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Introduction
Wehavediscussed discussed,inthepreviouscourses courses,thestressesdue tostaticloadingonly. Butonlyafewmachinepartsaresubjectedtostaticloading loading. Sincemanyofthemachineparts(suchasaxles,shafts, crankshafts, ,connecting grods, ,springs, p g ,p pinionteethetc.) )are subjectedtovariableoralternatingloads(alsoknownas fluctuatingorfatigueloads),thereforeweshalldiscuss,the variable or alternating stresses inthiscourse.
Notes
F ll reversed Fully dstresses. t
Fluctuating gstresses.
Thestresses whichvaryfrom zerotoacertain maximumvalue arecalled repeated stresses.
Standard specimen
Alternating gstresses
Basicdefinitions
Thevariablestress, stress ingeneral, general maybeconsideredas acombinationofsteady(ormeanoraverage)stress andacompletelyreversedstresscomponentv. Mean or average stress, Reversedstress componentoralternating orvariablestress
Alternating gstresses
Basicdefinitions
St Stress ratio ti
'e =EndurancelimitforanystressrangerepresentedbyR. e =Endurance limit and E d li itfor f completely l t l reversed dstresses, t d R=Stress ratio.
Kb =Loadcorrectionfactorforthereversedorrotatingbendingload load.Its
valueisusuallytakenasunity.
Ks =Loadcorrectionfactorforthereversedtorsional orshearload.Its
l mayb k as0.55f il materials i l and d0.8f i l value betaken ford ductile forb brittle materials.
Forreversedtorsional or shearload
For steel, ,
e =Endurancelimitstressforcompletely reversed cycle, dstress t l and d y =Yield point stress.
Stress Concentration
Wheneveramachinecomponentchangestheshapeofitscrosssection, th simple the i l stress t distribution di t ib ti nol longerh holds ld good dand dth theneighborhood i hb h d ofthediscontinuityisdifferent.Thisirregularityinthestressdistribution causedbyabruptchangesofformiscalledstressconcentration. Itoccursforallkindsofstressesinthepresenceoffillets,notches,holes, keyways,splines,surfaceroughness or scratches etc.
Alittleconsiderationwillshowthatthe nominalstressintherightandlefthand sides(seeFigureontheright)willbe uniformbutintheregionwherethe crosssection ischanging,aredistributionof theforcewithinthemembermusttake place.Thematerialneartheedgesis stressedconsiderablyhigherthanthe averagevalue value.Themaximumstressoccurs atsomepointonthefilletandisdirected paralleltotheboundaryatthatpoint.
ThevalueofKtdependsuponthematerialandgeometryofthepart. Notes: 1. Instaticloading,stressconcentrationinductilematerialsisnotsoseriousasinbrittle materials, becauseinductilematerialslocaldeformationoryieldingtakesplacewhich reducestheconcentration. 2. Incyclicloading,stressconcentrationinductilematerialsisalwaysseriousbecausethe ductilityofthematerialisnoteffectiveinrelievingtheconcentrationofstresscausedby cracks,flaws,surfaceroughness,oranysharpdiscontinuityinthegeometricalformofthe member.
MethodsofReducingStress C Concentration t ti
The presenceof stressconcentrationcannotbetotallyeliminatedbutit maybereducedtosomeextent. extent Adeviceorconceptthatisusefulin assistingadesignengineertovisualizethepresenceofstress concentrationandhowitmaybemitigatedisthatofstressflowlines,as shown h i inFigs. Fi b below. l
Methodsofreducingstressconcentration incylindricalmemberswithshoulders.
Methodsofreducingstressconcentrationin cylindricalmemberswithholes.
Methodsofreducingstressconcentrationin cylindricalmemberswiththreads.
Notch Sensitivity y
Incyclicloading,theeffectofthenotchorthefilletisusuallylessthanpredictedby theuseofthetheoreticalfactorsasdiscussedbefore.Thedifferencedepends uponthestressgradientintheregionofthestressconcentrationandonthe hardnessofthematerial. Thetermnotch sensitivity (q)is applied tothisbehaviour. behaviour Itmay bedefinedasthedegree towhichthetheoretical effectofstress concentrationisactually reached.Itmaybe d fi dasth defined thed degreeto t whichthetheoretical effectofstress concentration isactually reached.
Notch Sensitivity y
Whenthenotchsensitivityfactorqisusedincyclicloading, thenfatiguestressconcentrationfactormaybeobtainedfrom thefollowing grelations:
Considering the fatigue stress concentrationfactor(Kf),theaboveequation maybewritten as F.S.=Factor ofsafety, m =Meanstress(tensileorcompressive), compressive) u =Ultimate stress (tensileor compressive),and e =Endurancelimitforreversalloading.
Thisexpression doesnotincludetheeffectofstress p concentration.Itmaybenotedthatforductile materials,thestressconcentrationmaybeignored understeadyloads.Sincemanymachineand structuralpartsthataresubjectedtofatigueloads containregionsofhighstressconcentration,therefore aboveequationmustbealteredtoincludethiseffect. Insuchcases,thefatiguestressconcentrationfactor (Kf)isusedtomultiplythevariablestress(v).The aboveequationmaynowbewrittenