saragurs, Sabirs, etc, used the united name of Hun, too. As some scholars thought before, the steppe society tribes used at least two names for themselves. First of all they had an own tribe name, as Ogur, and if they belonged to a big alliance, they used that, too. Some authors realized that in the history of Scythians. As Gbor Blint said, Mendanders Ugur and Priscos Urog (Urug) were equal to the 34 Hunuguri people. It is clear that the Ogurs were not Empire creators, names refer their function: they 35 were tribes or clans, as Gyrffy previously pointed out. Dobrev also stated that Ogurs were not independent tribe alliance, as historians thought, that is why he does not accept the solution for Onogur 36 37 as ten ogurs He thinks that Hungar, which meant only Hungarians, had the root of Hung. Thry 38 statedthatOgurmeantHunsandunugroi,onoguroi,etc.namesmeantbelongtoHuns. Hunshad HungorHonkforminthehistoriansourcesofthattime.WecanreadintheDasxurancischronicle,that theancestoroftheOnogurswasHonagurs,whobelongedtotheHuns,whichshowsthatthetribename previously could have been a personal name. We find other examples of that custom, for example in Herodotus work. The Greek historian recorded that Scythians got their name after their first king, 39 Skolotos. As did Byzantine sources, when described, that Avar were Ugni or Huns, but after their
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32 33 34
Gyrffy, 1986. 53. Czegldi,1969. Tolstov,1947.217. Tolstov,1947.217.
Jafarov,1985. Dzsafarov,1985.HereferedtoHaussig.Christian,1998.277.alsostatesthatOgursarrivedwithHunstoCaucasus. Blint,1901.62. Gyrffy,1986.7. Dobrev,2005.219. Dobrev,2005.204. Thry,1896. Hrodotosz,IV.71.
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leader they were called Avar. The same situation had happened to Khazars, whose leaders name was Khazarig. Finally we must clarify one more question, the name and meaning of socalled Ugors. This kind of name did not exist in historical sources; it originated only in the 19th century, when linguists 41 created this scientific expression in order to create a fictive Uralic phylum, and one branch became the Ugors, or HantiMansi and Hungarian subdivisions. As a matter of fact, the Ugors or the original form 42 Ogur only meant Hungarians in Eastern sources. We can not say Ugric tribes at all, because the peopleslivinginthewoodsofSiberiawerenotabletoestablishpoliticalorganizations,theyremainedin systems ofclansorfamilies,becausetheirwayoflifeprohibitedthedevelopmentof higherpoliticaland 43 socialorganizations. Historicalprocesses By virtue of the above mentioned dates and sources we can see that contemporary historian sources did not mention any new migration from the East in the middle of the 5th century. Now let us have a look at the historical processes of the Eurasian region. There were some events in the steppe of Central Asia in the end of Antiquity. We know that the people of Yuechi (Scythians) pressed by the Huns moved to Central Asia in the 2nd century B.C., where they created a powerful state. After that event, in the 3rd century A.D. some significant political realignment had happened; firstly, the Parthian Empire collapsed and the Sassanid took command over the Middle East and Central Asia. At the same time, the 44 Kushan Empire also declined, which affected vast territories around Northern India and Gandhara. The next big changes had happened in the middle of the 4th century, when the Huns occupied vast territoriesofCentralAsia,andsettleddownaroundtheLakeAral.TheywerecalledasHionorKidarita, where the last one would refer to the royal clan. But we have no information about migration around 450. Only the White Huns, under the leadership of Heftal invaded the Indus Valley and created an Empire, using the old Kushan tradition. Regarding the historical dates, it is impossible that new people appeared in the northern part of the Caucasus, but as Haussig and Jafarov referred to that, only one explanation remained, tribes under own clan or tribe names became independent from the Huns, and they used those ones in diplomatic matters. By the way, in the history of the Caucasus two significant events were recorded. One is the revolt of the Albanian people in 463, when new a Hunnish tribe, the 45 Sabirs emerged. The second is the migration of the Huns to the Crimean peninsula, where the 46 Scythians and related people had lived. Some Russian and Ukrainian historians showed that cave
40 41
IsiodorusHispalensis,Etymologiaesiveorigenes,IX.2.66.
Of the Obiugors it is important to note that the expression Ugor commanly denominating the three languges namely the Hungarian, Vogul and Ostyak does not relate to the external denomination of Hungarians either; it is a fictive, scientific artificialterm,thatdenotesonebranchoftheUraliclanguagetree.In:http://fu.nytud.hu/kn/nepek/nephan.htm#nev
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Kirly,2006.158. Vlagyimircov, 1934. 11. Tolstov,1948.164. Jafarov,1985.46. SarmatiansandAlans.Gothsalsolivedthere,wholearnedandappliedtheScythiancustomsandwayoflife.
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dwellingssurroundedBakhchisaraycameintoexistencebecauseoftheHunattacks. Theirpopulations remainedthereforcenturies.SomepeoplesurviveduntiltheMongolianinvasioninthe13thcentury. Inthecourseofthe5thcenturynotonlythegreatHunEmpirebrakeup,soonafterAttilasdeath,orin 476, the Western Roman Empire officially collapsed, and on its territories small Gothic, Alan, etc. Kingdoms were established. The Eastern Roman Empire, or Byzantine Empire existed, but it was weakened. We can say that that century was the end of the great united powers. Only in the course of the 6th century some powers wanted to unite the former Roman Empire again, under the leadership I. Justinian (527565) Byzantine Emperor and Theodoric, the EasternGothic King in Italy. The preceding was successful and recovered control the former Roman territories, even spread authority over some of thesteppebeltWesternCaucasusandCrimea.JustinianusedalliedHunsagainstthePersians. DespitetheEuropeantransformations,intheCentralAsianregionsbigEmpiresPersianandWhite Huns survived, and fought with each other for the control over the commercial routes. When the Turks appeared in the middle of the 6th century, they replaced the Huns, but there was a big metamorphosis because of the same origin of civilization (bow bended people). Metamorphosis happenedalsoaftertheArabinvasion,whennewculturalandreligioustraditionappearedinthesteppe, and the invaders did not belong to the bow bended people, so they counted as foreign elements among thelateHunsandTurks. HunsandHungarians ItisknownfromvariouskindsofsourcesthattheHunsappearedinEasternEuropeinthe2ndcentury 48 A.D. Firstly, they settled down at the Caspian Sea, then gradually moved westward, and reached the mountainsoftheCaucasus.TheirroyalcenterwaslocatedattheMeotisswamps,whichwasthecourtof theRoyalScythiansandScythicedGothsbefore.TheHunsfirstoccupiedtheroyalcenter,butwhenthey occupied WesternEuropean lands, they had to choose another royal center in order to organize the whole big empire from Eastern Europe to the River Rhone. The new center was established in the Carpathian Basin. When Attila died in 453, his youngest son returned to that old land, as I mentioned earlier.IrnekorChaba,istheancestorofHungarians.Theirtribeskeptthisplaceinmemory. According to some old theories, Hungarians had connection to Onogurs, but they did not belong to 49 the Huns. If we investigate the old sources, as I showed above, we could see that the Hun and the Onogurs(orHunuguri)joinedforces.Bolgars,whoalsooriginatedfromtheHuns,acceptedthattheygot 50 Hunnishheritage. Besides the ancient Hungarian tradition, the tight connection between Huns and Hungarians were proved by Byzantine sources, too. Theophanes recorded that in the city of Kerch there was a Hun 51 Kingdom, where two brothers lived. Ogurda was the king and his brother name was Muageris.
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TheGothsforinstanceliveduntilthe15thcenturyintheMangupkaleCastle. Anke,2008.1213.Obrusnszky,2008.29. Gyrffy, 1993. Dobrev,2005.56. InTheophanesandMalalaschronicles.In:Moravcsik,1927.
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Scholars showed that that was the first record of the presentday name of Magyars (Hungarians). So did Derbentname a Persian source, too, who recorded that on the territory of presentday Dagestan, 52 there were two big Magyar cities (Ulu Majar and Kichi Majar). A Byzantine source also recorded that Hungarians had another name in the past; they were called as Savartoi Asphalu, which meant Sabir. As we know Sabirs belonged to Huns and ruled big territories above the city of Derbent, present day Dagestan. Thry stated in the end of the 19th century that Hungarians appeared in the local sources as 53 Ungur,Kudamagar. Hence,theabovementionedsourceshaddrawntheoldterritoryofHungarians, frompresentdayDagestantotheMeotisswamp. Hungarian historians, Turkologists debated that Hungarians had an independent state before the 9 century, and that was a powerful state around the Caucasus. The sources of that time contradicted that, because of early appearance of the name Hungarians as Majar or any variants from the 6th century. The name refers to that being a leading tribe among them, who were direct descendants of Attila. As 54 regard the steppe tradition, they had the privilege to elect the king. Due to lack of sources we can not knowforsure,whentheMagyartribesestablishedforthefirsttimeanindependentstateundernameof Majar. As Constantine VII stated, Hungarians were divided among voivodas, and the first voivoda was 55 Levedi. As the Emperor said, that ruling system existed before the invasion of Bechenegs. As we know, after the first socalled Pecheneg attack, Savartoi Asphalu separated from other Hungarians, and settled down in the territory of Persia, in presentday Azerbaijan. The author also said, after the 56 Pecheneg attack, Khazars occupied the land of Hungarians. Probably, the location of this event was 57 Dagestan,whichwasthecenteroftheSabirs,HunsandotherHunnishpeople. RegardingtheKhazars, we know that their first capital was Samandar, in presentday Dagestan, right there, where Sabirs and Hungarianspreviouslylived.IftheKhazarsoccupiedthatlandfromHungarians,wheretheypreviously lived,astheDerbentnameandabovementionedsourcesproved.ThesocalledPechenegattackoccurred 58 not in the 9th century but in the 67th centuries, when Arab troops strongly attacked that region. They tried to invade Eastern Europe through the Caucasus, the first war happened around 650, when they ruined the Sassanid Empire and the Middle Eastern territory, the second one happened after 711, when they occupied vast lands of Central Asia. Only the Khazars stopped them in bloody battles. As Botalov 59 pointed out, in the Eastern European area big change happened in the 8th century. So, probably, most Hungarians departed from presentday Dagestan and Meotisswamp, or legendary Levedia, and gradually reached the Carpathian Basin, the former Hunnish center. As Western sources proved, before
th
52
HelilovNyitray,2008. Kmosk, 2004. 99.
53 54
Chinese sources and steppe tradition preserved well the coronation system of the Huns and their descendants. The tribes mustelecttheirfirstmanfromtheRoyalclan. DAI.38.In:PaulerSzilgyi,1900. DAI.38. Moravcsik,1942. HelilovNyitrai,2008.197.
55 56 57 58
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Sergei Botalovs presentation. 18 August 2008. Hungarians and the East II. Conference (Magyarsg s Kelet II. Konferencia), Budapest.
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theAvarsettlements,sparsedHungariansalsolivedunderthenameUngarus,Ungari, andtheysettled there with Huns. Previously, Gza Nagy and Istvn Zichy thought that Hungarians were there at the time of the Avars. The socalled double homeland conquest or relative connections between the HungariansandtheAvarswerepublishedbyGyulaLszl. Summary InmybriefarticleIjustreferredtosuchkindsofquestions,whichcanbeofimportancewhendealing with the history of Late Huns in Eastern Europe. According to the huge sources (archaeological, historical, historical ethnography, etc.) we must reexamine and revalidate the history of Late Huns in Europe and the Caucasus region. We must investigate the history of Ogurs again, because they had not beenTurkicpeoplebuttheybelongedtotheHuns.Further,linguisticsmustthinkovertheories,anddue tothehistoricalfacts,wemustspeakofaLateHunlanguageinsteadofBulgarianTurkicone.Moreover, we must acknowledge that the Late Hunnish states determined the history of Eastern Europe in the EarlyMiddleAgesandinfluencedthewayofliveofthosewholivedaroundtheseterritories. Bibliography ANKE,Bodo 2008. Frhgeschichte reiternomadische Vlker in Mittelasien aus historischer Sicht. In: Hunnen zwischen Asien und Europa. Aktuelle Forschungen zur Archaologie und Kultur der Hunnen. Herausgegeben vom Historischen Museum der Pfalz Speyer. Beier&Beran, Archaologische Fachliteratur,Langenweissbach.916. ARADI,va 2005.AhunokIndiban.HunIdea,Budapest 2008.Egyszktanp:akusnok.HunIdea,Budapest BARFIELD,T.J. 1981.TheHsiungnuimperialconfederacy:organisationandforeignpolicy.In:JAS41.4161. BATSAIHAN,Zagd 2006.Ahunnpektrtnete.Fordtotta:ObrusnszkyBorbla.FarkasLrincImre,Budapest
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Kirly,gatheredin2006theWesternsourcesregardingHungarians,whichmentionthem(Hungari)continuouslysince561in theCarpathianBasin.
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BELLUS,Ibolya(ford.) 1986.KpesKrnika.EurpaKnyvkiad,Budapest BOODBERG,Peter 1979.SelectedpaperofPeterA.Boodberg.UniversityofCaliforniaPress,BerkeleyandLosAngeles. BURNHAM,Philip 1979. Spatial Mobility and Political Centralization in Pastoral Societies. In: Pastoral Production and society. LEquipe cologie et anthropologie des societies pastorals. Cambridge University Press, New YorkCambridge CHRISTIAN,David 1998. A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia. Vol. I. Inner Eurasia from Prehistory to the Mongolempire.Blackwell,Massachusetts CIUPERCA,BogdanMAGUREANU,Andrei Huns and other peoples archaeological evidence in presentday Romania. In: Hunnen zwischen Asien und Europa. Aktuelle Forschungen zur Archaologie und Kultur der Hunnen. Herausgegeben vom Historischen Museum der Pfalz Speyer. Beier&Beran, Archaologische Fachliteratur, Langenweissbach.119130. CSORNAI,Katalin 2007. Ngy gtjon barbr csillag ragyog. Az zsiai hunok a knai forrsokban. Lszl Gyula Egyeslet,Budapest DeGROOTJ.J.M.2006. Hunok s knaiak. A hunok trtnete a Kr. sz. eltti vszzadokban knai forrsok alapjn. Kzzteszi:BakayKornlCsornaiKatalin.Raspenna,Budapest. DOBREV,Ivan 2005.ZlatnotoSzirovisenaBilgarstkiteHanoveotAtiladoSzimeon.Riva,Szofia JAFAROV,Yusuf 1985.GunnivAzerbajdzsane.Elm,Baku. ERDLYI,Istvn 1988.RgszetikutattonaGbisivatagban.In:Keletkutats.sz.7478. 2000.ArchaeologicalexpeditionsinMongolia.MundusPress,Budapest 2008.ScythiaHungarica.Ahonfoglalselttimagyarsgrgszetiemlkei.MundusKiad,Budapest ERDEMT(fszerk.) 2007.Donghucsuudintuuhbaszojol.BelsMongolKulturlisKiad,Hhhot.
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GOLDEN,PETERB. 1994. The peoples of the South Russian steppes. In: SINOR, Denis (ed) The Cambridge History of EarlyInnerAsia.CambridgeUniverstiyPress,London GHIRSHMAN,Roman 1985.AzkoriIrn.Mdek,perzsk,prtusok.Gondolat,Budapest. FLDY,Jzsef(ford.) 1977Strabon:Gegraphica.Gondolat,Budapest. GROUSSET,Ren 1979. The Empire of the Steppes. A History of Central Asia. Translated from the French by Naomi Walford.RutgersUniversityPress,NewJersey. GYRFFY,Gyrgy(szerk.) 1986.Amagyarokeldeirlsahonfoglalsrl.Gondolat,Budapest. 1993.Krnikinksmagyarstrtnet.Rgikrdsekjvlaszok.Balassi,Budapest. HELILOV,MbarizNYITRAI,Szabolcs 2008.smagyarokAzerbajdzsnban.HunIdea,Budapest. JAGUB,Mahmudov 2007. Az azerbajdzsnok s a magyarok: kzs visszatekints az etnogenetikai kapcsolatok trtnetre. In: Magyarorszg s Azerbajdzsn: A kultrk prbeszde. II. Nemzetkzi Tudomnyos konferencia.AzerbajdzsniNagykvetsg,Budapest.125128. KHAZANOV,A.M. 1984. Nomads and the outside world. Translated by Julia Crookenden. Cambridge Universty Press. Cambridge. KIRLY,Pter 2006.Ahonalaptsvitsesemnyei.NyregyhziFiskolaUkrnsRuszinTanszke,Nyregyhza. KMOSK,Mihly 2004.Szrrkasteppenpeirl.Szerkesztette:FelfldiSzabolcs.BalassiKiad,Budapest KOCH,Alexander 2008.BomaeinreiternomadischhunnisherFundkomplexinNordwestChina.In:Hunnenzwischen Asien und Europa. Aktuelle Forschungen zur Archaologie und Kultur der Hunnen. Herausgegeben vom Historischen Museum der Pfalz Speyer. Beier&Beran, Archaologische Fachliteratur, Langenweissbach.5771.
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MA,LiQin 2004.Yuanxiongnu,xiongnu.NeiMengguoDaXue,Huhehaote. MAENCHENHELFEN,Otto 1973.TheworldofHuns.UniversityofCaliforniaPress,Berkeley,LosAngelesandLondon. MANSAG, 2005.Ertniymongolchuudinvg.MongolArdinHevlelt.Hohhot. MORAVCSIK,Gyula 1927.Muageriszkirly.In:MagyarNyelvXXIII.258271. 1942.ByzantinoturcicaIII.dieByzantinischenquellenderGeschichteDerTrkvlker.PzmnyPter TudomnyegyetemiGrgFilozfiaiIntzet,Budapest. 1988.Azrpdkorimagyartrtnetbiznciforrsai.AkadmiaiKiad,Budapest. MURAKZIGyula(ford.) 2002Hrodotosz:Grgperzsahbork.Budapest,OsirisKiad NMETH,Gyula 1986.Attilashunjai.Budapest,AkadmiaiKiad.2.kiads OBRUSNSZKY,Borbla 2007. Four Assumable HunnicChinese Names of Dignitaries in the Hungarian and Slavic Medieval TraditioninCentralEurope.In:EurasianStudiesYearbook.79.130138. 2008.HunokaSelyemton.Masszi,Budapest. PAULER,GyulaSZILGYI,Sndor 1900.Amagyarhonfoglalsktfi.MagyarTudomnyosakadmia,Budapest PETRIK,Istvn 2008.Rejtlyekorszga.Napkt,Budapest. PRITSAK,Omeljan 1954. Kultur und Schprache der Hunnen. In: Festschrift Dmytro Chyzhewskiy zum 60. Geburstag. Berlin,Harrasowitz,239249. PRUSEK,Jaroslav 1971.ChineseStatelessandtheNorthernBarbarianintheperiod1400300BC.Dordrecht,Reidel. SINOR,Denis(ed) 1994TheCambridgeHistoryofEarlyInnerAsia.CambridgeUniverstiyPress,London
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SZENTKATOLNAI,BlintGbor 1901.Ahonfoglalsrevzija.GombosFerenczKnyvnyomdja,Kolozsvr. THURY,Jzsef 1896.Amagyarokeredete,shazjasvndorlsa.Athenaeum,Budapest. TOLSTOV,SZ.P. 1948.DrevnijeHorezm.Moszkva.Nauk. VSRY,Istvn 1993.ArgiBelszsiatrtnete.Szeged. VLAGYIMIRCOV,B.J. 1934Obshestvenniystroymongolov.Nauka,Leningrd. VONDROVEC,Klaus 2008. Numismatic Evidence of the Alchon Huns reconsidered. Hunnen zwischen Asien und Europa. Aktuelle Forschungen zur Archaologie und Kultur der Hunnen. Herausgegeben vom Historischen MuseumderPfalzSpeyer.Beier&Beran,ArchaologischeFachliteratur,Langenweissbach.2556. WATSON,Burton 1961. Records of the Grand historian of China. Translated from the Shihchi of SsumaChien. New YorkLondon,III. YAMADA,Nobuo 1989. The formation of the Hsiungnu nomadic state. The case of Hsiungnu. In: Historical studies of nomadicpeoplesinNorthAsia.TokyoUniversityPress,Tokyo.295304. WITTFOGEL,KFENG,Ch 1946Liaoshi.HistoryofLiaodynasty.Philadelphia. WOLFRAM,Herwig 1980. History of the Goths. Translated by Thomas J. Dunlap. University of California Press. Berkeley LosAngelesLondon. WU,MuZhu 2005.Xiongnushiyanju.KeyResearchInstituteinUniversity.LanzhouUniversity,Lanzhou
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ZOMBORI,Andor HeavenlyWhiteCastleofJapan
In this writing I would like to give a brief overview on place names having the meaning of white castle in Japan. This subject has aroused my attention after hearing about Borbla Obrusnszkys research in relation to Tongwancheng, the Hunnish White Castle and I was curious whether there are anylocalitiesinJapannamedwhitecastle. Inrecentyears,severalbooksandarticleshavebeenpublishedinHungaryabouttheinterpretationof thewhitecastleplacenamesintheCarpathianBasinandotherplacesinEurasia.Whiletherearesome whotracethemeaningoftheseplacenamesmerelytothewhitecolorofthecastlewalls,thereareothers whoemphasizethesacredsignificanceofthewhitecolorinthesenames. The Castle Guide of Japans Council of National Castle Superintendents informs in its introductory that generally speaking approximately 25,000 castles have been built in Japan since the countrys existence.Thisincludesallstructuresstartingfromdefensefortificationsandmoatsbuiltinancienttimes through noble castles, fortresses, and temple towns surrounded by moats in the middle ages to citadels built until the end of the 19th century. However, strictly speaking, the word castle refers to those castles which were built mostly at the end of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th century and served the countrys military unification and consolidation. These castles are numbered around 3,000. Traditionally Japanese castles are built from stone and wood. Basically, the wooden structure is built on a massive stone mound, and the walls are covered with plaster to improve their fireproof property. The plastergivesthecharacteristicwhitecolorofJapanesecastles 1 . I would like to say a few words about the significance of the white color in Japans two main religions,BuddhismwhichreachedJapanfromChinathroughKorea,andShinto,Japansnativereligion. Most of the population follows the traditions of both religions. In Japanese Buddhism, the white color symbolizes the pure heart which cleanses from evil deeds and from the pain of desires and passions. In Shinto, the white color symbolizes cleansing and is used for the marking of consecrated objects and places. For instance, the (haraigushi) or purification wand, is a wooden stick with white paper steamers and hemp strands attached to one of its ends. With this wand, the Shinto priest symbolically purifiesshrinegoersandobjects.Anothertoolis(shimenawa)orbordermarkerrope,whichisa straw rope decorated with white zigzagged sheets of paper. The shimenawa is used to mark holy places, structures or even trees and stones 2 . White is also one of the colors of the (goshikibata) or five color flags or fivecolored flag which originally was used to be offered as a gift to the gods in Shinto religion.Thegoshikibatamaybeagroupofflagseachofwhichisadifferentcolororasinglefivecolored flagwhosecolorsareblue,red,yellow,white,andpurple.TheirorigincanbetracedbacktoChinatothe
1 2
(Shironoshiori)CastleGuide,ZenkokuJkakuKanrishaKygikai,Kyto,1999. Dr.OnoSokyo:ShintoTheKamiWay,TuttlePublishing,BostonRutland,VermontTokyo,2003.
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philosophy of the (wu xing) or Five Elements in which the metal element represents the color white and the direction west. Apart from the goshikibata, white is also one of the colors of the (shijinki) or flags of the four gods which symbolize the four sacred beasts personifying the four directions. Here the color white represents (Byakko) or the White Tiger who is the ruler of the westernheavens.Similarlytothegoshikibata,thetraditionoftheshijinkicamefromChinatoJapan 3 . Now let us take a look at the occurrence of the or white castle term in Japan. This character pairismadeupofthewhiteandcastlecharacterseachofwhichhasvariousreadingsdependingon the context. In original Japanese ( yamato kotoba), it is to be read as shiroki or shiraki, in which shiro (shira is a variant of shiro and has the same meaning) means white and ki stand for castle. It does not appear in this form in any Japanese place name, according to the National Place Names Reading Dictionary, which includes all current place names of Japan 4 . However, it is used as a family name. According to the National Family Names website 5 , the Shiroki/Shiraki family name is the 26,201st outofnearly105,000Japanesefamilynamesandisusedby36households.TheShiroki/Shirakinamedoes notnecessarilystemfromanownonexistentplacenamebecauseuntilthesecondhalfofthe19thcentury common people had only one name and it was only during the countrys reform period when the state mandated everyone to adopt a family name. While some named themselves after famous families or their place of residence, others simply made up their own family name. This is why Japan with a population of 127 million has so many family names while the two Koreas with 79 million people and a longtraditionoffamilynameusehaveonlyabout250. Besides family names, there are two Shinto shrines which are called (shiraki jinja) or White Castle Shrine. One is in Fukui Prefectures Tsuruga City, but this shrines name was originally written by another character pair () pronounced in the same way. Therefore, although the shrines name sounds shiraki, it originally had a different meaning. The other shrine is in Kurashiki City, Okayama Prefecture.Apartfromthefactthatitisasmallconcretestructurenothingelseisknownaboutit. The reason I previously emphasized the Japanese origin of the words is because 60 percent of the JapanesevocabularyisborrowedfromChineseandmostJapanesecharactershaveoriginalJapaneseand SinoJapanese(kango)readingsaswell.In SinoJapanesereading,soundshakuj, inwhichhaku means white and j stands for castle. I will return to this topic later. Just to complicate matters, it also has a mixed reading, shiraj, where the first character is read in original Japanese and the second in SinoJapanese. Shiraj, to be exact, Azashiraj (), is an administrative unit in Akita Prefectures OgaCityandthe(aza)prefixindicatesvillagesection. WiththehelpoftheJapaneseCastleswebsite,Ihaveexamined3,000castlenamesandfoundonlytwo whose names included the or white castle character pair 6 . These are the following: (Fujishiroj) and (Tenpakuj). In the second castle name, is in the SinoJapanese form of hakuj, more exactly pakuj because following the (ten) prefixs n ending sound the voiceless h sound onthebeginningof(haku)changestothehalfvoicedpsound.Atfirstglance,bothcastlenamesseem
3 4 5 6
(Shintoiroha)ShintoABC,http://nishinojinja.or.jp/faq/079.html (Zenkokuchimeiyomiganajiten)NationalPlaceNamesReadingDictionary,Seiksha,saka,1993. (Zenkokunomyji)NationalFamilyNames,http://www2s.biglobe.ne.jp/~suzakihp/index40.html (Nihonnooshiro)JapaneseCastles,http://www.geocities.jp/dgdff233/
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to be similar to the Eurasian white castle place names. However, Fujishiroj, located in Wakayama Prefectures Nanhai City, was named after Prince Fujishiro who used to live in this area, therefore the castlesnameinEnglishisnotFujiWhiteCastlebutFujishiroCastle. Thus, Tenpakuj or Heavenly White Castle is the only castle whose name parallels with the Eurasian white castle place names. The castle is located on top of a 150meterhigh mountain in NaganoPrefecturesUedaCity.Thestructureisinacompletelyruinedandneglectedconditionandonly piles of stones indicate that once there was a castle. The history and building date of the castle are unknown,althoughsomebelievethatitwaserectedbytheSanadaclan()inthe16thcenturyalong withthenearbySanadaj() 7 . In conclusion, I would like to draw the attention to the tendency that, although there are some who trace back the origin of the Eurasian white castle place names to the color of the castle walls, which is certainly possible, but it is worthy of note that out of 3,000 Japanese castle names, there is only one, the abovementioned (Tenpakuj), which is called white castle despite the fact that the majority of Japanese castles are white in color. Out of the 48 Japanese castles under the management of the Council of National Castle Superintendents, 31 are white, 15 are partially white and partially black or dark brown, one is red, and one is a castle ruin with undefineable color. The question immediately comes to mind: If castles called white castle are solely named after their color in the Eurasian continent, then why are not more white castlenamed castles in Japan despite the fact that relying on the abovementionedsurveymorethan60percentofJapanesecastlesarecompletelywhite. FurtherReading Borbla Obrusnszky: Tongwancheng, the City of the Southern Huns, Journal of Eurasian Studies, 2009, JanuaryMarch,pp.7083. http://www.federatio.org/joes/EurasianStudies_0109.pdf or http://epa.oszk.hu/01500/01521/00001/pdf/00001.pdf
(Naganonooshiro)CastlesofNagano,http://utsu02.fc2web.com/shiro529.html
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LINGUISTICS

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BRCZI,Szaniszl GborCzak:InitiationintotheHungarianCastofMind
Title:InitiationintotheHungarianCastofMind Author:GborCzak Language:Hungarian Publisher:CzSimonBooks,Budapest. Yearofpublishing:2008 Numberofpages:224 Email:czakone.eva@tonline.hu Theauthorofwritingsofseveralgenre,almost50booksanddramasGborCzaksnewInitiation book member of a longer series is the first Hungarian languagearchaeological book. The archaeologist excavates (unearths) the objects or their fragments, but the finds of the linguisticarchaeology are commonly used in the spoken everday language and the abundance of the words or expressions, and their relations to each other might have been escaped observations. In the living language the existence of understandings, meanings, religious reminiscences, customs, casts of mind, worldviews, all preserved in words, grammatical structures and in other linguistic elements have notbeenrecognizedtilltoday.Thelinguistarchaeologistcleansupthewordsandidioms(phrases)from thedustofhabitualuse. One of the finds of the book is the presence of the mathematics named about Pythagoras (6th century B.C.), and existing generally in Ancient Europe , it has been also present in the old and recently used Hungarian language. The members of the school of Pythagoras considered that the number is the ancient image of every objects, and the numbers are quantitylike qualities, and to all numbers some standard is connected. In the Hungarian language the world number (szm) has ontological meaning, in accord with the Pythagorean conception: things with positive cardinalities are existing,thingswithnegativecardinalitiesdonotexist. One is the number of God: this number unifies, joins, levels and equalizes everything: in the Hungarianlanguagethisrichnessiswitnessedbyatleast600wordsandexpressions. Web:www.czakogabor.hu
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The Two is not two One, but it is the breach (disunion) of the One, that is why it is bad (wrong), see for example: doubt (ktely), insincerity (ktsznsg), secondary (msodlagos), wacky (flnts). This is knownforalmost200ofourwords. TheThreeistheunitywhichhadbeenfoundagain,itisthenumberoftheperfection,thatiswhyitis said that the two halves unite in wedding (half = fl in Hungarian). Csngs, who speak the old Hungarian language, call the man with the same word as the wife: felesg, or half. In our folk tales the year consists of three days, there are 3 tests (probation), in the Hungarian coat of arms the doublecross standsonthetriplehill. The Four is the number of the completeness (fullness): this is the number of the ancient elements, of the quarters of a day, and of the seasons. The Pythagoreans considered that all the other numbers coming after four are the combinations of the first four numbers. They refused the zero, refused the infinity, the irrational numbers and instead they believed in nature, in the eternal revolution of the Existence. In the Hungarian names the things are in the same way numbered: from one to one (egytl egyig). The circle (kr) and the cross (kereszt) are the images of the same worldview they origin from the samewordroot,notonlyintheIndoEuropeanlanguagesbutintheHungarian,too. As a summary: the existence and working of this ancient number concept in the Hungarian is witnessed by about 2000 words till today. The new words are composed by this logic, too. The author digests the finds together with many other relations and shows them for us, but he leaves the evaluationtotheexperts. Over the essays on linguisticarchaeology, the new book of Gbor Czak deeply analyzes the root system (worked out by Gergely Czuczor, member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, in the 19th century), which constitutes the essence and approach of the Hungarian language. This root system continuously novelizes the language, but preserves its stability and forms solid basis to the peculiar Hungarian cast of mind, which is able to make great discoveries. It is an endowment of the Hungarian Language that We see the same as all the others, but we observe some other things, too. (Albert SzentGyrgyi). Czak deduces that the Hungarian language and thinking is conceptual, and analogous simultaneously,itseestheoppositionsinsynthesis,itstartsfromtheessential,itisholistic,andeventhe illiterate Hungarians are able to understand many hundred thousands of vocabulary. The Hungarian languageisinunitywiththeHungarianfolkmusic,tradition,folktaleworldetc.FromtheAppendixwe learn that the Hungarian knows more than 1150 own words about the locomotion, more than 450 own wordsaboutthespeaking,andthelongestpalindromtilltodayconsistsof185wordsand916letters.The bookisclosedbythescreenplayofafunnylinguisticplay.
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FERENCZI,Enik NewInterpretationoftheEthnicNameScythian
and
ItsSignificancetotheEtymologyoftheBasque
TothememoryofmyfatherwhoopenedupScythiantombs inCsombord,Transylvania In this study, an attempt is made to prove that the Hungarian language may partially be the modern equivalent of the ancient Scythian. According to the mediaeval chronicles 1 of the Hungarian people (the first had been based on a primary gesta which encapsulated a centurieslong oral tradition, and it either has been destroyed throughout centuries or is still hidden somewhere), Hungarians have always consideredthemselvesasScythiandescendants.Thisconsciousnessoforigin 2 hastwoaspects: A ProtoHungarianspeaking population 3 with possible Scythian 4 mixture had been formed in the Carpathian Basin, much earlier than the so called homeland occupation of the Magyars 5 had taken
Anonymus: Gesta Hungarorum, Szctia; Kzai Simon mester Magyar krnikja, I.5; A. Bonfini: A magyar trtnelem tizedei I.1;Trihingrsz712.
Intheirchronicles,Hungariansalwaysconsideredtheirnationtobecomposedoftwocloselyrelatedbrancheswhosemythical ancestors were the biblical Nimruds sons: Hunor and Magor. The Turkish chronicles (Trihii ngrsz) author, Terdzsman Mahmd, identified a Latin gesta, found in Belgrade, as source (3) of his writing. He retold the double occupation of the Carpathian Basin: firstly by Hunor who was the king of Dzsidijja (the region between Samarkand and the Black Sea) and the ngrszpeople.Thedateoftheeventwasunspecifiedbutinthehistoricalchronology,itwassetbeforeAlexandertheGreats reign (712). The source clearly stated that the earlier settlers of Pannonia also spoke Hunors language before this transmigration. (8). Secondly, the Carpathian basin was occupied by rpd of Magors branch centuries later (164182). Having two or more different denominations (one of them being IndoEuropean) for many things, the H. language in itself may be a proofofthemyth.
According to kos Nagy (A vrcsoportok jelentsge a magyarstrtnet kutatsban), the Hungarian people was probably formed in the Carpathian Basin having the highest level of AB bloodgroup and showing similar dispersion of bloodgroups in archaic times. Lajos Darai & Ferenc Cser added that Hungarians have the highest proportion of M17 (Eu19) gene marker, the second highest of M35 (Eu4) Ychromosome marker after the Balkan, however they lack of TAT marker, which means that basically they are part of the archaic population of Europe. (A Krptmedencbe gykerez magyar folytonossg, from Magyarsgtudomnyitanulmnyok,2008,p.254.)
3 4
From ancient times, the native population of the Carpathian basin had been assimilating different Kurgan cultures from the east.Herodotus(HistoryIV.104)placedtheScythiantribeoftheAgathursinTransylvania. Hungariansselfdenomination.
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place, who gave name to many of the rivers and in their settlement names, they preserved the names of ancienttribes 6 theylivedwith. The seven Magyar tribes united by taking mutual oath of allegiance on the eve of entering the Carpathian region at the end of the 9th century, were descendants of the Asian Scythians. It is very probable that they knew, before occupying theland, that people with similar language and culture were living there 7 . For this reason, they did not settle down west from the Carpathian Basin; however, they had the military potential to do so 8 . Archaeological finds 9 also indicate a peaceful coexistence between thenewcomersandtheprevioussettlers. The interpretation will follow up two courses. By analyzing several characteristics of the Scythian way of life described in ancient texts, some possible meanings of the morpheme scyth will be pointed out. Finding the linguistic links based on the similarities of some ancient cultures, the IndoEuropean substratumoftheHungarianlanguagewillberevealed. 1. According to etymological dictionaries 10 , the meaningcarrying morpheme scyth is identified with English shoot 11 from the hypothetical ProtoIndoEuropean (PIE) base *skeud to shoot, to throw, to chase. Oswald Szemernyi 12 attributed a very similar meaning to it denoting skuda shooter, archerasroot.(ToexplaintheAssyrianz,hisproposedbaseisaprototype 13 ofthesetwoloanforms in which the final consonant was voiced and not occlusive. The present Hungarian interpretation is also acombinationofthetwoterms.Phonetically,itisclosertotheAssyrianethnicname,butsemantically,it islinkedtotheGreekone.Atthesametime,theHungarianinterchangeablevoicedandvoicelesssibilant fricatives,zandsz 14 ,mayeliminatethephoneticalproblemoccurringbetweenthetwoethnonyms.) He pointed out that Assyrian sources must have obtained the name Akuza(i) or Ikuza(i) from the invadingScythiansthemselves,andthattheethnicname,,appearedfirst 15 inGreeksources. 16
6 7
Basque,CeltsandCeltiberians.
According to Anonymus (Id., Hung vra), Magyars had been called Hungarus (Western European denomination of the nation) after meeting people who had been already living in the surroundings of Ungvr (Ukraine); in Transylvania (Az erdntli fld, Ttny okossga), the Magyars met Blachs (or Bulachs who were Turkic people according to the linguist Dezs PaisandTurkologistLszlRsonyi)andSlavswhobothacceptedthembytakingtheoath.
8
Kornl Bakay: Magyarnak lenni: bszke gynyrsg, 2004 p.35; Xenophon had a similar statement about Scythians referring to theirhomeland,thesteppesnorthoftheBlackSea.(CyropaediaBookI.I.4) GyulaLszl:Ahonfoglalmagyarnplete,1997,p.48. OnlineEtymologicalDictionary(0ED)basedonvariousetymologicaldictionaries. FourOldIranianEthnicNames:ScythianSkudraSogdianSaka,p.45. O.Szemernyi,Id.p.18. H.linguist,J.Aczl,consideredGr.phoneticallyclosetoH.sz(sgrgeredetnksakunszktanyelv,1924,p.34.)
10
11FromOldEnglish(O.E.)sceotan,AngloSaxon(A.S.)scot.
12 13 14 15
JanBouzek(IranianPeoples:TheScythiansonline)statedthattheAssyrianrecordsdatingtothereignofSargonII(priorto713 B.C.)aretheearliestmentionsoftheScythians.
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TheseinterpretationswerewellfoundedasScythianbowsweredifferentfromthosewhichwereused by neighbouring peoples. The hornwoodsinew composite short bow had recurved tips and set back centre sections, assuring more convenience in handling and usage on horseback. Its quiver, the gorytus, was a combined type; it also contained the bow thus enabling easier mounting without stirrups, and a largernumberofarrowscouldbestoredinit. 17 Thearrowshadmainlybronzethreeedgedheads.It wasaScythianinventionwhichrapidlyspreadinthecloseandfarcultures.ItisknownfromHerodotus that Scythians were renowned archers in ancient times as the king of Media, Cyaxares, sent children to them to learn the art of archery as well as their language. 18 Although in German 19 and Baltic 20 languages the morpheme may be linked to shooter, the Greek denotation of the word root is other than that of the archer. Firstly, because Xenophon used a special term for Scythian bowman, that of 21 .Ifthemorphememeantarcher,theknownmeaningwouldnotbedoubled.Secondly, the Ancient Greek derivations 22 of the morpheme prove other semantical connections. Thirdly, the definiens was not distinctive enough, as the bow had been used by almost all the people of the world fromaveryearlystageofhistory.Andatthesametime,Scythianswerenottheonlymountedhorsemen to shoot their bows from their horseback. In case of an exonym, the neighbouring tribes had to call Scythiansinamorespecificwayinordertoidentifyanddistinguishthemfromthemselves.Incaseofan endonym, they would not have called themselves by the name of archers as archery was natural for them. 2.AsthePIEroot*skeudhasanotherconnotation,thatofthechase 23 (tochaseandbeingchased),it needs to be applied to the Scythians way of facing (or avoiding) the enemy. Herodotus described in detail the Persian invasion of Scythia 24 , and the Scythian response to it. Although some brother tribes
16
According to O.Szemernyi, Hesiod mentioned firstly (around 700 B.C.) the ethnic name: and the maremilking Scythians in a verse (fragment 132). Online Encyclopedia Iranica adds that it was quoted by Homer (Iliad, 13, 67), by Aeschylus (fragment 74), and later by Strabo (VII.3.7) solely as evidence of the fact that the ancient epic poets already describedtheScythiansbythisepithet. BedeDweyer:ScythianStyleBowsDiscoveredinXingjiang. Hist.I.73. German(Ger.)Schieen,OldSaxon(O.S.)skiotan,OldNorse(O.N.)skjota.
17 18 19 20
Lithuanian(Lit.)sautiandOldPrussiansythi(J.Tlfy:MagyarokstrtneteGrgforrsokaszktktrtnethez,2001,p. 56;translationfromCh.&Th.Mller:Fragmentahistoricorumgraecorum,1841)
21 22
AnabasisIII.4.15(allAncientGreekwordsarecitedfromAGreekEnglishLexiconcompiledbyH.G.LiddellandR.Scott,1940)
Scythian, person with ruddy complexion, rude, rough person, Scythian wood, skin, hide, dressed or tanned hide, leather thong, whip, shield; leather amulet; made of leather, of leather; cover and guard with leather, part of the neck, spinal marrow, scalp; shoemaking;skilledinshoemaking;shavinghead;Spartanstafforbatonmadeofwood andleather,usedascypherforwritingdispatches,etc. Basque (Bas.) ehiza, eiz hunting (from R. L. Trask: Etymological Dictionary of Basque and Morris English Basque Dictionary online), Scottish Gaelic (Ga.) sealg (from the Dictionary of the Gaelic Language, N. Macleod, D.Dewar, J. Grant, 1909), Hungarian (H.)z,kerget,iszkolscootaway,Irish(Ir.)sealgaim(fromIrishEnglishDictionaryDinneen,compiledbyR.P.S.Dinneen,1924), Persian(Per.)ishkarprey,chase(fromF.Steingass:AComprehensivePersianEnglishDictionary,1977)
23 24
Id.IV.118142.
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helpedthem,theywereshortinnumber.Thiswasoneofthepossiblereasonswhytheydidnotfightthe Persianarmyandwhytheycontinuouslykeptonedaysdistancefromthem.AllowingPersianstochase them was a peculiar, but not scornful war tactic as it may have also suggested the manipulation of the enemy. It could have been easily one of their usual tactics, applied whenever was necessary. Pretending to flee 25 , they led the Persians throughout each of their subjects lands so that theirs were not ravaged. At the same time, their flight was done with so much care that scarce food and spring water were left behind them. However, when it was convenient, the Scythians made many surprise attacks upon their enemy, mostly at mealtime. (From these and similar maneuvers of the Scythians or Scythian related peoples,itmighthaveevolvedtheParthianshot 26 ,theCantabriancircleandotherwartactics.)Fortheir mobility,Herodotusconsideredthem 27 invincible. 3. Pillaging was a characteristic way of life in ancient times. Chase can be easily related to such activities as well. Different terms derived from PIE roots *(s)keg move away 28 , *sket to injure, to scathe 29 , *skot dark, shade 30 , and words with so far undefined PIE bases, such as: to scale (H. kapaszkodik), to scamble (H. kapkod, habarl), scamp (Bas. harrapakin H. garzda, haramia, Ir. sciurdaim scamper), scarce (H. szks), to scare [Bas. uxatu, Ga. sgnradh, H. riaszt, Ir. scaur, Scot 31 (Sc.) skair], to scoot (H. eliszkol, Ir. scubaim liom), scorn (H. csrol, Ir. scigire scorner), screak (Ga. sgal, sgairt, H. sikoly, Ir. scread), scud (H. szguld, Ir. sciurdaim), search (Bas. ikusi, H. kurksz, cserksz, Ir. siortam)mayrefertothecircumstancesandtheactoflooting. The widely accepted PIE root *skeud is very similar to other bases such as: *sked, *skheid and *skaith all with similar meanings (divide, split) which can have two connotations. One is the act following the pillage:dividingorsharing 32 (latterfromPIEbase*skertocut)theloot.
25 Analyzing the topic of courage, Plato (Laches XVII.191) stated with a certain degree of contempt that Scythians fought by runningaway and notby opposingface to facethe enemy; Tacitus(GermaniaI.6)considered withdrawingamore prudent than cowardact.
Mounted on light horses, Parthian archers (Plutarch called them the best sweepback archers after the Scythians in the Life of Crassus, 24) would feint retreat, then while at a full gallop, turned their bodies back to shoot at the pursuing enemy. The maneuver required excellent equestrian skills, since the riders hands were occupied by their bows, leaving only pressure from theirlegstoguidetheirhorses.ThistacticwasusedaswellbytheHuns,Magyars,TurksandMongols.
26
The Scythians indeed have in one respect, and that the very most important of all of those that fall under mans control, shown themselves wiser than any nation upon the face of the earth. (...) The one thing of which I speak is the contrivance wherebytheymakeitimpossiblefortheenemywhoinvadesthemtoescapedestruction,whiletheythemselvesareentirelyout ofreach,unlessitpleasesthemtoengagewithhim.(Id.IV.46)
27
[cf. Bas. bizkor fast, quick, H. iszkol, iszkiri go, Ir. scaradh, Welsh (W.) ysgogi to move, iska is the Northumbrian shepherdscalltohisdog]
28 29 30
H.sebez
[cf. Albanian kot, Bas. histu to fade, Breton (Br.) squeut, Ga. sgil cover, Ger. Schatten, Gr. , shadow, H. sttsg,Ir.scth,O.E.sceadu,O.W.scod]
31 32
FromChambersScotsDictionary,A.Warrach,1911
(cf. Bas. zati share, Ga. sgealbach to break into pieces, H. szaggat, szakt, Ir. scaraimle share, Sc. skair, O. Ir. scaraim I separate,O.E.sceran,scieran,A.S.scedn
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4. The other is related to the Scythian (possibly to Cimmerian and Celtic as well) husbandry. They were famous for cottage cheese making 33 , made by separating the whey from the curds. Interestingly, but not surprisingly, there is a phonetic and semantic similarity among English curd (from O.E. crudan to press, drive from PIE base *greut press, coagulate) Gr. , H. tr 34 , Ir. gruth, Polish (Po.) twarogandCzech(Cz.)tvarok. The above mentioned PIE roots are probably in relationship with each other. In many of them, the sk consonant group is found. Even the Scythians alternative names, the Persian Saka 35 and Skolotoi 36 containit. 5. Some authors believed that the morpheme is linked to the Scythian stockbreeder nomadism 37 . This interpretation also has a firm base; however, constant moving was naturally associated with pastoralismbymanyotherancientpeoples. 6. As (or ) denotes scalp 38 , beside part of the neck and spinal marrow, the meaning of the ethnonym might be also related to it. Mostly, as the number of scalps was the measurement 39 oftheirbravery.Thisinterpretationispartlylinkedtothenextone. 7. The simplest s and k containing PIE root is *sek to cut, section (which converges with Bas. sega scythe, xoko, zoko corner; Ga. sgath, sgud; Gr. closed or enclosable space, H. szaggat to rip, szeg corner, angle, szgy brisket, szak, szk section, zug nook, szakad to tear, to cut, szakt to cut, to tear off, szk tight, kasza scythe, ks knife) reveals a neglected skill, until now, of
Herodotus, Id. IV.2; Hippocrates: About Illnesses, Nicolaus Damascenus called them o milkeaters (Collection of Magnificent Customs, 123) adding that these people were hard to conquer as they kept their food permanently with themselves.
33 34 35
H.trisaderivationoftheverbtrdig,rummaging,butithasotherconnotationsaswell:roundandsaddlegall.
Herodotus (Id. VII.64) stated that Persians called all Scythians Saka; O. Szemernyi (Id. p. 13.) also pointed out that not just AsianScythianswerecalledSakasbutWesternonesaswellaccordingtoaninscriptionofDarius(ofNaqiRustam)
AccordingtoHerodotus(Id.IV.6),themythicalkings,TargitausnicknamewasSkolotoi,fromwhomthenamewaspassedon tohisthreesonstheyoungestbeingtheScythiansancestor.(InHungarianfolktales,alwaysthekingsyoungestsoninheritsthe throne as the elders go to war.) The corrupted name of Targitaus might be preserved in a mountain name (Hargita) in Transylvania, but might appear in ancient Irish surnames as well [ hArrachtain (Harrington or OHarraughton), hArtagin (Hartigan) Irelands History in Maps, Surnames online]. From the Scythian kings three sons, Lipoxais, Arpoxais and Kolaxais, three gens were originated: Auchatas, Katiars and Traspis, two of them might be possibly traced in the ethnonyms of the Ossetians (Caucasus), Ausci or Ausetani (France), Autheini and Cruithni (Ireland) and in settlement name of Katoira (Gallicia, Spain). In the historical Galicia (Ukraine), there are two toponyms, Skalat and Stary Skalat which correspond to the mythical ancestors name, Skolotoi. As La Tne foundings were discovered in the region, it is more likely that the nickname is related to Celts.(AdetailedmapofCelticsettlements.TheCeltsintheEastonline)Skolotoishowsphoneticalresemblencewith.
36 37 38 39
Ger.ziehentomove,topullortheIllyricskitatiwandering(J.Tlfy:Id.) Gr.pruned,H.kalaphat,kopaszbald,kopncsouterlayerofaripeseed,Ir.scairt,W.copa
The Scyth were proud of these scalps, and hangs them from his bridlerein; the greater the number of such napkins that a mancanshow,themorehighlyisheesteemedamongthem.Manymakethemselvescloaks,likethecapotesofourpeasants,by sewingaquantityofthesescalpstogether.(Herodotus:Id.IV.64)
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the Scythians that of being quality rawhide makers. Other roots like: *ska(i) to shine 40 (both H. sk, sima and Ir. simh mean smooth), *skabh to shave 41 (from O.E. sceafan), *skat dung (Gr. , H. szemt, ganj), *(s)kel to cut, cleave, split (H. szel), *(s)kem to cover, shame (Ga. sgil, H. takar, szgyen,Ir.scth),*(s)keptoscrap(H.kapar,vakar),*skerforbothcutandsharp 42 (O.E.scearp),*skub scoop (H. kapar, Ir. scaob), and terms with undefined bases like: scar 43 (from Gr. ),scarf (H. szabdals, Ir. scarbhalt, W. sgarff), scent (Bas. suma, H. szag), scob (H. kapark, Ir. scamh), to scold (Bas. zigor stick , its transferred sense is punishment, H. szid), to scorch (Bas. xakatu, Br. sech, Cornish (Cor.) seygh, Ga. seac, Gr. parched, H. szikkad, W. sych, O.Ir. secce, seccaim), scrag (Ga. sgrag, H. gebe, gehercs, Ir. scrogaire), scrap (H. tredk), scrape (Ga. sgrob, H. karc, Ir. scrob), to scrub (Bas. igurtzi, Ga. sgr, H. sikl, srol, Ir. sciraim), scurf (H. korpa, Ir. screamh), etc. trace the linguistic relationship between ancient peoples. According to OED, the skin itself is derived from word root *sek (cut). The Latin scapula 44 (shoulder blade) might got its name due to its efficient function during cleaning the animal skin off flesh. Even the English adjective short (Bas. eskas lacking enough,Ga.andIr.gearr,H.kurta,Per.kt,O.E.sceort,scort)hasaprovenlinktorawhideorwool 45 . To avoid consonant clusters, the Hungarian language uses different phonetical alterations: eliminates s or k from the beginning of words as in kaparni to scratch, kapaszkodni to scale, szel cut, etc.; insertsavowelinbetweenskasinsrolsscour,szikescalpeletc;changingskintocs(English ch) or zs (French j) and/or introducing a vowel to the beginning of the word, like csrls scorner,csrscray,csavarscrew,morzsascranetc. As the Hungarian language has similar denotations for leather preparation as Celtic and Basque languages, it is very likely that these common roots were formed in a certain historical period, when someCeltic,BasqueandProtoHungarianspeakingpeopleslivedintheneighbourhoodofeachother. (It has to be added that centuries later, the Hungarians tanners became so famous for their smooth and white rawhides, called hongrieur or hongroyeur 46 by the French that Colbert, the French minister of thattime,sentatannertoHungarytolearntheskillsandmethodsofleatherpreparation.) 8. The actual pronunciation of the morpheme , scyth differs from the ancient one as the close front rounded vowel (upsilon) went through iotacism, a process by which the Ancient Greek
40
Now the skin of a man is thick and glossy, and would in whitenesssurpass almost all other hides. Some even flay the entire body of their enemy, and stretching it upon a frame carries it about with them wherever they ride. Such are the Scythian customswithrespecttoscalpsandskins.(Herodotus:Id.) Ga.risg,H.kacoroz,Ir.scamhaim,W.siafio Bas.zorrotz,Ga.sgairteil,H.szros,Ir.gar Ga.scrr,sgrr,H.heg Herodotusmentionedoxribsforthispurpose.(Id.)
41 42 43 44 45
Strabo described a Gaul custom in Geography (from Chronicles of the Barbarians, 1998, p. 8.), a kind of punishment at an assembly:ifsomebody interruptedthe speakerfor thethird time,solarge piecewouldbecut offfrom his sagum (woolen cloak) thattheremainderwouldbecomeuseless. J. J. de La Lande in Lart de lHongroyeur (series: Description des arts et mtiers) described in details the procedure of French tanningbasedonHungarianskills.
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pronunciation was converged to sound like (iota) in Modern Greek. This phonetic change might be insignificant for an English speaker but it is very important to a Hungarian, even if consonants are the valuemarkers of a word. This difference is the reason why the author of the present study may realize the possible connection spots between ancient IndoEuropean and nonIndoEuropean languages, and might have also contributed to the etymology of the Basque. The taking of oath 47 was that conspicuous characteristic which differentiated Scythians from neighbouring peoples customs and linked together some related 48 ancient peoples, Basques, Celts and Scythians 49 ; however, it has primary connotations to IndoEuropean word roots related to rawhide and the process of its preparation. As the principal raw material, the animal hide (sometimes even the human) is omnipresent in everydaylife, and thus in the act of the oath taking of these settled 50 , seminomadic and nomadic people, the semantic and phonetic linkageisascertainedamongthedenominationsofleatherprocessing,oathandethnonym. The proposed morpheme is the esku oath. Byanalyzing and comparing the relicsof the Basque and some Celtic languages, as well as their Hungarian equivalents concerning specific domains of a stock breederandwarriortypesociety,itismostlikelythattheethnicnamewasanendonym.Itwasprobably used before the Scythians contacted the Greek world as the Greek term for oath was 51 . ScythiansmayhavecalledthemselvesbyanamewhichcanbereconstructedfrommodernHungarian 52 as esksz(k) or eskz(k) 53 and the meaning might be close to that of the person who takes an oath or the people of oath. The original ethnonym is unknown, only the corrupted names 54 by neighbouring
Bas. eskaini offering, eskondu to marry, to reach, esku, esk (Zuberoan dial.) hand, right hand, eskuin right hand, eskubiright(side);Ga.asgaidhwillingtoobligeready,ascaoincurse,H.esk,Ir.eascaine;L.auscultaretoobey.
47 48 49
GomarandAshkenaziinGenesis10:3,1Chronicles1:6;GomarandMagoginJosephusFlavius:AntiquitiesoftheJews,BookI.1.1
Whendividingtheworldintofourpeopleaccordingtothefourcardinalpoints,Strabomentioned(GeographyBookI.2.27)two contracted terms, those of Celtiberians and Celtscythians, used by ancient Greeks refering to the mixed population among Iberians, Celts and Scythians. (For lack of evidence, Celtscythians remains an ethnonym without reference.) Knowing the Scythians unwillingness to give up their traditions from ancient sources, this could have happened due to their similar traditions. At the same time, J. Bouzek (Id.) stated that the earliest Scythian finds from Kelermes kurgan, dated to midseventh B.C.,stronglyresemblesthatofthelateCimmerians(knownfromNovocherkasskhoard). In the 6th and 5th centuries B.C., Hecataeus from Miletus had already listed Scythian town names as Carcinitis, Cardesos, Caspapyros(fragments153,157,179),HerodotusalsoaddedonethatofGelon(Id.108).
50
~ object by which one swears, oath; the literary account of the oath is found in Aeschylus play, Seven against Thebe: it is toldbyaneyewitnessmessenger,whospiedouttheceremonybetweentheSevenledbyPolynices,onesonofOedipus,against his brother Eteocles, king of Thebe, who broke his promise of sharing the throne with him. The ceremony of oath might be introducedbyoutlanders,asthecitywasfoundedbyaPhoenicianprince,Cadmus.
51 52 Hungarian language is based on an archaic root system which has changed slowly during centuries. The earliest religious poem magyar Mria siralom Old Hungarian Lamentations of Mary (early 14th c.) can be more or less understood by todays reader. 53 54
Wordroot:esk(oath),verbalderivation:esksz(+iksing.3.person),verbalnoun:esksz(z),plural:esksz(z)k
Gr. ,, Assyrian Akuza(i) or Ikuza(i) and biblical Hebrew Ashkenaz (it is generally accepted that original * kuzgotmisspelledasknz).AccordingtoamapfromColemansHistoricalTextbookandAtlasofBiblicalGeography(1854), Scythians were located in the northwestern part of Anatolia by the mosaic account. From Herodotus (Id. I.105), we know that theylivedinNearEastaswell.TheBible(1Mos10,3;1Chron1,6;Jer51,27etc.)alsomentionedthem.
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peoples are known. Most likely, the Assyrian variant, the Akuza(i) or Ikuza(i) is the closest to the proposedethnicnamebuiltfromHungarianlanguage. Oath was the foundation of the Scythian tribal confederation very possible that of Celtic and Germanic as well on a traditional, but voluntary basis for the purpose of organizing common defence anddivisionoflands,pastures,anditwasalsothebackboneoftheirspiritualityandmorality.Thelatter is well presented on many of their artefacts, showing their commitments to comradeship in different aspects of everydaylife. For example, one golden plaque (found in KulOba, Crimea, Ukraine) depicts two Scythians, who pledge everlasting brotherhood by drinking, nosebynose, drops of their blood mixed with wine from an ox horn vessel. The second, from the same locality, is an electrum vase representing men involved in a number of comradely activities, like wounddressing, tooth extraction. They wanted to be portrayed with these peaceful and help giving human bonds, as these might have been extremely significant for them: they set examples 55 for the whole community. Ancient Greek sourceshadoftenusedortookoverfromearlierauthorstheexpressionScythiansgovernedbygood laws or very similar phrases 56 refering to the oath in two meanings: as the base of their military and moral strengths and as the reason of refusal other peoples traditions 57 . Few ancient historians understood the significance of the oath, that at the same time oathtaking is an engagement 58 and a conditional selfcursing in the event of oathbreaking, hence for Greeks (and for other cultures in the following centuries), Scythians became the epitome of cruelty 59 because of their behaviour with the enemyandoftheirhumansacrificialrituals.Infact,theScythianmoralshadtwofaces:theirrelationship with their sworn friends and enemies was in direct opposition. However, there were some bridges between these extremities: they were ready to accept nonScythians if they considered them to be exemplary 60 . Lucian of Samosata caught their spirituality in the most complex way in two of his writings: The Scythian or the Consul and Toxaris or Friendship, the latter being a dialogue between a Scythian and a Greek about friendship. He presented Scythian willingness to accept other peoples customs just in case those would have converged with their polarized valuehierarchy 61 in which
55 56
LucianmentionedthatScythiansusedtogatheraroundillustriousmentolearnfromthem(ToxarisXXXVII).
Homer: Iliad 13, 56; Aeschylus: fragment 74; Choeril: fragment 3; Nicolaus Damascenus: Collection of Magnificent Customs 123; Strabo:BookXI,8,7;Arrian:fragment53;Lucian:Id.IX,AristotlepresentedScythiansaslawabidingpeople,whowerechanting theirlaws(Problemata1920).
57 58
Herodotus:Hist.IV.76;Lucian:ToxarisVII.
In the Basque language, askatu or eskatu has the meaning of to liberate, to let go of which may refer to the lift of a ban or the release from an oath, aske means free, untie. In the Gipuzkoan dialect, lazkatu means to loose(the H. equivalent, lazt, has a great resemblence to both Bas. and English expressions. Furthermore, lzt to incite is almost identical with the former termanditexplainsitself:onlyloosepersonsofacommunitycanbeincited).
59 Even the Biblical account (2Macc 12, 2931) contradicts the Scythians bad reputation by telling that they dealt lovingly with the JewsofScythopolis entreatedthem kindlyinthetime oftheiradversity(30),andJudas thankedand desiringthemto be friendly still. (31) Furthermore, in the New Testament (Colos 3:11) Scythians represent the antonym of the Barbars in a periodwhenChristianityexistedjustinpatches.Probably,theAsianmissionofsomedisciplesofJesusmadethishappen. 60 For example, the cult of Solon among Scythians (Lucian: The Scythian and the Consul, VIII). It is probable that the settlement SolontsyofKhersonProvince(Ukraine)preservedthecultinitsname. 61
ToxarisVI.
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brotherhood was the greatest virtue and the betrayal of it was the maximum shame 62 . This was the reason why they worshipped the Greek Orestes and Pylades, one Classical Greek example of true friendship 63 . The Hungarian esk is unanymously related to 64 the Ancient Greek strength, motive force, power and to keep back, to restrain terms. The two languages share many common words together from ancient times 65 . Whenand how could this linguistic interchangehadhappened, isnot the subjectofthepresentstudy. Thedemostrationofthenewetymologywillfollowupthreecourses: the first (A.) is the analyses of the components of the ritual of oath described by Herodotus 66 in a broaderlinguisticbackground; the second (B.) lists some toponyms, containing the proposed morpheme, which might be in relation withtribaloath. Thethird(C.)istheetymologyofthenameBasque. A. There were certain accessories of the ceremony of the adopted brotherhood such as the claygoblet (1),blood(2),wine(3),anddifferentweapons,thelatterforselfcuttingandblessing,magicalpurposes(4). 1. Greek 67 was a bigbellied drinking vessel. 68 The ceremonial wine cup, used by regional tribal leaders, was the (French calice, Ger. Kelch, H. kehely, Pol. kielich, L. calix). A more archaic denomination of this particular vessel was 69 , preserved as kehja in the Cuman dialect 70 which is
62 English shame originated from O.E. sceamu, sceomu feeling of guilt or disgrace which cognotes with A.S. sceand, O.S. skama [cf. Gr. disgrace, dishonor, shameful, H. szgyen (sk has been changed into cs in related terms like honourbecslet,aderivationofbecsprice,value,whichantonymisocschuff,scum),Ir.Scannal. 63 64 65
ToxarisIIVIII. J.Aczl:Id.p.141.
According to J. Bouzek (Id.), some early archaeological finds were identified as Scythian in the Lydian Sardis and Ionian Ephesus. The mythological ancestors (Heracles and the Amazons) of both places are connected with Scythians. The more, H. patakrivuletcognateswiththenameofthePactolusRiver,whichaccrossedSardeis.H.vocabularycontainsmanyexpressions which are phonetically and semantically linked to the mythological forefather, Heracles: harc war, harag rage, hergel irritate to pair as animals, horkol to snor, hrg to rattle, a dhtl hrg fuming with anger. H. toponyms converging with Herculesare Haraklny, Haraly (Transylvania) Hreg,Harka (Hungary).Withoutanypolitical reasons, onlyH.toponyms areusedinthisstudyasmostofthemaremucholderthantheSlavandRomanianequivalents.(K.Bakay:Id.p.37)
66 67 68
Hist.IV.70 Adiminutiveformofhole,hollow.(cf.Ir.cupn,H.kupa,Per.kab,O.E.cuppe,L.cupfillingthevessel)
According to the OED, English vessel container originates from Old French (O.F.) vaisseau, which ultimately comes from dim. vasculum of the word root: vas. Catalan (Cat.), Galego (Gal.) and Spanish (Sp.) use the original morpheme vas, vaso for the designation of vessel in which a Hungarian speaker immediately recognizes the iron, one probable prime material of vase , buttheyusetheLatintermsferro,hierroforthedenominationoftheparticularmetal.
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almost identical with the archaic expression. Herodotus described a specific kind of drinking cup 71 , made of the cranium of the killed enemy 72 . He presented two variants of them: the simple one, that ofa poor Scythian, covered with oxhide from the outside, and a more fancy one, that of a rich warrior, with agoldguildedinteriorbesidetheouteroxhide. According to personal successes 73 , men who killed foes 74 in a military act or looting were invited to drinkawineandwatermixturefromthedecanter 75 ofthedistrictgovernor;thebiggestshamewastosit aside and not to drink from the vessel due to lack of achievement 76 . Scythians who slayed a very large number of foes had two cups instead of one, and drink from both. 77 It is important to add that the Szekler 78 dialect has a compound term for the slightly sourishtasted water, the borvz, which means, wordbyword,winewater.ItmightbethelinguisticrecollectionoftherewardingScythiandrink. 2. At an early stage, man had realized the significance of blood: its presence represented the vital force of life, its excessive lost meant death. Thus, he considered red to be the most important colour endowed with lifegiving powers and used in many ways for different magical purposes. Bathing a newly born in the blood of a strong animal, drinking the blood of the enemy 79 , painting weapons and human bodies with the blood of slain animals became magical acts in different distant cultures: that of taking over the strenght of the dead. Red objects also had magical powers assuring fertility and protecting against illnesses. Through colour resemblence, the power of blood was transferred to the earthstone,redochre 80 ,anditwasplacedintogravesofdeceasedrelativesinhopeofalifebeyonddeath. EarthstonewasalsofoundinScythiantombs.
70
Atzl (Id. p.105) used the Magyar tjsztr (Dictionary of Hungarian Dialects) of the famous linguist, Szinnyei Jzsef, consisting a Cumanvocabularyof40 thousandwords, basedonspecificdialects spokenin thetwoCuman regions ofHungary, respectivelyGreaterCumaniaandLittleCumania,bothlocatedintheGreatHungarianPlain.
71 derived probably from Greek kephalihead (Ir. scairt scalp, cean head, Sc. ceann, H. koponya skull, Ger. Kopf head, Cat. and Romanian (R.) cap; Sp. and Gal. cabeza L. caput; the Kuban river name from the Caucasus region, an ancient Scythian stronghold,alsomaycarrythismeaning. 72 73
Hist.IV.65;Strabo:BookVII.3.7
Whatever number he slays, he cuts off all their heads, and carries them to the king; since he is thus entitled to a share of the booty,wheretoheforfeitsallclaimifhedoesnotproduceahead.(Id.IV.64) The proof of the act was the scalp fixed to the bit of the horse. (Herodotus: Id. IV.64) A number of severed heads alternating with galloping horses are depicted on a carved stone frieze from Nages, Provence. It calls to mind the practice of Celts of collecting thescalps of theirdefeatedenemiesand attaching themtotheir horses whenriding awayfrombattles.(Dictionaryof theCelts,1997,p.133.)
74 75
Derived from L. canthus, from Gr. meaning corner of the eye referring to the beak of the jug. The H. equivalent is kanta. Aristotle(Politics,VII.2.6)alsoconfirmedthis. Herodotus:Id.IV.66. HungariandialectspokeninTransylvania.
76 77 78 79
TheScythiansoldierdrinksthebloodofthefirstmanheoverthrowsinbattle.(Herodotus:Hist.IV.64);Themoreplumpof thesesuckingbabestheGaulskilled,drinkingtheirbloodandeatingtheirflesh.(Pausanias:DescriptionofGreece10,23)
80
Phonetically,Gr.isalmostidenticalwithoathortheobjectbywhichoneswears
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During an oath ceremony, drinking from their own and each others blood meant the unification of tribal or individual strength 81 . For Scythians, brotherhood was more important than kinship 82 . The German word for magic, Zauber, translates to Old Norse taufr and A.S. teafor both meaning red ochre. Estonian and Finnish veri, H. vr 83 , Pol. krew, Cz. krev are similar to Gr. or 84 blood, juiceandspringtime 85 .TheLatinver,isspringtimeissemanticallyprobablylinkedtothelatter,if nottotheHungarianone. 3. In different cultures, there was an analogy between blood and red wine for two physical resemblences,bothwerejuicesofliving,growingbodiesandhadsimilarcoloursthemythofDionysus and Ampelus is the first European account of this organic linkage. The alcoholic content of the beverage gave courage to the man who drank it, and he felt himself grow stronger. The stupor arising from its consumptioncouldeasilybeidentifiedwiththephenomenonofmagic.Thisisapossiblereasonwhythe ancientsappreciatedwinesomuchandwhyScythiansmixedittogetherwiththeirownbloodanddrank itattheceremonyoftheoath. Greeks were the greatest wineexporters of the ancient world. They kept wine in rawhide flasks calledskinmadeintoabag.Thesynonymforthisisflask.Etruscanaska(askaeleivana for the olive oil one) 86 and Bas. zagi have the same denotation 87 . The extinct Cuman dialect also preservedasimilarlysoundingterm:acsk. 88 Whatismore,Hungarianlanguagemaintainsthissemantic linkbyexpressingbrskinandborwinebytwoidenticalconsonants. Phoneticallyandsemanticallyspeaking,askosisverysimilartosackorbag(cf.Bas.zaku,askomany, Ga. sachc, H. zsk, iszk knapsack, Ir. sacil, Swedish vska, W. sach, L. saccus, Gr. or 89 ) and was made of rawhide which was very important accessory to ancient peoples as they store their belongingsorbootyinit.TheEnglishsackhasotherconnotationsaswell,oneofthemislooting.By acquiring a nominal suffix, H. zskmny booty is a direct derivation of zsk sac. Basque zakuratzaile looteralsocontainsthetool,thezaku,fortheaction.
81 82
ThisisthereasonwhytheHungarianeskoathisrelatedtotheGr.power,strength. Lucian:Id.LXI.
83 H. language consists of many one syllabewords connected to vr blood: var scar, vr wait, ver beat; words derived from them showing links with the magical power of rebirth: virul blooming, virg flower, virrad dawn, virgonc agile; colour: vrs or veres red; terms related to warfare and death: vrt armour, verseny compatition, vergdik whithering, veresgdefeat,verejtksweatetc. 84
Gr. alphabet lacks the letter and sound v (Bas. language does also not pronounce the sound v at the beginning of the words,usesbinsteadofv) Ga.andIr.earrach W.Keller:TheEtruscans,p.97. Per.uskuradishissimilarsounding. AtzlJzsefId.p.121.
85 86 87 88 89
At Hesiod (The Shield of Hercules) and Aeschylus (Seven against Thebes), it has the meaning of shield too, which, being concave, was used to hold liquid as a vessel. Other meanings: coarse cloth of (goat) hair (H. szr hair, szr cloak similar to Gr.goathaircloak),sack,sieveorstrainer(H.szr)especiallyforwine,coarsebeard(cf.H.szakll)
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Lacking cauldrons 90 , some of the Scythian tribes used pelt skin to prepare their sacrificial meal in the skinafterpeltingtheanimalandputtingbackthemeatcutoffthebones 91 init. 4. The weapons dipped in the blood and wine mixture in the goblet listed by Herodotus were: the akinakes (some English translations uses scimitar, which is very different in length and shape from the Scythianshortsword),somearrows,thebattleaxe(doubleedgedblades)andjavelin. Akinakes, a type of dagger, was short in length but could be used for both cutting and thrusting. It was of Scythian origin, adopted by both Medes and Persians from at least the seventh century until the second century B.C. Itwas stored in a sheath 92 ,a scabbard, which wassuspended from a leather belt on thewearersrightside.Scabbardshavebeenmademainlyofleather,woodandmetal. Arrows (Ga. and Ir. saighead, W. saeth) were also stored in quiver 93 made of rawhide. Their small size allowedScythianstousethemwhileonfootormounted.Thebowstringwaspulledbackwiththeindex and middle fingers of their right hand, with the end of the arrow rested between these two fingers. This wasthemethodusedbytheScythians,PersiansandothersthroughouttheMediterranean. Sagaris 94 (Bas.axkora,haizkora,H.szekerce 95 ),thebattleaxeoftheSakas,wasdescribedaseithersingle or double bladed. It had a long slender handle with a blade and point made for heavy cutting and/or striking. It was a lightweight weapon that could be used effectively singlehanded, but was still able to penetrate scaled armor (Ga. asgall bosom, shelter, Ga. & Ir. scabal breast plate) which was often made of small leather or metal plates sewn together on a leather shirt. Other weapons could not do this. Sagaris,Scythianinorigin,wascommonlyusedthroughoutAsiaandtheMiddleEast,anditappearedto havebeenfavouredinbattlebysomePersiansubjectnationsandbyPersiansthemselves. Javalin(Bas.gezi 96 ,Ga.sleigh,H.kelevz,Ir.ga,Lit.akstis,Pol.oszczep,A.S. scot) isalightspearwhich is almost always thrown by hand unlike the arrow and slingshot from a mechanism. To increase throwingdistance,somespearshadleatherstrapsattheends.
90
There are phonetical similarities in the denomination of cauldron: Br. kaoter is alike with H. kd tube, smaller katlan kettle.Invesseltheme,W.tegellkettleissimilartotheH.tgelymeltingpot. Hist.IV.61
91 92
O.E. scea, sc, O.S. scethia, O.Fris. skethe, O.H.G. skaida, possibly from base *skaith divide, split similar to H. kz hand. According to OED, L. vagina sheath, scabbard is derived from base *wag to break, split, bite. H. vg cut converges with it. (The Latin term was not used in anatomical sense in classical times.) The ancient notion is probably of a sheath made fromasplitpieceofwood.
93
Bas. gezitoki and Hungarian tegez show strong resemblence, toki, tok in both languges refer to room, inner space (cf. Gr. case) Hist.VII.64 H.languagehasmorethan10synomymsforaxe.
94 95 96
AccordingtoTrask,itoriginatesfromL.gaesumGaulishjavelin.TheauthorsopinionisthatBas.geziandH.kzibyhand show a basic link, which indicates a very early connection between these two languages. Proper names Gza (father of the first H. king, St Stephan), Keszi (one tribe of the homeland occupying Hungarians) and Keiths resemble them, the latters Ir. meaningiswarriordescendant,theSc.onesisfromthebattleground.
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Rawhide 97 was used for multiple purposes: cloth like cloak (Bas. kapa, Danish kbe, Ga. sgil, H. htibr, guba, szr, Ir. r), shoes 98 (Bas. oski 99 , Cor. eskis, H. bocskor, It. scarpa, Gr. , O.E. scoh, O.N. skor etc.), straps (Bas. soka string, rope 100 , Gr. , H. gzs withe), harness (Ga. armaich, Gr. , H. hm, A.S. scerran to harness an animal to something), bridle (H. kantr), stirrup (H. kengyel), scourge (Bas. usta, zigor, Ga. sgirsadh, H. ostor, Sw. gissel), helmet (Ga. sgaball), tent (Gr. )andmusicalinstrumentslikebagpipe(ascaules 101 ). Notmentioned,butprobableaccessoriesoftheceremonyofoathbasedonlinguisticalfootprints: 5. Although Herodotus did not mention the presence of the shield 102 in the oath ceremony, this defensive weapon might give the specific Greek interpretation 103 of the scyth, whilst also having connections with hide. It is known from Strabo 104 that Scythians covered or made their shields of rawhide. Aelian 105 was more specific when wrote that Scythians covered their shields with tarandus 106 hideastheyconsidereditimpenetrable.
97
It is a noun composed of raw (Bas. eihar, ihar, Ga. amh, amhaidh, Ger. roh, Gr. rawhide, H. irha, O. E. hreaw) plus hide (Bas. ezkutu shield, hiding place, secret, Ga. seiche, seic, Gr. hollow, H. takar cover, W. cuddio to hide, L.scorteus,cutisskin)
Cothurnus (buskin) was a distinctive boot worn by hunters and horsemen in ancient Phrygia, originally it had a thin layer of leather sole, later had been introduced to the Gr. stage; soccus was a Roman loose leather slipper; galosh is a Gaulish shoe made ofleatherupperandcarvedwoodensole.
98 99
MorrisBasqueEnglishDictionaryonline.
100Abarkaisatraditionalfootwear,ofrawhidewithsolesofrope,inthePyrenees;theH.barkahastwomeaningspossiblyrelated to the Bas. term: the first is the catkin (mostly of the willow), ancient Greeks made sandals (baxae the name itself shows phonetical resemblance with the ethnonym of the Basques) of willow twigs and leaves calling them calones according to Isidor (Orig.XIX.33.);thesecondmeaningcontaintwotermsofleatherpreparation:barkafullgrainleather,barkzstograin;there isaphoneticresemblancebetweenbas.abarkaandH.vargashoemaker. 101
ThefirstdefinitementionofthebagappliedtoreedpiperscomesfromDioChrysostominthefirstcenturyAD.ItsGr.name ( pipe + sack) was given by Martial. (F. J. Timoney: The Concise History of the Bagpipe; J. Vallverd: Bagpipes in literature,p.2).
O.E.scield, A.S. scild,scyl,from PIE base *(s)kelto cut.(cf. Ir. sciath, L. scutum)Shield bearsamorphological andfunctional resemblance with the shell of a tortoise. Both Sp. tortuga and H. tok, tekn tube, carapace contain the t and k or g consonants which occur in Bas. keatu, keitu smoke, Gr. to hide, W. cudd hidden. In Aeschylus tragedy, Seven against Thebes, the Seven killed a bull, gathered its blood in a black shield, dipped their hands in it, asked for the help of Ares and his companions and finally took the oath of alliance. Referring to German tribes, Tacitus (Germania I.6) wrote that abandoning ones shield is the basest of crimes; nor may a man thus disgraced be present at the sacred rites or enter their council.Havingsimilarcultures,itisverylikelythatthisstatementwastrueforScythiansaswell.
102
The two denominations of the shield, or and or might contain both ethnic names, Scythian andSaka.
103 104 105 106
Geo.BookVII.3.17 OntheCharacteristicsofAnimalsII.16 Reindeer,probablytheL.RangifertarandusfennicussubspecieswhichisstillfoundinRussianKarelia
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ManyEuropeanlanguages 107 borrowedtheLatindenotationofthisdefensivedevice,scutum(derived from cutis 108 skin, derived from Gr. equivalents) which converges with the proposed morpheme esku oath. A ritual described centuries later is one of the proof of the present presumption. Based on eyewitness accounts, the Byzantine emperor and historian, Constantine VII 109 , had written down the raisal on shield of a Hungarian prince 110 . (Related to the same event in his chronicle, Anonymus 111 had given details of the pact of the seven Hungarian tribes sealed with blood.) This ceremony was not an isolated case; Germanic tribes also performed this when the lineage of hereditary leadership was disrupted and when they had to elect a new tribal leader. Even the newly announced Byzantine emperorswereraisedonshields. More proof of the presumed link between oath and shield comes from an English word. English is one among the few languages which has retained two terms for the denomination of the shield. The escutcheonusedinheraldryfortheshielddisplayedinacoatofarmsalsocontainsthemeaningofthe morpheme. As the shield was a physical defensive weapon from which a wall could be built if every bearer put together his own, the oath had to be a spiritual one for it symbolized unity, power and honour. English people have an old saying connected to it: blot on the escutcheon meaning lost honour. Honour represents kept promises and unbroken treaties. Escuage or scutage was an old English law, the service of the shield. Tenants, who hold their land by escuage, were held by service performed by the knight. These linguistical fingerprints prove that the tradition of subordinating to the oath taken has already existed earlier among the Celtic or Gaulic tribes too as traditions based on spiritual beliefs change the slowest. This is why many remote and well preserved cultural pockets of the present time (way of life of Kirghiz, Turkmen, Tajik, Mongol etc. tribes) can help anthropologists to understandandreconstructthepast. We may also have a toponym evidence which links the oath with the shield and that is skdar 112 ,oneofthesuburbsofIstambul,residentialareasince410B.C.,whichhasbeencalledScutari earlier. The meaning of the latter name was defined as raw tanned leather 113 and it was a probable corruptionoftheGr.. A written ancient source states: stepping on oxhide 114 means to make an oath. 115 It points out the word which has to be spelt when asking for favour from the enemy, that was zirin 116 . (cf. Bas. zin oath,Etr.certomake,H.szer 117 mean,Komyzarin,Kurdishzr,Zazakizerngold)
107 108
Cat.escut,It.scudo,Lit.skydas,etc.
Similar to Gr. hollow, to cover, to hide (specially of graves); H. kty, kotu (dialec. term) hollow, kt well,kdtube(fortanning),kdfog Deadministrandoimperio. rpd,forefatherofthefirstH.royaldynasty. GestaHungarorum,chap:Eskjk. Per.askudaroruskudarhasthemeaningofarelayofposthorsesorlettercarriers. skdarBelediyesiKurumsalInternetPortali. Itisapossiblephoneticalandsemanticallinkbetweenoxandoath.
109 110 111 112 113 114
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Symbolizing the tribal unity taken by oath, it is very likely that the H. pajzs shield has an intrinsic, hidden connotation with the IndoEuropean peace 118 (Bas. bake, H. bke): the balance and stability betweencontractingparties. 6. There are purely linguistic (L. aeskulus, Sw. ekslktet, Aragon caxico oak) and mythological 119 analogies and proofs about the necessity of the presence of the oak 120 in the ceremony. In the steppe, they had to remove one from a former sacral location, as Celts did, or to find a substitute for it, such as poles, etc. This tree symbolised the honour for the tribal ancestors 121 , following ancient traditions 122 as well as unity, security, power and courage. In Classical Greek mythology the oak was a symbol of Zeus and his sacred tree. In Etruscan, Celtic 123 and Germanic mythology, oak also had a distinct role. Galatianscouncilswereheldinoakwoods 124 .TheOldGermanlawsgaveferociouspenaltyforpeeling the bark off any standing tree 125 . Oak has a significant role in Hungarian mythology and heraldry as well. As for the Basque people, the oak of Guernica symbolizes traditional freedoms for centuries. In 1476,FerdinandandIsabellasworetotheBiscayanstomaintaintheirprivilegesunderanoak. 7. Besides oak, water might be the another unmentioned element of the ceremony. Ga. uisge, early Ir. esc, O. British iska water, fen, Per. usqur water used for religious ablutions, Sc. easg ditch, fen, W.wysgrivuletpossiblyhavea commonrootwithHungarianvzwater.Thederivedtermsofthese denotations, which tend to have an oath related meaning of ready, willing, are: Br. escuit, early Ir. escid, Sc. asgaidh, W. esgud. Usk Afon Wysg (Wales), Exe (England), four Esk named rivers in Scotland, and two in England might be also linked to the morpheme (e)sku. Worship and sacrifice at pools, springsandrivershadalongtradition,stratchingbackintotheBronzeAge.ThiswasnouniquelyCeltic phenomenon....the Germans sacrificed goods and people in bogs and pools until the early centuries AD. 126
115 116 117 118 119 120
Lucian:ToxarisXLVIII Meaningtheprotectionoftheenemy(Id.XL) Rootofmanytermsreferringtomultiplysomething(szerencseluck,szeretetloveetc.);mean. Cf.AngloNormanpas,Fr.paix,It.&R.pace,PortugueseandSp.paz,Sicilianpaci,L.pax. GyrgySzab:Eurpaimitoszoksmondk,1977,p.43.
AccordingtoOED,theO.E.acoaktree,fromP.Gmc.*aiksofuncertainoriginhavenocognatesoutsideGmc.languages.But Azeri fac tree, Bas. adar branch, horn, limb, H. g branch and g sky, T. aa tree, O.Ir. adarc prove that there are manyeligiblecognatesoutsideGermaniclanguages. In the text of Herodotus (Id. IV. 127), we find a passage where king of the Scythians, Idanthuros said to the messanger of DariusthattheywouldchangetheirfighttacticsifthePersiansdestroyedtheirancestraltombs.
121
Some ancient authors (Herodotus: Id, IV.76, 80; Lucian: Toxaris, I; Origenes: Against Celsus V.36) repeatedly pointed out that Scythianswereloyaltotheirtraditionsandpunishedthosewhogavethemup.
122 123
Localities like Derventa (BosniaHerzegovina), Derbend (Turkey), Derbent (Dagestan) bears the memory of the Celtic oak. Pol.drzewo,BulgariantreearepossiblyborrowedwordsfromCelts. GyrgySurnyi:Agrghitvilgnvnyei. J.G.Frazer:TheGoldenBough,p.83. SimonJames:ExploringtheworldoftheCelts,1993,p.94.
124 125 126
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8.Presumably,theoathritualshadtohavespecialhandplacements,astheyhavetoday,forhands in Basque 127 are called esku. The Hungarian equivalent for hand is kz which is phonetically and semantically linked to the Basque one. In the tragedy of Aeschylus, the oath taking parties placed their handsinthebloodofabull. B. Some toponyms with probable oath related morphemes are: the Canaan city of Ashkelon (L. Ascalon); Ashknin, the Middle Persian name of Parthia, the ScythianParni kingdom; Ashkhagat (town in former Parthian kingdom, present Turkmenistan); Lake Ascanius (lznik Gl) in ancient Anatolia; ancient Macedonian Uskana (present Kicevo); ancient Oescus river (present Iskar in Bulgaria); Oskol river in Russia; Askania Nova, Ukrainian settlement, which assumes an older one with the same name; river Ezka, a tributary of Aragon (Spain), ancient Osca, capital of the Ilergetes tribe (present Huesca, Spain); ancient Asculum (present Ascoli, Italy). It is very likely that Isca Dumnoniorum (Devon, UK) and Isca Silorum 128 (Wales, Uk), Celtic settlements in Roman Britain, were the meeting places of Celtic tribes, where they took the oath of brotherhood. Later, they came together regularly for economical (goods exchange etc.) and cultural purposes. Interestingly, both Usk and Exe rivers, in the vicinity of these places, are phonetically related to them. Ancient Uscenum 129 (present Vc, Hungary); Eskll, Kis s Nagyeskll (Romania), Iszkz, Oszk, sk, Uszka (Hungary), Iske (Slovakia) names also belong to the same group. It is probable that these toponyms are connected to ancient tribes like Ausci, Oscans, Scots, Sequani 130 ,Szeklers,Vascones,andtheyhaveacommonspiritualroot. C.ThevariantsofthemorphemeescuarestillpresentinthedesignationsofEuropeanethnicalgroups suchastheBasques,theScotsandtheSzeklers.Thepresentstudyfocusesonthefirst. CorrespondingancientethnicnamesrelatedtotheBasquepeoplearetheVascones(1)andtheBascunes orBarskunes(2). 1. Earlier theories linked the Vascones 131 with wooded land, derived either from Latin (boscus or buscus wooded area) or Basque (basoko, baso forest plus ko genitive ending) words. These etymologieshavebeendiscredited byresearchersasbothprovedtoberelativelynewterms.Nowadays, it is generally accepted that the Latin Vasco (sing. of the Vascones) comes from a Basque and/or Aquitanian root, with unknown meaning, used by these people to refer to themselves. This root would be*euskwhichcorrespondstoanAquitaniantribalnamerecordedasAuscibyancientsources 132 .
127 On the flag of Abkhazia and of the Abazin people there is a hand, which might have a similar significance to that of the Basqueone. 128 129 130
Ptolemy:Geo.II.2,Tacitus:TheAnnalesXII.3233. PtolemymentioneditasaSarmatianIazygsettlement.
Considered being a Gallic tribe with capital Besanon which converge with Bas. settlement name of Bizanos from Pyrnes AtlantiqueDept.,France. inStrabo:GeographyIII.4.1011;Pliny:NaturalHistoryIII.22; OneofthemisPtolemy:GeographyII.6.
131 132
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2. Several coins 133 from the first centuries B.C., found in the northeast of Spain, bear the inscription of Barskunes or Bascunes, written in Iberian alphabet, and the image of a galloping horseman with brandishing short sword or a hurling spear revealing the military character 134 of the population. On the other side of some of these coins, there is the image of a bearded head with the inscription of the personalnameBencodaorBencota 135 . Ancient sources listed three similarly sounding tribal names, among Celts, in Lower Pannonia: Aravisci 136 , Eravisci 137 and Arabiskoi 138 . Omitting the Ara and Era prefixes 139 , they all correspond to the denominations of the Province Bizcaia, and the ancient tribal names of the Vascones and/or Vescetani. The Era or Ara prefixes of the listed names might also easily denote a subgroup 140 of the Vascones and/or Vescetani. They were specified by Tacitus as speakers of a Pannonian language. As manyofsettlementnamesindicateBasqueancestralpresenceintheCarpathianBasin,anaffiliationmay bepresumedbetweenIberianandCentralEuropeanBasquesoundingtribalnames.(Thereareanalogies inothernationshistorythattribesthatarrivedlaterandmixedwiththenativepopulationgavenameto the newly formed people, and the previous name of the natives was lost.) According to toponym evidenceandthespecificHungarianmeaningoftheBasques,thepresentstudysauthorpresumesthata significant part of the Basque ancestors have migrated 141 from Asia to their present homeland,
133 134
DigitalHistoriaNumorum.
The inscription of the bronze plate found in Ascoli recorded the name of 30 Iberian mercenaries who were granted Roman citizenship.MostofthesenamescognateswithBasquetoponyms.
135 136 137 138 139
ThesetwovariantscorrespondtoWesternRomaniansettlementnameofPankota. Tacitus:Germania1.28,Ptolemy:II.15. Pliny:NH,3.148;inscriptionsofmilitarydiplomasandtombfromLowerPannonia. Pliny:Id;Ptolemy:Id.
TheyshowresemblancetothenameofaBasqueprovince,thatofArabawhichmightgetitsnameafterArabaRiver(present Rba or Raab) of Hungary and Austria. Another possible interpretation may be the T. araba and the Russian terms meaning of wagon (cf. Per. arba (sing. rab) houses or arbab (sing. rabb) possessors). Both languages were partly formed in the geographical regions where Cimmerian, Celtic, Scythian and Sarmatian tribal remains could have been left behind. We knowfromancientsourcesthatshepherdScythians(possiblesomeCeltictribestoo)livedinwagonscoveredwithrushmats.
140Bas.abarbranch,residue,remainsbymetathesiscouldbechangedintoAraba;thetwovariantsofpossiblysameprefix mayrefertotribesleftbehind. 141Turkishtoponyms,likeBagtren,Bakonak,twentyBakysettlementnames,Bakuyu,Bekonak,Sorgun,andSorkunetc. might prove this. The present studys author presumes that archaic Basque, Celtic and Proto Hungarian languages contributed considerably to present day Turkish toponymy. [For exam: Erdemli s (town in Mersin Province) etymology might be Erdem virtue+litoponymicsuffix,H.rdemmeansmerit)
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simultaneously with Celtiberians and Celts 142 , and during their migration, smaller parts were probably brokenofffromthemainbody,aswellasnewethnicalelements 143 wereadded,possiblytheIlergetes. TheCarpathianBasin 144 hasagreatnumberoftoponymscorrespondingtobothancientnamesofthe Basques: for Barskunes: Baracska, Berkesd, Berkesz, Berzence, Berzk, Boroksa, Brznce (Hungary), Bereksz, Varsolc (Romania) etc; for Vascones: Bcska region (Serbia), Baksa, Bask, Becske, Bicske, Besence, Veszkny, Viszk, Vcknd (Hungary), Bocsk, Viszka (Romania), Vasonca river (Slovakia), Veskc (Ukraine) etc. The presence of the Basque tribes is concentrated in mountainous regions, where ironstonewasminedsinceancienttimes.ThemeaningoftheVascones,whichhasbeenforgottenoverthe centuries, was probably given by that ProtoHungarian speaking people who lived in the basin at the time whenBasque tribes were present in the region as noneof the surrounding languages preserved the meaning of it, except the Hungarian one. Once, the ethnic name of the Vascones was probably associated with ironstone, H. vask 145 and/or a possible derivation of it: iron forge vaskoh 146 or vaskoh. Vask has another connotation as well, that of the blade. These two linguistical footprints denote Basques as ancient ironculture carriers besides Celts and Celtiberians, and they converge with the Basque peoples historical and actual trade 147 . There are other Hungarian dialect terms 148 , which might be related to the Basques as well, such as: balaska or valaska is an axe used by swineherds; bicke is a strong thick stick, with an ironhook ending, which has been used for towing ships; baksa or boksa in Szekler dialectreferstothestackofwoodwherecharcoalfororesmeltingisburnt;vskaisthenameforthepole
Possible Scythiansounding toponyms wedged in among Celtic or Basque tribal names might be: Szacsal, Szka, Szakads,Szakalr, Szakams, Szalacs, Sikula, Szks, Szigetfalu, Szikesfalu, Szita, Szitny, Szokny, etc. (Romania); Sta, Sitke, Szakld, Szakly, Szakony, Szatta, Szegi, Szkely etc. (Hungary), Saca, Szakolca, Szkacsny (Slovakia).The names might be givenbythenatives.
142
Citing the German anthropologist, W. Radloff, Gy. Nmeth (A honfoglal magyarsg kialakulsa, 1991, p. 3941) depicts the repeated rise of new clan subgroups, the frequent military restructurings of nomadic societies and the constant changing of tribalnames.
143 144 145
AstheBalkan. Thesecondelementofthecompoundword,kstoneistherootforkovaflint,kovcsoltohammerandkovcssmith.
146 In one of the western local basins of the Transylvanian Ore Mountains, there are settlements like Vaskoh, Vaskohaszd, and Vaskohsziklsetc.Althoughinhistoricaldocumentsthesetoponymswererecordedrelativelylateandoriginally,theyappeared under other names (Nagyhko, Zohodol, and Skej, from Tekint Erdlyi helynvknyv III. p. 353. by A. J. Vistai), they preserved the name of the Vascones tribe as other ancient tribal names, mostly Celtic are also identifiable. There are other toponym evidence in the vicinity of the above mentioned basin which support the statement: Riny village (similar to the Rioni river name of Georgia and the Spanish La Rioja Province where Basque tribes lived in Roman times, and cognates with the denotationoftheSpanishrioriver),Kalugervillage(surprisingresemblancewithpresentCalahorra,ancientCalagurriscalled cityoftheVasconiansbyStraboGeo.III.4.1011)andGaina,thenameofamountainpeak.(Bas.gainatop)Theneighbouring basin, Belnyes, might alsobear the ancient Celtiberiantribe, the Beronesname;howeverit hasa Hungarian connotation aswell (H.blnybuffalo). 147
ThefirstknownironworksintheSpanishBasqueCountrydatefromRomantimesandburnedthelocalbrownhematiteore and charcoal fuel in an open hearth to produce simple casting for tools, weapons and adornments. (Northern Spain, Insight Guideseries,p.83) OnlineMagyarNprajziLexikon.
148
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or bar put at the back of the shoulder with two watercontainers at the egde, visk 149 small house made oftwigandrushmatting. Aquitanian, Basque and other tribal names considered to be preIndoEuropean can be traced in manytoponymsmostlyfrommountainousregionsofHungary,Romania,Slovakia,Serbia,Ukraine: a.Ausci:zd,zdfalu,Ocsa,csrd(Hungary),Osziko,Eszkros(Slovakia),etc.; b.Autrigones:Otrokocs(Slovakia); c.Bigerrones:Bigr(Romania),etc.; d.Caristii:thecompoundingtoponyms,withKrselementinthem,ofKrsriverregion(Romania), etc.; e.Ceretes: Cered, Csaroda (Hungary), Cskszereda, Nyrdszereda (Romania), Nagyszered, Kisszered (Serbia),etc.; f.Conveni:Noszvaj(Hungary),Noszoly(Romania),etc.; g.Eluzates:Olcsva,Belezna,(Hungary),Lcse(Slovakia),etc.; h.Sibuzates:Bozita,Buzita(Slovakia),Buzita(Romania),etc.; i.Sotiates:Szgy(Hungary),Szegyesd,Szd(Romania),Szucsny,Szucsi (Slovakia),etc.; j. Tarbelli 150 : Tarpa (Hungary), Trterebes (strong resemblance with the French Tarbes near Adour river, in the Hungarian toponym the first element, Tr, is also a river name), Rkosterebes, Krasznaterebes,Kisterebes(Romania),Tketerebes(Slovakia),etc.; k. Varduli: Kisvrad (Slovakia), Kisvrda, Vrad (Hungary), Nagyvrad and the surrounding compoundingtoponymswithVradelementinthem(Romania),etc.; l.Vasates:Vzsec,Vzsa(Slovakia),Vasztly,Bosta(Hungary),etc.; m.Vascones:Besence,Bicske,Vaskt,Veszkny,Visznek,Visnye(Hungary),Veskc(Ukraine)etc.; n. Vescetani (the toponyms are difficult to be differentiated from those of the Vascones tribe): Viszk (Hungary),Visk(Ukraine),etc; o. Volcates: Vajkc (Ukraine), Valkonya, Vejke, Valk, Vlcsej, Vokny, Vkny (Hungary), Vlkny (Romania),etc. Thelistisfarfromcompleteasfurthercomparativestudiesarerequired.Atthisstageofresearch,the relationship between the ancient Basque and ProtoHungarian speaking people of the Carpathian Basin isnotyetclarified.
Ga. baskaid, Ir. bascaed basket might refer to the weaving skills of the ancient Basque tribe, which might constitute the specific Celtic meaning of the ethnonym. Some Scythians lived on wagons, which were covered with rush mats (Aeschylus: Prometheus,709711);againstthewind,theyalsoplacedmatsaroundtheirwagons(Hippocrates:Airs,Waters,Places,27)
149 150
CorrespondingTurkishsettlementnames:Torba,Torbali
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The actual names of the Basque provinces are also preserved in the toponyms like Rba river (L. Araba) and compound toponyms with the river name in them (Austria, Hungary), Abara (Slovakia) for Araba; Kapos and Gyepes hydronyms and other compound toponyms with the river names in them (Hungary, Romania) for Gipuzkoa; river Laborc and Laborcfalva (Slovakia) for Lapurdi; Novoly (Romania), Never (Slovakia) for Nafarroa; settlement names like Szapriliget, Zabar, Zdor, (Hungary), Zuberec(Slovakia)forZuberoa;VeszknyforBizkaia. Iparalde is the name of the northern Basque region. The first element ipar north cognates with the name of Ipoly river and settlement names such as Ipolytlgyes, Ipolyvisk, Ipolybl etc. from Hungary and Slovakia. From archaeological finds, it is well known that this region has been inhabited by prehistoric times. The fact that the Hungarian language preserved the Basque term ipar as the denominationofindustry,itreinforcestwofacts:firstly,aProtoHungarianspeakingpopulationlived there from at least Celtic times; secondly, as the region called Ipolymente 151 was rich in iron ore, had to be many forges and busy blacksmith workshops there. Toponyms like Lbatlan (without legs), Lbod 152 (Hungary), Lbas, Lbfalva, Vaslb (iron leg)(Romania) prove this fact as Bas. labe, laba 153 oven furnace 154 cognates with H. lb leg, lbos legged pot. In the eastern slope 155 of the Transylvanian Ore Mountain, settlements with Gld 156 element in them (Havasgld, Mezgld etc.) provesalsotheexistenceofancientironworks. There is an analogy between some actual Basque and Hungarian toponyms from the historical Hungary 157 : Basque Biarritz(Lapurdia) Errigoiti Garay Galdakao Hungarian Biharc(Slovakia) Egrest(Rom.) Gara(Hun.) Gld(Rom.) Similarlysounding fromotherregions Bihar(India) Egrisi, ancient kingdom in Caucasus,Eerci,Eriaa(Turkey) aldere,aldiran(Turkey) toponyms
151 Mente, toponymic suffix referring to the succesive settlements on the riverbanks, shows great resemblence with the Bas. mendemountains,H.menedkslope. 152 Stt, Kemence, kemence, j Kemence, etc. toponyms of the Carpathian Basin are the Hungarian equivalents. It has to be addedthatGaeliclbanmeansmine,dirtwork. 153 154 155 156 157
ConvergingBas.toponyms:Labatut,Labaien,Labacolla. AncientGreeksalsousedportableleggedovens,Gr.meansgrip,hold. ArchaeologicalfindsoftheregionswereidentifiedasCelticones(Erdlytrtnete,I.p.30.) Bas.galtzairusteel,Ga.sgaldtascalded,burntwithhotwater,H.aclsteel.
Presenttime truncated Hungary, Slovakia, western Ukraine, Transylvania and western Romania, northern Serbia, eastern Austria,apartofSloveniaandCroatia.
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Irun LaHaranne,Karrantza Cuqueron,Kukuari Iriny(Rom.) Kerencs (Hun.), Gelence (Slovakia) Kkllriver(Romania), Kukerics(Hungary) Iran,landofAryans ancientHarran(Turkey) Kerkyra(Greece) Kkr, (Turkey), Kkrtl, Kklce
AncientColchys(Caucasus), Colchester,Keekle(England) Lekeitio Meaka Mundaka Navarra Rekitta, Reketty, Reket (Rom.),Rakaca(Hun.) Monok(Hun.) Mndok(Hun.) RacharegioninCaucasus
Never, Als, Felselefnt Levante Near East region, (Slo.) Levent, Navruz (Turkey), Hibernia theLatinnameofIreland Pamlny(Hun.) Szanda (Hun.), rivulet(Rom.) Szindi Pamphylia, province in ancient Turkey ancient Sindok (Caucasus), Sndky,Sandik(Turkey) Sarp(Turkey)
Pamplona Sondika Sopuerta Sukarrieta Zala,Zalain,Zalla Ubide
Szaporca, Szerep, (Hun.), Szaprifalva(Rom.)
Szaraksz(Rom.),Szokolya ancient Sakarya river, Sakarca, (Hun.) Sakarlietc.(Turkey), Zalaregion(Hun.) Abd,Abda(Hun.) Zile (Turkey), ancient Lazistan (Caucasus) Abdi,Abdiolu,Abide(Turkey)
SomeotherTransylvaniantoponymsmaybeassociatedwithBasquetermssuchasbihar 158 (Biharisa county name of the historical region of Partium, once Hungary, and it is a frequent element in compound toponyms of the region), banatu (region name of the historical South Hungary, with the possible Basque meaning of separated by a river, in this case the Maros, which is a tributary of the Tisza), ortzi (Hungarian toponyms of Orci, Orczi and Orczifalva are the possible equivalents of archaic
158
OthersimilarBas.terms:behormare,behartuobliged,beheralow,bihurtureturn,twisted(Trask).
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Basque name of the sky), gaina top (a peak of the Transylvanian Ore Mountains), gorri 159 (bald mountain tops are called so in Hungarian). It must be added that these expressions have Hungarian equivalentsaswell. Thereareafew,butverysignificantcorrespondingwords 160 inBasqueandHungarian,suchas: Basque agure English oldman Hungarian agg aggdik alde (g)altzairu as,aba ate bago bil beaza biroki egatz egiaz eme region steel ancestor door beech round threat twins longfeather truely female oldal acl s ajt bkk bl vsz iker tegez igazn n emse erditu erreka ezer gaizto garate givebirth brook anything naughty mountain pass ered r ezer gaz garat torok English oldman toworry slope,side steel ancestor door beech core,kernel danger,peril twins quiver truly femaledeer sow tooriginate brook thousand wicked funnel throat
159 160
Bas.meaningisred.
Besides the Trasks and the Morris BasqueEnglish online dictionaries, some words were used from The Common Mesopotamian Substrate of Hungarian and Basque of Alfrd Tth. (Mikes International, The Hague, 2007; http://www.federatio.org/mikes_bibl.html#124)
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gerezi gorde gudu cherry tokeep battle gerezd kordbantart had csata hegi,egi edgeborder hegy g hatu ihar iturri izu jaitzi kabarro keatu labe baggage withered spring tofear milk mixture smoke legged oven furnace thieve sleep sky,thunder slim fire fireplace Horse stick, scourge punishment ldoz szigor tooffer severity ht irha feltr izgul tej kavar kd lb lbos lop alszik arc sekly st bunch keepatighthand army battle mountain, sky back rawhide tobreakout tofear milk tomix fog leg pot(theearlyoneshadlegs) tosteal tosleep face shallow bake
lapur lo ortzi segail su,sute sutegi zaldi zigor
There are two phonetically and semantically corresponding terms of mythology: Basque sorgin 161 witch might be related to the Hungarian boszorkny witch and srkny 162 dragon, Bas. Basajaun,
161 Ger. Zauber magic cognates with the Bas. zuberi witch and the name of the Bas. region, Zuberoan (Souletin), Ancient Gr. cast a spell over somebody, one who bewitches, bewitch by evil eye, charm, amuletmightalsocontainahintofethnicity.ArabsourcesreferredtotheBasqueaswizards(Trask:Id.p.13) 162
Cf.Gr.flesh,fleshsideofleather,eatflesh
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the old man of the wood to theH. Vasjank Iron John, the hero ofan archaic European tale collected byGrimmbrothers.TheH.Kontyu,VadregandTpi 163 denotesimilarlywildcreaturesofthewood. Basque dialectical terms for the denotation of the neighbourhoods 164 are inguru, ngr, unguru 165 which correspond to the (mostly) Western European denomination of the Hungarians and to the settlement name of Ung(v)ar (in the valley of Ung 166 , Ukraine), which existed before 167 the Magyars arrival in the Carpathian Basin. This denomination is of considerable significance for the Hungarians in proving their continuity in the Carpathian Basin as it was probably alluded to them. There are some similar ethnic names 168 presumingly referring to the Hungarians: Un(u)gur, Ug(u)r of Zachary rhetor, Hunnuguri 169 of Iordanes, both from the 6th century, as well as Unkroi 170 of a Byzantine sourcefromthe10thcentury. Conclusions: 1. This study reveals the Scythian legacy of the Hungarians, but does not exclude other nations from sharingacommonScythianancestry. 2. It does not state that all Scythians were IndoEuropeans 171 , although, it tries to prove that the HungarianlanguageisbuiltuponacertainamountofIndoEuropeanwordsfromancienttimes. 3. The Hungarians and their language cannot be excluded from Scythian studies or PIE root reconstructionsasveryoftenarelevantHungarianwordistheclueforunsolvedlinguisticmysteries.
163 164 165
MagyarNprajziLexikon Cf.Ga.coimhearsnachd,Ir.chomharsanacht,T.cumhuriyetrepublichasthesameroot.
Trask (Id. p.225) originates them from L. in gyru in circle (cf. Gr. circle, ring, rounded and H. kr circle and gyr ring); The Latin expression also denotes a place, where horses are trained. In western Hungary, there is a settlement, Gyrs, which was inhabited from Stone Age, and where a native horsespecies was bred. Interestingly, the region belonged to the Hungarian Jk gens which corresponds to the Iberian tribe name of Iacetanos or (Strabo: Id.III.4.1011) and settlementnameJacaintheAragonvalley,Spain.correspondingTurkishtoponyms:ngr,Engrcuk. In one of the Celtic languages, the Gaelic Highlander, ung has a denotation that of the anointed. The Turkic o (u) means good or better. (Gy. Nmeth: Id.p.380). In western Ukraine, in vicinity of the Ung rivulet, there are toponyms like Plc, Palland Pallgy which cognatewith one of the brothersname, Palus, from anotherScythian mythology recordedthis timeby Diodorus Siculus (II.43). According to his recount, Palus and Napes were the descendents of Scythes, Jupiters son, and they conqueredlargeterritoriesfromtheNiletoThracia,fromthelandoftheMedestoAsiaMinor.
166 167 168 169 170 171
Anonymus:GestaHungarorum,Hungvra. LivinginCaucasus. JenDark:HunnoHungaroBolgarica,fromTurn,II.1.72.73.old. J.Dark:Amagyarsgskelet,fromEleink,II.1.p.6. TherearemanyCaucasianpeopleswithinflectionallanguages.
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4. There is an archaic linguistic relationship between Basque, some Celtic and Hungarian languages; however,therelationshipofthepeoplewhohavespokenthemisnotyetclarified. 5. The fact that some old Hungarian gens 172 names coincide with Basque and Celtic tribal names or terms referring to forefather prove that there were much closer bonds between them as it is acknowledgedatpresent. 6. The ancestors of a portion of the present Hungarian people lived in Carpathian Basin from at least Celtictimes.
Bas.aitafather,aitongrandfather,wise;Ga.itepart,region,aiteamtribe,folk,ithnecommand,direction, aithne knowledge; Ir. athair father, cognate with Hungarian Ajtony gens; Bas. as, aba ancestor (cf. H. s with the same meaning),Ga.ab,abafatherissimilartotheH.Abagens;CelticIceniitribecognateswithHungarianJe(sze)ngens;Celtiberian Iacetanos(Gr.)withHungarianJkgens.
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MARCANTONIO,Angela Belszsiainyelveamagyar? 1
Cm:ATRTNETINYELVSZETSAMAGYARNYELVEREDETE AngelaMarcantoniovlogatotttanulmnyai Szerz:AngelaMarcantonio Kiad:HUNidea,Budapest http://www.hunidea.com/ Kiadsve:2006. ISBN:9637014195 1.Aknyvbemutatsa Az Urli nyelvcsald (2006a) cm knyvem magyar fordtsnak meleg fogadtatsa a magyar olvaskznsg (legalbbis egy rsznek) krben indtott arra, hogy lefordtsam magyarra, s egyetlen ktetbe sszegyjtsem azon rsaimat, amelyeknek kzs tmja az gynevezett finnugor/urli elmlet kritikaiismertetseselvetse.Ekedvezfogadtatsnagyonmeghatott,shlsvagyokrte. Az elz knyvemhez hasonlan a jelen munkmban is megvizsglom s megkrdjelezem a finnugor/urli elmlet rvnyessgt, mikzben olyan tmt is trgyalok, amely csak emltsszeren kerlt el az elz knyvemben: lehetsges mdszereket fogok javasolni olyan j modell, j elmlet keresshez,amelyesetlegfnytderthetamagyarnyelveredetre. Az urli elmlet szerint a finn, az szt, a lapp (szmi), a mordvin, a zrjn, a vogul, az osztjk, a szamojd s termszetesen a magyar egy nyelvcsaldot alkot, vagyis lenynyelvek olyan csoportjt, amelyek lltlag mind egyazon kzs snyelvbl, az gynevezett sfinnugor/surli nyelvbl szrmaznak. Ezazelmlet, azon kvl, hogy jlismert anyelvszek sms humntudomnyok tudsai krben, minden magyar szmra is ismers, hiszen ez a hivatalos elmlet, amely magyarzatot ad nyelvk, s ezzel egytt npk eredetre is. Szintn kzismert tny a nyelvszek s ltalban a magyar
Jelen rs a szban ford ktet els tanulmnya. Ksznetnket fejezzk ki a HUNidea kiad vezetjnek, Krpti Gbor Csabnakakzlsengedlyezsrt.Szerk.
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olvaskznsg eltt, hogy az elmletet krlbell 200 ve olyan tudsok hoztk ltre, akik a nyelvek, nemzetek, etnikumok, fajok eredetnek (akkoriban klnsen fontos s npszer) tmjval foglalkoztak. E tudsok leggyakrabban nyelvszek voltak (mintsem, mondjuk, antropolgusok, trtnszek vagy etnogrfusok), fleg azrt, mert akkoriban gy gondoltk, hogy a nyelv elkerlhetetlenlegyetjelentanpessggel/etnikummal/fajjal.Msszval,feltteleztkskomolyanis gondoltk,hogyegyadottnyelveredetnekfelfedezsvel,ipsofactoakrdsesnyelvetbeszlemberek eredett is megtalljk. gy pldul a (felteheten) indoeurpai snyelvbl szrmaz, indoeurpainak besorolt (olasz, nmet, latin, s jgrg, szanszkrit stb.) nyelveket beszl embereket, az si indoeurpai nphez/fajhoz tartoznak vltk 2 . Ehhez hasonlan, mivel a finn s a magyar nyelvet urli nyelvknt knyveltk el, a finnekrl s a magyarokrl azt tartottk (s ltalban tovbbra is azt tartjk), hogyazsiurlinphez(/fajhoz)tartoznak. 2.Nyelvcsaldok:Nyelvszetielmletekvagytrtnelemelttitnyek? 2.1Eponton,mieltttovbbhaladnkaknyvtmjnaksclkitzsnekbemutatsval,azthiszem nagyon fontos az olvas (legyen br nyelvsz, vagy ms szakterlet tudsa, vagy akr laikus) figyelmt felhvnom a nyelv = npessg hagyomnyos nyelvszeti elgondolsra, valamint a nyelvek osztlyozsnak ltalnos koncepcijra. Erre azrt van szksg, mert tkletesen ltni kell ezen alapvet nyelvszeti megltsok (s a kapcsold vizsglati mdszerek) jelentsgt s hasznlhatsgt,mielttanyelveksnpekeredetnekvizsglatbabelekezdnk. Amikor egy adott np eredetvel kapcsolatban valamit lltunk, fleg ha annak (felttelezett) ltezsrl beszlnk a trtnelem eltti idkben, az nem jelenti szksgszeren, hogy ltezsre, eredetre, holltre s nyelvre vilgos s egyrtelm bizonytkot talltunk. pp ellenkezleg: hadd magyarzzam el ezt a fent emltett nyelvek pldjn. Amikor azt lltjuk, hogy a latin (s a belle szrmaz jlatin nyelvek), az (s j)grg, vagy a germn nyelvek (angol, nmet, dn stb.), a szanszkrit (s a mai indorja nyelvek) stb. indoeurpai nyelvek, s ennlfogva (a trtnelem eltti idkben) indoeurpai eredet npek beszltk ket, ez egyltaln nem jelenti, hogy knyszert erej nyelvszeti s/vagy ms tudomnyos bizonytkot talltunk a felttelezett indoeurpai np(/faj) ltezsre. Valban a terletet kutat tudsok krben jl ismert tny, hogy nincs erre vonatkoz rgszeti, antropolgiai, trtnelmi bizonytkunk, sehol semmifle nyoma nincs e meghatrozott npnek az eurzsiai trsgben. Hasonlkppen, nincs semmi utals s bizonytk az (ltalnosan felttelezett)siindoeurpainyelvresemamennyibenaztegyvaldinyelvikzssgltal,azidsa tr egy meghatrozott pontjn beszlt, valsgos nyelvnek tartjuk, s nem csak a nyelvszek elmeszlemnynek, a nyelvszeti jelensgeket magyarz modelljknek. 3 Ennlfogva, csakis azrt
2
Azt, hogy ez a nyelv = faj koncepci milyen veszlyeket hordozhat magban, megtapasztaltunk Eurpa XX. szzadi trtnelmben.
Argszeti,paleoantropolgiaistb.bizonytkokhinyrlazindoeurpaisafinnugor/urlinyelvkzssggelkapcsolatban lsdpl.Husler(2003s2004).
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beszlnkindoeurpainpessgrl,mertanyelvszekaszbanforgnyelveketegycsoportba,vagyis egynyelvcsaldbasoroltk(sitthangslyozniszeretnmasoroltkkifejezst)amiltalabesorols sajt nyelvszeti felttelezseik s elemzsi mdszereik alapjn trtnt (lsd lejjebb). Ms szval, a nyelvszek, kutatsaik eredmnyeknt s a nyelvi jelensgekre vonatkoz sajt rtelmezsi modelljeik alapjn feltteleztk, s nem bizonytottk, hogy e nyelvek ugyanabbl az snyelvbl szrmaznak (egyelre hagyjuk figyelmen kvl a krdst, hogy vajon az elterjesztett nyelvi osztlyozs helyese vagy sem.) E ponton, miutn egy nyelvcsald s kzs snyelv ltezst tteleztk fel, esetnkben az sindoeurpait, a nyelvszek s ms szakterletek tudsai egy lpssel tovbbmentek s jabb felttelezssel lltak el: az elbb emltett nyelv = np/faj elgondolsbl kiindulva feltteleztk, hogy nemcsak az indoeurpaisnyelv ltezett, hanem az e nyelvet beszl, jl definilhat, homogn nyelvi kzssg/np is. Az indoeurpai tanulmnyok hres tudsa, Campanile (1998: 1) vilgosan rmutat, hogyan jtt ltre az indoeurpai nyelvi kzssg ltezsnek tlete az indoeurpai nyelvszeti beoszts eredeti feltevsbl szksgszeren kvetkez feltevsknt. Br az indoeurpai koncepci elssorban nyelvszeti elgondols, mgis, azzal, hogy felttelezzk e nyelv ltezst, feltteleznnk kell az e nyelv beszlinek homogn csoportjt is, amelyet kzs kultra jellemez, mint minden termszetes nyelv esetben..... Ms szval, magtl rtetd volt, hogy szinte rgtn azt kveten, hogy az sszehasonlt nyelvszet fellltotta az indoeurpai elmletet, a nyelvszek elkezdtek gondolkodni azon ismeretlen npektrgyisszellemikultrjn,amelyekvalahaazindoeurpainyelvetbeszltk[kiemelstlem]. A fentebb felvzolt kp az indoeurpai nyelvcsaldot/npet illeten, tkletesen ll az urli nyelvcsaldra/npre is. Valjban az indoeurpai s a finnugor/urli elmlet, ugyanazon trtnelmi, politikai s kulturlis lgkr hatsa (s nyomsa) alatt, azonos vizsglati mdszerek s a nyelvi jelensgek ugyanolyan rtelmezsi modelljnek felhasznlsval, prhuzamosan fejldtt ki (lsd lejjebb). Ennlfogva, az urli nyelvek esetben is, az a kiindul pont, miszerint a trtnelem eltti idkben ltezett egy jl meghatrozhat, homogn urli npessg(/faj), szintn szksgszeren kvetkez feltevs, amely az urli osztlyozs s annak szles kr (de nem egyetemes) elfogadsa kvetkezmnyekntkeletkezett.Msszval,pldulamagyarsafinnnyelvrevonatkozmegllapts, hogy ugyanabbl azsurli nyelvbl/kzssgbl szrmazik, valjban csak a kvetkezt jelenti: e kt nyelvet egyazon nyelvcsaldba soroltk az uralkod nyelvszeti osztlyozsi modellnek megfelelen. Valjban, az indoeurpai nyelvekhez hasonlan, az urli nyelvek esetben sincsenek rgszeti, antropolgiai,vagyjabban,genetikaibizonytkok,stsemmiflenyomvagyjelnemutalefelttelezett npessgtrtnelemelttiltezsre(lsdlejjebbrszletesebbenkifejtve). Azolvasennlapontnljoggalmondhatja,akrfelisrhatja,hogyragaszkodsomekoncepcikhoz tlzottan szrszlhasogat. Ez igaz, br vlemnyem szerint szksges ennek hangslyozsa, a pedantrira a kvetkez miatt van szksg: a tudsok, a nyelvszeket is belertve, s az emberek ltalban tlsgosan is gyakran elfelejtik, hogy amikor mi snyelvekrl beszlnk, akkor nem trtnelmi, helyesebben trtnelem eltti tnyekre, nem esemnyekre gondolunk, amelyek valban megtrtntek valamikor s valahol az skorban, hanem csupn nyelvszeti elmletekre. gy teht e nyelvszeti elmletek, brmely egyb tudomnyos elmlethez hasonlan, lehetnek hibtlanok, vagy nem, megalapozottnak tnhetnek e pillanatban, de megkrdjelezhetik ket a jvben elkerl j bizonytk fnyben, stb. Egyszval, nem szabad az elmleteket a tnyekkel sszekeverni. A nyelvszeti elmletek esetben ez klnsen igaz, s nemcsak a nyelvek osztlyozsi folyamatban
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felmerl nagyfok (tudatos vagy ntudatlan) szubjektivits 4 miatt, hanem az eljrs sorn alkalmazott specilis mdszerek s vizsglatok miatt is. Amint mg a laikus olvas szmra is bizonyra ismert, ahhoz, hogy nyelvcsaldokat, vagyis nyelvi beosztsokat hozzanak ltre, a nyelvszek rendszerint az gynevezett trtneti nyelvszet mdszereit alkalmazzk, s a kvetkez mdon jrnak el (tovbbi rszletekvgettlsda2.s3.tanulmnytatrtnetinyelvszetmdszereivelkapcsolatban): 1. Elszr, a nyelvszek sszehasonlts cljbl kivlasztanak kt vagy tbb nyelvet; a vlaszts pedig a nyelvek kztt (lltlag) meglev hasonlsgok (a nyelv klnbz szintjein: fonolgia, szkszlet, nyelvtan/morfolgia, tipolgia, szintaxis) szemlyes, szubjektv vagy (ahogy a nyelvszetbengyakranlltjk)szabadszemmeltrtntmegfigyelsnalapszik. 2. Msodsorban megprbljk kirtkelni, hogy ezek az sztnsen megfigyelt hasonlsgok valban helytllake, azaz valdi hasonlsgok, valdi nyelvszeti sszefggseke, vagy egyszeren gynevezett vletlen egybeessek. E clbl a nyelvszek az gynevezett sszehasonlt mdszert alkalmazzk, amely (lltlag) tudomnyos vagy legalbbis krlelhetetlen, biztonsgos mdszert nyjt a valdi sszefggsek egyenknti felismershez, s tvoltartjaketavletlenegybeessektl. 3. Vgl, a megllaptott sszefggsek, valamint ms, fellelhet nyelvszeti vagy nyelvszeten tli informcikesetlegfontosadataialapjn,anyelvszekmegalkotjk,vagyisszablybafoglaljkaz gynevezett(hangtani,lexiklissnyelvtani)rekonstrukcikat,amelyekrelejjebbtallunknhny pldt. Ms szval, a nyelvszek megprbljk felmrni, hogy melyek voltak az anyanyelv eredeti, nem hitelestett (sztani vagy nyelvtani) alakjai, amelyekbl a lenynyelvekben megfigyeltsszefggsekfeltehetlegszrmaznak. Ismtlem, nagyon akadkoskod vagyok, hogy jra meg jra hangslyozom a nem igazolt nyelvi rekonstrukcikmerfelttelezettrtkt,sazrt,mertegyszersmindenkorravilgossszeretnmtenni az olvas eltt, hogy ezek a rekonstrukcik azon tl, hogy nincsenek adatokkal altmasztva, a dolog termszetbl addan kpletek. Radsul nagy valsznsg szerint hamisak is, a kvetkez f okok miatt: a. mint mr emltettem, az sszehasonltand nyelvek kezdeti kivlasztsa, amelyek alapjn a rekonstrukcikat szablyba foglaltk, szksgszeren intuitv s szubjektv, gyakran inkbb befolysoltk, st megszabtk a trtnelmi, kulturlis tnyezk, mintsem tisztn nyelvszeti adatok(ahogyerrllejjebbsztejtnk) b. az sszehasonlt mdszer, amelyet azon meghatrozott clbl hasznlnak, hogy a felteheten valdi megegyezseket megklnbztessk az esetleges vletlen hasonlsgoktl, a gyakori
Aszubjektivitsszerepreanyelvcsaldokfellltsnlmstudsokisrmutattak,mintpldulMcmahon,A&McMahon,R (2003).
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lltssal szemben nem is olyan tudomnyos s precz, ahogy szmos kiadvnyban bemutatjk (lsdpl.Fox(1995);Aikhenvald&Dixon(szerk.2001)). Az (a) s (b) pontbl lthat, hogy ez a kt alapvet hinyossg, mlyen begyazdva a trtneti/sszehasonlt nyelvszet mdszerbe, komoly negatv kvetkezmnyekkel jrhat a felttelezett nyelvi besorolsokat, illetve a hozzjuk tartoz rekonstrukcik s snyelvek hitelessgt illeten. Ezt nhny konkrt (a trtneti nyelvszet mltjbl vett) pldval fogom bemutatni, olyan pldkkal,amelyekreterjedelmestanulmnyoksdokumentumokllnakrendelkezsre. Vegyk jra az indoeurpai nyelvcsald esett, amely a vilg legjobban megalapozott nyelvcsaldja, a sz szoros rtelmben vett nyelvcsald, amelynek rvnyessgben aligha ktelkedik valaki is. Azonban, mg ez a nyelvi osztlyozs, valamint a hozz tartoz snyelv is, sokkal inkbb trtnelmi baleset, mint tudatos, elfogulatlan, jl felkszlt nyelvszeti kutats eredmnyeknt jtt ltre. Valban, amint a nyelvszek kztt kztudott, az indoeurpai nyelvcsald/nyelvi kzssg tlete elszr India brit gyarmatostsa idejn merlt fel, amikor is egy brit br, Sir William Jones, az zsiai trsasgnak megtartotta hagyomnyos, s mind a mai napig hres, ves beszmoljt (The third anniversary discourse, delivered 2 February 1786). Sir Jones, aki igen mvelt ember volt, indiai tartzkodsa sornelhatrozta,hogymegtanuljaazindiaiaksi,presztzsnyelvt,aszanszkritot,mivelgygondolta, s nem tvedett, hogy ez segti t abban, hogy jobban megrtse annak a npnek a kultrjt s letmdjt, amelyet a brit birodalom kpviseletben segtett kormnyozni. Tkletesen elsajttva a szanszkritot,tovbbjratoslvnalatinbansazgrgbenis,tanulmnyoztaenyelvekszerkezetts szrevette, hogy egy sor sszefggs s hasonlsg van kzttk, fleg a nyelvtan s alaktan szintjn. E hasonlsgokolyhatrozottnaktntekszmra,amiszerintenemlehetettavletlenmve.Aztgondolta tovbb, hogy e hasonlsgokat csak annak felttelezsvel lehetne megmagyarzni, hogy a szban forg nyelveknek kzs az eredetk. Pontosan errl szmolt be hres beszdben. Azta Sir William Jonest szles krben az indoeurpai trtneti nyelvszet alaptjnak tekintik, mivel kimutatta (gy ll gyakran a tanknyvekben), hogy a latin a grg s a szanszkrit egyazon snyelvbl szrmazik. Ily mdon az indoeurpai nyelvcsald felfedezse csakugyan trtnelmi, politikai krlmnyek eredmnye (mg akkor is ha, rvelhetne brki, elbb vagy utbb valaki msnak tmadt volna hasonl tlete). Az a (tl szles krben) elterjedt llts pedig, miszerint Sir Jones nem csak felttelezte, hanem be is bizonytotta a latin, a szanszkrit s a grg genetikai rokonsgt, hamis. Valjban, mint emltettk,SirJonescsakannyitkzltahallgatsggal,hogymegfigyelttbbnyelvtanihasonlsgot, amelyekrl egyszeren azt gondolta, hogy csak kzs forrs felttelezsvel lehet ket megmagyarzni. Nem hozott pldkat a felttelezett hasonlsgokra, nem is elemezte azokat, nem kzlt semmi egyb olyan adatot sem, amely segtette volna a hallgatsgot a hasonlsgok felismersben s megrtsben. s mg valami. Ha valaki elolvassa Sir Jones eredeti beszdt, rbukkan olyanegybmegllaptsairais,amelyeketatanknyveksosemidznek,mertazigazatmegvallva,ezek nagyon kellemetlenek mindazok szmra, akik Sir Jonest az indoeurpai nyelvcsald atyjnak tekintik. Sir Jones valjban ennl is tovbb megy (megint minden bizonytk, minden plda nlkl), sok ms nyelvrliselmondvn,hogyugyanabblakzsforrsbl,ugyanabblazsnyelvblszrmaznak,mint a latin, a grg s a szanszkrit. Ezek viszont olyan nyelvek, amelyeket ma nem sorolunk az indoeurpai nyelvek kz, s amelyek egymstl valban jelentsen eltrnek, s egyrtelmen nem rokonnyelvek,
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mint pldul az egyiptomi, a perui vagy a knai. Azonban a latin, a grg, a szanszkrit s (akkoriban) nhny ms, ma is indoeurpainak szmt nyelv, mint a germn nyelvek, kzs eredetnek gondolata, rgtnmegtettehatst.gyazintuitvelkpzels, amelycsupnegyszemlyszabadszemmeltrtnt megfigyelsn alapul (brmilyen okos s mvelt ember is lehetett), elszr mind Eurpban, mind Indiban a tisztn trtnelmi, politikai, st szemlyes krlmnyeknek ksznheten vert gykeret, s nem annyira az elemzs precz mdszerei s ismrvei szerint vgzett, jl tjkozott, rszletes kutats kvetkezmnyeknt (br ksbb egy tbbkevsb precz vizsglatra kerlt sor az sszehasonlt mdszer bevezetsvel 5 .) Knny kitallni, milyen klnleges oka volt, hogy ezt az (akkoriban) elg mersznek szmt elmletet a legtbb tuds s politikus rgtn elfogadta: azt az elgondolst, miszerint az eurpai nyelvek s npek, valamint nhny indiai nyelv s np (az indoirni g s az abbl szrmaz modern nyelvek) ugyanabbl az snyelvbl s ennek kvetkeztben (ahogy hittk) ugyanabbl a fajbl szrmazik, mindkt oldalon knnyen fel tudtk hasznlni politikai clokra, egyrszt a gyarmatost britek (s ltalban az eurpaik), msrszt pedig a gyarmatostott indiaiak (de csak azok, akik az indoirni nyelveket beszltk, azok nem, akik olyan indiai nyelveket beszltek, amelyeket ma nem tekintnk indoeurpaiaknak, mint pldul a dravida s a munda nyelv). Nyilvnvalan nem tudunk belemenni olyan bonyolult rszletekbe, hogy mirt s milyen elnykkel jrhatott ez az elgondols egyik vagy msik hatalmi csoportosuls vagy trsadalmi osztly szmra, vagy miknt lehetett azt kijtszani az eurpaiak s az indiaiak sszetett kapcsolatnak sszefggsben. Azonban az rdekld olvas szmos publikcit tallhat e tmrl, amelyek kzl a kvetkezt szeretnm ajnlani: E. Bryant: The Quest for the Origins of the Vedic Culture: The IndoAryan Migration Debate(OxfordUniversityPress,2001 6 ). 2.2 Az elz rszben rmutattam arra, hogy milyen nehz feladat nyelveket osztlyozni s velk sszefggrekonstrukcikatssnyelveketmegszerkeszteni,mivelanehzsgeketsvalsznhibkat mind a vizsglati mdszerekbe gyazott gyenge pontok, mind pedig a nyelvszeten kvli tnyezk jelenthetik, mint pldul a politikai nyoms 7 . Valban, szmos vilghr nyelvsz, pldul Ringe (1992, 1995,1998s1999)sGreenberg(1991s2005),gyakranfelhvtkkollgiksanagykznsgfigyelmt arra a tnyre, hogy a nyelvek osztlyozsa mindig a valsznsgi fok krdse: soha nem lehetnk szz szzalkig biztosak abban, hogy az adott nyelvi besorols helyese. Ha egy adott nyelvi besorols, ttelezzk fl, teljesen kifogstalan, ez mg mindig nem jelenti felttlenl, hogy ktsget kizran kpesek vagyunk a felttelezett snyelvet beszl skzssget beazonostani. Csakugyan, ma mr tudjuk, hogy a nyelv = npessg/faj elgondols nem felttlenl helyes: klnbz etnikai csoportokba tartoz npek beszlhettek teljesen megegyez, vagy hasonl (s)nyelvet a trtnelem eltti idkben, pontosan gy, ahogy az a trtnelmi korokban elfordul (ezt mutatja pldul az angol nyelv szleskr
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Az sszehasonlt mdszert pontosan azrt hoztk ltre, hogy az intuitv mdon megllaptott indoeurpai nyelvcsald rvnyessgtellenrizzk.
6 Klnsen relevns az els fejezet, azon bell a kvetkez cmmel elltott bekezdsek: The Aryans and colonial and missionary discourse,sGermanAryanism.
Ez nem csak nyelvszeti elmletekkel trtnik meg, de ms elmletekkel egyb tudomnygak terletn is, belertve a termszettudomnyokat, amint azt T. Kuhn annak idejn vilgosan bebizonytotta a The structure of Scientific Revolutions (ChicagoUniversityPress,1970)cmhresmvben.
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elterjedtsge szakAmerikban s Ausztrliban.) A faj fogalmt, valsznleg helyesen, kihagytk a modernnyelvszetitanulmnyokbl. E pontnl felvetheti valaki, hogy rvelsem ellenre mg mindig vannak (nagyra becslt) nyelvszek, rgszek, paleoantropolgusok stb, akik nagyon is hisznek a rekonstrult snyelvek trtnelmi realitsban. Ez nyilvnval a szmos publikcibl is, amelyek az eredetisindoeurpai vagysurli kzssget kutatjk, belertve azok (felttelezett) shazjt 8 . Amita a nyelvcsaldok elgondolsa megszletett, azta folyamatosan tart a tudomsom szerint mg megoldatlan vita e krdsben, amelyet nyelvszek kztt a konvencionalizmus s a realizmus vitjnak neveznek 9 : vajon a nyelvszeti rekonstrukcik realisztikusak, relisak, vagy tisztn konvencionlisak? Igaz, hogy sok tuds, fleg rgsz, a rekonstrukci s az snyelvek realisztikus rtelmezsnek hve, de kptelen bebizonytani, vagyakrrvekkelaltmasztani,hogymirtazrtelmezselennehelyes,amintazvilgosankitnika fenti Campanile idzetbl. Nekem szemly szerint nincsenek ktsgeim afell, hogy a konvencionalista megkzeltstkellvlasztanom. Hogyvalbanakonvencionalistamegkzeltslehetamegfelelhozzlls,aztkttnyeztmasztja al: mind az indoeurpai nyelvszet, mind az uralisztika terletn megfigyeltk, hogy ha a relevns trtnelmi esemnyek mskpp alakultak volna, lehet, hogy a tudsok ms nyelvi osztlyozst s snyelveket javasoltak volna. Sinor Dnes, az uralisztika s altajisztika 10 hres magyar tudsa pldul a kvetkezketmondtaazzalasokigvitatottkrdsselkapcsolatban,hogyvajonazurlisaltjinyelvek egyetlen nagyobb csaldbl, az urlaltji csaldbl szrmaznake (1988: 738): Egszen biztos vagyok abban,hogyhaazsszesurlisaltjinyelvekkzlcsakaz[altji]szaktunguzt,saz[urli]obiugort ismernnk, senki sem tagadn azok genetikai rokonsgt [a kiemels tlem]. Hasonlan, jl ismert, vitathatatlantny,hogyazIndibantalltnyelvcsaldok,belertveazindorja(szanszkrit),amundas a dravida nyelveket, gynevezett Sprachbundot, avagy nyelvszeti rgit/ nyelvszeti kzssget kpeznek,amelyetszleskrbendlzsiainyelvszetirginakhvnak(lsdpldulMasica1979).Ez lnyegben azt jelenti, hogy a szanszkrit, ami indoeurpai nyelv, szmottev sszefggst/hasonlsgot mutat a nyelv brmely szintjn, olyan indiai nyelvekkel, amelyeket nem sorolnak az indoeurpai nyelvek kz. Nevezetesen, jl ismert tny, hogy a szanszkrit szmos fonolgiai, st nyelvtani megfelelst mutat a dravida nyelvekkel. E megfelelseket tvtellel szoktk magyarzni, a nagyon hosszantart,intenzvkapcsolatoknakksznheten,amelyektermszetesmdonjelentkeznekatrben s idben egymshoz kzel ll, s hasonl kulturlis s trgyi httrrel rendelkez nyelvek kztt. Ez tnyleg nagyon hihet magyarzat, br felttelezi a szanszkrit hagyomnyos indoeurpai besorolsnak abszolt, gyszlvn szzszzalkos rvnyessgt. Ms szval, egyb nll nyelvszeti s nyelvszeten kvli bizonytkok hinyban, a szanszkrit s a dravida nyelv kztt fennll hasonlsgot csak azrt tekintik tvtel eredmnynek s nem genetikai rkldsnek, mert szzszzalkosan elfogadtk azt a feltevst, hogy a szanszkrit az indoeurpai s nem a dravida nyelvcsaldba tartozik. Ebbl vilgos kellene legyen, ha elfogadjuk az elvet, hogy a nyelvek besorolsa
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A nemrgen megjelent vilgszerte ismert publikcik kzl, amelyek azs indoeurpai kzssg felfedezsvel foglalkoznak, megemlthetjk Malloryt (1989) s Renfrewt (1987). Az (lltlagos) urli nyelvi kzssg shazjval kapcsolatos vita sszefoglalstmegtalljukErdlyinl(2005). LsdKoemernl(1989)avitasszefoglalst. Hagyomnyosanakvetkezketsoroljkazaltjinyelvekkz:trk,mongolstunguz.
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soha nem lehet igazn szz szzalkig biztonsgos, akkor a szanszkritban jelenlv dravida jellemzk klcsnzs magyarzata a krkrs rvels tipikus pldjnak bizonyul. Valban, szmos indiai tuds (akik mind a szanszkrit, mind a dravida nyelvek szakrti) azt tartja, hogy ha egy trtnelmi vletlen kvetkeztben a nyugati tudsok nem kerltek volna kapcsolatba a szanszkrit nyelvvel (amelynek ltezsrl nem tudtak India gyarmatostsa eltt), az indoeurpai elmlet sosem szletett volna meg, vagy egszen mskpp alakult volna. Mindezek eredmnyekppen a szanszkritot pedig, helyesen,mondjukadravidanyelvekkzsoroltkvolna. Kivtelektermszetesenvannak,vagyislteznekmegkrdjelezhetetlenlrvnyesnyelvcsaldok,de ezek tipikusan olyanok, amelyek ltezsre fggetlen bizonytkunk is van, olyan rtelemben, hogy kialakulsuksfejldsk(nagyjbl)atrtnelmiidkbenmentvgbesgy(rszbenvagyegszben) dokumentlva van. A kzenfekv pldk a latin, a germn, a baltifinn (finn, szt s nhny ms, a Balti tenger mentn beszlt kisebb nyelv), a szlv s a trk nyelvek. Amint lthatjuk, e nyelvcsaldok mindegyike olyan nyelvekbl ll, amelyek trben s idben egymshoz kzel lteztek s fejldtek, s ez a tr s idbeli kzelsg ktsgkvl megnveli e nyelvek genetikai rokonoksgnak valsznsgt. Ezzel ellenttben, cskken a valsznsge annak, hogy a nyelvek egy csoportja azonos eredettel rendelkezik,haakrdsesnyelvektrbensidbentvolesnekegymstl.Ezllfennpldulamagyar s az etruszk, vagy a magyar s sumr lehetsgesnek tartott genetikai rokonsgra, amit nhny (magyar) tuds indtvnyozott. Termszetesen, elvileg minden lehetsges. n szemly szerint azt gondolom, hogy az eredeti, szubjektv vlaszts, amely a magyart az etruszkkal, vagy a sumrral, vagy az grggel stb. hasonltja ssze, elvileg semmivel sem nknyesebb, mintha, mondjuk, a szanszkritot hasonltannk ssze egy kelta nyelvvel (ma mr a kelta nyelveket is indoeurpainak tartjk), mivel ezek trbensidbenszintntvolesnekegymstl.Ennekellenre,hakikellenevlasztanomktvagytbb nyelvet a kzttk lv hasonlsg megllaptsa vgett, hacsak valamifle nyelvszeti s/vagy nyelvszeten kvli adatok s krlmnyek nem ksztetnnek az ellenkezjre, legalbbis els prblkozsra ragaszkodnk ahhoz az elvhez, hogy a trben s idben egymshoz kzel ll nyelveket hasonltsamssze. 3.Miabajafinnugor/urlielmlettel? 3.1 Ezutn az elg hossz, de vlemnyem szerint szksges elkalandozs utn, trjnk vissza a knyv f tmjhoz. Amint emltettem, e knyv nhny tanulmnyomat tartalmazza, amelyeket az utbbi kb. 6 vben klnbz szakmai folyiratokban mr publikltam, s amelyeknek kzs tmja az urli elmlet fellvizsglata s elutastsa. Ms szval, e ktetben sszegyjttt tanulmnyok tovbbi megfigyelseket, adatokat s elemzseket tartalmaznak, mind az urli nyelvek, mind a trtneti nyelvszet mdszervel kapcsolatban ltalban, s az urli nyelvcsalddal foglalkoz korbbi knyvemben kifejtett tziseimet mg jobban megerstik. Ennek kvetkeztben most szeretnm sszefoglalni a kvetkeztetseket, amelyekre abban a knyvben jutottam, mivel ezek segteni fogjk az olvast,hogymegfelelkontextusbahelyezzeajelenktetet.
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A 2006 elejn megjelent knyvemben a hagyomnyos finnugor/urli elmlet alapjt kpez nyelvszeti adatok, elemzsek s felttelezsek rszletes, kritikai jrartkelst, egyszval a konvencionlis nyelvszeti bizonytkok kritikai ismertetst vgeztem el. Ezen kvl szmba vettem az uralisztikhoz kapcsold nyelvszeten kvli bizonytkokat is, vagyis a nyelvszet testvrtudomnyainak, mint pldul a rgszet, paleoantropolgia, a genetika, legjabb kutatsi eredmnyeit, azrt, hogy ellenrizzem, vajon megegyezneke a nyelvszeti modell ltal megjsolt tnyekkel (amelyeket nyltan lltottak, vagy magtl rtetdnek tartottak). Mindent sszevetve arra a kvetkeztetsre jutottam, hogy a nyelvszeti bizonytkok, amelyeken az urli elmlet alapszik, sok kvnnivalt hagynak maguk utn, s nem meggyzek, valamint, hogy a nyelvszeten kvli bizonytkok egyrtelmen ellentmondanak a nyelvszeti modell elrejelzseinek 11 . Nevezetesen bemutattam azt, hogy nem teljesl a kvetkez kt alapvet felttel, amelyeket a trtneti nyelvszet hagyomnyosmdszereimegkvnnakahhoz,hogyegynyelvcsaldotltrehozzunk: 1. kiterjedt, fonolgiai/sztani sszehasonlt korpusz meglte, mely (arnylag) j megfelelseket tartalmaz. Valjban az urli nyelvcsaldon bell hagyomnyosan fellltott megfelelsek nem igaziak, csupn hasonlsgok, hamis megfelelsek. Tovbb, az nmagban is csekly szm helyes megfelelseknek csak egy nagyon kis szzalka van jelen mindentt az urli rgiban. Vagyis, azon megfelelsek szma, amelyek jelen vannak a legtbb, vagy szinte a legtbb urli nyelvbenigencsekly 12 (aminteztmagukazurlielmlethveiisbeismerik). 2. a szintn kiterjedt, morfolgiai sszehasonlt korpusz meglte. Ms szval, a hagyomnyosan urlinak nevezett nyelvek nem igazn mutatnak konzisztens, relevns morfolgiai megegyezseket, mint pldul igeragok (igeragozsi paradigmk), esetragok (nvszragozsi paradigmk),kpzkstb.megfelelsei. Az 1. s 2. pontban bemutatott hinyossgokon tl, amely hinyossgok egyb nyelvcsaldok esetben is megtallhatk az urli nyelvcsaldnak azzal a problmval is szembe kell nznie, hogy a csekly szm megfelelsek (mind a sztani, mind a morfolgiai szinten) nagy rsze megtallhat az altji nyelvekben is, st mg a jukagirban is, amely gynevezett paleoszibriai nyelv. Vagyis az ilyen sszehasonlt korpusz lehet akr tvtel eredmnye is, vagy utalhat egy szlesebb kr genetikai rokonsgra.
A tudsok hajlamosak arra, hogy a nyelvi vizsglat s a rgszeti, paleoantropolgiai s genetikai vizsglatok (mind az urli, mind az indoeurpai nyelvcsald esetben) eredmnyei kztti jl ismert ellentmondsokat irrelevnsnak tartsk. Ms szval, csak a nyelvszeti eredmnyek a fontosak, mivel a nyelvszet a legilletkesebb s legmegbzhatbb a tudomnyok kzl a nyelvek / npek eredetnek feldertsnl. Vilgos azonban, hogy az ilyen megllapts knnyen ktsgbe vonhat, fleg, ha a nyelvszetirekonstrukcikrealisztikusmegkzeltsnekhveivagyunk.
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A (csak) az urli nyelvcsaldban megtallhat valdi megfelelsek szma sszesen 4, azaz (csak a magyar s a finnugor megfeleljt idzve): szm / silm; szv (trgyeset szivet) / sydn; fszk (trgyeset fszket) / pes s nyel / niell (< niele), melyek kzl tulajdonkppen egyedl a fszk / pes egy tkletes megfelels (Janhunen (1981) urli sszehasonlt korpuszra vonatkozvizsglatomnakmegfelelen);tovbbirszletekvgettlsdMarcantonio(2006a:2289).
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A megjsolt, kzs morfolgiai paradigmk hinya olyan hinyossg, amely mg slyosabbnak tekintend, mint a kiterjedt lexiklis korpusz hinya, mert sok (/taln a legtbb) trtneti nyelvsz szerint, a morfolgiai megfelelsek jelzik legmegcfolhatatlanabbul a genetikai rkldst. Termszetesen van szmos kzs morfolgiai elem az urli nyelvekben, de ezek egyszer toldalkok (ltalban egy vagy kt alaphangbl llnak), s legtbbszr ms, nem urli nyelvekben is jelen vannak. gy ezen morfmk nem lehetnek relevnsak genetikai kapcsolatok megtlsnl (lsd rszletekrt Marcantonio (2006a), a 8. fejezetet az alaktanrl.) Valjban, ismtlem, a konvencionlis elmlet hvei elismerik ezt a kellemetlen tnyt, de talltak valamit, ami els ltsra elfogadhat mentsgl szolgl: eszerint az urli nyelvek morfolgiai struktrjban bekvetkezett (idnknt nagy) vltozatossg (lsd Marcantonio (2006b) s Suihkonen (2002) annak a tnynek a termszetes kvetkezmnye lenne, hogy az urli nyelvekben a morfolgiai az egyes nyelvek nll fejldse sorn alakult ki. Vagyis minden egyes urlinyelvsajtmorfolgiairendszertazeredetisnyelvblvalkivlsutnalaktottavolnaki.Ezbr elvileg hihet magyarzat, a figyelmes olvas nem fogja tudni nem szrevenni, hogy itt a krkrs rvelstipikussegyrtelmpldjrlvansz. 3.2 Ennl a pontnl joggal felvetheti valaki, hogy azrt mgis van nhny megegyezs az urli nyelvek kztt, amint azt sok tanknyvben s szaktanulmnyban bemutattk. Radsul, ezek a megfelelsek elg jk s meggyzek abban az rtelemben, hogy szablyosnak s szisztematikusnak tnnek (az sszehasonlt mdszer elvrsainak megfelelen), s egyedl az urli nyelvekre jellemzek. Mgis, ha kzelebbrl megvizsgljuk a relevns adatokat,egyrtelmv vlik szmunkra, hogy ezeknek az lltlagos megfelelseknek az rvnyessge csak ltszat, mivel az adatok nagyon szelektv (s azt mernm lltani, hogy elfogult) mdon lettek kivlasztva. Nzznk meg kzelebbrl nhny fonolgiai/lexikai, morfolgiai s tipolgiai megfelelst, amelyeket ltalban a hagyomnyos elmlet bizonytkaikntlltanakbe,ssszpontostsunkafinnresamagyarra(aktnagyurlinyelvre). I.)Fonolgiai/lexikaimegfelelsek finn p puu sata kota fej,f fa szz hz vz mz nek magyar
vesi(vete) mesi(mete) ni
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II.)Nyelvtanimegegyezsek:igeisbirtokosvgzdsek finn annan(<*anta+m) annat(<*anta+t) kteni III.)Tipolgiai/szerkezetimegfelelsek finn pydnalla kaloillani Az egyrtelm, szabad szemmel lthat hasonlsgok ellenre, az adatok rszletesebb vizsglata felfediszmunkra,hogyezekahasonlsgok,mindentegybevetve,sokokblsenemrelevnsak,senem dntek a finn s a magyar (s a tbbi urli nyelv) kztt fennll egyedlll, kivltsgos genetikai rokonsgfellltshoz,amintaztlejjebbltnifogjuk. Kezdjk azzal, hogy megvizsgljuk a lexikai megfelelseket, pldul a kvetkez szprt: puu s fa: ezek a szavak tkletesen megegyeznek jelentskben, s ami mg fontosabb azket alkot hangokban. Az urli elmlet hvei azt lltjk, hogy mg sok olyan sz van, melyekben a finn /p/ a magyar /f/ mssalhangznak felel meg, szablyosan s rendszeresen, a hangsornak mindig ugyanabban a pozcijban (jelen esetben szkezd helyzetben), ahogyan azt a p s fej ~ f szpr mutatja. Ehhez hasonlan, azt lltjk, hogy a (I) tblzat tbbi szprjait is azonos tpus, szablyos s szisztematikus hangmegfelels kapcsolja ssze, amint azt a finn /t/ s a magyar /z/ megfelelsei a sz belsejben mutatjk (nhny hangmegfelelst kvrrel szedtem). A szemantikai megegyezs nhny szpr esetben ktsgtelenl nem tkletes, mivel pldul a finn ni sz jelentse hang s a kota sz kunyh, de ezt nem tartjk lnyegesnek. A hangok megfelelse lenne a legfontosabb, s a nyelvszek rendszerintkizrlag ezt keresik, mg akkor is,ha a jelentsbeli megegyezs is kvnatos lenne. Ez azrt van, mert a hagyomnyos trtneti nyelvszetben gy vlik, hogy a hangvltozs ltalban szablyosan kvetkezik be, mg a jelents egszen nknyes mdon vltozhat a nyelvek fejlds sorn (de lsd lejjebb). Visszatrve pldinkhoz, a rszletesebb vizsglat sorn kiderl, hogy a puu / fa megfelels nem csupn a finn, a magyar s ms urli nyelvre igaz, hanem megtallhat nem urli nyelvekben is, amint azasztalalatt halaimmal magyar adom adod kezem magyar
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azt a kvetkez pldk mutatjk (az gynevezett altji nyelvekbl vve): az orok pe s a mandzsu fa (UEW 410). Ugyanez igaz a p / fej ~ f megfelelsre is, amint azt a kvetkez pldk mutatjk (szintn az altji nyelvekbl vve): mandzsu fe s gold pje (UEW 365), ahol a kezd mssalhangz tkletes megfelelsttalljukakrdsesnyelvekben:/p/vs/f/ugyangy,mintamagyarsafinnesetben.Amia sata / szz s a mesi (mete) / mz megfelelst illeti, a szakirodalom szles krben szmol be arrl, hogy ezek a szavak tvtel tjn kerltek az urli nyelvterletre, mghozz az indoirni at 100 (UEW 467) s a szanszkrit mdhu mz szbl szrmaznak. Az tvtel abban az idben trtnt, mikor az urli skzssg mg egyben volt, br ezt az lltst semmifle bizonytk sem tmasztja al. Ami a tblzat fennmarad kt megfelelsprjt illeti, kota / hz s vesi (vete) / vz, meg kell jegyeznnk, hogy a szban forg szavakat egyrtelmen Wanderwrterknt osztlyoztk, vagyis olyan szavakknt, melyek egy szles eurzsiai terleten elfordulnak (brmi legyen is az oka ennek). Ily mdon, az (I) tblzatban felsorolt szprok kzl csak egy van, amely kizrlag az urli terleten tallhat meg: az ni / nek megfelels, ez azonban ms okbl problematikus. Mint emltettk, ennl a szprnl a szemantikai megfelels nem igazn helyes, mg akkor sem, ha ezt sok nyelvsz nem tartja komoly problmnak. Pedig a jelentsbeli eltrs gond lehet a megfelelsek fellltsnl, mivel, mint ahogy szmos tuds rmutatott:dramatikusanmegnavletlenszermegfelelsekmegllaptsnakeslye,hamegengednk egy szemantikai eltrst, brmilyen csekly legyen is az. (Campbell (1998:277); a kiemels tlem). Ezen tlmenen, az ni s az nek szavak kztt nem ll fenn valdi hangtani megfelels sem, ha az sszehasonlt mdszert szigoran vesszk, mert az megkveteli, hogy a javasolt megfelelseket alkot minden hang, szablyosan s szisztematikusan megfeleljen egymsnak. A magyar s finn sz ezzel szemben csak az els hrom hangban egyezik meg (a finn hossz megegyezik a magyar hossz vel, az n az nnel, az i az evel), az utols hangban nem: a magyarban van egy szvgik, melynek a finnben egy hanghiny felel meg (vagy, ahogy a nyelvszetben mondjuk, a , zrushang; a nyelvszetben viszont a hanghinynak is nagy jelentsge lehet.) A k hang e jelenltt a finn val szemben, a kvetkezkppen szoktk igazolni: a magyar hozztett egyk kpzt (UEW 25) az eredeti hangsorhoz, minden lthat ok nlkl. Mg a nem szakrt olvas szmra is vilgos, hogy itt megint egy krkrs magyarzat tipikus pldjval tallkozunk: semmi bizonytk nem szl amellett, s nincs semmi okunk annak felttelezsre, hogy e kpz hozzaddott az eredeti szhoz; vagyis ez adhoc magyarzat, ami arraszolgl,hogyatveshangtaniproststigazoljuk. Az a gyakorlat, ahogy a helytelen megfelelseket s kivteleket adhoc magyarzatokkal, vagy ahogy n szeretem nevezniket, kiskapukkal igazoljk, els ltsra elfogadhatnak, rtalmatlannak tnhet, mivel pldul egy k vagy msik toldalk hozzkapcsoldsa a szhoz, a sz idbeni fejldse sorn, elvilegknnyenelkpzelhetnyelvszetifolyamat.Viszontmagtlrtetdik,hogyhatovbbraisadhoc magyarzatokat,skiskapukatalkalmazunkmindenhibsmegfelelsesetben,amellyeltallkozunk, s az urli elmlet 13 adataiban bsgesen akadnak tves prostsok s kivtelek akkor az sszehasonlt vizsglati mdszer annyira simulkonny s hatsoss vlik, hogy segtsgvel jformn brmifle adatot al tudunk tmasztani. A kiskapuk olyan cllal trtn segtsgl hvsa, hogy egybknt nem megegyez adatokat megfeleltessnk egymsnak, rvnytelenti azt a szndkunkat, hogy felttelezheten szigor s tudomnyos vizsglati mdszert alkalmazzunk: egy adott
Ezeket a tves megfeleltetseket, kivteleket amelyek jelen vannak a nyelv minden szintjn rszletesen bemutattam a korbbanmegjelentmunkmban(Marcantoni2006a).
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modell/vizsglati mdszer akkor s csak akkor tudomnyos s hasznos, ha vilgos s ellenrizhet elrejelzsei vannak, vagyis amelyekrl be lehet bizonytani, hogy helyesek vagy helytelenek. Konkrtan, azltal, hogy a szablyoknak indokolatlan hajlkonysgot tesznek lehetv, a nyelvszek azt kockztatjk, hogy hamis megfelelseket, vletlenszer hasonlsgokat lltanak fel, valdi s precz megegyezsek helyett. Ez a kockzat pedig igen nagy lehet, mivel a felhasznlhat kiskapuk szma elvileg nincs korltozva (ez igazbl az sszehasonlt mdszerben rejl szubjektivits legveszlyesebb eleme.) Sajnos ez a minden ellenbizonytk, tves megfelels vagy kivtel elsimtsnak gyakorlata nagyon gyakori az sszehasonlt nyelvszetben, s nem csak az uralisztika terletn (amint azt feljebb bemutattuk), hanem pldul az indoeurpai nyelvszet tern is. A jelen ktet 7. tanulmnyban egy konkrt pldt tallunk erre a jelensgre, ahol fellvizsglom Alinei professzornak a felttelezett magyaretruszkgenetikairokonsgraelterjesztettbizonytkait. Most vizsgljuk meg kzelebbrl a (II) tblzatban bemutatott nyelvtani megfelelseket. Kzismert, hogy mind a finn, mind a magyar nyelvben (s egyb urli nyelvekben) ugyanazokat a vgzdseket hasznljuk az igk szemlyragjainak s a fnevek birtokos ragjainak kpzshez. Radsul ezek a ragok alegtbburlinyelvbenmegegyeznek,ahogyazta(II)tblzatvilgosanmutatja,acseklyklnbsgek pedig (n st a finnben vsm s ad a magyarban) knnyen visszavezethetk ugyanazokra az eredeti, rekonstrult ragokra: *m az els szemlyben, *t a msodik szemlyben stb. Az ilyen tpus ragmegfelelseket hagyomnyosan a genetikai rklds ers (tulajdonkppen a legersebb) bizonytknak tekintik, mert a msik kt lehetsges magyarzat, amelyekkel ezeket a megfelelseket igazolni lehetne tvtel vagy vletlenszer hasonlsg itt nem alkalmazhat. Ma nagyon sok nyelvsz tovbbra is azt hiszi, hogy klnbz nyelvcsoportok szinte sohasem adnak t egymsnak nyelvtanielemeket,shogynagyoncseklyannakalehetsge,hogyktvagytbbnyelv(nyelvcsoport) vletlenl azonos, vagy hasonl igei vagy nvszi vgzdseket mutasson fel. Azonban e kt hagyomnyos hiedelmet klnsen az elmlt kb. 50 v nyelvszeti kutatsai megcfoltk, amint ezt az albbkzlt,rekonstrultszemlyragokmutatjk: smivok sindoeurpai *m,*s,*t<**//*me(s)~*mo(s);*te
*m,*s,*//*mas;*tok surli
*m,*t,*s(V)//*m,*t,*s(V)+tbbesszm Amint lthat, teljesen megegyez vagy hasonl szemlyragokat rekonstrultak olyan klnbz nyelvcsaldok esetben, mint pldul az urli vagy az indoeurpai, amelyeknek hasonl a fldrajzi elhelyezkedsk, (mgakkor is, haez elg nagy terletet foglal magba), gy lehetsges magyarzatknt szba kerlhet az tvtel, vagy a tgabb genetikai kapcsolatok lehetsge (ezekrl lsd ksbb). Viszont ugyanezt a paradigmt rekonstrultk egy msik kontinensen tallhat nyelvcsald esetben, mivel a
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mivok nyelvek valjban amerikai indin nyelvek. gy a hagyomnyos trtneti nyelvszet lltsval ellenttben, a nyelvtani hasonlsgok nem felttlenl jelentenek ers bizonytkot a nyelvek kztti rokonsgra legyen ez a rokonsg rklds vagy tvtel eredmnye hanem azok tisztn a vletlen hasonlsg kvetkezmnyei is lehetnek (a vletlenszer nyelvi hasonlsgokra tovbbi pldk vgett lsdCampbell(1995)). Vgl vizsgljuk meg az n. tipolgiai/strukturlis hasonlsgokat, amelyeket a (III) tblzat mutat be. Elterjedt nzet, hogy a magyar, a finn s a tbbi urli nyelv tipolgiai alapszerkezete megegyezik (itt szeretnm kihangslyozni az alap szt, mivel az urli terleten jelents tipolgiai vltozatossgra is tallunk pldt, lsd ezzel kapcsolatban Suihkonen (2002) s Marcantonio (2006b)). Pldul a finn nvszi szerkezet pydn alla szerkezetileg megfelel a magyar az asztal alatt kifejezsnek, azon (vitathatan csekly) klnbsg ellenre, hogy a finnben, a magyarral ellenttben, a nvutt megelz fnv felvesz egy esetragot, jelen esetben a genitivus eset n ragjt. Ezen tlmenen, az urli elmlet hvei jogosan hangslyozzk a kvetkezt: nemcsak arrl van sz, hogy mindkt nyelv nvutkat hasznl (elljrk helyett, melyeket megtallunk pldul az indoeurpai nyelvekben), hanem idnknt, mint ahogy e konkrt plda esetben is, e nvutk etimolgiailag is rokonok, ahogy az alla / alatt szprbl mindkett a rekonstrult *ala hely valami alatt szbl szrmazik (UEW 6). Itt teht ktszeres megfelelsrl van sz, vagyis lexiklis s ugyanakkor strukturlis megfelelsrl. Az ilyen ktszeres megfelelst ismt a genetikai rkldsre utal fontos jelnek tekintik, s joggal, mivel nagyon valszntlen, hogy az ilyenfajta megfelels tvtel eredmnye vagy a vletlen mve lenne. Az isomorphismus (ahogy a nyelvszetben nevezik) msik pldjt a (III) tblzatban bemutatott szerkezetben talljuk, mgpedig a kvetkezt: kaloillani s halaimmal. E nvszi szerkezetekben mindkt nyelv a toldalkok sort alkalmazza, ahol hrombl kett megegyezik, sezrt (gy gondoljk) egymssal etimolgiailag kapcsolatban ll: az i toldalk/infixum, amely tbbesszmot fejez ki (kivve, haafnvalanyvagytrgyesetbenvan)saz*mbirtokos szemlyrag(melyrlfeljebb mrbeszltnk, lsda(II)tblzatot),brafinnbena(ni)birtokosszemlyragallaesetragotkveti,mgamagyarbane kt elem sorrendje fordtott. Ezen fell megfigyelhetjk, hogy maguk a fnevek is kala s hal (rekonstrulva *kala; UEW 119) etimolgiailag kapcsolatban vannak, itt a lla s a val ragok az egyedli nem rokon elemek. Azonban mg ez sem relevns s dnt bizonytk ahhoz, hogy a magyar s a finn (valamint a tbbi urli nyelv) kizrlagos rokonsgt nagy biztonsggal megllapthassuk, a kvetkezokokmiatt: elszr is, a tipolgiai sszefggsek nmagukban nem megbzhat bizonytkok a genetikai rokonsgra, mivel (lltlag) nem rokon nyelvek is rendelkezhetnek megegyez tipolgiai rendszerrel, s fordtva, egyrtelmen rokon nyelvek is nagymrtkben eltrhetnek tipolgiai szerkezetkben,amintalatinsabelleszrmazjlatinnyelvekesetbenlthatjuk msodsorban, az asztal alatt s halaimmal tpus nvszi szerkezeteknemcsak az urli terleten fordulnak el, hanem megtallhatk az altji trsgben, st azon tl is. Radsul az al nvut, azonosjelentssel,mintazurlinyelvekben,megtallhatatrksajukagirnyelvbenis.Ehhez hasonlanmegvanazirag/infixumatrkbenis,sszintntbbesszmotjell.
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Mg ltalnosabban, a hagyomnyos mdon meghatrozott urli s altji nyelvek szmos (sztani, fonolgiai, nyelvtani s tipolgiai) megfelelssel rendelkeznek 14 , amelyek a szakirodalomban jl ismertek, s sok nyelvszt arra vezettek, hogy egy szlesebb, az gynevezett urlaltji nyelvcsald ltezst felttelezzk. Az elmlet egy ideig vetlkedett az urli elmlettel (mg azutn is, hogy az ugortrkhborazurlielmletgyzelmvelzrult,lsdlejjebb),mgnemlassanfeledsbemerlt. sszefoglalva, mg a 2. rszben igyekeztem kiemelni a nyelvcsaldok fellltsnak nehz feladatval jrltalnosmdszertaniproblmkat,addiga3.rszelsktpontjbanmegprbltamfelvzolniaf, sajtos nyelvszeti nehzsgeket, amelyek az urli nyelvcsald amgy sem knny azonostst mg jobban megneheztik: a nhny megfelels, amely az gynevezett urli nyelvek kztti tallhat, nem csakenyelvekkzttllfenn,hanemsokegyb,hagyomnyosannemazurlinyelvekkzsoroltnyelv esetben is. gy, ha igaz az, hogy mg az indoeurpai besorolst sem tekinthetjk szzszzalkosan biztosnak (valban van szmos megoldatlan problma azon a nyelvcsaldon bell is), az urli besorols helyessgnekbiztosanmgkevesebbazeslye. 3.3 Miutn egy ideig mdszertani problmkkal foglalkoztunk (ltalban s konkrtan az uralisztikra vonatkozan), vgl engedjk meg, hogy szljak a jelen ktetben sszegyjttt tanulmnyokrl. Az els tanulmnyt (Sajonovics Jnos szerepe az sszehasonlt nyelvtudomnyban) kt magyar tuds munkssgnak szenteltem: Sajnovics Jnos s Gyarmathi Smuel, akiket nemcsak a magyar emberek, hanem a trtneti nyelvszettel foglalkoz nyelvszek is ismernek. Valban, jogosan tartjkrluk,hogyazelstudsokkzttvoltak,akikmegprbltkanyelveksnpekeredettfeltrni konkrt nyelvszeti osztlyozsok alapjn ahelyett, hogy a vilg nyelveit s npeit a bbeli nyelvzavarbl eredeztettk volna, ami a kor ltalnos hiedelme volt. Az igaz, hogy ez a kt magyar tuds intuitv mdon mr akkoriban megellegezett nhny olyan fogalmat, amelyek mg ma is a trtneti nyelvszet alapjt kpezik ami elg nagy teljestmny volt akkoriban , de az nem igaz (ahogy sok nyelvsz lltja), hogy k a finnugor elmlet alapti, a magyar s egyb urli nyelvekkel kapcsolatos, pontos s mig is helyesnek tartott elemzseik miatt. Rviden, nem igaz az, amit a magyar tanknyvekben s egyb ltalnos trtneti nyelvszeti mvekben, szles krben lltanak, miszerint SajnovicssGyarmathimra18.szzadbanbebizonytottkafinnugornyelvcsaldltezst. A msodik munka, Nyelvszeti paleontolgia: tudomny avagy fikci, kt f tmval foglalkozik: a) ellentmondsok az urli elmlet trgyi elrejelzsei s a klnbz nemzetisg, fleg finn, szt s magyar kutatk ltal vgzett rgszeti, genetikai, paleoantropolgiai kutatsok konkrt eredmnyei kztt b) a magyar sz hivatalos rekonstrukcijnak esete, amelyet gy alaktottak, hogy az urli modellel sszhangban legyen (a magyar sz egyb alternatv, lehetsges szrmaztatsval kapcsolatban lsd pldul Erdlyi (2005) s Ligeti (1964)). Ez a plda tnylegesen megmutatja azt is, hogy milyen knnyen lehet manipullni az sszehasonlt mdszert, a kvnt megfelelsek, s kvetkezskppen a kvntnyelvszetistrtnelmieredmnyekkimutatsavgett. A harmadik munka, A trtneti nyelvszet s a finnek eredete: A tradicionalistk s a forradalmrok vitja, arrl tjkoztatja a magyar olvast, hogy szmos finn s szt ember is (legyenek tudsok vagy egyszer
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emberek) ktelkedik sajt, lltlagos urli eredetkben. Ms szval, Finnorszgban s sztorszgban Magyarorszghoz hasonlan, az utbbi krlbell 40 vben szmos publikci ltott napvilgot, amelyek a hagyomnyos urli elmletet tbbfle mdon tmadjk. Nhny tuds mg radiklisabb (vagy forradalmibb, ahogy a szakmban gyakran nevezik ket), s az egsz elmletet elveti. Ms, megfontoltabb tudsok ugyan nagy vonalakban elfogadjk, de szmos jelents vltoztatst javasolnak, hogy kikszbljk az elmlet elismert gyengesgeit, s sszhangba hozzk a legjabb nyelvszeti s nyelvszetenkvlikutatsokeredmnyeivel(ezekazgynevezettrevizionistk).Nhnytuds,mint pldul Wiik (2000 s 2002) s Knnap (1998 s 2000) gy gondoljk, hogy nem ltezett a hagyomnyos rtelemben vettsurli kzssg (tbbek kztt azrt sem, mert az urlishaznak vagy urli gnnek nyoma sincs), de lteznie kellett az urli lingua francnak, vagyis kzs kommunikcis eszkznek a szles eurzsiai terleten l npek kztt, Skandinvitl Szibriig, st mg azon is tl. Hasonl interpretcikat javasoltak magyar tudsok is, mint pldul Lszl 15 (1981) s Pusztay (1995 s 1997), akik az urli modellt alapjban vve nyelvek s nyelvjrsok lncolatval magyarzzk. Ez azt jelenti, hogy a megfigyelt hasonlsgok a kzvetlen rintkezs kvetkezmnyei (is) lehetnek, a kritikus krds viszont az, hogy nehz lehet klnbsget tenni az rintkezsbl add hasonlsgok s a rokonsgbl eredek kztt. Ms revizionista tudsok, mint pldul Hkkinen (1990), Korhonen (1974 s 1976), s Lszl (1981), akit ismt megemltek, gy gondoljk, hogy a hagyomnyos elmlet hinyossgait azltal is ki tudjk kszblni, hogy elvetik a szintn hagyomnyos urli csaldfa diagrammot (amelyet a 3. tanulmnyban bemutatok), amelyrl szles krben elismerik, hogy nem alkalmas azoknak a bonyolult, szvevnyes izoglosszknak az brzolsra, amelyek (lltlag egyedl) az urli terletre jellemzek. Ezrt mg bonyolultabb diagrammokat javasolnak, mint pldul az gynevezett bokor vagy a fs diagrammot. A negyedik s tdik tanulmny (szrevtelek: Juha Janhunen sszehasonlt uralisztika paradigmirl, illetve a Milyen nyelvi adatok tmasztjk al az urli elmletet vagy elmleteket?) ismt a tradicionalistk, a revizionistk, a forradalmrok s az ellenforradalmrok kztt mig tart vitval foglalkozik. Ellenforradalmrnak szeretik nevezni magukat azok a nyelvszek, akik a rgi modell rvnyessgt jra megerstik (lsd a Juha Janhunen tanulmnyt). Ez a vita, amelyben forradalmrknt magam is aktvan rszt veszek, fleg a kvetkez krds krl mozog: mit sugallnak a legjabb nyelvszeti s nyelvszeten kvli bizonytkok? Altmasztjke az urli elmletet hagyomnyos formjban, vagy az eddig javasolt klnbz, kisebbnagyobb vltoztatsokat tmogatjk, vagy az elmlet teljes mrtk
gy gondolom, hogy itt rdemes Lszl nhny megjegyzst idzni (1981: 3637, 4041 s 47) Vegyk el Eurzsiai ks jgkori, tmeneti kkori s jkkori teleplshlzatt. Azt ltjuk, hogy gyszlvn az egsz lakhat terlet lakott volt. A rgszetben jratlanabb olvas szmra jegyezzk meg, hogy a ks jgkori vadszmveltsgek hatalmas terleten nagyjbl egysgesarculatak,.Ezakpazjkkorbanhirtelenmegvltozik,sakialakulfldmvesmveltsgekvalsgosmozaikk trdelik Eurzsit. Soksok egymshoz alig kapcsold mvelds npesti be a lakhat terleteket. Nos, ennek tudatban mr elevemegllapthatjuk,hogyolyanterlet,amelyetanyelvtudomnyazuralifinnugorkorrafeltesz,nemvolt.Azskkorbanegyegy mveltsg hatalmas terleteket hatott t, teht nem volt kis terletekre zsfold s nagy tmeg npessget magba lel mveltsg (mrpedig a feltett urli nyelv ebben a korban alakult). Ksbb meg az jkkorban ugyancsak nem volt olyan arnylag nagyobb terletet sszefog sajtos mveltsg, amelynek sztramlsbl magyarzhat lenne az urlifinnugor sztvndorls (azok a ksrletek, amelyek ez irnyban trtntek, nagyon kevs leletre alapoznak!). Ez az sszekt nyelv termszetesen ms s ms sznezetet vett fel, e csoportok egymstl val tvolsgnak megfelelen. Teht nem egysnyelv volt, hanem sok, s ezek kzt teremtdtt volna meg egy, az let egyszer krdseire felel kzs nyelv. Finnugor nyelv nincs, csak klnbzfinnugornyelvekvannak,sbennktbbkevesebbarokonsg.
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elutaststkvnjkmeg(ezutbbiaznszemlyesllspontom).Hogymirtvettemfelebbeaktetbe tbb olyan tanulmnyt, amelyek e heves s rdekes vita fbb pontjaival foglalkoznak, annak oka az, hogy szerintem fontos a magyar olvaskznsg tudtra adni, hogy ez nemcsak Magyarorszgon vitatott krds. Ez a tny termszetesen mg inkbb altmasztja a msknt gondolkod magyarok s jmagam vlemnyt, miszerint ez a vita jogos s indokolt, s nem lehet tbb a sznyeg al sprni, vagy eleve hibsnak blyegezni (a vitval kapcsolatos tovbbi nzpontok vgett lsd Marcz (2004a s b)). A hatodik tanulmny (Az urli elmlet jelenlegi llopota) az urli elmlet jelenlegi llsnak ltalnos kritikaittekintse. A hetedik tanulmny (Nyelvszfantzik. Mario Alinei: Az etruszk nyelv: a magyarnyelv archaikus formja),Mario Alinei Etrusco: una formaarcaica di ungherese cm knyve ltal ihletett esszm. Ezt a knyvetnemrgibenfordtottkmagyarrasikapocsAmagyaretruszknyelvrokonsgcmen,ssok lelkes magyar kvetre tallt. Amint az olvas a tanulmny olvassa kzben hamar rjn, n szemlyesen nagyon szkeptikus vagyok az etruszk s a magyar nyelv rokonsgnak lehetsgvel kapcsolatban, a jelen elszban ismertetett ltalnos s mdszertani okok miatt (lsd lejjebb is), s az Alinei ltal szolgltatott helytelen adatok miatt. Vlemnyem szerint, Alinei knyve, annak ellenre, hogy els pillantsra nagyon meggyzen hat mg olyan nyelvszek szmra is, akik a trtneti nyelvszettels/vagyafinnugorsamagyarnyelvveltisztbanvannaktkletespldjaannak,hogy milyen egyszeren lehet manipullni az sszehasonlt mdszert, jhiszemen a relevns nyelvszeti adatok kiigaztsa cljbl. Alinei gyesen hasznlja mindazokat a stratgikat, mindazokat a kiskapukat, amelyek egyszerv teszik tetszlegesen kivlasztott nyelvek brmifle adatainak egymssal trtn megfeleltetst. (Alinei mentsgre legyen mondva, hogy nem az egyetlen,akieztteszi,aminterremrfeljebbutaltunk). A nyolcadik s egyben az utols tanulmny (Balzs Jnos arelis nyelvszeti modellje s a magyar nyelv eredete) felidzi a hres magyar tuds, Balzs Jnos ltal elterjesztett rdekes nzpontot a magyar nyelvvel kapcsolatban. tulajdonkppen azt lltja, hogy a magyar nyelv az, amit szakszeren kevert nyelvneknevezhetnnk,urlieredetnyelv,deamelyetnagymrtkbenbefolysoltak(ahatross/vagy presztzs) eurpai/indoeurpai nyelvek, vagyis gyakorlatilag azt llthatjuk, hogy kt egyformn szoros s fontos rokonsgrl van sz: genetikai rokonsg (az urli nyelvekkel) s arelis rokonsg az eurpai nyelvekkel. Vlemnyem szerint ez megfelel brzolsa a mai magyar nyelv llapotnak, br, termszetesennemhelyeslemazelemzsurlirszt. 4.Miakvetkezlps? 4.1 Vessnk egy pillantst a jelen ktet msodik, de nem kevsb fontos tmjra: olyan mdszereket vizsglunk, amelyek elmozdtjk a magyar nyelv megfelelbb besorolsnak s eredete felkutatsnak nehzfeladatt.
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E pontnl az olvas biztosan szrevette, hogy eddigi rvelsem gyszlvn csak negatv volt. Vagyis, az urli nyelvcsalddal foglalkoz elz knyvem, s a jelen ktetben sszegyjttt tanulmnyok mind amellett rvelnek, hogy a hagyomnyos (s hivatalos) urli elmlet trtnelemeltti tnyknt megalapozatlan, hanem pusztn nyelvszeti besorolsknt sem llja meg a helyt. Vlemnyem szerint a hagyomnyos s hivatalos elmlet a magyar nyelv (s valsznleg a magyar np) urli eredetre vonatkozan szintn rvnytelen, s hasonlkppen el kell vetnnk. Ms szval, ha indirekt mdon is, de lltsaimmal biztosan tmogatom azokat a magyarokat (akr laikusok, akrnyelvszekvagymshumntudomnyoktudsai),akiksohanemhitteknyelvkurlieredetben. Amint a magyar nyilvnossg elttjl ismert, azokat a tudsokat, akikktsgbe merik vonni a hivatalos modellt, s msik, alternatv modellt javasolnak, a hivatalos intzmnyek ltalban sarlatnoknak, dilettnsoknak blyegzik (lsd pl. Rdei 1998), ahogy engem is ezzel a jelzvel illettek. Viszont, ha a kutatsaim eredmnye helyes, akkor e tudsokat nem lenne szabad sarlatnoknak vagy dilettnsoknak tekinteni, csak azrt, mert nem elgedettek a hivatalos elmlettel. Valjban, ahogy mr feljebb lttuk, a magyarok, valamint a finnek s az urli npek eredetvel kapcsolatos vitk jogosak s nagyon is indokoltak.Termszetesenmindenmodellt,amelyetlehetsgesalternatvakntjavasoltak,kritikusan,de rszrehajlsnlklmegkellvizsglni,mielttelfogadjuk,vagyvisszautastjukazokat. Mg ha be is lehetne bizonytani, hogy az urli besorols nyelvszetileg valban megalapozott, azt hiszem, hogy a magyar np urli eredetnek elmlete akkor is megkrdjelezhet, a kvetkez alapvet okbl kifolylag: ahogy feljebb mr szltunk errl, a nyelvszeti osztlyozsnak, ha mgoly helyes is, nem biztos,hogy brmikzevanazadottnpvaldieredethez 16 (ezzelkapcsolatosanlsdflega2.s 3.tanulmnyt). Szlnunk kell egy trtnelmi dokumentumrl azzal kapcsolatban, hogy a magyar politikusok miknt tettk magukv s rtk el a finnugor elmletet ms verseng, alternatv elmletekkel szemben (az ugortrk hbor idejn; lsd a 19es lbjegyzetet), egyrtelm, nyltan megvallott s akkoriban rthet politikai indtkok miatt: ez Trefort goston szles krben idzett, hres nyilatkozata (az itteni idzetHaryGyrgyntl(976:94)) 17 : Taln nem tvedek, ha azt lltom, hogy e tudomnypolitikai irnyzat egyik kiindul s mai napigisnyomonkvethetintzkedseazvolt,amikor1876banTrefortgostonkultuszminiszter sszehvta a magyar nyelvszeket, s a konferencia vgn a jegyzknyv tansga szerint kijelentette, hogy neknk nem zsiai, hanem eurpai rokonokra van szksgnk, s azrt a jvben llami sztndjat, kollgiumi elhelyezst, klfldi tanulmnyokat csak az kaphat, aki a finnmagyarrokonsgigazolsrafolytattanulmnyokat.
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gytnik,hogyegybtudsokisosztjkeztavlemnyemet,lsdpldulErdlyi(2005:11):Anyelvirokonts,vagyannak megoldsaegyttalsautomatikusannemjelentiamagyarstrtnetproblmjnakamegoldst. Trefort nyilatkozatrl olvashatunk az MTA lapjnak az Akadmiai rtestnek az 1923as vjratt tartalmaz ktetben, amely megtallhatazMTAknyvtrban.
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Amiahivataloselmletsamskntgondolkodtudsokvitjtilleti,ezktokblkifolylagnem alkalmashelysidarra,hogyrszletekbebocstkozzunk:elszrisegyilyenvitatllpnajelenktet kereteit; msodsorban, ahhoz, hogy hihet, alternatv nyelvszeti modellt javasolhassak a magyar nyelv eredetre, clirnyos, kiterjedt, sszetett kutatsra lenne szksg; n viszont ilyen kutatst eddig mg nem vgeztem. Ennek ellenre, a jelenlegi tudsom s a trtneti nyelvszet mdszereivel kapcsolatos kutatsaim alapjn azt hiszem, kifejthetem sajt vlemnyemet, vagyis sajt feltevsemet (szeretnm hangslyozni a feltevs szt) azzal kapcsolatban, hogy a magyarok lehetsges eredete felkutatsnak nehzfeladatnlmerreinduljunkel. 4.2Sokmagyartudja,hogyahivatalosurlielmletmelletteddigakvetkezgenetikairokonsgokat terjesztettk el: magyar s egyiptomi, magyar s grg, magyar s sumr, magyar s etruszk, magyar strk.Azutbbirokonsgotazurlaltjielmlettgabbmodelljnbelljavasoltk,amelymrrgta vetekszik az urli elmlettel. Megemlthetjk az IlliSvity (197184), illetve Greenberg (2000 & 2002) ltaljavasoltgynevezettnosztratikusseurzsiaielmleteket,amelyekszerintalegtbbeurpais nhny zsiai nyelv egy rgebbi, kiterjedtebb, magasabb szint nyelvcsaldbl, az n. nosztratikus, vagy eurzsiai, vagy makrocsaldbl szrmazik. A klnfle elnevezsek gyakorlatilag ugyanazt a nyelvcsaldot jelentik s magukba foglaljk a hagyomnyos indoeurpai, urli, altji, kartveli, jukagir, eszkimaleut, dravida, koreaijapnainu nyelvcsaldokat. Megemlthetjk Krsi Csoma tzist is, aki 1834ben kiadott knyvben a magyar, a trk, a szanszkrit, a knai, a mongol s a tibeti nyelvet egyetlen,kiterjedtnyelvcsaldbatartoznaktekinti. gy tnik, az utbbi idben a sumr s az etruszk kapcsolat nagyon npszerv vlt Magyarorszgon. Az elbbi kapcsolatot (tbbek kztt) a hres rovsrs 18 lte miatt fogadtk el elg sokan,amelysoktudsszerintvisszavezethetasumr/mezopotmiaiidkre(lsdpl.Forrai(2004)),br nhny ms tuds szerint, mint pldul Nmeth (1934), a rovsrs sokkal jabb kelet, vagyis trk eredet. Az utbbi kapcsolat is sok kvetre akadt Alinei nemrgiben kiadott knyvnek ksznheten. Ezenapontonrdemesrmutatni,hogymganosztratikus/eurzsiaielmletamagyarnyelvettovbbra is a hagyomnyos urli nyelvcsald rsznek tekinti, ezt pedig egy rgebbi, kiterjedtebb makrocsald rsznek, az egyiptomimagyar, grgmagyar, sumrmagyar, etruszkmagyar kapcsolat a magyart kiemeli,sannakerginyelvekkelvalklnleges,kzvetlensegyedlllrokonsgthirdeti.Azoka tudsok,akikekivltsgoskapcsolatokltezsttmogatjk,aztislltjk(nyltanvagykimondatlanul), hogy a magyar nyelv egyike (ha nem maga) a legrgibb s legnagyobb presztzzsel br eurzsiai nyelveknek s kultrknak, mivel egyids s rokonsgban ll a rgi, nagy klasszikus nyelvekkel/npekkelsazokkultrjval. Ezen a ponton az olvas knnyen zavarba jhet, annl is inkbb, mivel a fent felsorolt elmletek kpviseli azt lltjk, hogy pontosan ugyanazokat az adatokat (a fonolgiai, lexikai s nyelvtani alapvet hasonlsgokat), s pontosan ugyanazt a vizsglati eljrst, az sszehasonlt mdszert hasznltk. Felvetdhet a krds, hogy miknt lehet ennyifle klnbz nyelvi beosztssal s
Itt rdemes emlkeztetni az olvast arra, hogy mg akkor is, ha a rovsrs Mezopotmibl szrmazik, az nem garantlja, hogy a magyar nyelv is Mezopotmibl szrmazik, mivel az rsrendszerek knnyen tvehetk; erre szmtalan plda volt a trtnelembensorn.
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kvetkezskppen a magyarnak ilyen sokfle lehetsges eredetvel elllni? Hol az igazsg (ha felttelezzk, hogy ltezik egy igazsg)? Azt hiszem, hogy a krdst mr megvlaszoltam, amikor az olvas figyelmt folyamatosan felhvom arra a tnyre, hogy nagyon knny az sszehasonlt mdszer hasznlatt a kvnt eredmny elrshez igaztani (ezt a folyamatot bemutatom s rszletesen dokumentlom a 7. tanulmnyban, amely Alineinek a magyaretruszk rokonsgrl szl knyvt trgyalja.) Ezenfell, a javasolt magyaretruszk s magyarsumr rokonsg esetben, az a tovbbi problma, hogy ezek a kihalt nyelvek nincsenek igazn elgg dokumentlva, minek kvetkeztben a velk foglalkoz tudsoknak feltevsekbe kell bocstkozniuk, amikor a szavak jelentst prbljk megfejteni, vagy egy nyelvtani vgzdst szeretnnek azonostani (alakjt s/vagy szerept tekintve), amintezismtcsakAlineielemzsblnyilvnval.Msszval,ezenesetekbenmgegyszerbb,sgy mondanm, hogy egyenesen szksges az adatokat s az sszehasonlt mdszert manipullni, mivel a tudsoknakellenslyozniukkellhinyosismereteiketakrdsesnyelvekkelkapcsolatban. Ennek tudatban n magam mindenfle ksrletezst feladnk, amely a magyart egy holt nyelvvel, vagy brmifle olyan nyelvvel hasonltja ssze, amely a magyartl idben s trben tvol esik (hacsak valamij,vratlandokumentumvagybrmilyennyomnemkerlnapvilgra,amelykutatsainkatebbe az irnyba tereln). Ehelyett kiindulsknt jra vizsglnm a magyar s a trk nyelv kztt ltez megfelelseket, amelyeket az urlaltji elmlet s a hozz ktd ugortrk hbor 19 kapcsn alaposan kivizsgltak,majd nemrgiben szmos hres magyar tuds, fleg Ligeti Lajos is ezt tette,amint a bibliogrfiban felsorolt kiadvnyok hossz (de nem teljes) listja mutatja. Ezen ismert megfelelseket amelyek a nyelv minden szintjre, a fonolgira, szkszletre, a nyelvtanra s a tipolgira terjednek ki az ugortrk hbor ta a trk nyelvbl val tvtel vilgos pldinak tekintik. Az intenzv tvtelt pedig mindig is a magyar s a trk np kztti, hosszra nyl, mly kapcsolat kzenfekv s elkerlhetetlen kvetkezmnyeknt magyarzzk. gy a hivatalos urli elmlet szerint az egsz trtnet vilgossmegoldott: a. a kt egymssal verseng elmlet kztt volt egy harc, az ugortrk hbor, amelynek vgeredmnyeknt megbzhat nyelvszeti adatokra s tudomnyos vizsglati mdszerekre tmaszkodva (sszehasonlt mdszer) a magyart a finnugor nyelvek kz soroltk (s nem a trknyelvekkz); b. a trk nyelvet az altji nyelvcsaldba soroltk, amely egy egszen klnbz nyelvcsald (annakellenre,hogyaklnbzurlisaltjinyelvekkzttvannakhasonlsgok);
A 19. szzad vgn a magyarok eredetnek kt egymssal verseng magyarzata ltezett. Egyik oldalon llt a trk eredetbe vetett hit, amint a trtneti forrsok s a krnikark hagyomnya sugallta. A msik oldalon ott voltak a klnbz kzlemnyek, melyek a magyar s az szakkeleteurpai nyelvek kztt nyelvi megfelelseket mutattak ki. A sznpad kszen llt egy jelents nyelvszeti harcra: a vita akrl dlt, hogy a magyarok vajon a trk, vagy az ugor s esetleg a finn terletekrl radtake be. Ezt a vitt neveztk az ugortrk hbornak. A harc vezralakjai Vmbry rmin s Budenz Jzsef voltak. Vmbry elszr vegyes, a magyar nyelv trk s ugor jellegzetessgeit tmogat nyelvszeti bizonytkokat tett kzz. Amellett rvelt, hogy magyartrk rokonsg msodlagos termszet, alapveten az sszeolvads eredmnye, mg az ugormagyar rokonsg elsdleges termszet. Ksbb akomoly brlatokra vlaszolva, a szerz a magyar nyelv snp tiszta trk eredett lltota. Ezzel ellenttben Budenz a kor meghatroz vlekedsvel megegyezen gy ltta, hogy a nyelveknek csakegyszljklehet.Ezrtlltotta,hogyamagyarttisztnsegyszerenugornakkellbesorolni.(Marcantnio2006a:75). AhborttermszetesenBudenznyerte.
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c. a trk nyelv jelents hatsa a magyar nyelvre ez annyira jelents, hogy a magyar valjban kzelebb ll a trk, mint az urli nyelvekhez csak a 34 vszzados (Kr.u. a III.IV. szzadtl kezdve) intenzv kapcsolatoknak ksznhet tvtellel magyarzhat, ahogy atrtnelmifeljegyzsekisaltmasztjk. A dolgok e hivatalosan megllaptott llsa mgsem felel meg a valsgnak. Ahogy mr szmos alkalommal emltettem, az sszehasonlt mdszer nem tudomnyos mdszer, mivel nagyon knnyen manipullhat. Ezenfell, az ugortrk hbor idejben, e mdszer gyakorlati alkalmazst mg nem kellkppen hatroztk meg, tbbek kztt azrt, mert akkoriban nem sokat tudtak arrl, amit ma fonolginak neveznk (ez nemcsak az urli nyelvcsaldra volt igaz, hanem az indoeurpaira is). gy rthet, hogy ellenttben az ltalban lltottakkal, az ugortrk hbor nem volt tudomnyos harc s egyltaln nem bizonytotta a magyar nyelv finnugor/urli termszett (a hborrl rszletesebben Marcantonio, Nummenaho & Salvagni (2001) s Marcantonio (2006a, 7593)). Valjban a vitt egyrtelmen nem nyelvszeti vizsglat s rvels, hanem politikai indttats s minisztriumi, adminisztrcishatrozatdnttteel,amintazTrefortgostonminiszterhresbeszdblkitnik. Ami a trtnelmi dokumentumokat illeti, amelyek a magyar s a trk np kzti intenzv, hosszan tart kapcsolatok ltezst tmasztjk al, a valsg megint csak ms. Nincsenek kzvetlen, vagy legalbbis egyrtelm feljegyzsek errl a felttelezett egyttlsrl, vagy szimbizisrl (ahogyan gyakrannevezik)aktnpkztt.Ehelyettminden,amivelrendelkeznkamegeree()sz,amely nhnyszor elfordul a Bborszletett Konstantin biznci csszr ltal grgl rt De Administrando Imperiocmszvegbena10.szzadbl.Aszvegbenezaszegyrtelmenegytrktrzsre(/trzsfre) utal, de magyar nyelvszek s trtnszek gy magyarztk, mintha, a kt sz kztti (lltlagos) hangzsbeli hasonlsg miatt egy magyar trzsre utalna. Mr beszltnk arrl, hogy brmifle fellltott megfelels, mg akkor is, ha helyes, nem biztos, hogy megfelel a valsgos, trtnelmi esemnynek vagy elemnek; ly mdon, egyltaln nem lehetnk biztosak abban, hogy a megeree sz a magyarokra vonatkozik (s igazbl, mint mr emltettem, a csszr itt vilgosan s egyrtelmen trk trzsekrl beszl.) Radsul, a kt sz kztt megllaptott megfelels tisztn nyelvszeti/komparatv szempontbl semlljamegahelyt,ahangoksszehasonltsnakkvetkeznehzsgeimiatt:a)Feltteleznnkkell, hogy a grg g bet ugyanazt, vagy hasonl hangot jell mint a magyar gy, erre viszont nincs semmi bizonytk. b) Tovbb felttelezni kell azt is, hogy a grg ee (hossz /e/) megegyezik egy hanggal a magyarban, vagyis, hogy a magyar sz elvesztett egy szvgi hossz magnhangzt, ami a grgben aztaismegmaradt,deezvalszntlen,mertahosszmagnhangzkltalbanmegmaradnak.Hossz trtnete van annak, hogy ezt a szt illetve a grg szvegben tallt egyb, elgg flrerthet informcit hogyan prbltk a magyar trzsekre vonatkoz esemnyknt magyarzni, ennek rszleteit Marcantoninl (2006a: 6275) illetve a jelen ktet Nyelvszeti paleontolgia: tudomnyi avagy fikci cm tanulmnyban megtalljuk (fleg A magyar sz rekonstrukcija s a kapcsold trtneti bizonytkok jrartelmezsecmrszben).Ittelg,harmutatunkarra,hogyamegeree/magyarktsgesmegfelelsen kvl, nincs semmi ms egyrtelm dokumentum, sem egyb nll bizonytk a felttelezett hosszan tart szimbizisra a trkk s a magyarok kztt. Ennlfogva a hagyomnyos elmlet, amely a trk vonsokat a magyar nyelvben tvtellel magyarzza, egy jabb plda a krkrs rvelsre
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(pontosanugyangy,mintaszanszkritbantallhatdravidaelemekesetben).Ezakvetkezkbl vlik vilgoss: Krds:Mirtvetttamagyarnyelvolyansokelemetatrknyelvbl? Vlasz:Mertamagyarokhosszideigszoroskapcsolatbanvoltakatrktrzsekkel. Krds: Honnan tudjuk, hogy a magyarok hossz idn keresztl szoros kapcsolatban voltak a trk trzsekkel? Vlasz:Onnan,hogyamagyarnyelvsokelemettvetatrknyelvbl. 4.3Ezenapontonfontosnaktartomhangslyozni,hogynegyltalnnemlltomazt,hogyamagyar nyelv s np trk eredet ez ellenttben llna mindazokkal az rvekkel s elvekkel, amelyeket idig kifejtettem, s amelyekben hiszek. Amit lltok, az a kvetkez, sokkal jzanabb meglts: a trk minden bizonnyal kzelebb ll a magyarhoz, mint idig brmelyik msik sszehasonlts cljbl javasolt nyelv, belertve az urli nyelveket is. Ezrt vlemnyem szerint rdemes lenne jraindtani egy vizsglatot ezen a tren, de megszabadulva a hagyomnyos s teljes mrtkben megalapozatlan urli s altji nyelvi beosztsok, valamint a hagyomnyos, s szintn megalapozatlan urlaltji elmlet ktelkeitl. Ms szval, neki kell llnunk higgadtan s elfogulatlanul a megfigyelt hasonlsgok jbli vizsglatnak s jrartkelsnek. A trkmagyar hasonlsgok elfogulatlan fellvizsglata jogos s szksges, nemcsak mert nincs meggyz bizonytk a kt np kztt felttelezett hosszan tart szimbizisra, hanem azrt is, mert a honfoglals korban, szles krben lltottk, hogy a magyarokat embertani, szocilis s kulturlis szempontbl alig lehetett megklnbztetni a korabeli trk trzsektl. Errl HalasiKun (1986/1988: 31) illetve Erdlyi (2005: 12) a kvetkezket mondja (lsd mg RnaTas (1988:134)sBakay(1993) 20 ): Amint a 19. szzadi nyelvszek megllaptottk, a magyar ktsgtelenl finnugor nyelv. Azonban, jellem, trsadalmi szerkezet, mveltsg s hagyomny szempontjbl a honfoglalskori magyarokatrknpeksszesjellegzetessgeivelrendelkeztek. A rokonsgot az si kulturlis gazdasgi kp felvzolsval is megksreltk megoldani: a honfoglal magyarsgot ktsgtelenl trks, sztyeppei jelleg npnek lehet tekinteni, .. A gazdlkodsissztyeppeinomdkpetmutat. Ezek utn, rdemes lenne megvizsglni a Balzs ltal javasolt ketts rokonsg elmletet. Mint emltettem, a szerz alapveten azt tartja, hogy a magyar nyelv ketts rokonsgban ll az urli
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ArgszBakayezzelkapcsolatbanaztakrdstteszifel,hogymikorlettnkfinnugorokk?.
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nyelvekkel, valamint szmos egyb eurpai nyelvvel, fleg a nmettel, ahol az els rokonsg genetikai eredet, mg a msodik arelis jelleg termszetesen az rvelsemnek megfelelen a magyart elszr inkbb a trkkel kellene sszehasonltanunk, az urli nyelvek helyett. Ellenttben azzal, amire szmtannk, Balzs a kt rokonsgot egyforma slynak s jelentsgnek tartja, szerintem jogosan, mivel az (indo)eurpai nyelvek hatsa a magyarra mind lexikolgiai, mind nyelvtani, mind szintaktikai szempontbl olyan mlyen gykerezik, hogy nehz lenne sztvlasztani a magyar eme eurpai termszett a felttelezett urli termszettl, vagy a felttelezett trk termszettl, vagybrmilegyenisamagyargenetikaitermszete. Ebbenastdiumbannemlehetelreltni,hogymilyeneredmnyekrevezetezafellvizsglat,mra nyelvszeti vizsglat hagyomnyos mdszereinek jl ismert gyengesgei miatt sem (hacsak nem hasznlunk egy msik, jabb nyelvszeti kutatsi mdszert.) Nagyon is lehetsges, hogy korabeli dokumentumok s egyb informci hinyban, sohasem lesznk kpesek a magyar nyelv s np eredetre fnyt derteni, br a legjabb genetikai s paleoantropolgiai kutatsok azt mondjk, hogy a magyarok alapveten, eurpai s europid np, ugyangy, mint a Eurpban l tbbi urli np (lsd ezzelkapcsolatbana2.,3.s8.tanulmnytilletveErdlyi(2005:1112)sForrai 21 (2004)). 5.Vgkvetkeztets Ezen a ponton tudatban vagyok annak, hogy mg a hagyomnyos urli elmlet megalapozatlansgra vonatkoz lltsaim miatt hivatalos helyeken komoly brlattal illetnek, a magyar eredetkutats helyes megkzeltsre vonatkoz feltevseim (hangslyozom feltevseim) kapcsn lehet, hogy szintn komoly kritika r a msknt gondolkod tudsok rszrl. Val igaz, kifejtettem a szkepticizmusomat a sumr/etruszk/grg/egyiptomi rokonsggal 22 , valamint a nosztratikus/eurzsiai elmlettel kapcsolatban, s ez knnyen gy rtelmezhet, hogy ily mdon letagadom a magyar nyelv si s nemes eredett. Ezen fell a magyartrk hasonlsgok jra vizsglatt javasoltam, e mgtt pedig esetleg valami rejtett szndkot sejthetnek. Vgezetl, rdekldst mutattam Balzs elmletvel kapcsolatban (br, annak finnugor vonatkozsval termszetesen nem rtek egyet), s azt lltottam, hogy a magyar valban kevert nyelvnek tekinthet, ilymdonmegbotrnkoztatvaazokat,akikgytartjk,hogyanyelvnemessantikvoltnakelfelttele annaktisztasga,samagyarttisztanyelvnektekintik.
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Vesd ssze a kvetkez idzettel Forraitl (2004: 94): a Krptmedenct is tekinthetjk azshaznknak .. Ezt a Kzel Kelet s Krptmedencesi kapcsolatai, azonos fldrajzi nevei is felttlenl indokoljk. Eurpaiak vagyunk ugyan, mai shaznkisEurpa,deszmtalanszllalktdnkaKzelKelethezszsihozsidkta.
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Amint mr korbban emltettem, nem vgeztem alapos vizsglatot a magyarsumr, magyargrg, magyaregyiptomi genetikairokonsgotpropaglszakirodalmatilleten.Mgis,annakalapjn,amitidigolvastam,szmomragytnik,hogya magyar s e nyelvek kztti megfelelsek, csupn vletlen hasonlsgok, melyeket ugyanannak a mdszernek a segtsgvel llaptottakmeg,amelyetAlineihasznltamagyaretruszkrokonsgbebizonytsra.
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Minden kritika ellenre, fenntartom lltsaimat, mivel ezek csupn nyelvszeti kutatsaim eredmnyei. A relevns nyelvszeti adatokat a lehet legobjektvebb mdon kezelem, s mostanra eljutottam a feljebb kifejtett, sajnos mg mindig csak spekulatv, de legalbbszinte vgkvetkeztetsre. Az olvas gy kommentlhatja e kvetkeztetseket (legyenek brmennyire spekulatvak s ideiglenesek), hogy azon tl, hogy lebecslik a magyar nyelv felttelezett, klnleges, s nagy presztzzsel br termszett, elg unalmasak: nincs bennk semmi j s izgalmas. Ez igaz: egyfell a tudomnyos kutats eredmnynek (ha felttelezzk, hogy a nyelvszet tudomnyg) nem felttlenl kell izgalmasnak s krkednek lennie, hanem ppen ellenkezleg. Radsul, amint mr tbbszr emltettem, a trtneti nyelvszetet csak aclbl alkottk, s egyedl arra alkalmas (br ez az alkalmassg megkrdjelezhet), hogy a nyelvek kztti sszefggseket s a vltozsokat, amelyeken keresztlmennek az idben, (tbbkevsb) formlis s szisztematikus mdon feltrja. Vagyis a trtneti nyelvszet mdszerei nem alkalmasak arra, hogy feltrjk a npek (legkorbbi) eredett; a trtnetinyelvszetsosemvoltarrahivatott,hogyazstrtnetkutatsegyikgalegyensmostsemaz, annak ellenre, hogy vannak, akik ennek ellenkezjt lltjk. Ahogy Harrison (2003: 231) erteljesen megfogalmazza: Szmos trtneti sszehasonlt nyelvsz, nyelvszeti rtelemben ki akarja sni Trjt. Fontosabbnak gondoljk, hogy a trtneti nyelvszet fnyt dertsen skori npvndorlsokra, mintsemanyelvivltozstermszetrennemtekintematrtneti,sszehasonltnyelvszetet az strtnetkutats egyik gnak, s szintn azt gondolom, hogyha kevesebbet foglakoznnk dtumokkal, trkpekkel, csaldfkkal, s tbbet a nyelvi vltozssal, tbb valdi elrelps lenne ezenatren. E ponton szeretnm az olvas figyelmt felhvni a kvetkezre: az, hogy a magyart kevert nyelvnek tartjuk,sletagadjuklltlagoskapcsolattavilg(ltalunkismert)legsibbnyelveivel,nemjelentiazt, hogy a magyar nyelv nem rgi, s nem is klnleges. Minden nyelvnek megvan a sajt kora, mg akkor is, ha az nincs feljegyezve, nyelvek nem jelennek meg hirtelen a semmibl. Ehhez hasonlan, sok nyelv, belertve a legregebb s a legnagyobb presztzzsel rendelkezket, valamilyen szinten kevert. Ezigazpldulazangolnyelvre,amelyalatinsagermnnyelvekkeverke(mgakkoris,haazangolt nemigen tekintik kevert nyelvnek). Ez ll a szanszkritra is, a vilg egyik legrgibb s legnagyobb presztzsvel rendelkez nyelvre. Valjban a szanszkrit esete mindkt szempontbl elg rdekes. Br azt mondjk, hogy nagyon rgi nyelv (az elemzsek szerint Kr. eltt VI. s I. vezred kztti idbl szrmazik), a valsg az, hogy nem tudjuk, milyen rgi, mivel a legregebb szanszkrit (vallsi) szveg, a Rigveda himnuszai, mindig is szjrl szjra terjedtek, s elszr Kr.u. a XIV. szzadban foglaltk rsba ket ksbb, mint az els magyar rsos emlket, a Halotti beszdet. Ezenfell, annak ellenre, hogy a szanszkritot szles krben az indoeurpai nyelvek kz soroljk, a valsgban olyan nagy mrtkben vannak jelen benne (fleg) dravida s munda elemek, hogy ha a szanszkritot a nyugati nyelvszek nem fedezik fel, akkor lehet, hogy mondjuk dravida nyelvnek tekintennk (nhny mai indiai tuds valbangytesz.)
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Befejezskppen annyit, hogy vessk el a magyar nyelv hivatalos urli eredett, folytassuk kutatsunkat, s ne feledjk, hogy a magyar nyelv (s np) eredetre, minden erfesztsnk ellenre, lehet, hogy sosem sikerl vlaszt tallnunk, annak ellenre, hogy a nyelvszet testvrtudomnyai, mint pldulargszet,apaleoantropolgiavagyagenetikasegtsgnkrevannak. Irodalom Aikhenvald, A.Y. & Dixon R.M.W. (szerk.) 2001. Areal Diffusion and Genetic Inheritance: Problems in ComparativeLinguistics.OxfordUniversityPress. Bakay,K.1993.Hogyanlettnkfinnugorok?Hunnia44:514. Campanile, E. 1998. The IndoEuropeans: origins and culture. In A. Giacalone & P. Ramat (szerk.), The IndoEuropeanLanguages.London/NewYork:Routledge124. Campbell,L.1998.HistoricalLinguistics:anIntroduction.EdinburghUniversityPress. Campbell, L. 1995. The Quechumaran hypothesis and lessons for distant genetic comparisons. Diachronica12/2:157200. Erdlyi,I.2005.Amagyarsgeredetrlsshazjrl.HungarianStudiesII:420. Forrai,S.2004.Amagyarrovsrseredetnekstrtnetehttere.Turn34/8794. Fox, A. 1995. Linguistic Reconstruction. An Introduction to the Theory and Method. Oxford University Press. Greenberg,J.H.1991.SomeproblemsofIndoEuropeaninhistoricalperspective.InS.M.Lamb&E.D. Mitchell (szerk.), Sprung from Some Common Source: Investigation into the Prehistory of Languages. StanfordUniversityPress.12740. Greenberg, J. H. 2000. IndoEuropean and its Closest relatives: The Eurasiatic Language Family, I: Grammar.StanfordUniversityPress. Greenberg, J. H. 2001. IndoEuropean and its Closest relatives: The Eurasiatic Language Family, II: Lexicon.StanfordUniversityPress. Greenberg, J. H. 2005. Genetic Linguistics: Essays on Theory and Method. W. Croft (szerk.). Oxford UniversityPress. Hkkinen,K.1990.Mistsanattulevat.Suomalaistaetymologiaa.Tietolipas117.Helsinki:SKS. HalasiKun, T. 1986 / 1988. Some thoughts on HungaroTurkic affinity. In Th. Allsen, P. B. Golden, T. HalasiKun,A.P.Martinez,Th.S.Noonam&U.Schamiloglu(szerk.),ArchivumEurasiaeMediiAevi6: 3139. Harrison,S. P.2003.Onthelimitsofthecomparativemethod.InB.D.Joseph&R. D.Janda(szerk.),The HandbookofHistoricalLinguistics.Oxford:Blackwell.213243.
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Hary,Gy.1976.Kiegsztsekegynyelvvitatrtnethez.Valsg19/2:93101. Husler,A.2003.UrkulturderIndogermanenundBestattungsriten.InA.Bammesberg&T.Vennemann (szerk.),LanguagesinPrehistoricEurope.Heidelberg:Winter.4983. Husler, A. 2004. Problems of the origins of the IndoEuropeans. Acts of the XIV UISPP Congress, UniversityofLige,Sptember2001.Lige:BARInternationalSeries1302.7984. IlliSvity, V. M. 197184. Opyt sravnenija nostratieskikh jazykov (semitokhamitskij, kartvelskij, indoevropejskij,uralskij,dravidskij,altajskij),IIII.Moscow:Nauka. Janhunen, J. 1981. Uralilaisen kantakielen sanastosta. Journal de la Socit FinnoOugrienne (= SuomalaisUgrilaisenSeuranAikakauskirja)77:219274. Koerner, K. 1989. Comments on reconstruction in historical linguistics. In T. Vennemann (szerk.), The New Sound of IndoEuropean. Essays on Phonological Reconstruction. Berlin / New York: Mouton de Gruyter.317. Korhonen, M. 1974. Oliko suomalais ugrilainen kantakieli agglutinoiva? Eli mit kielihistoriallisista rekonstruktioistavoidaanlukeajamitei.Virittj78:243256. Korhonen,M.1976.Suomenkantakieltenkronologiaa.Virittj80:315. Knnap,A.1998.BreakthroughinpresentdayUralistics.UniversityofTartu. Knnap,A.2000.ContactinducedperspectivesinUraliclinguistics.Mnchen:LincomEuropa. Lszl,Gy.1981.strtnetnk.Egyrgszgondolatainppvlsunkrl.Budapest:Tanknyvkiad. Ligeti,L.1935.Mongolosjvevnyszavainkkrdse.NyelvtudomnyiKzlemnyek48:190271. Ligeti,L.1938.Lesvoyelleslonguesenturc.JournalAsiatique230:177204. Ligeti,L.1960.Nhnymegjegyzsgynevezettaltjijvevnyszavainkrl.MagyarNyelv56:289303. Ligeti, L. 1961. propos des lments altaques de la langue hongroise. Acta Linguistica Hungarica 11: 1542. Ligeti, L. 1963. Gyarmat s Jen. In L. Benk (szerk.), Tanulmnyok a magyar nyelv letrajza krbl. Nyelvtudomnyirtekezsek40.230239. Ligeti,L.1964.Amagyarnpmongolkorinevei(magyar,baskr,kirly).MagyarNyelv60:385404. Ligeti, L. 1975a. Quelques problmes tymologiques des anciens mots demprunt turcs de la langue hongroise.ActaOrientaliaHungarica29:279288. Ligeti, L. 1975b. La thorie altaque et la lexicostatistique. In L. Ligeti (szerk.), Researches in Altaic Languages.BibliothecaOrientalisHungarica20.Budapest:AkadmiaiKiad.99115. Ligeti, L. 1976. Rgi trk jvevnyszavaink etimolgiai problmi. Nyelvtudomnyi rtekezsek 89: 193 199. Ligeti, L. 19771979. A magyar nyelv trk kapcsolatai s ami krlttk van, III. In E. Schtz & . Apor (szerk.).OrientalReprints,SeriesA12.Budapest:KrsiCsomaTrsasg.
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Ligeti,L.1978.Rgitrkeredetneveink.MagyarNyelv74:257274. Ligeti, L. 1986. A magyar nyelv trk kapcsolatai a honfoglals eltt s az rpdkorban. Budapest: AkadmiaiKiad. Mallory,J.P.1989.InSearchoftheIndoEuropeans.Language,ArchaeologyandMyth.London:Thumes &Hudson. Marcz,L.(2004a).Amagyarnyelveredetrl.Turn34/7:5566. Marcz,L.(2004b).Aktszerkaksiigazsga.VlaszRdeiKrolynak.Turn34/7:6775. Marcantonio,A.2006a.Azurlinyelvcsald.Tnyek,mtoszoksstatisztika.Budapest:MagyarHz. Marcantonio, A. 2006b. Uralic languages. In K. Brown (szerk.), Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. Oxford:Elsevier.26569. Marcantonio, A., Nummenaho, P. & Salvagni, M. 2001. The UgricTurkic battle: A critical review. LinguisticaUralica37/2:81102. Masica,P.C.1979.Definingalinguisticarea:SouthAsia.UniversityofChicagoPress. McMahon, A. & McMahon, R. 2003. Finding families: quantitative methods in language classification. TransactionsofthePhilologicalSociety101/1:757. Nmeth,Gy.1934.Amagyarrovsrs.AMagyarNyelvtudomnyKziknyveII/2:335. Pusztay, J. 1995. Diskussionsbeitrge zur Grundsprachenforschung (Beispiel: das Protouralische). VerffentlichungenderSocietasUraloAltaica43.Wiesbaden:O.Harrassowitz. Pusztay, J. 1997. Ajatusuralilaistenkansojen ketjumaisestaalkukodista. In K. Julku & M. rel (szerk.), Itmerensuomieurooppalainenmaa.StudiaHistoricaFennoUgricaII.Jyvskyl:Atena.919. Rdei,K.1998.strtnetnkkrdsei.Anyelvszetidilettantizmuskritikja.Budapest:BalassiKiad. Renfrew,C.1987.ArchaeologyandLanguage.ThepuzzleofIndoEuropeanOrigins.London:J.Cape. Ringe, D. 1992. On Calculating the Factor of Chance in Language Comparison. Transactions of the AmericanPhilosophicalSociety82:1110. Ringe,D.1995.Nostraticandthefactorofchance.Diachronica12/1:5574. Ringe, D. 1998. A probabilistic evaluation of IndoUralic. In J. C. Salmons & B. D. Joseph (szerk.), Nostratic: Sifting the Evidence. Amsterdam Studies in the Theory and History of Linguistic Science. SeriesIV.Amsterdam:Benjamins.153198. Ringe,D.1999.HowhardisittomatchCVCroots?TransactionsofthePhilologicalSociety97:213244. RnaTas,A.1988.EthnogeneseundStaatsgrndung.DietrkischeKomponenteinderEthnogenesedes Ungartums.Studienzur Ethnogenese 2:120138.RheinischWestflischeAkademiederWissenschaften. Abh.78.WestdeutscherVerlag. Suihkonen,P.2002.TheUraliclanguages.Fennia180:165176.
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UEW = Uralisches Etymologisches Wrterbuch, IVIII (K Rdei (szerk.); Budapest: Akadmiai Kiad 1986 1991). Wiik, K. 2000. European Lingua Francas. In A. Knnap (szerk.), The Roots of Peoples and Languages of NorthernEurasiaIIandIII.FennoUgristica23:202236. Wiik,K.2002.Eurooppalaistenjuuret.Jyvskyl:Atena.
ISHUNGARIANANINNERASIANLANGUAGE?
In this article 1 I argue that the conventional model regarding the origin of the Hungarian language and peoples the Uralic (U) theory / language family is unfounded. I also argue that the various alternativemodelsthathavebeenrecentlyproposedatthisregard,suchasageneticconnectionbetween HungarianandSumer,orHungarianandEtruscan,areequallyunfounded.Ithenproposewhatappears tometobethecorrectwayforward,thatis,aclassificationofHungarianasanInnerAsianlanguage. In particular, I argue that the U model is wrong for the following reasons. First, the old, traditional family tree model of language origin and development upon which the U theory is based is, admittedly, highly unsatisfactory, misleading and outofdate. Second, the U theory itself is not well founded,sincethereisnosatisfactorylinguisticevidenceinsupportofit;neitheristherearchaeological, anthropological and genetic evidence in this direction. Last, but not least, even if the U theory were well foundedandaUlanguagefamily/ethniehadreallyexistedatsomepointinprehistoricaltimes,thereis still no linguistic or extralinguistic evidence that the Hungarian language and peopled did belong to that family. As a matter of fact, Hungarian is widely considered to be an isolate within the U family, since it shares numerous phonological, lexical and structural features with Inner Asian languages (mainly Turkic and Mongolian), whilst, admittedly, the features of (supposedly) U origin are much less prominent. However, a genetic correlation between Hungarian and the other InnerAsian languages is rejected within Uralic. These Asiatic features are claimed to be the result of borrowing, prompted by the centuries long period of contact, actually of symbiosis of the early Magyar tribes with nomadic (Turkic, Mongolian and other) tribes. As to the Hungarian / Sumer or the Hungarian /Etruscan connection, they are wrong because both Sumerian and Etruscan are extinct, very poorly documented languages, fact which prevents a priory any comparison with any language in the world. As a consequence, the correspondences and correlations required to postulate a genetic connection cannot be established. This is even more so if we compare these languages with Hungarian, since here too the first available, Having shown why the traditional U / relevantrecordsarescanty,and(relatively)recent 2 . Hungarian connection, as well as other, quite popular genetic connections are to be rejected, I then
This article has originally been written as an Introduction (Elsz) to a book of mine: A trtneti nyelvszet s a magyar nyelv eredete.AngelaMarcantoniovlogatotttanulmnyai.Budapest:Hunidea;2006.
Adetailed analysis of whythe Hungarian /Etruscanconnectioniswrong is providedinMarcantonio(2004):Uncaso difanta linguistica.ApropositodiMarioAlinei:Etrusco:unaformaarcaicadiungherese.StudieSaggiLinguisticiXLII/1:73200.Full Hungarian version in Marcantonio 2006:176205 (see reference in footnote (1) above). Shortened and modified Hungarian versionin:Helikon2006/3:19.
2
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suggest the Hungarian / InnerAsian connection as the correct alternative (although further research is required to establish this connection safely). This is because the conventional explanation that the Inner Asian component present in Hungarian is simply the effect of borrowing is a circular explanation: the only evidence we have to support the thesis that the early Magyar tribes lived in symbiosis with other nomadic tribes for centuries is the extensive borrowing supposedly derived from this symbiosis. In additiontothelinguisticevidence,alsothearchaeological,anthropologicalandnowthegeneticevidence consistently point toward a Turkic (InnerAsian) origin of the socalled honfoglal magyars (see a recent summaryofthestateoftheartinSturm(2009) 3 ). Finally, I touch upon the fact that, although the basic, original component of Hungarian is the InnerAsian one, Hungarian also contains an equally extensive, European / IndoEuropean component (acquired since the Magyars established themselves in the Carpathian Basin), in this way making referencetowhatBalzsJnos 4 definedas:kettsrokonsg.
3 4
SturmL.2009.Magyar,mogyeri,magyariKerekasztalbeszlgetsstrtnetnkrl.Kortrs1:108120.
On the topic of the ketts rokonsg see the article by Marcantonio: Balzs Jnos arelis nyelvszeti modellje s a magyar nyelveredete,containedinMarcantonio2006:215225(seeagainreferenceinfootnote(1)above).
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ANCIENTWRITINGSYSTEM RESEARCH

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MELLR,Mihly LinearADeciphered
A4000yearslongliteracykeptinsecret
Using the transliteration of Linear A, put on the Net by John Younger 1 , in somewhat different way from the intended, I have deciphered the Minoan language: 150 texts, 1000 words, about 90% of all the materialdecipherable(somefragments,singularsignsetc.cannotbedeciphered).Toexplainthemethod I am using, and to avoid fruitless scholarly discussions about the possibility of decipherment, already inabundanceontheNet,letusdecipherthisunknowntextanddrawuponsomeconclusions:
Peelenengeeleshaespeeleldeuutehatetehaveuueles.
This is about as difficult to solve as Linear A spelled out by John Younger. The difficulty is not in solvingLinearA,butinitssolution.Nobodywilllikeit,especiallynotthelinguistsoftheIndoEuropean supremacy order, not the historians of the same persuasion, most definitely not the Hungarian policy makers and their servants at the Academy. Luckily, for the rest of us, the truth is not about likes, but aboutfacts. We can assume with certainty that the above unknown text is a meaningful statement, otherwise decipherment would be futile. To read it, does not mean a lot, till you understand what you are actuallyreading. Thestatementmayyieldmeaningfulsentencesinmorethanonelanguage.Isthatlessensthevalueof yourreadingofit?Nope!Byapplyingthesamemethodstothefollowingsentencesintherow,inavery short race, all the languages will drop out, yielding no meaningful solutions, but the one the texts were originally written on. For the American military codebreakers, a second sentence was sufficient enough to alter the outcome of the Second World War on the Pacific. With well over a hundred of meaningful statements, acquired with a very simple and persistent reading method throughout, the deciding battle forthekeytoMinoancultureisover. Andthekeyisaverysimpleone: LinearAisnotasyllabicwriting. ThesyllablesinJ.Youngerstransliterationshouldbetreatedassignnames:ROisthenameof the+signwhichhasthesoundvalueofR.
http://www.people.ku.edu/~jyounger/LinearA/
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All vowels are left out (jumped over, disemvoweled) except when the word starts with one, (in this respect it is similar to the later Phoenician, Hebrew and Arabic writings, and to the SzkelyMagyarrovs). Someofthenumbersandnearlyallthefractionsaresuffixesorotherpartsofthewordthey follow. Some signs especially the logograms are skeletons of (root)words: GRA is B_Z_ (BZa=wheat)orR_Z_(RoZS/RiZS=rye/rice),kindofsemantphoneticsigns. Finally,thetextsarereadandunderstoodintodaysMagyarlanguage. Some of the consonants have more than one sound value, but these values are closely related. DA in the1000worddictionaryhasthefollowingvalues:D60,T16,G12,GY7,whileDEhasthevalues:D16, T1,GY1,DUappears40timesalwaysasD.Consideringthe4000yearstimespanwebridginghere,the dispersionisminimal. Linear B sign transcriptions and the reading of them in Greek are not more rigorous (for every hyphenated syllable there is a corresponding Linear B sign): apieke contain, atorogo human, gero bracelet, kako copper, katuro cargo. And these readings are the actual basis for phonetic transcription of Linear A. Utilizing on assumed similarities between thesignsJ.Younger usingtheworkofLuisGodart,JeanPierreOlivierandotherstranscribedthewhole corpusofMinoantexts.ThistranscriptionbyitsveryrealizationisbiasedtowardsGreek/IndoEuropean solutionandassumesthattheMinoanlanguagewhateveritturnsouttobehasGreeksyllables. Youngers aim, to examine the textsinternally and tease out a grammar, so far has yielded only some guesses. Gareth Owens claims 50 words deciphered, like this: JADIKITE is from DEIKNO in Greek, INDICATE, DIGIT in English or JASASARAME has been interpreted as Asasara/Ishassara, i.e., Astarte,knownhereasthePowerfulMistress,i.e.POTNIAofMycenaeanGreekreligion.Bothmenare asserting to read the Minoan texts; I can read French, but do not understand and do not know the pronunciation. The decipherment I am presenting here is a simple reading and understanding of the Minoan texts without any linguistic gimmick and to challenge it, would need more than statements like the opinion of a scholar on the subject or hundreds or most of the experts is not an argument when confronted with facts. Everybody is welcomed to critically analyze or challenge any piece of interpretation presentedbellowbywritingtome 2 . I am using the only dictionary of the Magyar language which shows its wordroot structure, the dictionary of CzuczorFogarasi entitled A Magyar Nyelv Sztra. All the other dictionaries are written with the political agenda to make Magyar appear as a pidgin language. To check the (Minoan) Magyar textsyoucanuseanyMagyarEnglishdictionary.
mmellar@bushcrafts.com.au
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In the examples below the capital letters in the Magyar transcription are the sound values correspondingtosignnames(syllables)inJ.Youngerstransliteration. KNZf13(HM530)(CMSII3.38;GORILAIV:152153,162),goldring(MavrospeliotbIX.E1,MMIII LMIAcontext),readfromthecircumferencetothecenter ARENESIDI*301PIKEPAJATARISETERIMUAJAKU
cf.cf.ARANARE(HT1.4),ARINITA(HT25a.3;ZA8.23)
ARENESI|DI*301|PIKE|PAJATA|RISE|TERIMU|AJAKU ARENESI:ARaNYoS:golden DI*301:GYiL,gyilkol:killing,murdering PIKEPAJATA:FoKBaLTa,fokos(balta):halberd,tomahawk PIKE:FoK(os):peg,grade PAJATA:BaLTa:hatchet,ax(e) RISE:RoSSZ(risszrossz!):bad,evil TERIMU:TReM,TR(v)NY,aszgyketr,pl.csiktnyeregbetrni,engedelmessgreszoktatni. Trem lehetett nkntes fegyelem, mg a trvny vnyes, elrt. : law, the root of the word is tr = train,breakinahorse.Trem=inner/voluntarylaw,trvny=prescribedlaw. AJAKU:ALKu:negotiation Aranyosgyilkolfokbaltarossztrvnyalku.(A)goldenkillertomahawkisbadlawnegotiator. [Sign *301 (a string flying (= Leng) on a stick) should bi added to Linear A sign grid as LA, its sound value is alwaysL,eventhoughthissignweusenowasourletterR.] PKZa12(HM942)(GORILAIV:3538),stonelibationtable(probablyPetsophas) a:ATAI*301WAJAADIKITE[ b:]SI[]RAME[] c:]A[]NEUNARUKA[]JASI d:APADUPA[]JA[]JAPAQA
b:]SIRU[possible. c:]A[]ANEUNARUKANAJASIpossible.
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Thebrightgreenisapossiblereconstruction
a:ATAI*301WAJAADIKITE[TEDU] b:[ENA]SI[RISUMAJASASA]RAME[DU] c:A[KOANEUNARUKA[NA]JASI d:APADUPA[{NI+ZO}SESIRUTE]JA[INA]JAPAQA ATAI*301WAJA:(rgies,gcsei:)TLVeL,tlve/tllve:byoutliving ADIKITETEDU = ADIKI; TETEDU : DiK (olddik); TeTTeD : come undone, ease, relax; your action/(criminal)act ENASI:ENYSZ:disappear,vanish RISUMA:LaSSaN:slowly JASASARAMEDU:JSZSZRaMoD:yourgoodwordspreading AKOANE:OKN:forthereasonthat UNARU:NeR:onesownresources KANAJASI:KiNLS:offering APADUPA [{NI+ZO}SE = APADU; PA{NI+ZO}SE : VD; PaNaSZoS : chaffing, teasing; plaintive,sorrowful,mournful SIRUTEJA:SiRaTJa;SZeReTJe:his/hermourner;his/herlover INAJAPAQA=INAJA;PAQA:INNeJ,innenrgiesen;BKe:fromhereon;peace,pax tlve dik tetted, enysz lassan jszszramod okn. ner knls vd panaszos siratja/szeretje: innej bke! By outliving, your act relaxes, slowly vanish as a consequence of your goodword spreading. Your teasing, sorrowfulmourner/loverisofferinghisownresources:peacefromhereon. The reconstructed words are from the dictionary of about 1000 words so far deciphered and the text fullyagreeswiththelogicalstructureofotherlibationtexts. [ThesignforAisthelineardrawingofabasictooltopush(=tol)grainymaterial,aTwithcutoffarms.Ifwe
cutofftheendingsoftol,weendupwithO,whichisveryclosetoHungarianA.SimilarlythesignforEis ablade(=l)withcutoffend,itisourA,thehorizontallinecutsoffthebladesfeet(=Lbak)]
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Thewritingonthetabletssomewhatdiffersfromtheabovetexts,theyarereallyshorthandnotes,using numbers, fractions, logograms and tricks to put the more information on the very confined writing surface. HT8(HM11)(GORILAI:1617)HTScribe2
side.line a.1 a.12 a.3 a.2 a.34 a.4 a.5 b.1 b.2 b.3 b.3 b.34 b.4 b.4 b.5 b.5 b.6 statement JEDI/{FA+JE}DI PA3KARATI TE*301 QA*310I SIKIRA KIRETANA SUPU2*188 vacat PA3*188 QA*310I KAPA PAJARE kzls (F)JoGoLLiK FaKeReTMEG Fa31/2 TeLKT KNEFELES SZaKRaES KeRTeNiVELE SZoBA FA KNEEGYESBL KaPuFL FaJREGYBL SVLYu VELE logogram OLE+KI PA *86*188 Num. 10 1 3 2 1 5 2 1 1 fraction J J JE E J EF J F J J
b.1:cf.PSIZa1:]SEPU*188,retrograde
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JEDIOLE+KI/{FA+JE}DIOLE+KI:JoGoLLiK,feljogosttatik;FJoGoLLiK,engedlyeztetik(aFAjele avonalakkeresztezdsesakrrtkr):beingentitled;havebeengivenpermission/authorisation(the FAsignisthecrossingoflinesandthecirclearoundit) PA3KARATI:FaKeReT:woodenframe Jfrac:;VEL/VAL;FELE,gyFL,FLE,gykeaFL,amiheztrst;MEG,MG;V_L/V_/F_L/M_G: ; with suff; half, client, partner, kind, its root is fl (= half), party one associates with; and/plus, as well;V_L/V_/F_L/M_G PA:Fa:tree,wood 2:KETT;K_T/G_T:two;K_T/G_T TE*3012:TeLKeT:buildingsite,lot,inaccus. QA*310I:KNE,kellene:shoulddo JfracEfrac:FeLeS:sharecropper Efrac:;S/ES/S;_S:;and;_S SIKIRA:SZaKRa,rszre:section,part,division KIRETANA:KeRTeNi:fence SUPU2*188:SZoBA(SZaB+A(v)/):room PA3*188:FA:tree,wood Ffrac:1/8;BL/BL;ABBL/EBBL;B_L:1/8;from;fromthis/that;B_L 1EfracFfrac:EGYeSBL(EGY+_S+B_L):fromnumberone KAPAJfracPA:KaPuFLFa:door/gatepost PAJARE:nzdJARE;PAegymsikszhoztartozik:lookJARE;PAbelongstoanotherword
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JARE:JR:goeswith 1Ffrac:EGYBL:atonce *86*188Jfrac:SVLYu,abarmoknakadnakstbenne:troughforsaltgiventoanimals (F)jogollik (feljogosttatik/engedlyeztetik) 10 fakeret meg fa 3 (vagy 3 FLe). Telket kne feles szakraes/iskertenivele. Szoba1. 5fa,2kneegyesblkapuflfa(nak),jregyblsvlyuvele. S/hehasbeenentitled(givenpermission)for10woodenframesandwood3(or3kind(=FLe)).The lotshouldbedividedintwoandfencedwithit. Room1. 5trees/woods,2wouldneedfromnumberoneforgateposts,troughforsaltgoesatoncewithit.
Thesoundvaluesofsign*188areA,(Av),OandifitwouldbepermittedtooriginatefromMagyarthe wording we often find in CzuczorFogarasi Dictionary, than SZoBA (=room) < SZaB (= cut) + Av/v (= refuge), lit. a cut out refuge. The clerk of the Haghia Triada palace didnt need a permission and he knew our language better than the academics, for whom szoba [(?slavic)<germ< lat], i.e. comfortable with past andpresentUnions.
ThewordSVLYu(=troughforsalt)islit.drawn:*86,ahollowedboat,i.e.trough,*188,theincomplet
windowlookslikeananimalheadandJfrac isitsshoulder.
Asyoucanseesomeofthenumbersandallofthefractionsbutone,arewordsand/orsuffixes.The writing is very similar to todays SMS shorthand, or like a 4 Sale sign. No wonder: the writing surface isveryrestrictedandthetextisonlyanotetoremindtheclerkhimselforhiscolleagues. It is a misconception of the GORILA group (Louis Godart and JeanPierre Olivier), taken over by John G. Younger, who did the transnumeration and normalisation I amusing here, that these tablets are accounting documents. The following tablet is taken as the very proof of this preconception. As youll see its far from that, its counting but not accounting! Whatever language Linear A turns out to be (Semitic, IndoHittite, Greek, or Martian), will be fine with me; I have no set predisposition says J.Younger.Letusgothananddemolishthisaccountingpredisposition: (The tables are copied from J.G. Youngers website, the green addition is mine correction and interpretation,brownitalicsarethenumbersandfractionswhicharenot!)
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HT123(HM1367+1371;Brice1991b:103)(GORILAI:210213)BR>HTScribe6
Line a.12 a.23 a.45 a.67 a.79 a.89 b.1 b.1 b.2 b.2 b.23 b.3 b.34 b.4 b.4 b.45 b.5 b.6 b.6 b.7 statement KITAI PUVINa SARU DATU KURO *308KURO TIDATA TIJfracDA+TA PISA *188 *188DU TUPADIDA KANA[ ]SIDU DUMAGRAINA KURO KIRO ]vacat logogram OLIV OLIV OLIV OLIV OLIV *188*308 *312TI+Kfrac num 31 31J 16 15 93J 11 1 10 4 1 10 20 5 [ logogram *308 *308 *308 *308 *308[[]] JE JL2 A PA+Efrac EF number 8E 8JE 4 A[ ] FA 4Efrac []25H Jfrac+TI owed KIRO KIRO KIRO KIRO KIRO KIRO number 1XPA+PA 1XPA+PA JE JE 6[ 6
a.79:thetotal(KURO)ofOLIV,93Jiscorrect. a.89:thetotalof*308inlinesa.17shouldbe24J3EAor(ifJ=1/2,E=1/4,A=1/25)25+1/4+1/25,implyingthatthe totalKUROina.89iscorrect(iftheEina.23isignored).
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An alternative arrangement of side b, based on the Balance Ledger type of account tablet, would presume allocations of 20 units from *188, with 1 unit miscounted, and a series of small units owed amountingto52J2EFL2=65/8L2,ofwhich5[survives. *188DU,alsoonHTWe1021,3020;PSIZa1(188DUSE[,averbal?)
side.line b.1 b.1 b.2 b.2 b.23 b.3 b.34 b.4 b.4 b.45 b.5 b.6 statement *188 *312 TIDATA PISA *188 *188DU TUPADIDA KANA[ ]SIDU DUMAINA KURO logogram *308 number 11 ()1 10 20 deficit KIRO number 1 4 5 [ fraction JE JL2 EF
These tablets were not yet written by the bookkeepers of the cold and cruel business world, but by the caring managers of the common good in a human and fair world. Here the fairness is a bit overdone by the foreman by
splitting an olive tree between the pickers. But why not? The groups can pick that one tree together.
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KITAI:KaTi(Katistrsai):belongingtoKati,Katiandherfriends OLIV:OLIFA>OLAJFA:olivetree *308 : SZL (*308 vitorlt = sail! brzol); SZL/E, a terlet hatrn lev, ltalban satnybb nvnyzet a sz kt rtelmt az kti ssze, hogy a szl viszi a hajt a tenger/szrazfld egyik szltl a msikig. : wind (*308 is a picture of a sail szl! same pronunciation); edge, the flora on theborderisusuallystuntedthetwomeaningsofthewordareconnected:thewind(=szl)takes theboatfromoneedge(=szl)ofthesee/landtotheother. Efrac:;S/eS/S;_S:;and;_S KIRO:KR/,kvetel:ask/ing(for),QueRy/queriing;CReDiT(=KReTTeT),demand X=#={PA+PA}:FVa,fval:with/foratree VINa:L/Lre,bor;szl/s;Le;L_:wine(lit.liquid,juice);grape/vineyard,vinery;down;L_ PUVINa:PL(Plstrsai):belongingtoPl,Plandhisfriends Jfrac:;VEL/VAL;FELE,gyFL,FLE,gykeaFL,amiheztrst;MEG,MG;V_L/V_/F_L/M_G: ; with suff; half, client, partner, kind, its root is fl (= half), party one associates with; and/plus, as well;V_L/V_/F_L/M_G JfracEfrac::+= SARU::SRa PA:Fa:tree,wood DATU::TaTi Ffrac:1/8;BL/BL;ABBL/EBBL;B_L:1/8;from;fromthis/that;B_L KURO : KR, (barti) kr, egyv tartoz dolgok; KeRet, KeRekts, egybektve, sszesen : ring, cirkle(offriends),thingsbelongingtogether;available(funds),rounding,bindtogether,altogether (Hfrac)HT123=Jfrac+TI:FeLeT,et:half,,inaccus. *188*308:SZL/e,rgiszle:oldedge Kfrac:oN/eN/N/N;iNNen,oNNan;_N:suffon,in,at;fromhere,fromthere;_N *312=TI+Kfrac:TaNYN(TIazoNon!),helyben:onthespot(TIonoN!) TIDATA=TIJfracDA+TA:TVoLoDoTT,tvolabbi:moreremote,fartheraway PISA:PoSZa,satnya:stunt,retardinthegrowth 1 (IKU) : EGY, GY, EGYEN; ELS; EL/ELV; _GY/_G : one, this way; first, I (the first person); in front;_GY/_G *1881=*188IKU:OK>OlyIK,nmelyik:pronsome *188DU:AD,ADvas,ODvas:hollow
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TUPADIDA:TPPeDeG,aszott(aszik=tpik):withered,wilted TUPADIDAJ:TPPeDeGVEL:withthewitheredlot L2frac:TRVE,aprzva,itt:keverve:divided,here:mixedparts KA[NALA:K[NL:offersysg Ffrac:1/8;BL/BL;ABBL/EBBL;B_L:1/8;from;fromthis/that;B_L SIDU PA+Efrac (INA Efrac Ffrac) : SZeDFS(INaSBL), szretel(inasbl) : from pickerhelpers with sticks DUMAINA=DUGRAINAEfracFfrac:DoBoZ(ol)INaSBL:frompackerhelpers INAEfrac:INaS:footman,apprentice
KaTi PL SRa TaTi
OLAJFA OLAJFA OLAJFA OLAJFA
31
SZL/edge
8 8
KR/asks KR/asks KR/asks KR/asks
1FVa 1FVa ES ES
31MEG/and SZL/edge 16 15 SZL/edge SZL/edge
4Fa/tree 4S/and
KR/sumOLAJFA 93MEG/and SZLKR/edgesum FeLeT/halves 25 KR/asks 6
(6x=3,Stimmel!6=3,Italladdsup!)
szl 11 (tanyn 1-vel s tvolodott 10), posza 4, olyik od 10 (=25) tpedeggel trve. K[nl] szedfs- (s) doboz-inasbl kr 20, kr 5.
Oldedge11(onthespot(with)1andfarther away 10),stunt4,somehollow 10(=25)withwitheredlot mixed. Of[fers]frompicker(and)packerhelpersaltogether20,asks5. For those who still need convincing that the Minoan is really Magyar beside the unique = FL/(gy)FL/VaL/VeL, here is the vowel harmony, another Magyar peculiarity even more widely appliedthantoday: 6 : HAT; HAT, (segd)ige; HAT, igekpz; msokra (rossz) hatssal : 6; act, take effect; may do; influenceothers(badly)
Compare the possessive endings: KI-TA-I = KaTi and PU-VINa = PL! (VINa = L, bor).
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7 : HT, HET/HET, mint HAT/HAT magashang prja : 7; act, take effect; may do; influence others (badly),withfrontvowelwords HT88(HM1312)(GORILAI:138139)HTScribe7
side.line .1 .12 .2 .3 statement ADU REZA vacat kzls ADFRfiaKHoZ RaGHAT NTKiKeNYHET logogram VIR+KA FICNI+TIKIKINA numb 20 6 7
ADU:AD/,elAD/:togive/giver,sells/seller VIR:FRfi;VERcsppelgabont,kteletverV_R/F_R:man;tresh,beat;V_R/F_R VIR+KA:FRfiaK/VeRK:men/hitter,beater 20 : HSZ; HOZ/HEZ/HZ, HOZZ; HOZ; HOSSZ/; H_Z/SZ : twenty; to, towards sy; bring, carry;length/long;H_Z/H_SZ REZA6:RaGHAT,hozzcsatolhat,hozzkthet:canbeattached/tiedtosg/sy, NI+TI:NT:woman,inaccus. KIKINA 7 : Ki KeNHET, ken am. drzsl, mzol szpts, gygyts vgett : who can rub down to beautifyorcure Ad:frfiakhoz/verkhzraghatnt,kikenyhet.
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Give(s)(a)women,whocanbeattachedtomen/beatersforrubbing(them)down. The (Minoan) Magyar language is not isolated to Crete of the Bronze Age. Linear B has to be reexaminedfromtheviewpointofLinearA.ThefollowingexampleofLinearC,theCyprioteversionof thelinearwritings,speaksforitself. ThislongcitationfromThomasPalaimas 3 worktitledTheTripleInventionofWritinginCyprusand WrittenSourcesforCypriotHistoryisveryimportant: Our final text ICS 196 is a biscript bilingual from Amathus that commemorates the polis of the Amathusians honoring Ariston, son of Aristonaks. The text is dated by letter forms to the second half of the fourth century B.C.E., but by the spirit of its contents to the period after the expulsion of Androkles, the last known king of Amathus, ca. 313311 B.C.E. The text again appears in two parts with the Greek alphabetictextinscribedverycentrallyandformally.ThefirstpartiswrittenineteoCypriote. (a) (1)anamatoriumiesa:imukulailasanaarisitonose aratowanakasokoose (2)kerakeretutose?taka:na??sotialokaitipoti (b) In the eteoCypriote portion, the only recognizable words are the name of Ariston and his father Aristonaks in the sequence arisitonose aratowanakasokoose. Where the second name ends is uncertain, as is, then, also the meaning of the eteoCypriote word or words immediately following it. Personal names with a first element derived from the Greek superlative are wellattested in Cyprus(seeWIKS,pp.1821).O.Masson,ICS,p.207,reviewsthevariouspossibilitiesforexplainingthe spelling of the first element of the fathers name in the eteoCypriote portion of the text arato: a rapid pronunciationwherebyAristowasshortenedvariouslytoAstoor,ashere,Arto. The absence in any portion of the rest of the eteoCypriote text of a string of syllabic characters that could be connected with the city Amathus or its inhabitant, the Amathusians, raises the distinct possibility that the Amathusians referred to themselves by an ethnic in their own language that was unrelated to Amathus. If this is true, then the eteoCypriote portion of this, our final text, would give us evidence that within the island of Cyprus itself, at the beginning of the pronounced cultural leveling of the Hellenistic period, certain peoples and communities were fiercely independent about their own identities as we have seen the entire island of Cyprus be, during a span of over 1,300 years, visvis surroundingculturesthathadmuchgreaterpower,wealthandprestige.
(1):(2):.
http://www.utexas.edu/research/pasp/publications/pdf/triple.pdf
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WehavetoacceptprofessorPalaimasB.C.E.313311yearsastheoriginaldateofthetext,becausethe eteoCypriote, i.e. Magyar text, on the plate that was commemorating the Greek invaders of the polis, is apoliticalgraffitiengravedafterwards,asanactofprotestagainsttheselfhonoringGreekoccupier. ana=AN_:ANNYi:(as)much/many matori=M_T_R/L_:MTeLY:fluke,(the)rot[insheep];corruption umiesa=U/OME/IS_:MSZ/EMSZ(ittszgedikiejtsmint:mik,szik):digest,consume,kill imukula=IM_K/G_L_:IMiGYL:so,thus,inthisway/manner ilasana=IL_S_N_:ILLSeN:asitfits,rightly arisitonose=AR_S_T_N_S_:ARiSZToNoSZ:ARiSTaNoS arato=AR_T_:ARaT,itttv.rt.sarcol(kizskmnyol):reaper/harvester,here:exploiter wanaka=V/F_N_K_:FNK:principal,governor,lit.headofsg sokoose=S_KOS_:SZKS:tight(fitting) kerakere=K_R_K_R_:KaRiKRa:onring/hoop,shackle tutose?=T_T_S_?_:TTeSS[K]:havesgtobeput/placedswhere taka=T_K_:TK,here:balls na??soti=N_?_?_S_T_:NY[RS]ST:spitroaster alo=AL_:AL:post.under(neath),below,beneath kaitipoti=KIT_P_T_:KiTPeT:havetoteared/pulledout Annyi mtely emssze imigyl illsen, Arisztonosz arat fnk, szks karikra ttessk, tke nyrs stalkitpet. Let you be digested by a lot of rot as it fits rightly, head exploiter Aristanos, be put on a tightfitting ring,yourballstobetornoutunderaspitroaster. Well, this is straight to the point, an act of dissent! This is the way the original inhabitants of the Amathus polis commemorated their new rulers. It has made me especially glad that I got to this solutionontheeveofthecommemorationoftheHungarianuprisingagainsttheHapsburgrule. The long citation was needed to show how far the science got in deciphering Linear C and to make professor Palaima himself to tell that the original inhabitants retained their language for 1,300 years againstthestrongoutsidepressure. In addition, there is clear reference that the Amathusians have their own language, which cannot be reconstructedonthebasisofGreek(orindoEuropean).
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TheplacementoftheGreektextissocentralthattheeteoCypriantextcanbeonlyalateraddition,i.e. graffiti. Againsttheexpectations,thereisnohintatanametheAmathusianscallthemselves,butallthemore abouttheirloveoffreedom! If we supplement the 1,300 year period of Linear C with the periods of Linear A and B than we can talk about at least 2,000 years of continuous and documented Magyar presence in the Eastern Mediterranean! Itistimetorevealthisunbelievablywellkeptsecret. In the past 100 years from the discovery, there were many attempts to decipher these linear writings. BylookingintoacoupleofthesedeciphermentsIcantell,thatJ.Youngeristhelessprejudicedandhis method has been strictly internal, to examine the texts as accounting documents, and to identify transaction terms and patterns in vocabulary, paying special attention to vocabulary variations especiallyinprefixesandsuffixes,inordertoteaseoutagrammar. Whatever language Linear A turns out to be (Semitic, IndoHittite, Greek, or Martian), will be fine with me; I have no set predisposition. This declaration is very nice, but in practice such no set predispositionisthefractioncolumnofthetableddata.Bytryingtoforceamatematicalvalueonthese fractionsisfarcical:
SinceABBoccurs(KH86),isseemslogicalthatAisgreaterthanBB;ifBis1/3,Amaybe5/6.
Thereisnosuchfraction!A=PA! The ABB group of signs on KH 86 can be and should be read as FAFA/FARORO. The conclusion that A may be 5/6 is contradicted in the summary by 1/6. From A = 1/6 follows ABB = 5/6 and retrograde!ForA=5/6andB=1/3followsABB=1=1J,whybotherwithABBthan? On HT 91 there is a list with Afrac values: 5/6 (or 1/6?) of an olive or olive tree or a fig make no sense. Thetabletisabouttrees/woods:FICPA=FGeFa=figtree,OLE+MIPA=_L+M_Fa=aLMaFa=apple tree, OLIV PA is unusual, because in oLiVa Fa Va is the Fa altered (oliva < olifa > olajfa >), so lit.itisoiltreetree.
B(1/3?).Boccurssingly,onceasapair(KEWc2b),onceasapairafterA(1/6;KH86.2),onceafterE(1/4).Since EBoccurs(KH9.2),itwouldseemlogicalthatBislessthan1/4(Eis1/4;seebelow);butonKH9.2,EBoccursafter K (1/16?), and it is therefore tempting to read this set of fractions retrograde (BEK); if so, then a descending sequencecouldbemaintained(1/3,1/4,1/16).Boccurssinglyandinpairs(ZA8.23,6,ZAa.2).
Since ABB occurs (KH 86), is seems logical that A is greater than BB, to maintain this same logic youhaveto readretrogradetheKEBsequence.Thisisa veryarbitrary stepforwhichisnotgivenany reason. Let us take a closer look into this KH 86 tablet (which is to small a fragment to prove anything, but it is not my choice): this is a good quality pictura, which doesnt show any fracture in the second vertical lineofABBseenonthefacsimiledrawing.
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The next tablet in the series, KH 87 would disprove the whole fraction preposition, if transliterated properly. For the BOSm, which is actually a ligature, [PA+U = B (= big, rich) as BIson] one horizontal line is missing, therefor it should read AB, but there is a big problem with that: JAB 1 = 1/2 1/6 1/3 1isaratherstrangefraction!Isntit? Asitturnedout,thiswritingisinMartian,anagglutinativelanguageandBisasuffix. Bfrac : RO = Ra/Re, R_; (elnylbb vizszintes vonallal) R/R = RL/RL (Ra+eL), (TL/TL); RLa;R_L_:RO=suff.on,to,at,by,R_;(withlongerhorisontalstroke)suff.from,off,of;from/of/about him/her/it;R_L_ HT35(HM24)(GORILAI:6667)
line .1 .12 .2 .2 .2 .3 .3 statement TITIKU IKUTA kzls TiToKG/i IGaZ/iVSZ MaJoRRuL haLLaRL SZLRLa LTeTZAMi T logogram *326=*304 CYP *550{MI+JA+RU} OLE+RI *308 OLE+TA10[A+MA] E num 1 5 fraction B B B
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.3 .4 .5 vacat (e)KPPeN LeL *509{J+QA+PU} VINa K DRI
TITIKU:TiToK:secret *326=*304:G/i:haeven/ly IKUTA:IGaZ/i:true,genuine,real CYP : VSZ(es); V_SZ/V_S/B_SZ : tempest, storm, disaster, calamity, plague; perish, get lost; V_SZ/V_S/B_SZ *550 {MIJARU} : MaJoR, gyke fol (folnagy, falu, fld) : farm, grange, from the root fol in words for villageelder,village,land. *550Bfrac:MaJoRRuL,majorokatjrrs:farmtofarmseller OLE+RIBfrac:haLLRL:abouthisdeath *308 : SZL; mlyen ejtve SZL: megbzhat, derk; SZL/; SZ_L_ : wind, pronounced with back vowel:reliable,honest;speak/er;SZ_L_ OLE+TA10:LTeTZ(pontaTAjelben=10):styroofmaker(thedotinTAsignis10=T_Z_) [A+MA]E:[AMi]amirt:onaccountof,because(of) 5:T;T;_T/_D:five;him/her/it;_T/_D *509HT35{QA+PU}K:(eK)KPPeN:thus,so,(in)thismanner/way VINaRI:LeL:didfindhim Titokgi,igazivsz1majorrulhallrl.Szlrlaltetzamitekkppenlel.
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Haevenlysecret,realdisaster,aboutthedeathof1farmfrequentingseller.Thestyroofmakerspeaks about,becausehedidfindhimthisway. Gareth Owens 4 would be the other extreme, he is after an indoEuropean solution by all means, he statesinTheStructureoftheMinoanLanguage,that KESITE is found three times on Minoan Crete engraved on stones at the entrance to the Palaces of Knossos and Malia and at the entrance of a tomb at Kephala near Knossos. It can be interpreted as related to CUSTOS and SCUTUM in Latin, KOSTHA in Sanskrit and KEYTHO in Greek denoting to cover, protect etc. and, like the Masons Marks in the Palaces, it may have had a prophylactic role in protectingthePalace/Labyrinthperhapsfromearthquakes. Even if it were true that Linear A is a syllabic writing, nothing justifies Owenss interpretation of the word KESITE. The given structures are monuments their builder can be proud of, so he inscripts by whom it is made (=KSZT). A 100% match in syllables, pronunciation (SZ is the English S) and an entirelylogicalmeaning.Theclosestinbothformandsemanticstoitis theEnglishCaST[Old Norse].Is it than after all an IndoEuropean word? Could be, but the word comes from the root/word KZ (= hand) and KZT > KSZT literally means: does it by hand(s). So, the prime meaning of cast is hand made(mould). On the Malia block (MA Ze 11), it is spelled QESITE and on ZA 4 tablet QESIZUE : KSZT : maker. Were Mr. Owens visited some Hungarian graveyards, looked at statues or buildings he would see the words KSZT/KSZTette (= made by in two different past tenses) or KSZTTet/KSZTTette (=haditmade,orderedby),thesewordscouldsparkadifferentfiringinhisreasoning.Werehelistening to himself like the Masons Marks, he would get a perfect interpretation. Never the less, I congratulate him, at least hi tried. The blame is with those, who understand the words but out of cowardiceorperverseantinationalismkeepquietaboutit. The Minoans are known as the culture of the Palace Builders. PaLaCe (= PaLoTa) is the most significant BuiLDing (= PLeT, PLT = BuiLT). The rootword is iP, implying the bring into existence from outside meaning,with wordsin its family like iPa (= fatherinlow), iPar (= industry, trade), iPk > PK(=BaKer),etc.Owingtoitsmeaning,thisrootcannotbeofFinnugrianorigin,Magyarneitherbythe FUparadogma(!),sothewholewordfamilyisof[?]origin?!IfthehardcoreFinnugrianswanttosalvage anyoftheirachievements,itsthelastmomenttoturntheirarrowsintheoppositedirection,becausethe word is here not about another poor relative in the language family, but about the language that was spokenandwritteninthecradleoftheEuropeancivilization.Ithasthelongestwrittendocumentationof all languages, and with just a simple transliteration, these 34 thousand year old texts transform into todays Magyar. How is this possible? The root system petrifies the language: every word in a family of, say, hundred words has to change simultaneously which is impossible otherwise, the wordfamily disintegrates. It is easier to make up new wordsthan to change the old ones,so the language grows into a fractal with countless branches, but from every word, one can trace back to its root and en route pick uptheconceptualclassoftheword.
4
http://www.teicrete.gr/daidalika/thesis.pdf
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How the Magyar speaking people got to Crete? By birth, this is the meaning of the Greek word eteo (true, original inhabitants) and Homer should know better than anyone else should. Closer to our days, Lawrence Barfield, Renato Peroni, Hugh Hencken and others demonstrated that the Carpathian Basin wastheindustrialcentreofEurope intheBronzeAgeanditsinfluence onthePeloponnesus,theislands of the Aegean see and Italy was strong enough to propose even a conquest. Grover S. Krantz goes even further, he put forward a theorem that the people of the Cretan hieroglyphs and the Linear A were the seafaring herdsmen conquering the shores of Europe and eastwards through the Caspian and Aral see gottotheotherendoftheEuroAsiancontinent.Thiscouldexplainsomeofthelinguisticaffinitiesfrom thePictstotheJapanese. There is a short fragment of a tablet from HT (Haghia Triada) series, which not just proves my reading correct, but helps understanding some passages of the Bible and other ancient scripts. Exodus 13:1reads:
"And the Lord [Yahweh] went before them by day in a pillar of cloud to lead them along the way, and by night in a pillar of fire to give them light, that they might travel by day and by night; the pillar of cloud by day and the pillar of fire by night did not depart from the people." Why is exactly the same description applied to the comet and the cloud? For days the pillar of cloud leads the way eastwards, its not how a cloud behaves, it is the way how an object much higher in the sky would behave. We are dealing here with two very bright comets: one gives light on the evening sky like a pillar of fire, and the other shines on the morning sky like a pillar of cloud - during the day the tail of the comet is of silvery colour. And this is happening in the year of the world 2453 (1495 B. C.) says A. Rockenbach. Other calculations put it somewhat closer, most of them in the 1495-1440 B. C. period. Now, scientists put the date of origin for the HT tablets at around the same period, in the middle of the 15th century B.C., and the one in question is:
HT41(HM41)(GORILAIp.7879)HTScribe14
line a.1 a.2 a.3 a.3 a.4 statement supramutila ]vest.[ ]QETU MIDANIPAJA supramutila Kzls KeTTTZ NY(ugot)GiTZ R(eggel)GiTZ MiDNPLYa2KTLEN logogram *305*304 RE*304 num 10 10 10 10 2 frac DD
b.1:perhaps]SU[or]TA[
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QETU:KeTT:two 10:TZ;TZ;T_Z/T_SZ:ten(=tz)pronouncedvith:pin,stitch,fire;T_Z/T_SZ *305=NY:NY(ugat),napNYugta:W(est),sunset RE:R(eggel):M(orning) *304:G/i:haeven/ly *30410:GiTZ=stks:heavenlyfire=comet MIDANI:MiDN:advwhen PAJA:PLYa:path,orbit DD(frac):KTLEN(2talon>kttelen>ktlen),bizonyos:certain,sure,undoubted ]kett tz. Nyugaton gi tz (stks), reggel gi tz (stks), midn plya kett ktlen (bizonyosan). ]two fires. At sunset heavenly fire (comet), in morning heavenly fire (comet), when the orbits (are) twoforsure.
It seems, the clerk who made the note is confident and assured with the two divergent orbits, but the very reason we can read his note is the fire and destruction that followed soon after he finished the writing. By all accounts, and there is a lot from Eusebius, Pliny, Plutarch to Augustine and from Syria to India, there was an upheaval from the meteorite shower brought about by passing of these two comets, just to mention the one impact separating the Red see in front of the Jews. The reference to two comets in connection with the Deluge is more explicit. If these are the same tandem of comets, than they have a period of about 3,600 years and due for their next round The Linear A texts are only small shorthand notes, never meant for eternity, for this very reason they are so human, so close from 4000 years away, they will lead us into a new past and may even alter the future just as the comets on this little fragment did.
KN Zc 7 (HM 2629) (GORILA IV: 122125), inked inscription in the interior of a conical cup, oriented upsidedown(BasementofMonolithicPillars,MMIII?) AKANUZATIDURAREAZURAJASARAANANEWIPI[]
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AKANUZATI:AKNNYeZT:theweeping,thetearshedding,inaccus. DURARE:DeRL,(fel)dert:cheeringup,enlivening AZURA:EZeR:thousend JASARAANANE>JASATA;ANANE:JSZT,vagyJSZT;INNeN/ONNaN:goodword,in accus.;fromhere/there WIPI[]:VP[iK,LP(iK):step Aknnyeztdertezerjsztinnenlpik. Thethousandgoodwords,cheeringuptheweepingone,arestepped(forward)fromhere.
HT43(HM49)(GORILAI:8283)
side.line .12 statement MASIDUPA*342II logogram GRA+PA number 5 fraction
MASIDU:MoSoDa:laundry PA*342I=PA{DI+TI+DI}I(aDIjelekszraifellvannak,aTIszraiknt):FaGYjTaG,gyjtsnak valfhoz:belongstomatchwood,kindling(thestemsoftheDIsignsareonthetopasthearmsof TI) I:E,Eme,Ez:this GRA+PA | PA+GRA : PaRZS, itt a gabona RoZS/RiZS : glowing embers, live coal, here the grain is rye/rice(=RoZS/RiZS=R_ZS) 5:T,_T/_D,itt:T/T,csihol:five;_T/_D,here:hitter,striker PA+GRA 5 : PaRZS T, szikra csihol, tzk s acl sszetve tzet ad : fire striker, flint and steel forstrikingfire. Mosodafagyujtageparzst. Thisfirestrikerbelongstothematchwoodofthelaundry.
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_____________________________________________________________________________________ To wind up this presentation, here is, for many of us, a very acute and actual statement, although nowdays we read it on paper from our banks:
THE Zb 2 (Museum of Prehistoric Thera 1372) (GORILA IV: 102), jug (Akrotiri Delta 4, LM IA context;inscriptionmadepriortofiring) ARESANA ARESANA : ERSZNY(dolgok rejtsre szolgl bls edny is lehet); ReSeN mindkett gyke R:purse(whichcanbeabelliedvesselforhidingthings);emptybothwordshavethesamerootR(= space,void) Megismtelveaszt:ersznyresen!Byrepeatingtheword:emptypurse!
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GEOSTRATEGY

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DEMETERM.,AttilaTONK,Mrton TheSystemofNormsofMinorityProtectionintheEuropeanUnion1
ItisafactofcommonknowledgethattheEuropeanUnionhasnopropersystemofnormsorrulesfor minority protection. Nonetheless it is true that the Union has included the treatment of minority issues into its common foreign and security policy, and it is also a fact that minority protection has been defined as a condition for accession as early as 1993, at the Copenhagen meeting of the European Council. 2 At the same time however, the Treaty of Amsterdam, although incorporated all the Copenhagen criteria (democracy, rule of law, etc.) into primary law (the acquis), passed over minority protection. 3 Consequently,ifweareinterestedinthesystemofnormsofminorityprotectiononaEuropeanlevel, it is more practical to turn our attention toward the documents of European organisations dealing with minority protection, such as the Council of Europe (CoE) and the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) rather than the institutions of the Union. Subsequently we will formulate a few observations, and conclusions based on these documents, respectively on their comprehensiveinterpretationasgivenbyWillKymlicka. 4
1 Present paper is based on another, more extensive study, entitled: The Approach of National/Ethnic Minority Issues in the EU, which had summarised the results of a oneyear research. Due to space limitations we can practically only concentrate in this paperontheconclusionsofthatstudy,morepreciselyonapartofitsconclusions.
That is the reason why minority protection appears as a stressed aspect in the regular country reports produced by the EuropeanCommissionaboutcandidatecountries,asithasalsohappenedinthecaseofRomania.See:GabrielToggenburg:Egy knyes kapcsolatrendszer: az Eurpai Uni s a kisebbsgi jogok (A Thorny Relationship: The European Union and Minority Rights),in:ProMinoritate,Budapest,2002,Spring,1450,p.28.
2
One must add that including the norms of minority protection among the accession criteria could even be detrimental for the minorities of the acceding countries. The accession of a country will in this case mean that the EU considers the minority issues solved in the respective country. And if Central and Eastern European States joined the EU with a clean record with respect to minority issues, than there is no need for the EU to change its present agnosticism concerning minority issues. In se this would not be a problem if the expectations of the Union from the acceding countries were purposeful, strict and unequivocal, and if the Union itself enforced these consistently. Yet references on minority protection norms made by the institutions of the European Union in the documents prepared for CentralEastern European states are far too general. In these the steps expected tobe takenbythe concerning countries are specified butthenormsand standardsthatserveas thebasisof EU expectationsare not. Thus minority protection becomes a poorly formulated political requirement, which Central and Eastern European states triedtomeetsomehoworother(moreoftenpoorly)justbecauseoftheallurementoftheaccessionitself.SeeBrunodeWitte:Az etnikai kisebbsgek krdsnek megkzeltse az EUban: politika a jog ellenben (The Approach of the EU to the Issue of EthnicMinorities:PoliticsversusLaw),in:MagyarKisebbsg,Kolozsvr/Cluj,vol.8.,2003/23,p.241267,p.261.
3
Will Kymlicka: Multicultural Odysseys: Navigating the New International Politics of Diversity (manuscript), Oxford UniversityPress,Oxford,2007.
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Introduction Quitesoonafter1989,theminoritiesofEasternEuropehadtorealisethattheattemptstoestablishthe Western model of democracy are not enough by themselves to effectively restrict majority nationalism; hence the fall of communism was followed by a series of conflicts of ethnic nature. We can retrospectively remark that these conflicts had mainly concentrated to the regions of the Caucasus and theBalkans,ontheterritoriesoftheformerSovietUnionandYugoslavia;althoughatthattimeinthe early nineties this was not yet clear. European observers feared that conflicts would escalate and talkedaboutEurogeddon. HavingtofacetheethnicconflictsofpostcommunistEurope,Westerndemocraciesdecidedtohandle these as an international problem, trying to offer models, or to formulate minimal minority protection standards that according to their reckoning would have durably and peacefully regularised the relationship between the states and their minorities. The declarations in 1990 of the CSCE/OSCE reflect exactlythatkindofapproach. If we take a closer look, we will realise that European organisations have in fact followed three, loosely connected, although sometimes contradictory strategies, each of these being considered to be theirownfromtheverybeginningofthenineties.Firstlytheyattemptedtopopularisethebesttriedand tested practices, institutions, methods existing the West, secondly they endeavoured to formulate minimal minority protection standards, and thirdly turned to direct military or diplomatic interventions onacasebycasebasis. Hereinafter we will try to demonstrate that two of the mentioned three strategies have failed, while the success of the third one on the other hand proves exactly the lack of success of principlebased Europeanminorityprotection. Autonomyasamodeltofollow InrealitythereisnoconsensusintheWesternworldtoday,evenonatheoreticallevel,withregardto theissueofnationalminorities. 5 Thisdoesnotmeanhowever,thatEasternEuropeandemocraciescould not transfer from Western democracies certain solutions meant to settle the situation of minorities. The demands of national minorities in Central and Eastern Europe are similar to those of the national minorities in the West, and it seems likely that similar principles must also be applied when evaluating them. National minorities in the East and in the West, seek (among other things) political recognition, ethnicallybased regional autonomy, and if autonomy has brought peace and development to Spain or Italy, there is no reason to question that it would also bring peace and prosperity to Serbia, Slovakia or Romania. Making references by the European organisations to functioning WesternEuropean regional autonomies had usually been part of the first strategy: these seemed to be solutions, which where
5
See in this respect: Attila M. Demeter: Patriotizmus avagy nacionalizmus. A nemzetisgi/kisebbsgi krds a magyar liberlis gondolati hagyomnyban s a mai angolszsz politikai filozfiban (Patriotism r Nationalism. The National/Minority Issue in Traditional Hungarian Liberal Thinking and in Current AngloSaxon Political Philosophy), in: Regio, Budapest, Vol. 17, 2006/3, p.3148.
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applied in Western Europe generally provided satisfactory answers for the problems of national minorities. 6 The bestknown recommendation for autonomy has been formulated by the document of the Second ConferenceontheHumanDimensionoftheConferenceonSecurityandCooperationinEurope(CSCE, the predecessor of the OSCE), held in Copenhagen on 29 June 1990, which brought a true breakthrough in the treatment of minority issues according to experts: it is generally accepted that this document goes the farthest in the field of minority rights. Its article 35 establishes that the participating States note the efforts undertaken to protect and create conditions for the promotion of the ethnic, cultural, linguistic and religious identity of certain national minorities by establishing, as one of the possible means to achieve these aims, appropriate local or autonomous administrations corresponding to the specific historical and territorial circumstances of such minorities. 7 The Copenhagen document must be considered a step forward in the field of minority protection, even if its stipulations had only been recommendations, having no binding effect on the states. Several codified bilateral minority protection documents (the agreements between Hungary and Slovakia, Hungary and Ukraine, theHungarian Russiandeclaration)havealreadybeenbasedontherecommendationsformulatedinthatdocument. The famous Recommendation of the Council of Europe, fully entitled Proposal for an additional protocol to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, concerning persons belonging to national minorities had also included a reference to regional autonomy. The proposal for an additional protocol was debated by the Parliamentary Assembly of the CoE between 15 February 1993, during its session in Strasbourg. Its basic principles include that the conditions for puttinganendtoethnicconfrontations,andthusofhelpingtoguaranteestabilityaretherecognitionof the rights of persons belonging to a national minority within a state, and the international protection of thoserights.(Preamble3) The reference to territorial autonomy was included in Article 11 of the Recommendation. According to that In the regions where they are in a majority the persons belonging to a national minority shall have the right to have at their disposal appropriate local or autonomous authorities or to have a special status, matching the specific historical and territorial situation and in accordance with the domestic legislation of the state. 8 Yet in the end the recommendation was not adopted, and the legal norms
It is important to keep in mind that the institutionalisation of autonomy points beyond the practice of simple legal protection. The rights ensured for minorities are partly means of restricting the power of the state (the prohibition of discrimination), and partly additional rights that permit a certain minority to preserve its cultural identity under the conditions of inequality (positive discrimination). Autonomy as a minority protection tool is a characteristic and (the most powerful) form of political recognition, which as opposed to legal protection also permits the sharing of state power. In other words, autonomy cannot be conceived without the delegation of state power, and the observation of the principle of subsidiarity a solution that in opposition to practices of legal protection, directly affects the structure of executive power and statehood. Bruno de Witte, p. 252.
6 7
GyulaFbinPatrciatvs:Kisebbsgijog(Minorityrights),KompPressKnyvkiad,Kolozsvr,2003,vol.II,p.6364.
8 The recommendation gain quick notoriety by the efforts of the Hungarian Government to include it as a binding norm into its
bilateralagreementswithSlovakiaandRomania.As Article11 gaveriseto adebate oninternational level, thelegalandhuman rights commission of the Parliamentary Assembly of the CoE asked the Venice Commission (the European Commission for Democracy through Law) to elaborate the interpretation of the article. The commission recorded its standpoint at its meeting held on 12 March 1996. The interpretation gives as examples for the special status the special statuses found in Italy and Spain,
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included therein have not become binding provisions of law, but retained their recommendation character. Both the Basic Treaties between Hungary and Slovakia and between Hungary and Romania contain reference to Recommendation 1201, but the complementary declarations made it clear that the referencedoesnotincludetherighttothespecialstatusofethnicallybasedterritorialautonomy. As the examples above show, in the early nineties the European organisations did not only treat the system of WesternEuropean autonomies as a model to be followed, but even made attempts to include these among minority protection norms. Still it seems that this strategy did not live up to the expectations. There seems to be no evidence that the popularisation or the inclusion into minority protection norms of the autonomy as a model to follow, would have brought special results in the postcommunist area. The whole issue of autonomy remained a taboo in postcommunist states, being generally dismissed by their top political leadership as an aberration, as something that is inadmissible inanormalstate. Exceptions can only be found where certain minorities succeeded to achieve autonomy, or perhaps partial independence by explicitly anticonstitutional means. In such cases the respective states unwillingly accepted to negotiate about federalism or autonomy, as this represented their only way to keep the territories controlled by the minorities, i.e. to maintain their territorial integrity. Georgia for instance, after losing control over the seceder regions of Abkhazia and Southern Ossetia, promptly started to show great interest toward federalism. The Government of the Republic of Moldova, after losing its control over Transnistria, came up with several plans and proposals for federalisation. Azerbaijan, after losing control over Armenianinhabited NagornoKarabakh, offered autonomy for the lostterritory. European minority protection norms and standards: the international minority protection documents The other strategy followed by the European organisations also preoccupied with minority protection, was to formulate certain explicit legal or quasilegal norms, placed in front of Eastern European states as tasks to be accomplished by them. The most important one among these was obviously the already mentioned decision of the European Union to include minority protection among the accession criteria. By that minority protection ceased to remain merely an internal political affairofEasternEuropeanstates,anditbecameanintegrativepartoftheEuropeanunificationprocess. The contents of the European Union minority protection norms however are difficult to identify. In addition to that we will see that even the European organisations themselves are far from a consensus withrespecttominorityrights.
adding that the enforcement of similar solutions cannot exclude the application of personal autonomy. The interpretation considersthatasaminimumrequirement,yetthespecialstatuscanoffermuchmorethanthat.Inregionalmattersitcanvestthe region where the respective minority forms a majority with legislative and executive power, thus creating a system that even permitsthepartialfederalisationofthestate.
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The best known European minority protection documents are the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages and the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities the list is obviouslyfarfrombeingcomplete. The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages was adopted by the Council of Europe on 24 June 1992, and opened for signature on 2 October 1992. It was ratified by the Parliament of Romania in the fall of 2007. The Charter defines regional or minority languages, and stipulates that the geographical area of each regional or minority language must be respected to ensure that existing or new administrative divisions do not constitute an obstacle to the promotion of the regional or minority languageinquestion. 9 (Article7,1.b.)Itdetailsthemeasurestopromotetheuseofminoritylanguages in education (Article 8), in the administration of justice (Article 9), in public administration (Article 10), inthemedia(Article11),incultural(Article12),aswellaseconomicandsociallife(Article13). 10 The stipulations of the Charter however are not always unambiguous, providing possibilities of choice for the subscribing states. Still, it establishes that the choice of the measures to be taken in compliance with the situation of the language, and the control of their implementation be done by permitting the communities that are using the respective language to express their views. (This negotiationwiththerepresentativesofminoritiesisgoingoninRomaniainthespringof2008.) TheFrameworkConventionfortheProtectionofNationalMinoritiesoftheCouncilofEuropewasadoptedby theCommitteeofMinistersoftheCoEon10November1994,andopeneditforsignaturebeginningwith January 1995. In addition to the member states of the CoE, the convention can be signed by any other state that is part of the OSCE process. Its primary significance consists in the fact that it is the first comprehensive minority protection document of the CoE, which differs from former political declarations and recommendations, being legally binding. It does not include the definition of minorities. As it was impossible to reach to a consensus with respect to the definition of national minorities, the committee of experts decided to take a pragmatic approach, which lays down legal principles of an individual and universal character. Therefore a definition was not necessary. The subject of protection nonethelessisthenationalminority,andtheconventionmentionsreligion,language,traditions,cultural heritageasbeingcharacteristicforminorityidentity.ItsPreamblestatesthattheupheavalsofEuropean history have shown thatthe protection of national minorities is essentialto stability, democratic security and peace in this continent. 11 The protection of national minorities and of persons belonging to minorities forms an integral part of the international protection of human rights, falling within the scope of internationalcooperation.(SectionI.Article1.) According to the explanatory report attached to it, the Convention is strictly based on the principle of individual rights, yet paragraph 2 stipulates that the rights and freedoms flowing from the principles enshrined in the Framework Convention can be exercised individually as well as in community with others.
Fbintvs,vol.II,p.8485. Same,p.8694. Same,p.99.
10 11
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Consequently, it recognises the possibility of exercising rights and freedoms in common, which accordingtotheexplanatoryreportisdifferentfromthenotionofcollectiverights. 12 On the other hand, the framework Convention is the first one to set up a certain control mechanism. The implementation by the contracting parties will be monitored by the Committee of Ministers of the CoE, while the parties are obliged to transmit to the Secretary General full information on the implementation of the undertakings within a period of one year following the entry into force of the Convention,andonaperiodicalbasisafterthat. In addition, it can be said about the above OSCEdocuments, including the one adopted in Copenhagen, that these are recommendations. Yet, as the EU refers to them in its common foreign and securitypolicy,theycanbeconsideredbindingintheEUmemberstates.Minorityprotectiondocuments elaborated by the CoE differ from those elaborated by the CSCE/OSCE, in that they are international legal treaties, which become legally binding once the member states ratify them. They have become legally significant for the EU also because they were included in the legal system of The Charter of Fundamental Rights, based on which the complaints of individuals reach the European Commission of HumanRightsandtheEuropeanCourtofJustice. 13 It remains their imperfection that they fail to define the notion of national minorities, and make no reference on collective rights, without which it remains difficult to effectively protect the cultural identityofnationalminorities. 14
The Convention includes first and foremost programmatic stipulations and objectives that the participating states must strive to achieve. The implementation of the statutory laws or legal principles formulated in the document are only rarely ensured by the states, they more frequently just undertake to promote or guarantee them, or shall refrain from policies or practices (aimed at assimilation, for instance), which are aimed at restricting the rights of the persons belonging to national minorities. The text often includes formulations like as far as possible, where adequate, where necessary. The document by its character (and also according to the interpretation provided by the explanatory report) provides a wide sphere of action for the states. The legal principlesaretobeenforcedbythestates,inlightofthespecificcircumstances.
12 13
Sndor Vogel: Az Eurpai Uni s a nemzeti kisebbsgek (The European Union and the National Minorities), in: European MinorityProtectionTransylvanianminoritypolicies,ProPrintKnyvkiad,Cskszereda,2001,p.5086,p.76.
14Thefactthattheelaborationofanotionofnationalminoritythatisoperationalfromalegalpointofviewisnotaneasytask
is also well shown by the Report prepared on 28 July 1993 by the committee of experts on the protection of national minorities of the Council of Europe. The committee of experts tried to define the term of national minorities as follows: the size of the group is smaller than the rest of the population of the state; its members reside on the territory of the state and/or are citizens thereof, and maintain longstanding, firm and lasting ties with that state; display common ethnic, cultural, religious or linguistic characteristics, differing from those of the rest of the population; express their wish to be recognised as a minority. Experts disagree whether newly immigrated guestworkers and refugees should or not be considered minorities. There is no consensus about that and the definition herein above was only put on paper for practical considerations. Most experts agreed that a preconditionforalegallybindinginstrumentshouldbethedefinitionofnationalminoritiesacceptedasalegalentity,inspiteof therecentopinionthattheelaborationofadefinitionisnotanecessaryprerequisiteforlegalcodification.Theresituationiseven worse in connection with the debate about the definition of collective rights. A part of the experts opine that the notion of collective rights is connected by meaning to the notion of minorities. Collective rights must be due to national minorities as a legal entity. In the absence of a definition of national minorities, collective rights cannot be defined either. Other experts even question whether collective rights can be connected to human rights at all. As a consequence the committee decided to take the definitionofthenotionofcollectiverightsofftheagendaaltogether.
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On the other hand it can be observed that the mentioned international documents, although mostly designate national minorities, or more precisely the persons belonging to national minorities as the subjects of minority rights, are remarkably silent with only the few exceptions discussed earlier with regard to the right to selfdetermination and the status of autonomy. Albeit it is a wellknown fact that national minorities usually do not only demand the unrestricted use of their mother tongues, but also formulate requests for autonomy: they would like to govern themselves, they would like that the economic and financial conditions for selfgovernance existed, and they would be keen to publicly celebratetheirownlanguages,historyandculture,inthepublicsphereandinpublicinstitutions.Yetthe Framework Convention of the CoE provides no guiding to how these claims should be formulated in termsoflegalrightsbyminorities. Consequently, we can say that the rights offered by the Framework Convention cover the real demands of minorities only partially, and these rights generally fail to help us with the solution of exactlytheveryproblemsthesenormsandrightshavebeendesignedfor.Onemustnotforgettheinitial purpose for which the European system of norms for minority protection was created, i.e. for the European community to tackle with violent ethnic conflicts in postcommunist Eastern Europe: in Kosovo, Bosnia, Croatia, Macedonia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Moldova, Chechnya. And it is quite obvious that none of these conflicts disrupted because individuals wanted to have the right to freely cultivate their cultural identity together with other individuals. Not the prejudice to that right are at the roots of theseconflicts,consequentlytherespectoftheserightswillnotsolvetheconflicteither. 15 Moreover, if we examine the outcome of these conflicts (where that can be done at all), we discover that their dismantling is by no means due to the consequent enforcement of European norms but rather theresultofacasebycaseinternationalmilitaryordiplomaticintervention. Obviously not everywhere in Eastern Europe bloody ethnic conflicts erupted, therefore military intervention was not necessary everywhere, yet where the possibility of such a conflict was there, the European organisations generally took an active, mediatory role in the completion of negotiations between the parties. Thus they had a crucial role for instance in achieving the Ohrid Framework Agreement in Macedonia, and the Dayton Agreement in Bosnia. In both cases the agreements ensured significant minority rights for the minorities, exceeding by far the rights ensured by international minority protection documents, such as the Framework Convention. 16 It is no surprise therefore that Europeanorganisationshavebeenaccusedbymanyofarbitrariness,lackofprinciplesandinconsistency afterthat. Conclusions The fact that European organisations did not base their actions on the principles laid down in their own minority protection documents during their case by case military or diplomatic interventions does notmeanthattheseinterventionslackedproperconsideration,yetthesewerenotbasedonthevaluesof
15 16
WillKymlicka:MulticulturalOdysseys:NavigatingtheNewInternationalPoliticsofDiversity(manuscript),p.147. Same,159.
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federalism and territorial autonomy, but were rather simple security policy considerations. 17 What we could see in fact during the nineties was that European organisations have always measured the situation of minorities with double standards,and this can also be observed in their monitoring activity: they followed in part whether these states met minority protection norms, but also watched whether they endangered regional peace and security, paying extra attention to the countries where minority problems could represent a potential source for conflict. The most important body of this double standardmonitoringhasbeentheHighCommissioneronNationalMinoritiesoftheOSCE. The shaping of the problem of national minorities as an international problem therefore was not only influencedbytheprinciplesofrightprotectionincludedininternationalminorityprotectiondocuments, but also by security policy viewpoints, and these usually outweighed the first ones by far, whenever decisions had to be taken about Western military or diplomatic intervention. And whenever Western organisations eventually intervened in the ethnic conflicts of the postcommunist area, they always exceeded by far the rights stipulated by the Framework Convention, recognising that these rights are helpfulonlytoaverysmalldegreewhentryingtosolveethnicconflicts.Interventionsalwaystookplace onconsiderationsofrealpolitik,andhadlittletodowiththeprinciplesofminorityrightsprotection. More than that, Western organisations approached the issue of territorial autonomy differently, and this different approach was rooted again in considerations of realpolitik and security policy. For instance, as we could see earlier, CSCE/OSCE in 1990 in Copenhagen had expressly recommended territorial autonomy, while later clearly denied the rights of Hungarians in Slovakia for autonomy. At the same time, the OSCE supported autonomy in other countries, such as Ukraine for example (the autonomy of Crimea), Moldova (the autonomy of Transnistria and of the autonomy of the Gagauz people), Georgia (the autonomy of Abkhazia and Southern Ossetia), Azerbaijan (the autonomy of NagornoKarabakh) and Serbia (the autonomy of Kosovo). The OSCE justified its support for autonomy in these countries stating that these cases had been exceptional and atypical. 18 In reality the only thing that made these cases exceptional was that the respective minorities had earlier acquired power in those regions, by specifically anticonstitutional means. If the concerning states had decided to deprive these minorities of their territorial autonomy, this would have inevitably led to regional instability, somethingtheOSCEwantedtoavoid.Thenagain,whereminoritiesresortedtopeacefulanddemocratic means to achieve autonomy, the OSCE resisted against their aspirations, reasoning that they seek to destabilisethesituationandcreatetensions. Conclusively,theattitudeofWesternorganisationstowardminorityproblemscanwitheventhemost ofindulgencebequalifiedasambiguous. 19 Whenintheearlyninetiesinternationalorganisationstriedto bring the problems of national minorities under international regulations and norms, they hoped that it wouldbepossibletoframetherelationshipsbetweenthestatesandtheirrespectiveminoritiesintosome sort of constructive cooperation. In view of this it is quite difficult to tell today, what messages the alternative minority protection strategies convey toward states and their minorities: the political mobilisation of minorities are at the same time encouraged and held back by the efforts of European
17 18 19
Same,160. Same,162. Same,164.
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organisations, they simultaneously propagate and dispute the values of Western federalism and autonomies,andthelegitimacyofspecialminorityrightsisdeclaredanddismissedconcurrently.
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DERRICK,Matthew
TheImplicationsofClimateChangefor RussianGeopoliticsintheArctic
In an article printed in the spring 2007 issue of the journal Geopolitics, the circumpolar North is presented as a region nurtured by broad postCold War sociospatial understandings of cooperation and inclusion in which a common Northernness not only erases lingering notions of EastWest cultural divisions but also supersedes traditional Cold Warera geopolitical gamesmanship among the sovereign states of the Arctic (Heininen & Nicol 2007, 134). Notably, in positioning the high North as a new globalised humanoriented security geopolitical discourse or model (141) thatprioritizes regional dialog, indigenous rights, and other postnationstate values, the authors only in passing acknowledge whatisperhapsthemosturgentproblemconfrontingtheregionasawhole:climatechange.Theauthors cannot claim ignorance. The Impacts of a Warming Arctic warned loudly in 2004 that observed and projected climate change in the Arctic is likely to accompany momentous social, economic, and political shifts(ACIA2004).No,theauthorswillfullydisregardthepotentialitiesofglobalwarmingintheirstudy ofthegeopoliticsinthecircumpolarNorth(133). The foregoing critique commences this paper for two reasons. First, there is the matter of timeliness. Only weeksafter theappearance of the abovediscussed article, the polar expedition Arktik2007 planted the Russian flag on the North Poles seabed, a feat made possible in no small part by global warming. Thissymbolicassertion ofsovereignterritoriality,characterizedintheBritainsTelegraphasthestarting 1 gun on the worlds last colonial scramble (Blomfield 2007), very clearly challenged the core of the authorsargumentofpostmodernregionalismtakingshapeintheArctic.Second,itprovidesillustration of the assertion that for the most part contemporary geopolitical studies lack a significant environmental dimension (Murphy & Hommel, forthcoming). If geographers and other social scientific observers, anxious to distance themselves from past associations with environmental determinism (see e.g. Agnew 2002), are loath to investigate the relationship between climate change and geopolitical maneuvering, their silence will be filled with less critical voices evoking scenarios of unavoidable state 2 basedclashofinterests. Theremainderofthispaperisdedicatedtoacorrection,howeverpartial,tothis
TheBBC characterized theact asinitiatinga gold rushin thehighnorth (Reynolds 2007),while theEconomistcalled thefar North an Arctic El Dorado (Economist 2007). Vanity Fair mixed its metaphors, invoking an Arctic oil rush, a new Great Game, and a Cold Rush (Shoumatoff 2008). The Russian newspaper Nezavizimaia Gazeta tabbed it a very Cold War (Terekhov2008).
1
The conflict paradigm prevails in the popular press, both Russophone and Anglophone. For example, an article appearing in Rossiiskaia Gazeta, titled Battle on the Ice Number Two (an allusion to the Russians thirteenthcentury victory over the Teutonic knights on Lake Peipus), envisions an arctic conflict between the US and Russia (Makarychev 2008). An article appearing in Foreign Affairs warns, Unless Washington leadstheway toward multilateral diplomaticsolution, theArcticcould descendintoarmedconflict(Borgerson2008).
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tendency, arguing that while Russias claims to a quickly melting Arctic undoubtedly are influenced by economic and strategic concerns, as is chorused in the popular press, questions of national identity also areimportantinshapingitsgeopoliticalpositioninthismostnortherly,thawingregion. Before addressing Russias geopolitical pretensions in the Arctic region, it is necessary to provide a brief overview of the actual and potential effects of global warming on the circumpolar North. Though climate change indeed is a global phenomenon, warming is particularly acute in the Arctic. First, while worldwide average surface temperatures have risen an estimated 0.6 C over the past century (IPCC 2001), Arctic temperatures have risen at twice that rate, in some parts as much as 34 C over the past 50 years (ACIA 2004). A second indicator is Arctic sea ice. Over the past three decades, the average annual extentoftheArcticicecaphasshrunkbyapproximately8percent,orabout1millionsquarekilometers an area six times bigger than California. This vanishing act is particularly pronounced in the summer, when the icecaps extent decreases by 1520 percent. The ice also has become thinner, with average thicknessfortheentire Arcticdropping1015percentinrecentdecades,decliningasmuchas40percent in some areas (ibid.). Borgerson paints the following picture: The decomposition of this ice means that the Arctic will become like the Baltic Sea, covered by only a thin layer of seasonal ice in the winter and therefore fully navigable yearround (2008). This vision of an icefree Arctic, according to German researchers, will be realized by the end of the century, while an American team predicts its arrival as earlyas2013(ibid.). Because Western scholars so far have left it to the popular media to investigate Russian geopolitics in a warming Arctic, a brief overview of their storyline also is in order. Climate change above all is read as acatalystofcompetition,andlikelyconflict,betweenRussiaandothernationstatesvyingtocontroland 3 exploit the Arctics vast reserves of natural resources. Indeed, the US Geological Survey estimates that about one quarter of the worlds undiscovered oil and gas reserves are located in the circumpolar North (citedinHargreaves2006).Becausemanyoftheseuntappedfieldslieoffshore,projectedglobalwarming 4 is expected to ease extraction. Moreover, climate change is anticipated to open the Northern Sea Route, stretching the length of Russias polar coast, to yearround shipping of increasingly heavier loads (Borgerson2008).Thus,Anglophonepopularmediaraisethespecterofadomineeringenergybehemoth, builtupinpartthankstomeltingpolarice,incontroloftheshortestshippinglanesbetweentheAtlantic and the Pacific, and carrying the potential to rearrange trading configurations. This anxiety is encapsulatedinrecentindepthjournalism:
If it starts tapping the Arctic deposits, Russia will be back as a superpower and may become the worlds dominant energy supplier. There would then be a Fifth Russian Empire, presided over by the increasingly autocraticPutin(Shoumatoff2008).
Whatcanonemakeofsuchprognostications?DoMoscowsmachinationsvisvisthemeltingArctic warrant such disquietude? First, it should be recognized that Russias current behavior in the circumpolar North was spelled out in the Maritime Doctrine, signed by Putin in 2001, which gave the Arctic special priority at least until 2020. The document declares that national policy in the high North will be defined by the riches of the exclusive economic zone and the continental shelf of the Russian
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Russia,Norway,Canada,Greenland(Denmark),andUSAallpostclaimstooffshoreoilandgasintheArctic. Boomingenergycostsalsofactorintothecalculusofextraction(Economist2007).
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FederationandtheincreasingimportanceoftheNorthernSeaRouteforthecontinualdevelopmentof theRussianFederation(MorskaiaDoktrina2001).Thoughnotmentionedinthedoctrineitself,quickly meltingiceandclimatechangehavebeenacknowledgedasfactorsinformingthepolicysdevelopment (Sorokina 2007a). Earlier this summer, Russias Ministry of Defense announced that it will significantly increaseitsnorthernmilitarypresencetosafeguardstateinterestsintheArctic(Rosbalt2008). To better understand a states geopolitical stance, it also is important to investigate relevant discoursesfoundinRussiasscientificcommunityandpopularmedia,who,likeinothercountries,aidin 5 constructingideologicaljustificationfornationalpolicy(seeReuberinMurphyetal.2004). Areadingof Russophone sources, at least at first glance, appears to confirm anxieties expressed in Western press. Following the success of Arktik2007, newspapers openly discussed and defended the geopolitical interests of Russia in the Arctic (Goncharenko 2007), some envisioning a war between Russia and Washington for energy resources in the melting Arctic Ocean (Sorokina 2007b). In this spirit of a renewed Great Game in the high North, Aleksandr Piliasov, representing the Ministry of Economic Development,offersthreereasonsforMoscowsheightenedinterestintheArctic.First,becausethereis no such thing as nobodys space, the northern offshore shelf is subject to an international rivalry to control territory; the race to stake claim the Arctic, it is implied, is part and parcel of the inherently competitive modern state system. Second, a justification based in pragmatic economics is put forth: [T]he Arctic shelf is humankinds final frontier, yet to be sufficiently exploited. It could become a long termsourceofenergy.Andthird,Piliasovinvokestheclimatefactor:
IhaveobservedthatinterestinexploitingtheArcticiscyclical.Ivewitnessedthisalreadyafewtimesinmy life. As a rule, [interest in the Arctic] coincides with periods of climate warming. As soon as climate conditions grace the expanses and spaces of the Arctic, the geopolitical question of how to stake a claim to those territoriesimmediatelybecomesstronger.Therefore,globalwarming,whichhasbeenespeciallypronounced thispastdecade,provokesgeopoliticalconflictsoverthiszone(quotedinLagranzh2008). 6
These expressions of realpolitik should not come as a surprise. Classicera geopolitics has experienced resurgenceamongcontemporaryopinionmakersinMoscow(Bassin&Aksenov2006;BassininMurphy et al. 2004). Such pronouncements, however, belie significant cooperation in the melting polar North. First, it must be recognized that Russia, having signed on to the UN Convention of the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), pursues its interests in the Arctic firmly within the bounds of international norms. According to the convention, states are granted an exclusive economic zone up to 200 miles from their
Tuathail contendsthat mediahelp tobuild the ideologicalpower thatsupportsthe irontriangle of military, economic and political power in Washington (2006, 11). This assertion can only be more accurate in contemporary Moscow, where televisionandpopularpressareincreasinglycontrolled,directlyorindirectly,bytheKremlin.
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Inthispassage,Piliasovstronglyimplies,incontradictiontoscientificconsensusintheWest,thatclimatechangeisnothuman induced. Since the Arktik2007 expedition, this conviction has been expressed regularly by Russian scientists in the countrys main newspapers, particularly the Kremlinassociated Rossiiskaia Gazeta (see, e.g., Anisimova 2007; Simonov 2008). A headline appearing in Izvestia, summarizing an interview with a professor at Moscows Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute, went so far as to declare, Global Warming in the Arctic is a Myth (Izvestia 2008). In fact, the party line in Russia is that climate is actually cooling. Denying global warming is intended to naturalize Moscows pretensions to the Arctic. Shoumatoff (2008) summarizes a US scholars explanation: Russian climate science is based on paleoclimatic reconstruction and is hierarchical. You adopt the position of the head of your institute, and the Russian Academy of Sciences chief climatologist, Yuri Izrael, maintains that its getting colder and the human contribution is negligible. Western climate science, however, is based on modelingwhatishappeningnowandwhereitsgoing,andisconfrontational.
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shores, and may claim an extension if they can prove that areas in question are outgrowths of their continental shelf (Kraska 2007). This is a fundamental shift away from the sectoral principle, established, and reified by Soviet cartographers until the 1990s, when Stalin inscribed lines on a map running from the USSRs farthest northeastern and northwestern reaches directly to the North Pole. Thus, top Russian politicians cultivate a lawbased civilized discourse in 1) attempting to prove that Russias continental shelf extends to the North Pole and 2) justifying their countrys right to exclusive 7 controlovertheNorthernSeaRoute(seeRG2007b;2008). Cooperation in the legal sphere prepares the groundwork for economic and security partnership, which will increase in importance as the mercury rises in the Arctic. Steps already have been taken in this direction. Though some have predicted unavoidable collisions of interests between Norway and Russia (Tsyganok 2008) over competing claims in the Barents Sea , statecontrolled companies representing the two countries have agreed to work together to develop the Shtokman gas field (Crooks 2007). Russia, lacking both sufficient finances and technology, recognizes that similar arrangements will be necessary as additional fields open up beneath the melting icecap (Zernova 2005). Also, as climate change thaws permafrost zones, Russia will need help in mooring its northern railways, roads, and pipelines servicing its landbased oil and gas fields (Gtz 2007). Additionally, the human factor must be addressed. Of the more than 4 million people living in the Arctic region, many of whom are indigenous peoples, more than threequarters are Russian citizens (ACIA 2004; Young 1992). Climate change will flood coastal settlements, shift vegetation patterns, alter economic relations, and thereby rearrange traditional lifestyles in the Arctic. Russia, along with the other states of the circumpolar north, must worktogethertowardlesseningtheimpactsonthesepopulations. Absent in Western press has been a consideration of nonmaterial factors influencing Russias geopolitical stance visvis the warming Arctic region. However, there is a palpable sense in Moscow based media that the Arctic could give Russia a chance for not only economic but also national revival (Zernova 2005, emphasis added). The resurgence in Slavic pride was especially evident when Artur Chilingarov, leader of the Arktik2007 expedition and Duma parliamentarian, publicly responded to Canadiancriticismcomparingtheflagplantingstunttosixteenthcenturycolonialism:
Russiahasalwaysextendedtothenorth.TheArcticisournativeland,alwayswasandwillremainRussian. We planted the flag on the oceans floor, where no other person has ever been. I dont give a damn what foreignershavetosay(quotedinRG2007a).
Russian national identity, as illustrated in Chilingarovs defiance, indeed is intertwined with the geography and history of the Arctic. More than 40 percent of the circumpolar Norths land and nearly half of its coastline are Russian (Young 1992). Canada, of course, rivals Russia in this basic geography,
Two asides are relevant here. First, Moscow first presented its claims to extensive rights in the Arctic in 2001. Though these claims ultimately were rejected by the UN, Russia submitted detailed maps of the polar seabed which theretofore had been considered top secret. This handing over of cartographic materials, as discussed in a recent article appearing in Russias equivalent to Foreign Affairs, was unprecedented, tantamount to declassification, and represented a positive step in opening Russia to future military and economic cooperation in the circumpolar North (Golotiuk 2008). Second, it is Washington, not Moscow, which so far has been unwilling to recognize international law in the Arctic. Citing concerns for sovereignty, the US Senate has avoided signing the UNCLOS pact. This helps explain longstanding disagreement between the two capitals over RussiasexclusiverighttocontroltheNorthernSeaRoute(seeBrubaker2001;Brubaker&streng1999).
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but the Arctic for centuries has occupied a fundamentally different place in the Russian psyche. For example,thefollowingfamousquotebyStepanMakarov,thenineteenthcenturyadmiraloftheRussian Imperial Navy, has become increasingly repeated in Moscow today: Russia is a building whose faade faces the Arctic Ocean. Canadians, on the other hand, see their high North as an exotic frontier, sparsely populated by traditional peoples living ancient lifestyles, and outside the mainstream of Canadian life (Heininen & Nicol 2007, 147). Russians, however, have assimilated significant swaths of the North for human inhabitation, building large cities, such as Murmansk and Archangel, within or near the Arctic Circle. As discussed by Griffiths, Russians identify with the Arctic in ways that predispose them to act vigorously and to produce great effects there (1991, 84). Global warming likely willexaggeratethispredisposition. References ACIA(ArcticClimateImpactAssessment).2004.TheImpactsofaWarmingArctic.Cambridge:Cambridge UniversityPress Agnew,J.2002.MakingPoliticalGeography.London:Arnold Anisimova, A. 2007. Meniaiuschaiasia Arktika. Rossiiskaia Gazeta. 10 October: www.rg.ru/2007/10/10/regpomorskij/arctic.html Bassin M., and Aksenov K.E. 2006. Mackinder and the Heartland Theory in PostSoviet Geopolitical Discourse.Geopolitics.11(1):99118 Blomfield, A. 2007. Russia Claims North Pole with Arctic Flag Stunt. Telegraph. 3 August: www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1559165/Russia-claims-North-Pole-with-Arctic-flag-stunt.html Borgerson, S. 2008. Arctic Meltdown. Foreign Affairs. www.foreignaffairs.org/20080301faessay87206/scott-g-borgerson/arctic-meltdown.html March/April:
Brubaker,R.2001.StraitsintheRussianArctic.OceanDevelopment&InternationalLaw.32:26387. and W. streng. 1999. The Northern Sea Route Regime: Exquisite Superpower Subterfuge. Ocean Development&InternationalLaw.30:29931 Crooks, E. 2007. StatoilHydro Begins Arctic Drilling. Financial Times. 25 November: www.ft.com/cms/s/ef1515b0-9b8e-11dc-8aad0000779fd2ac,Authorised=false.html?_i_location=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcms%2Fs%2F0%2Fef151 5b0-9b8e-11dc-8aad-0000779fd2ac.html%3Fnclick_check%3D1&_i_referer=&nclick_check=1 Economist.2007.DrawingLinesinMeltingIce.Economist.384(8542):512 Gtz, R. 2007. Russia and Global Warming Implications for the Energy Industry. Russian Analytical Digest.23:1114 Golotiuk, Yu. 2008. Na Strazhe Belogo Bezmolviia. Rossiia v Globalnoi Politike. 15 June: www.globalaffairs.ru/numbers/32/9779.html Goncharenko, A. 2007. Geopoliticheskie Interesy Rossii v Arktike. Noopolis. 16 August: www.noopolis.ru/articles/2036.shtml
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Griffiths, F. 1991. The Arctic in the Russian Identity. In L. Brigham, ed., The Soviet Maritime Arctic. Annapolis:NavalInstitutePress Hargreaves, S. 2006. The Arctic: Oils Last Frontier. CNNMoney.com. www.money.cnn.com/2006/09/27/news/economy/arctic_drilling/index.htm 25 October:
Heininen, L. and H. Nicol. 2007. The Importance of Northern Dimension Foreign Policies in the GeopoliticsoftheCircumpolarNorth.Geopolitics.12(133):13365 IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2001. Summary for Policymakers: Climate Change 2001:Impacts,Adaptation,andVulnerability.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress Izvestia.2008.GlobalnoePotepenievArktikeMif.Izvestia.10April:www.izvestia.ru/news/news170255 Kraska,J.2007.TheLawoftheSeaConventionandtheNorthwestPassage.InternationalJournalofMarine andCoastalLaw.22(2):25782 Lagranzh, I. 2008. Osvoenie Arkticheskogo Shelfa: Ekonomicheskie Vygody ii Ekologicheskie Posledstviia (Interview with Aleksandr Piliasov). Russskaia Sluzhba Novostei. 27 May: www.rusnovosti.ru/program_reports/103699/ Makarychev, M. 2008. Ledovyi www.rg.ru/2008/05/20/arktika.html Boi Nomer Dva. Rossiiskaia Gazeta. 10 May:
Morskaia Doktrina. 2001. Morskaia Doktrina Rossiiskaia Federatsii na Period 2020. 27 June: www.lawrussia.ru/texts/legal_655/doc655a197x909.htm Murphy, A., M. Bassin, D. Newman, P. Reuber, and J. Agnew. 2004. Is There a Politics to Geopolitics? ProgressinHumanGeography.28(5):61940 Murphy, A. and D. Hommel. Forthcoming. The Geopolitical Implications of Environmental Change. Projections.1(1) Tuathail. 2006. General Introduction: Thinking Critically about Geopolitics. In Tuathail, G, S. Dalby, andP.Routledge(eds.),TheGeopoliticsReader(2nded.).London:Routledge. Reynolds, P. 2007. Russia Ahead in Arctic http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/6925853.stm Gold Rush. BBC News. 1 August:
RG (Rossiiskaia Gazeta). 2007a. Uchastnikov Ekspiditsii Arktika2007 Vstrechali kak Natsionalnykh Geroev.RossiiskaiaGazeta.7August:www.rg.ru/2007/08/07/arktika-chilingarov-anons.html RG (Rossiiskaia Gazeta). 2007b. Viktor Zubkov Prizval Kanadu Byt Partnerom Rossii v Rabotakh po OsvoeniiuArktiki.RossiiskaiaGazeta.30November:www.rg.ru/2007/11/30/arktika-zubkov-anons.html RG (Rossiiskaia Gazeta). 2008. V Grenlandskom Zapoliarnom Gorodke Ilulissate Proshla Dvukhdnevnia VstrechaMinistrovInnostrannykhDelPiatiPriarkticheskikhStranDanii,Kanady,Norvegii,Rossiii SShA.RossiiskaiaGazeta.30May:www.rg.ru/2008/05/30/lavrov-arktika-anons.html Rosbalt. 2008. Minoborony RF Gotovit Arkticheskii Spetsnaz. Rosbalt Informatsionnoe Agentsvto. 11 June: www.rosbaltnord.ru/2008/06/11/493412.html
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Shoumatoff, A. 2008. The Arctic Gold www.vanityfair.com/politics/features/2008/05/arctic_oil200805 Rush. Vanity Fair. May:
Simonov,A.2008.NaSeverPogretsia.RossiiskaiaGazeta.4September:www.rg.ru/2008/04/09/arktika.html Sorokina,N.2007a.OpasnaiaArktika.RossiiskaiaGazeta.27July:www.rg.ru/2007/07/27/arktika.html Sorokina,N.2007b.BitvazaArktiku.RossiiskaiaGazeta.2August:www.rg.ru/2007/08/02/arktika.html Terekhov, A. 2008. Ochen Kholodnaia Voina za Energoresursy. Nezavisimaia Gazeta. 11 March: www.ng.ru/world/2008-03-11/1_coldwar.html Tsyganok, A. 2008. Bitva za www.cmolenckb.novoya.com/art/95.html Arktiku. Nezavisimaiia Gazeta. 27 February:
Young,O.1992.ArcticPolitics:ConflictandCooperationintheCircumpolarNorth.Hanover:UniversityPress ofNewEngland Zernova, Lina. 2005. Prirastet lil Rossiia Arktikoi? Ekologiia www.bellona.ru/russian_import_area/international/ecopravo/40667 i Pravo. 8 November:
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MAHAPATRA,DebidattaAurobinda IndiasCentralAsianConnections
Abstract India in the emerging postcold war setting has steered an active policy in developing relations with CentralAsiancountries.ThepaperarguesIndiawhilekeepinginmindemerginginternationalequations hasendeavouredtousethepastcapitalintermsofsocioculturallinkagestoboostrelationswithCentral Asian countries. The Silk Route that has proliferated through northern region of Indian subcontinent, cultural elements of Sufism and Buddhism, the Aryan connections are some the factors that have motivated Indian leadership to develop a Central Asian strategy. Indias potentials, its secular ethos, democratic institutions, traditional and cultural links, its emergence as a regional power, have necessitated such an active policy. The paper while focusing on Indias diverse links with Central Asia would factor in the analysis the Indian approach in engaging the countries of the region to suit its emergingaspirationsandneeds. Keywords:India,CentralAsia,SilkRoute,Aryan,Kashmir,Energy The long historical and cultural links of India and its postcold war geostrategic and economic interests in Central Asia necessitate a meticulous analysis. In the postcold war postSoviet space, the emergence of the region as a hot bed of competing politics has affected its evolution as an independent area of analysis and its transition from a closed to an open system. The nations of Central Asia, nascent intheiremergenceandstatebuildingefforts,haveneverreceivedsuchinternationalattentionasofnow. HugecapitalhavebeeninvestedtoreshapeandwidenthediscourseonCentralAsia,andwiththeactive arrival of China, the politics of the region has been getting much sharper and focussed. Not that India hasnotfocussedonthisareainitscharacteristicfashionbut itseemsslowfromalongtermperspective. Indias huge potentials, its secular ethos, democratic institutions, traditional and cultural links, its emergence as a regional power, have not surfaced in the discourse involving Central Asia. This article basedonfieldsurveysconductedinIndiansideofKashmirinApril2006andMay2007focusesnotonly on the diverse Indian links with the region but also the urgency to engage the countries of the region to suit emerging aspirations and needs of India, keeping in mind the emerging international equations whichdemandaproactive,calculatedandcalibratedapproachtowardsthecountriesoftheregion.
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CulturalConnections India and Central Asia have shared long and embedded cultural relations since centuries. In ancient period, the Indian empire (to be exact then Magadh Empire) touched the curves of Central Asia. The modern Afghanistan was called then Gandhara, when the emperor Ashoka spearheaded his empire to this region. Besides the Indian empire, the invasions of India from Central Asian rulers too made the cultural exchange possible. In fact, the Moghul dynasty in India, which saw the cultural and architectural zenith of India, was of Central Asian origin. The first Moghul emperor of India, Babur was a great grandson of Timur and belonged to Andijan (made popular after the Andijan crisis of 2005) in FerghanavalleyinUzbekistan.Similarly,theMahmudofGhazniinvadedIndiaseventeentimes,andthe invasionofotherssuchasMohammadGhauriandAhmedShahAbdali,thoughspreadacrosscenturies, impactedtheculturalmixoftheIndiansubcontinent.Similarly,theuseofhorsesinwars,anduseofgun powdersseemtohavetravelledtoIndiafromCentralAsia. When territorial formation in the form of nationstate was not much prominent till the modern era, especially till the treaty of Westphalia in 1648, the whole Indian subcontinent had a kind of natural affinity and cultural similarity with Central Asia. The relations date back to centuries as the traditional trade and transport routes such as the silk route corroborate. Writers like Scott Levi (2002) and Stephen Dale (2004) have made extensive studies on cultural contacts between Central Asia and South Asia and on the Indian diaspora in Central Asia respectively. Persian writers like Al Beruni and Firdausi, and great Chinese scholars like Fahien and Huen Tsang have testified to the great cultural climate that permeated through both sides of the Himalayas. In fact the great Sanskrit scholar, credited with the authorship of Sanskrit grammar, Panini had his birthplace in present day of Kabul. (Sen 2005, p. 85) Probably, the rich cultural and linguistic flourishing of the Indian subcontinent and Sanskrit epics could nothavebeenpossiblewithoutIndiasCentralAsianconnection. BesidestheSanskritfactor,theAryanraceidentityhasbroughtakindofaffinityofallthecountriesin the region. The origin of Aryans, though a much controversial topic, in WestCentral Asia, and their probablecomingdowntosouthhasgainedgroundinrecentyears.Theauthorsstudyoftwovillagesin Batalik sector of Kargil district in Kashmir brings many interesting revelations in this context. These villagesonthebankofIndusRiverneartheIndoPakborderhaveretainedtheAryanraceidentity.The physicalfeatureofthepeopleinhabitinginthesevillagesarequitedifferentfromtheotherinhabitantsof theregion.WhilethepeopleofthesetwovillagesGarkoneandDarchikaretaller,fairer,withhighcheek bonesandalmondshapedeyeswhichcanbecomparedwiththefeaturesofthepeopleofnorthernIndia, the other people of surrounding regions possess Mongoloid features similar to that of Tibetans. Interactionswiththemrevealedtheyhavenorecordedhistorybutthesamepassedfromonegeneration to another verbally since centuries. These people are believed, and interactions with them revealed, to have migrated from north to south on the banks of the Indus River. In this connection the declaration of the year 2006 as the Year of Arrival of Aryan Civilization by Tajikistan assumes enough significance. This racial connection, though yet to be studied in detail, provides a kind of mirror to the probable connection of race the people of the Central Asian states have with the people of the Indian subcontinent.
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TheSilkRoute Besides the factor of race, religion, culture, the traditional trade through the famed Silk Route is no marginal in IndiaCentral Asian relations. The recent years have witnessed serious research on the Silk Route, which remained neglected for a long time. The Silk Route extends from the Mediterranean Sea to China, passing through the vast landmass of Central Asia, Iran, Pakistan and India. It links Europe to Asia and passes through Kashmir, Kasgar, Samarkand, Yarkand, Bokhara, Tehran, Baghdad, Hamadan and Jerusalem. After passing through China, India and Central Asia, the route approached the eastern Caspian Sea after straddling Uzboy River, now part of Turkmenistan. From the territory of Azerbaijan on the western side of the Caspian, two branches of the road emerged. One of them headed west along Kur River till it reached the Georgian Black Sea coast. Another led north along the western Caspian coastline, and entered Caucasia through the gates of Derbent. It terminated at the Greek city colonies around the Black Sea. Besides trade, it has witnessed the traverse of various religions such as Buddhism and Islam and affected social and cultural milieu in the whole Central Asian region. Buddhism came to KashmirthroughtheSilkRouteandsodidSufiIslam.(NerveNewsofIndia2007) India has connection to this route, which starts from Kashmir then towards Gilgit, then passing to Central Asia. There are evidences between 12th and 3rd century B.C., nomadic and seminomadic Saka tribes reached India from Southern Kazakhstan through the Silk Route. (Umarov 2007) Cooperation between the peoples resulted in deeprooted linkages, which even today are evident in similarities in food, language, dress and culture. The Munshi Aziz Bhat museum in Kargil stands witness to the Silk Route trade between India and Central Asia. Bhat, a native of Kashmir and a late leader and minister in Kashmir government, was an avid collector of Silk Route trade artefacts. The museum, situated in the Kargil town is a rich storehouse of silk route trade. On display are, among others, shoes, caps and headgears, machetes, guns, overcoats, utensils, cottons, which Bhat collected from different sources. The SilkRouteplayedaseminalroleintransportingnotonlycommoditiesfortrade,butalsoknowledgeand ideas. The authors study of the Silk Route in Indian side shows that it is still a viable route for trade between India and other Silk Route countries. (Mahapatra 2006) One of the branches of Silk Route is KargilSkarduroad.ThevisitfromSrinagar,thecapitalofKashmirtoKargilis205kms,butbefore6km fromKargiltownonehastoturnnorthbycrossingtheSingoRiver(nowadaysduetotheborderconflict between India and Pakistan this route is closed for public) then alongside the bank of Singo one can travel about 6 kms to the last post of Indian army, an indication of end of Indian side of Kashmir. Though the movement of human being is restricted onwards, the route however moves towards Skardu intheGilgitBaltistanregion(called NorthernAreasbyPakistan)ofundividedKashmirthatiscurrently under the control of Pakistan. From the last post of the Indian army the nearest town of GilgitBaltistan, Skardu is about 169 kms. The interesting fact is that despite long years of negligence and nonuse, the routeisstillintact,andwithminorexpenditureandrepairtheroutecangetreadyforIndiaCentralAsia trade through the GilgitBaltistan. The likely opening of the route not only would boost trade, but also open possibilities of reviving old ties, both cultural and social, and also opening up the prospects of buildingpeaceintheregionandtacklingthemenaceofterrorismanddrugtrafficking. After the partition of the Indian subcontinent, the KargilSkardu route has been closed. The route came to light recently due to peace process in which both India and Pakistan agreed to open border
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routes as parts of confidence building measures. However, this route has not been opened so far. Overwhelmingly the people of the Ladakh region want this part of the Silk Route from Kargil to Skardu to open. This is the impression one gets after meeting the people of the Kargil region, especially the people from the border villages of Hunderman, Badgam, Latoo and Kaksar (all in Kargil district of Indian side of Kashmir), the leaders of prominent Islamic schools in Kargil such as Islamia School and AyotollahKhoeminiMemorialTrustandthecivilsocietyleaders. The crucial importance of the KargilSkardu route can be gauged from the following points. First, the utility of the road lies in its durability in winter months. During winter the whole Ladakh region becomes cut off from the main India land due to heavy snowfall on the SrinagarLeh national highway. The Zojila pass that connects Ladakh to Srinagar remains intractable for about seven months (October April). The KargilSkardu route that lies in cold but arid region of Kargil remains in pliable conditions evenintheseharshmonths.Thelocalpeoplearguetoopenthisrouteasitcanbeusedinwintertogoto SkarduandotherareasinGilgitBaltistanforallnecessarypurposes.Theroutecanalsobeusedfortrade across the divide. The local people expressed the firm belief that opening of the route would accrue economic benefits to governments and local businesspersons. From GilgitBaltistan, apricot, raisin, and fruitshavingmedicinalvaluecanbebrought,whilefromKargilsugar,tea,garmentsandvegetablescan be sent to the other side. Tourist resorts and stalls can be made on the roadside in which local products can be displayed. This would not only provide employment to local people but also bring economic developmenttotheregion.Unfortunately,someoftheapricotfieldslyingonthesilkrouteontheLineof Control between India and Pakistan have gradually become barren, ostensibly due to planting of mines, noncultivation as well as negligence due to fear of war and military intervention. The artificial border has, therefore, not only kept people in a suffocated atmosphere but also hampered their economic growth. As the route is clearly demarcated, the reconstruction of the route may not incur heavy expenditureonpartofthegovernments. Another branch of the Silk Route in Kashmir can be traced to Nubra valley in the Ladakh region that extends towards Tibet. Evidences show, besides the KargilSkardu route, caravans travelling between Central Asia and Tibet were stopping in Nubra valley to take rest before confronting the Karakoram passes towards Central Asia. The Nubra valley provided medicinal hot water spring and rich and fresh supplies of food. On this route in the valley one can still see twohumped camels originally reportedly brought from Kazakhstan. Indias links through this route to Tibet is of multiple significances. Besides trade, this route provided the shortest road connection to the Hindu religious site of Mount Kailash and Lake Mansarovar situated in Tibet. Due to closure of this route, the pilgrims have to take a long detour throughtheIndianstateofUttaranchal,whichishighlypronetolandslides,causingdeathtopilgrims. The opening of both these branches of Silk Route KargilSkardu and NubraTibet can provide an opportunity for India to commence trade with Central Asian republics as well as China. Besides, the route that has extended up to Europe in the west and up to Japan in the east enhances the scope for international trade. The revival of this route may lead to formation of a regional Silk Route economic cooperation organization, which can, besides reviving traditional trade, look at prospects of exploring energy resources and build pipelines from Central Asia, establish a separate independent communicationcorridorandfreetradearea.Theopeningofroutes,andconsequenttradeandpeopleto people interactions may likely reduce tensions between China, India and Pakistan, and work as a
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bulwark for peace and stability in Asia. This revived route that spread to the whole Asian continent can be used to check terrorist activities and drug trafficking in the region. For this purpose, the creation of a Silk Route security force or likely joint mechanisms in future cannot be ruled out. The routes potentials for tourism, local and regional trade, corridor for peace and stability provide reasons to develop this route. In the emerging international order, when economic interests are considered supreme, the countries on the route can be engaged in a collaborative framework. Indias global image of a rising and responsible power in Asia, with a vibrant democracy without any imperial ambitions, can help it to engage the countries on the route for democracy, economic integration and political stability in the region. Terrorism,DemocracyandEconomicReforms Though terrorism is a much talked about concept nowadays, it gained ground in 20th century and acquiredtheglobaldimensiononlyafterthe9/11.Terrorism,whenalignedwithreligion,andsupported by states, becomes most potent and dangerous weapon to destabilize countries. The Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan, the emergence of Taliban, and its spread to Central Asian states particularly to Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, which too have ethnic links with Afghanistan, have created the scope for alignment of India with Central Asian states to fight the menace. In the changing scenario, when the Taliban, which avowedly drew support from Indias Deobond School, and the other terrorist groups followthesameline,itisinterestingtoanalyzehowtherecentfatwaagainstterrorismproclaimedbythe Deobond would impact terrorism, particularly on its links with religious fundamentalism. (Mahapatra 2008) In this background, it must be kept in mind that though NATO forces have been stationed in Afghanistan ostensibly to fight terrorism, Taliban and its ilk are resurfacing with a bounden force in Afghanistan and Pakistan. The resurgence of Taliban has created concern not only in India but also at other places. Whether it is Kashmir, or in parts of Central Asia, such as Afghanistan, Xinjiang, or Pakistan, there needs to be a broad framework based on consensus with the participating countries to cooperate to fight the terror menace. Though India has talks with Central Asian states in this sphere, it needs to be broadened, not only at dialogue level such as at Conference on Interaction and Confidence Building Measures in Asia, but also at a structural level which includes India, the US, European Union, Russia,ChinaandallCentralAsiancountries. Besides cooperation in the field of terrorism, India too can cooperate with Central Asian states in the areas of democracy promotion, managing conflicts and building civil society. Though India emerged from the colonial rule with no developed economy, its journey in the last sixty years cannot be fully comprehended without admiring its achievements in democracy, and managing diversities in the vast landscape. Indias image as a responsible, democratic and friendly power needs to be utilized in the context of Central Asia. India, a rising power in 21st century cannot shed the burden of a responsible power,whichthroughitsdiplomacy,culturalcapital,aswellaseconomiccloutcanendearthecountries of Central Asia. India can extend its unique, soft diplomacy, to the region. Besides cooperating in evolving democratic system in the region in collaboration with other democratic powers, India can help thesecountriesfightdrugtraffickingandorganizedcrime.
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Other than Indian experience in democracy and secularism, Indias experience in economic reforms andgrowthcanhelptheCentralAsiancountriestocomeoutofsomeoftheproblemstheyconfront.The countries are still evolving, and energy rich among them such as Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan and TurkmenistanhavesufferedthepredicamentoftheDutchdisease.WiththecollapseoftheSovietUnion these countries emerged independent, around the same time India followed the policy of liberalization, privatization and globalization. Indias success story is a common knowledge. It is now the fifth largest economy in the world, and also one of the fast growing economies despite the hurdles created by the global financial crisis. Indian experience in managing economic crisis, managing publicprivate partnership, foreign exchange, infrastructure growth, and IT can help these countries usher in an era of sustainable development. Indias big companies can play an active role in investing in these countries. According to Martha Brill Olcott, all of Central Asian leaders are aware of the economic and geopolitical power that New Delhi would come to exercise as its economy continues to grow. (Olcott 2005,p.76) Besidesitshugeconsumermarket,energyresourcesofCentralAsiaaresomethingthatIndianeedsto explore to meet its growing energy needs. Indian pharmaceutical firms like the Ranbaxy, Ajanta etc. haveasignificantpresenceintheCentralAsianregionholdingnearly30percentofthemarket.Though Indian commodities such as tea, drugs, pharmaceuticals and fine chemicals have done well in the Central Asian market, other areas that need attention for cooperation are agriculture, information technology, banking, commercial farming, infrastructure building, etc. (Azhar 1999, p. 329) This newly emerging market no doubt poses challenges to Indian investors but the stakes are multifarious consideringthehugeconsumermarketaswelltraditionalroutes.Itcanbeaviableoptiontodevelopthe traditionalSilkRoutefortradewiththecountriesoftheregion,butforthispurpose,Indianeedstowork in a multilateral framework that may take time given the power politics in the region. However, India canexploreusingthealreadyexistingroutessuchasrouteoptionsthroughIranandTurkmenistan.This option can promote trade from Indian ports to Iranian port of Bandar Abbas and then to Central Asia. TheproposednorthsouthcorridorstretchingfromRussiatoIndiaviatheregioncanbeanotheroption for carrying trade. Though, there are several bottlenecks yet to be cleared before the corridor could become viable, this new corridor have the potential to boost Indian trade with the region extensively. Japan has expressed interest in southern route that links Central Asia through Afghanistan and Pakistan to sea. From trade point of view, the route can be connected from Karachi to India to boost regional trade and commerce. Indias rising interest in Central Asia is also linked to Afghanistan. Many Indian construction companies are involved in the process of reconstruction of the war torn state. The major projects include a roadway to Irans Chahbahar port and construction of the ZaranjDelaram road in southwestern Afghanistan that can provide India greater accessibility to the Central Asian region. India has successfully completed the 215 kms ZaranjDelaram road despite occasional attacks from the Talibanforces.TheIndianExternalAffairsMinister,PranabMukherjeehandedoverthiscompletedroad toAfghanistanon22January2009amidstcelebration. Hence, India can also play a significant role in the infrastructure development in the region. One of the important examples is the Indian participation in the building of Astana, the new capital of Kazakhstan. Building up of small industries and an entrepreneurial development centre by India in Astana are under way. Similarly, India can cooperate with Tajikistan in decontaminating and purifying
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water as it is an acute problem for the country. Tajikistan can also use Indian expertise in processing building material such as marble, granite and other stones, and in establishing semiconductor industry. Indias traditional links with Central Asian states is an assetfor India to boost links with the region. It is true, however, the current level of economic relations between the two is dismal and Indian leadership seemstohaveadoptedawaitandwatchpolicy,whichhasnotshownanysignofconstructiveapproach towards the region so far. Indian private capital seems to suffer from fear psychosis to invest in the region, as the markets in the are region are hitherto unexplored and there is not enough guarantee of securityofinvestmentasthesesocietiesaregovernedbytraditionalfeudalpatternofrulewithrampant corruption. The region too suffers from nondurable transport links, lack of banking facilities and a vibrantmarketculture. India is also a potential defence partner for the countries of the region. With majority of its military hardware and support equipment being of Soviet or Russian origin, there are opportunities to build jointly the military structures since most of the countries of this region too have the Russian defence equipments. India recently completed refurbishing the airbase at Ayni, Tajikistans capital. The airbase, shut since the late 1980s, would be in operation under a trilateral agreement between India, Russia and Tajikistan. India also plans to deploy Mi17 helicopters and Kiran trainer aircraft to train Tajik pilots in thenearfuture.OflateIndiahasalsoattemptedtoengagewiththeregionalorganizationsoftheCentral Asian region with an objective of expanding its area of influence. India along with these countries can play an important role in reshaping the international scenario. In an interview with Press Trust of India on 17 May 2007, Sanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) Secretary General Bolat Nurgaliev observed, AgainstthebackdropofwhathasbeenhappeninginAfghanistan,Iraq,andtheMiddleEast;thestable development of SCO member states and India, and their multilateral cooperation can become an importantfactorintheprocessofbuildingajustandequalworldorder.(Nurgaliev2007) EnergyConnections In postcold war scenario, the Central Asian region has gained special importance not only due to its strategic location, but also as hub of energy resources. Currently, India ranksas theworlds sixth largest energy consumer, accounting for about 3.3 per cent of the worlds total annual energy consumption and as the worlds eleventh energy producer, accounting for about 2.4 per cent of the worlds total annual energy production. Despite the production, India is a net energy importer due to the large imbalance between oil production and consumption. The question then rises about the prospects of diversification of energy sources by opting for collaboration with energy rich countries of Central Asia. Currently, IndiasmajorimportsarefromtheWestAsia. According to the International Energy Agencys analysis, by the year 2030 China and India will account for 70 per cent of the new global oil demand. Their combined oil imports would increase from 5.4millionbarrelsperdayin2006to20millionbarrelsperdayin2030,overtakingthecurrentcombined imports of Japan and the US. The Agency argues that rising incomes, strong growth in housing and construction, and the increased use of electrical appliances will substantially increase demand. Indias rapidly growing economy, set to grow at a rate of seven to eight percent over the coming decades will lead to substantial increase in demand for energy. With the current rate of demand, the International
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Energy Agency projects that Indias dependence on oil imports will grow to 91.6 per cent by the year 2020.(InstitutefortheAnalysisofGlobalSecurity2004) Indias growing energy needs can be largely met with the oil and natural gas from the region. Kazakhstan has the Caspian Sea basins largest recoverable crude oil reserves. Its production along with that of Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan accounts for almost twothirds of the roughly 2 million barrels per dayproducedintheregion.KazakhstanandTurkmenistanaretwoenergyrichCentralAsianstatesthat can play significant role to meet Indias future energy security. Some steps have been taken in the direction. In 2002, a meeting cochaired by then Indian Petroleum and Natural Gas Minister Ram Naik and his Kazakh counterpart Vladimir Shkolnik emphasized on the opportunities in Kazakhstan for IndianOilCorporationandEngineersIndiaLimitedthathaveconsiderableexperienceinmodernization of refineries, particularly those built with Soviet technology.A significant development in thesame year was the Kazakh offer to India for developing the Karzahnbas oil field and a small natural gas field at Amangaldiforexplorationandproduction.TheproposalbytheKazakhDeputyMinisterforEnergyand Mineral Resources of L. Kiinov in November 2005, during the round table of Asian hydrocarbon producersandconsumersinNewDelhi,toestablishanInterAsianOil andGasTransportationnetwork in the region can boost regional energy cooperation. In another significant development in December 2007, Italian, Indian, Turkish firms inked a deal for energy cooperation. Italys Eni, Indias Indian Oil, and Turkeys Galyk Energy have confirmed plans to join Kazakhstans national oil and gas company KazMunaiGaztoconstructanoilrefineryinCeyhan,Daniyar.(TheEarthTimes2007) Themajorobstacleishowtotransportoilfrom theregiontoIndia,asthereisnoconnectingpipeline. Itmayprovecostlytobuildpipelinethroughhostilemountainterrainsthatarealsoinfestedbyhardline elementswhocanblowuppipelinesatwill.Inthiscontext,theprospectsofoilswapinvolving Iranand Turkmenistancanbeconsideredpositively.InthisdealIranthatdoesnothaveenoughoilinitsnorthern parts of the country can take Caspian oil from Turkmenistan, and in return can give India oil in the south. As per reports, Iran and India in July 2000 invited Russias stateowned gas company, Gazprom, tobuildanoffshorepipelinetotransfernaturalgasfromIrantoIndia.Therearealsoprospectsofadeep sea pipeline which will carry oil Caspian resources from Iran to India bypassing Pakistani territory and theattachedthreat. The debate about Indias energy security cannot be complete without much hyped, ambitious seven billiondollarIranPakistanIndia(IPI)gaspipelineproject.UnderthisagreementIranhastoprovidefive million tonnes of liquefied natural gas to India from 200910 for 25 years. The proposed pipeline is expected to transport 90 million standard cubic metres of gas every day from Irans South Pars fields to India while Pakistan would receive 60 million standard cubic meters. Though there are differences betweenIndiaandPakistanoverthetransitfeeandsomeotherissues,andIranhasexpresseddiscontent with the Indian voting against it in the nuclear issue, Indian Petroleum Minister, Murli Deora expressed optimism during his speech at Cambridge in September 2006. Similarly, during the visit of Iranian President, Mahmoud Ahmeinejad to India in April 2008, both the countries further deliberated on the issue.TheUSisinterestedtoseeIndiaavoidingIraninitsenergyquest,ratherithasemphasizedonthe TurkmenistanAfghanistanPakistanIndiapipeline. IndiahasadoptedathreeprongedenergystrategyinCentralAsianregion.First,Indiaisinterestedto participateactivelyinthedevelopmentofthehydrocarbonsintheregionbyacquisitionofequityoiland
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gas. Second, it is interested in evacuation of oil and gas through transnational pipelines such as IPI and TurkmenistanAfghanistanPakistanIndia pipeline to meet its energy requirements. Third, India is not averse to the idea of building a regime of cross investments in the region, which include prospects of establishing a gas grid from Central Asia to Far East region. China, Korea, Japan and India are expected to drive gas demand in the future whereas Central Asia has abundant reserves of gas, making them natural partners. According to Deora, The gas grid envisages pipelines traversing through gas producing countries like Russia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Iran etc. to gas consumers like China, India, Korea, Japan, Thailand, Pakistan, Turkey etc. (The Financial Express, 25 January 2008) He added that, The projected benefits of such a gas grid are enormous both in monetary terms aswell as in terms of contribution to energy security. This concept, if feasible, can be truly termed asanenergybridgetoprosperity. EvolvingDynamics ItisimportanttoemphasizeIndiasinterestsintheCentralAsianregioncannotbeseeninisolationto the politics of new great game in the region. In the postcold war dynamics of the Central Asia, Indias position in the region would depend on various factors including its equations with powers such as the US, European Union, Russia, and China, and at the same time its equations with individual states of the region. As mentioned earlier, the regions importance to India is not only due to strategic proximity but also due to its immense economic significance. Three recent developments need special mention in this context. First, India andthe US have adopted policies to strengthen their partnership. Both the countries consolidated a wideranging military, economic, and diplomatic partnership in 2005, when the US Congress passed legislation enabling USIndian civilian nuclear cooperation. Second, at a summit in Tokyo in December 2005, the leaders of India and Japan declared their ambition for a strategic and economic bloc between Asias leading democracies. Third, and equally important, the strengthening of IndoRussianrelations,despitehitchesonissuesofarmscooperationandeconomicties,showthatIndo Russiancooperationisanimportantfactorintheregion.TheUSneedsfriendsinCentralandSouthAsia not only to fight war on terror but also to strengthen the arch of democracies in the whole Eurasian region.IndiainthiscontextcanprovehelpfultocooperatewiththeUSinthismission. The evolving dynamics in Central Asia takes into account diverse factors, which include balancing competingpowers,protectingIndianOceansealanes,safeguardinganopeninternationaleconomy,and stabilizingavolatileregion.Inthisevolvingdynamics,Indiacanplayacrucialrole.Keepinginviewthe apparent nonexistence of India in the Central Asian discourse, the above discussions regarding the variedconnectionsbetweenIndiaandCentralAsiaprovideenoughrationaleforIndiatoestablishlarger anddeeperstrategicrelationswitharegionthatisverycrucialtoitsgrowingenergyneedsandregional aspirations. India has to make significant moves to move beyond the symbolic presence in the region and with its rising global strength and growing economy as well as the attempts of the Central Asian countries to look for partners ensuring equality of relationship and not dependency, the time is opportunetomakethemoves.
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References Azhar, Muhammad, 1999. The Emerging Trade Relation between India and Central Asia. In: NationalisminRussiaandCentralAsianRepublics.Shamsuddin,ed.,IndiaRussia:StrategicPartnership. NewDelhi:LancersBooks,pp.328345. Dale, Stephen, 1994. Indian Merchants and Eurasian Trade, 16601750. Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress. Institute for the Analysis of Global Security, 21 January 2004. Indias Energy Security Challenge [online]. Washington DC, Institute for the Analysis of Global Security. Available from: http://www.iags.org/n0121043.htm[Accessed25Aug2008]. Levi,ScottC.,2002.TheIndianDiasporainCentralAsiaanditsTrade,15501900.Leiden:Brill. Mahapatra, Debidatta Aurobinda, 2006. Connecting KargilSkardu. Kashmir Images, 12 August 2006, p.6. Mahapatra, Debidatta Aurobinda, 24 June 2008. Fatwa against Terrorism [online]. Moscow, Strategic Culture Foundation. Available from: http://en.fondsk.ru/article.php?id=1448 [Accessed 15 Sept 2008]. NerveNewsofIndia,23October2007.EstonianteamreachesKashmirthroughSilkRoute:India[online]. Srinagar.Availablefrom:http://www.nerve.in/news:25350097311[Accessed18July2008]. Nurgaliev, Bolat. 17 May 2007. Interview with Press Trust of India [online]. Beijing. Available from: http://www.sectsco.org/html/01347.html[Accessed21Aug2008]. Olcott, Martha Brill, 2005. Central Asias Second Chance. Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for InternationalPeace. Sen, Amartya, 2005. The Argumentative Indian: Writings on Indian Culture, History and Identity. London:PenguinBooks. TheEarthTimes,6December2007.SakhalinEnergytoBoost OilProduction[online].Washington,DC. Availablefrom:http://www.earthtimes.org/articles/show/154499.html[Accessed8Jan2008]. The Financial Express, 25 January 2008. India Optimistic about Gas Pipeline: Deora [online]. New Delhi. Available from: http://www.financialexpress.com/news/IndiaoptimisticaboutIPIpipelinesays MurliDeora/265213/[Accessed12Jan2008]. Umarov, Kairat, 26 November 2007. Speech by Kairat Umarov, Ambassador of Kazakhstan to India [online]. New Delhi. Available from: http://www.kazind.com/speeches/ambassador/26nov_manage_club_meet.htm [Accessed 15 June 2008].
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LITERATURE

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FARKAS,Flrin MirzaaPersianChronicleronthePolders 1
aninsightintoKaderAbdolahslifeanduvre The flight does not consist only of horror. It has a gladsome side as well. Therefugeegetsachancetoanewlife,duringwhichhecandiscoveragain lifes mysteries. He gets to know new people, learns new languages, and comes to know the pain of absence and yearning. The most interesting consequence of flight is that the refugee, due to his change of location, discovershimself. KaderAbdolah ThePersianKaderAbdolahsmeteoricriseintheDutchliterarylifecommencedin1993.Thesuperficial observer might consider his literary life and uvre within the Dutch literature as exceptional, unique, something unrepeatable. With this essay I aim to prove the contrary; show that he is an individual case of a universal phenomenon, part of an ongoing spiritual process through which the East endows fresh vigor, missionary sense and several millennia old civilization treasures to the West, in this case to Europe. Kader Abdolah is a penname. His real name is Hossein Sadjadi Ghaemmaghami Farahani, born in 1954 in Arak,260kmawayfromTehran,inthewesternpartofIran.Ataveryyoungageheisalreadydreaming of becoming a writer, like his greatgreatgrandfather Qhaem Megham Ferahni. Since his age of 12 he is reading Western literature, and is listening to Western and illegal resistance radio stations, in secret. In Tehranheisstudyingphysicsandduringhisstudieshejoinsanundergroundleftistparty,whichisfirst fightingagainsttheShah,thentheAyatollahs.Heisworkingforanillegalnewspaperandpublishestwo bundlesofshortstories,alsoillegallyunderthepennameKaderAbdolah,whichiscomposedofthenames of two of his executed comrades. In 1985 he needs to flee Iran, and ends up in Turkey, where he is waitingfor6monthsforaSovietvisa,tonoavail.FinallyhearrivestotheNetherlands,andheisplaced inarefugee centerinApeldoorn.SoonheisapportionedahouseinZwolle,wherehetakesseveraljobs, likeoneinanaturalmuseumandanotherinatinnedfoodfactory.Hebreakswithhispoliticalpast,heis
Paper presented at a meeting of the association Hollandiai Mikes Kelemen Kr, on April 19, 2009 in The Hague. All translations fromDutchtoEnglisharemine.Anaccompanyingpresentationisalsoavailableonthewebsite,entitledMirza_en.pdf.
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obsessively learningDutch,andduringthisprocessheisstartingtowrite.InmyheadIhadputdown my weaponandseizedapen.Forthemomentwearehere.Ihaveanewdream,namely,tobecomeaDutchwriter.() If in Turkey the events turned otherwise, maybe I would have become a combative comrade and I would have learned Russian. In that case I might have become a Russian writer. But I am Dutch now. His debut is taking place in 1993 with the short stories bundle entitled De adelaars, (The Eagles), which immediately won theprestigiousHetGoudenEzelsoor(GoldenDonkeyEar)debutprize. And since then his life is an open book, because his uvre provides insight to a significant extant into his life, way of thinking, value system. Hisextremely wide area of interest is mirrored in his works, which cover the following genres: short story, saga, historic novel, travel diary, sketch, and column. The first group of his works is consisted of volumes, which strive to process as a therapy the fresh impressions, experiences of the refugee in his new country. The following works belong to this group: De adelaars (The Eagles) 1993, De meisjes en de partizanen (The Girls and the Partizans) 1995, De reis van de lege flessen (Travel of Empty Bottles) 1997, and De droom van Dawoed (Dawoeds Dream), whichwasoriginallypublishedunderthetitlePortretteneneenoudedroom(PortraitsandanOldDream) 2003. Theshortstoriesofthefirsttwovolumes,Deadelaars(9shortstories)andDemeisjesendepartizanen (10 short stories) process the integration into the new life and the related anguish, both physical and mental. He presents vividly and movingly the situation of a political refugee who is finding himself in a completely different culture. We receive a genuine picture on the physicalmental anguishes political refugees experience in the refugee centers and during their integration into society. As a background picturewearepresentedwiththememoriesoftheleftbehindfamily,country,andculture,paintedwith fine brush strokes. In my view in the gloomy mood of these short stories that resembles those of the greatPersianmasters,laysthesecretofpublicsuccess.ThecriticofthedailyHetParooljustlyobservedof De adelaars: It grabs you at your collar and with its short stories it does not let you off any more Of his second short stories bundle the press declared the following: On the fault line of memory and imagination Kader Abdolah creates a new landscape. Magic power is certainly hidden in his short stories., VrijNederland. His third volume is an autobiographical novel: De reis van de lege flessen (Travel of Empty Bottles). This work is written from the perspective of near ten years of living in the Netherlands and of physicalspiritual settlement. The protagonist, Bolfazl, in fact the author himself, provides through episodes a compelling picture of the difficult process of integration, learning the language, finding job, andwriting.HisDutchneighborsareofspecialimportancebecausetheyrepresentforhimthelinktothe Dutch society. This novel has less high voltage than his previous two books; nevertheless it is more selfreflectory, more philosophical. Let us quote two brief passages from it: Can the breasts of your daughterbeseeninthemirror?SuchasentencewouldhavenevercometomymindinPersian.Icouldnotbeable to pronounce it in Dutch either. But to put it on paper, I succeeded in it. And the next one: I shouted: I am throwing my past away. But who could I be without the memories of my fatherland? How could I search for the meaningofwordsinthismoistylandifthefireinthestoveofmyparentalhousedidnotburn? The theme of living in two worlds is developed further in his travel diary entitled De droom van Dawoed (Dawoeds Dream). The author is taking a tour in South Africa, together with several Dutch poets.Heenjoysverymuchthebeautiesofthecountry,itslandscape,itspeopleandculture.Buthispast
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doesnotlethiminpeace.HeisremindedconstantlyofhisfiveoldfriendsinIranwithwhomheshared every experience. Of those five three were executed and two have been just released from prison. They all take part in the travel, hence in the travel diary, too. Between the lines we can feel the painful conclusion that the time past can not be made up; they either lived their lives in different circumstances or laid in graves, the past can not be revived as if years did not pass. The author comes to realize that during these years he became nonchalant, westernized. The following passage summarizes well this realization: I reached the foot of the mountain. The summit called me, but I did not dare to start off, because I was afraid thatsomethingwillhappentomeandnobodycancometomyrescue. In the past I was climbing alone in cold, snowy, stormy and wild mountains, but now, even under clear sky I didnotdaretoclimbthisverylittlemountain. Iwantedtoreturn;neverthelessIstartedtoclimb. I was in dread of snakes, of a terrific black snake, which hid behind the bush. I was afraid of mosquitoes, the millionmosquitoes,whichfollowmeandpricklemeindiscriminately.Iwasappalledthattheywouldinfectmewith aterribledisease. ButIclimbedfurther.Ididnotwanttosurrendertomyfears. Themosquitoesstickedtomysweatedfaceandnakedlegandthiswasnotapleasantfeeling. I became insane. In the past I did not think of such things; even if I were bitten by a scorpion, I knew how to escape.ButnowIwasafraidoftheriver,theroad,themosquitoesandthedeadbranches.Afraidoftumblingdown, gettinglost,ofnotbeingrescued. IclimbedfurtherandIreachedthesummit. This wonderful travel diary is further colored by brief insertions in front of each chapter, which were inspired by several classical Persian works; these insertions tell a succinct, complete story on their own. In such a way the volume contains multiple travel diaries: stories from ancient Persia, that of the author and of his friends. Next to this, the numerous quotations from poems written in Afrikaans provide a specialatmosphere,thoughthiscanonlybeenjoyedbythosewhospeakAfrikaansoratleastDutch. The second group of the uvre consists of those volumes in which in saga format a broad picture of family background, Irans recent history, its culture and reflections on them from a Dutch milieu is provided. From these novels we learn a lot about his life and his creed. In this group we find the two voluminous sagas: Spijkerschrift (Runic Script) 2000, Het huis van de moskee (The House of the Mosque)2005,andtwoshorterwritings:Dekoffer(TheSuitcase)2001andDeradio(TheRadio) 2 2001. In the Spijkerschrift (Runic Script) novel the protagonist/author Ismaiel who fled from Iran to Tehran receives a packet from home after the death of his deafmute father (Aga Akbar), in which he
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This autobiographical writing appeared in the following volume: Abdelkader Benali (ed.): Belofte aan de wereld. Uitgeverij De Geus, Breda Novib, Den Haag, 2001.
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finds a book written by him in runic script. Ismaiel tries to make the script readable and by this Kader Abdolah conjures in front of us the life of Aga Akbar and Ismaiel. The result is a true masterpiece in which the autobiographical passages are interwoven with reflexions on the past 150 years of Iranian history, classical Persian literature, and Dutch literature. This novel is witness to the maturity of the author who livesintwoculturessimultaneously.Thecompositionofthebookisexecutedwithsuchmasterythatthe novelresemblesamarvelousPersianrug. In the first book of the novel we are acquainted with the first part of Aga Akbars and the familys story, and then in the second book Ismaiel himself enters the stage, from the Netherlands. He explains: Ithinkthatitisimpossibletowriteanovelonthisground.IlookatthedykeandIseethesea,theseaisindeed ancient.Butthisisnotthefullsea,onlythatpartofit,whichwasconfinedbehindthedykebytheDutch.Similarly asI amconfinedhere,apieceof ancientPersianculture,thathas toremainhere,behindthe dykesAndalittle bitlater,onthemistressofhisfather:Inmyviewonedoesnotdiesoonifonehasasecrettotelltosomeone. I think that she lives until we meet each other again The newly encounter with his father in fact the premiseofthenovelispresentedintheshortstoryDekoffer(TheSuitcase),inwhichinhisdreamon the dyke leading from Zwolle to Wilsum he meets his already dead father and also dead grandparents, and during this encounter he receives a suitcase from his father. That suitcase contains the literary material,whichsetsthenovelSpijkerschrift(RunicScript)inmotionandthenfostersit. Then history and even politics enters into the familys life. The Shahs rule is coming to an end, and this is set in a historical context: The events of the past one and half century show that a spiritual underground movement existed. History pushed Khomeini into the forefront The Iranian Revolution speededuptime,revveduptheevents,andthisisexperiencedbyhimas:Oh,howfasttimeflies.When I was a small child and guided my father, it seemed to me that time did not elapse. Daytime did not pass, and it seemedthatthenightwouldneverend.Iseeonlynow,thatthosedayspassedinaflash The events of the second book are taking place in this seething environment when we get acquainted withtheuniversitystudentlifeofIsmaielinTehran,includinghisparticipationintheundergroundleftist movement. His brothers walk along similar paths, and next to his comrades also his sister falls victim to the new regime. In the end he has to flee, too. As the murdered Persian poet, Mohammmade Mogtari, Ismaiels comrade put it: Loss is experience for a new path. A new possibility to think in a new way. Loss is not the end of everything, only the end of a certain way of thinking. Somebody who falls somewhere, stands up elsewhere.Thisisthelawoflife. Lossisprocessedattheendofthebookinabeautiful,epic manner,embeddedintotheframeworkof a story taken from the Noble Quran. It is worked off in a wonderful way; it is painfully sorrowful, but withoutpathos,intermsofspiritualreconciliation. ThePersianandDutchliterarypassagesinthisbookconstitutearealdelicacy,too.EastmeetsWestat the highest literary level. The multithreaded story is interwoven with trains of thought and quotes from thegreatPersianmasterslikeHafez,OmarKhayyam,Saadi,BabaTaher.TheDutchpoetryisrepresentedby thefollowingprominentfigures:J.C.Bloem,P.N.vanEyck,J.J.Slauerhoff,RutgerKopland. Theothermemberofthisgroup,Hethuisvandemoskee(TheHouseoftheMosque)isarealsaga.Asit is revealed also in the short story De radio (The Radio), the story is based on the history of his own family. The protagonist Aga Djan, is a leading carpet merchant, who is the most prominent figure of the
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bazaar. Since centuries his family is providing the imam for the citys topmost mosque. The family is living for some 800 years next to the mosque in a large house, which has approximately 35 rooms. Aga Djan is a man of honor, who is using the Noble Quran as guidance in his everyday life. But even he can notkeepthegatesagainstthefloodsofhistory.ThestorybeginsduringthelastyearsoftheShahsreign. The family is conducting its habitual life, in the centuryold accustomed rhythm, assiduously, conservatively, keeping out every disturbing event. Almost everybody in the town had already a radio, but in their house that equipment was forbidden, because that would have introduced the lies of the Shah and the muck of the outside world. The house is not by coincidence the house of the mosque. The Iranian Revolution, under the leadership of Ayatollah Khomeini, brought about fundamental changes not only in the country but also in the familys life. The majority of the familys children joined leftist movements, which is deadly dangerous in the new situation. Even the author figures in the novel. The nadir is the execution of Kader Abdolahs brother, one of Aga Djans sons. When reading the novel one understands really the background of the short story The Eagles (also the title of his first book), when thefatherandtheauthoraretryingtofindagravefortheexecutedson inthemiddleofwinter,because nobody dares to provide one for somebody who was executed due to political reasons. This already known story generates a much deeper emotional understanding of it being placed within the context of thisfamilytragedy. The catharsis is similar to that of Spijkerschrift (Runic Script). It is resolved in an epic, spiritual manner, through a more forceful use of quotes from the Noble Quran. The author himself commented this novel as: I wrote this book for the Western world. It is about people, art, religion, sex, movie and the significance of radio and television. I tried to draw the curtains and to show Islam as a way of living. What is shown astonished even me. In The House of the Mosque I am using passages from the Noble Quran. I am interestedinthespiritoftheNobleQuranandtheworldthatevolvedaroundit,notasareligiouscompass. The really great writers are also exquisite (political) column writers. Kader Abdolah distinguishes himself in this genre, too. The third group of his uvre consists of three volumes that contain his selected columns published in the prestigious Dutch daily de Volkskrant. These are: Mirza 1998, Een tuin in de zee Mirza (Garden in the Sea Mirza) 2001, and Karavaan Mirzacolumns uit de Volkskrant(CaravanMirzacolumnsfromdeVolkskrant)2003. In this genre Kader Abdolah can express himself more directly, he can tell his view about the world more openly. Despite the directness ofthisgenrehedoesthiswithgreatfinesseandintelligence,andby thisheisrisingfarabovethelevelofdailyjournalism.Thisisthereasonwhyhiscolumnsdespitetheir topicality are timeless. In my view his Persian/Eastern background enables him for this job, which is acknowledged also by him: I am coming from a country, where the writer is very close to the people. And later he adds: The masters of the old Persian literature were of the opinion that they did nothing else than what they needed to do. This existential position is contrary to the mentality of contemporary Western writers who are so much content with intellectual onanism. Kader Abdolah comments this quite rightly: The Dutch writers do not bother with earthly issues. They are even unable to do that. They are so much occupied with their own ego, that there is no room left for anything else. This behavior is further enhanced by the Western bureaucratic, state sponsored (nationalized literature to use Lrnt Czignys expression) literary milieu, whichprohibitsanyoriginalityandhighlevelofspirituality.Hisoutcryisputonpaperamongothersin
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theCestlavieandZoveelwittekonijnen(Somanywhiterabbits)columns.Fromthesewelearnthatdue to a fellowship he left for a few weeks his busy life to spend that time in a writers house, in a remote chateau in France. The sterile environment was made more unbearable by the companions: an elderly Russian writer, who did not want to talk to anybody and a French female writer, who was speechless, suffered from insomnia and took sleeping pills. With his own words: I received a French literary fellowship in order to work in this unhealthy silence, give me back the pleasant clatter of my residential area On top of all this, his columns are like a real golden mine, proving that he follows in the footsteps of the ancient Persian masters, for whom it was natural to be close to their people. The topics covered by his columns touch a very wide range of issues like: daily Dutch politics, world politics, events in Iran, literature, history, philosophy, economy, etc. He also educates his western readership with great finesse on the treasures of classical Persian literature, and highlights the best of Dutch literature. His columns serveasexcellentcompassforthosewhowanttonavigatethewatersoftheDutchliterature,becausehis valuesystemisrootedintheclassicalPersianliterature. Similar to other contemporary Eastern writers, who live and create in Europe Salman Rushdie, Orhan Pamuk, Gao Xinjiang he professes that one can only be whole if one owns both the Eastern and Western spiritual heritage. I admire rational thinking, directly from A to B. I am using the Western ratio. In thesametimeIamalsothinkingcircularly,whichisbasedontheEasternwayofthinking.Thephilosophyofthe Eastern man is round. So round as the dome of his mosques. This is summarized in his following sentence: Manisincapableoffindingtruth,butiscapableofsearchingfortruth. The fourth group consists of works that are literary adaptations of key Persian and Islamic masterpieces aiming at bringing them closer to western readers. These are: De koe (The Cow) 2007, which was originally published under the title Klil en Demn (Klil and Demn), De boodschapper een vertelling (The Messenger a Story) 2008, De Koran een vertaling (The Quran a Translation)2008,thesetwovolumeswerepublishedsimultaneouslyincassette,andacasualwriting entitledDekoning(TheKing)2002.ThelatterisbasedonarealeventinPersianhistory.Nasereddin Shah (18311896) ruled in a dictatorial way, who let Amir Kabir, the modernizer primeminister murdered. Later he made a European tour, and finally was assassinated by Mirza Reza Kermani. This story is worked out in a literary manner in a book, which was written to commemorate the departure of the Queens Commissioner of the province Overijssel, J.A.M. Hendriks. The volumes aesthetic value is greatlyenhancedbynumerousbeautifulcharcoaldrawings. The De koe (The Cow) is the adaptation of the Persian classic (Klil and Demn) which is an adaptation of the Indian work Panatantra for the Dutch literary public. According to the author this work belongs to the 67 most magnificent literary creations of the Persians literature, it is the most beautiful Persian prose. Its sheer existence is already a miracle because it underwent numerous hardships. It was created in India many thousands years ago, then under the rule of the Persian Shah Khosro Anushirvan (550578) the court doctor, Burzo, while during on a long mission in India smuggled the work out of the country and created a Persian version. During the following centuries it became an
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organic part of the Persian culture. During the Arab conquest much of the Persian culture perished, excepttheKlilandDemn,whichwastakenhomebytheArabswhocreatedtheirownversion,which was the source of all European translations later in the Middle Ages. The Arabic version was prepared by a Zoroastrian Persian, Abdolah ebn Mogafah, who converted to Islam. In his time he was considered a traitor,butbytranslatingittoArabic,itsavedit.FivecenturieslateranotherPersian,AbolMali,cleaned the work from Arabic influences and replanted it into a new, modern Persian language, producing another masterpiece. Kader Abdolah used this version for the translation or better said to a literary transplantation. The Dutch publication contains unaltered illustrations from an old Arabic version, whicharesuperb;wecanonlycongratulatetheeditorsofthevolume. This type of literary activity deserves our utmost appreciation. Although it is true that since the Middle Ages there were translations of the work in several European languages, but these were produced through multiple transmissions. The first Dutch publication for instance appeared in 1623, which was translated by van Heyns using Anton van Pforrs German version from 1480 whose title was DasBuchderBeispielederaltenWeisen.TheGermanversionin itsturnwascreatedfromtheLatinversion of Johannes de Capua (12631278); this version was based on a Hebrew version (created by Joel) from the 12th century, which in its turn was translated from the Arabic version of around 750, and that one is a direct Arabic translation of Burzos original. It is unnecessary to emphasize the drawbacks of this transmission chain. Especially when a Persian intellectual creates a literary transplantation who is completely familiar with the Dutch literary language. Kader Abdolahs Dutch version is of great artistic beauty, next to its literary merits we can also count the civilization impact it generates: through his translation a broader general public gains access to this masterpiece, which undoubtedly is one of the greatestspiritualcreationsofmankind. This performance is even outshined by his latest creations: De boodschapper een vertelling (The Messenger A Story) 2008, and De Koran een vertaling (The Quran a Translation) 2008. These two books, closely related to each other, were published simultaneously and are available in a beautifulcassette.Thethemeisthebindingfactor:thefirstisaliterarynarrativeoftheProphetslife,and the second a special kind of translation of the Noble Quran to Dutch. As the author told in an interview: I could write these volumes exclusively in the Netherlands. The Dutch society pressured me to search for my roots.Itishighlyprobablethatthesevolumeswillhaveasignificantpolitical,socialandliteraryimpact. In the current geopolitical situation this is very much welcome because certain power groups in the world are trying to generate much Islam phobia in the Western world, unfortunately not without success. The breading ground of their success is lack of knowledge, fear from the other, and misuse of stereotypes. The author himself provides the certainty that these recent volumes constitute the summit of his uvre: Everything that I wrote up until now, led to this. And this is significant because the Noble Quran did not impact him in his youth, not even as a literary creation. After the publication of Het huis van de moskee (The House of the Mosque), triggered by events in the Dutch society, he started to search for his roots, hence to study the Noble Quran. He decided to create a translation, which could bring the Western/Dutch readers closer to the Noble Quran. During the translation work he came to realize that Muhammads life is inseparable from the Noble Quran. Hence he wrote the volume De boodschapper een vertelling (The Messenger A Story), wherein he creates a literary narrative of Muhammads life,
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based on historic evidence. His goal was to present Muhammad, the Prophet, the military leader, politician,andtheman.Forthesakeofauthenticityhechosethefollowingsolution:theProphetsformer scribe, Zyad b. Tbit visits all those who knew Him (family, friends, enemies, followers, scholars, women andpoets)tocreateafullpictureoftheProphet.KaderAbdolahusesthetraditionaccordingtowhichZyad b. Tbit prepared a semiofficial compilation of the Noble Quran during the reign of Ab Bakr (632634), whichformedthebasetothecUtmnredaction.Othertraditionsalsoexistinthisregard,butthisisofno importance since the average Western reader does not have considerable background knowledge anyway. The work can not be regarded as a complete Muhammadbiography, but this is also not a fault because this volume is not a scientific but a literary piece of work. We need to emphasize the fact again, that this book provides an authentic, beautifully written work, which fills a huge gap for the general public. When translating the Noble Quran the author lived with literary freedom, following the classical Persian tradition. The great Persian masters like Hafez, Saadi, Omar Khayyam or Rumi interpreted the Noble Quran in their own way. He based the translation on his fathers Arabic original, and after each sentencehecontrastedhisownDutchversionwithfourPersiantranslationsandfiveDutchtranslations. Next to that he used also the commentaries of Tabari and if this did not prove enough he consulted on the phone his 94 years old uncle Aga Djan, who read the Noble Quran in his life more than 700 times. Kader Abdolah aimed at a precise translation as possible, although he admits that the Noble Quran is not translatable because the beauty of Muhammads language and suggestive nature gets lost through any translation attempt. He also performed several fundamental changes by placing the Suras in chronological order, thus the Meccan Suras are at the beginning, followed by those of Medina. He also wroteintroductorynotestomostSurasinordertoenhancetheirunderstanding.Lastly,toemphasizethe Dutch character of his work he placed five Dutch symbols alternating in front of each Sura: the cow,thetulip,thewindmill,therainandtheclog. AttheendofmypaperIwouldliketoexpressmyhopethatIsucceededinmygoal,namelytoprove that Kader Abdolah is one of the latest offshoots of the classical Persian literary tradition, who by fate arriving to Western Europe, greatly enriches the latters culture. He has a talent of classical nature, who isdoingwhatheneedstodo.Wecanonlybegratefultofatethathewasdriventoourshores. Throughtheyearshereceivedthefollowingrecognitions: 1993HetGoudenEzelsoorforDeadelaars 1995CharlotteKhlerstipendiumforDemeisjesendepartizanen 1997ASNADOMediaprijsfortheweeklycolumnMirzaindeVolkskrant 1998MundialAward 2000RidderindeOrdevandeNederlandseLeeuw 2001E.duPerronprijsforthewholeuvre
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2004FrenchKnighthood 2006NSPublieksprijssecondpositionforHethuisvandemoskee 2007HethuisvandemoskeewinsthetitleofthesecondbestDutchnovelofalltimes 2008ChevalierdesArtsetdesLettres 2008 NS Publieksprijs candidate with De Koran een vertaling and De boodschapper een vertelling 2008LaureateoftheRijksuniversiteitGroningen His literary activity did not go unnoticed abroad either. His works were translated into several languages: English, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, Hebrew, Turkish andBosnian. BIBLIOGRAPHY: KaderAbdolah:Deadelaarsverhalen.UitgeverijDeGeus,Breda,1993. KaderAbdolah:Demeisjesendepartizanenverhalen.UitgeverijDeGeus,Breda,1995. KaderAbdolah:Dereisvandelegeflessen.UitgeverijDeGeus,Breda,1997. KaderAbdolah:Mirza.UitgeverijDeGeus,Breda,1998. KaderAbdolah:SpijkerschriftnotitiesvanAgaAkbar.UitgeverijDeGeus,Breda,2000. KaderAbdolah:EentuinindezeeMirza.UitgeverijDeGeus,Breda,2001. KaderAbdolah:Dekoffer.UitgeverijDeGeus,Breda,2001. KaderAbdolah:Dekoning.UitgeverijWaandersb.v.,Zwolle,2002. KaderAbdolah:DedroomvanDawoed.UitgeverijDeGeus,Breda,2003. KaderAbdolah:KaravaanMirzacolumnsuitdeVolkskrant.UitgeverijDeGeus,Breda,2003. KaderAbdolah:Hethuisvandemoskee.UitgeverijDeGeus,Breda,2005. KaderAbdolah:Dekoe.UitgeverijDeGeus,Breda,2007. KaderAbdolah:Deboodschappereenvertelling.UitgeverijDeGeus,Breda,2008. KaderAbdolah:DeKoraneenvertaling.UitgeverijDeGeus,Breda,2008. Abdelkader Benali (ed.): Belofte aan de wereld. Uitgeverij De Geus, Breda Novib, Den Haag, 2001. http://www.degeus.nl/auteurs/abdolah/
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Viu arma: The Panatantra. (Translated from Sanskrit by Chandra Rajan) Penguin Classics, London,2006. Korn.~SimonRbert:AKornvilga.HelikonKiad,Budapest,1994. JohnBagotGlubb:TheLifeandTimesofMuhammad.CooperSquarePress,NewYork,2001.
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JOURNALOF EURASIANSTUDIES

GEOSTRATEGY _____________________________________________ 120

_____________________________________________________________________________________ DERRICK,Matthew TheImplicationsofClimateChangeforRussianGeopoliticsintheArctic ___________ 130 MAHAPATRA,DebidattaAurobinda IndiasCentralAsianConnections_______________________________________________ 137

LITERATURE _______________________________________________ 147

Fig.2.Bronzecauldrons(top:Uljap,Russiaandbottom:Scortaru,Romania)andswordsfromthe CarpathianBasin(Aldoboly,DobolideJos,Transylvania,RomaniaandMaroscsap,Pauca, Transylvania,Romania).

Gyrffy, 1986. 53.

Czegldy,1969. Erdemt,2007.125. Erdemt,2007.470.AuthorreferstoShiratori. Erdemt,2007.127. HexicorridororCanyonofYellowRiverinpresentdayGansuprovince.

Gyrffy, 1986. 53. Czegldi,1969. Tolstov,1947.217. Tolstov,1947.217.

Jafarov,1985. Dzsafarov,1985.HereferedtoHaussig.Christian,1998.277.alsostatesthatOgursarrivedwithHunstoCaucasus. Blint,1901.62. Gyrffy,1986.7. Dobrev,2005.219. Dobrev,2005.204. Thry,1896. Hrodotosz,IV.71.

Kirly,2006.158. Vlagyimircov, 1934. 11. Tolstov,1948.164. Jafarov,1985.46. SarmatiansandAlans.Gothsalsolivedthere,wholearnedandappliedtheScythiancustomsandwayoflife.

TheGothsforinstanceliveduntilthe15thcenturyintheMangupkaleCastle. Anke,2008.1213.Obrusnszky,2008.29. Gyrffy, 1993. Dobrev,2005.56. InTheophanesandMalalaschronicles.In:Moravcsik,1927.

HelilovNyitray,2008. Kmosk, 2004. 99.

(Shintoiroha)ShintoABC,http://nishinojinja.or.jp/faq/079.html (Zenkokuchimeiyomiganajiten)NationalPlaceNamesReadingDictionary,Seiksha,saka,1993. (Zenkokunomyji)NationalFamilyNames,http://www2s.biglobe.ne.jp/~suzakihp/index40.html (Nihonnooshiro)JapaneseCastles,http://www.geocities.jp/dgdff233/

Geo.BookVII.3.17 OntheCharacteristicsofAnimalsII.16 Reindeer,probablytheL.RangifertarandusfennicussubspecieswhichisstillfoundinRussianKarelia

109 110 111 112 113 114

Lucian:ToxarisXLVIII Meaningtheprotectionoftheenemy(Id.XL) Rootofmanytermsreferringtomultiplysomething(szerencseluck,szeretetloveetc.);mean. Cf.AngloNormanpas,Fr.paix,It.&R.pace,PortugueseandSp.paz,Sicilianpaci,L.pax. GyrgySzab:Eurpaimitoszoksmondk,1977,p.43.

124 125 126

ThesetwovariantscorrespondtoWesternRomaniansettlementnameofPankota. Tacitus:Germania1.28,Ptolemy:II.15. Pliny:NH,3.148;inscriptionsofmilitarydiplomasandtombfromLowerPannonia. Pliny:Id;Ptolemy:Id.

ConvergingBas.toponyms:Labatut,Labaien,Labacolla. AncientGreeksalsousedportableleggedovens,Gr.meansgrip,hold. ArchaeologicalfindsoftheregionswereidentifiedasCelticones(Erdlytrtnete,I.p.30.) Bas.galtzairusteel,Ga.sgaldtascalded,burntwithhotwater,H.aclsteel.

Pamplona Sondika Sopuerta Sukarrieta Zala,Zalain,Zalla Ubide

Szaporca, Szerep, (Hun.), Szaprifalva(Rom.)

lapur lo ortzi segail su,sute sutegi zaldi zigor

163 164 165

Anonymus:GestaHungarorum,Hungvra. LivinginCaucasus. JenDark:HunnoHungaroBolgarica,fromTurn,II.1.72.73.old. J.Dark:Amagyarsgskelet,fromEleink,II.1.p.6. TherearemanyCaucasianpeopleswithinflectionallanguages.

a.79:thetotal(KURO)ofOLIV,93Jiscorrect. a.89:thetotalof*308inlinesa.17shouldbe24J3EAor(ifJ=1/2,E=1/4,A=1/25)25+1/4+1/25,implyingthatthe totalKUROina.89iscorrect(iftheEina.23isignored).

KaTi PL SRa TaTi

OLAJFA OLAJFA OLAJFA OLAJFA

KR/asks KR/asks KR/asks KR/asks

31MEG/and SZL/edge 16 15 SZL/edge SZL/edge

KR/sumOLAJFA 93MEG/and SZLKR/edgesum FeLeT/halves 25 KR/asks 6

Fbintvs,vol.II,p.8485. Same,p.8694. Same,p.99.

Same,160. Same,162. Same,164.

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_______________________________________________________________________________ DERRICK,Matthew TheImplicationsofClimateChangeforRussianGeopoliticsintheArctic _ 130 MAHAPATRA,DebidattaAurobinda IndiasCentralAsianConnections___________________________________________ 137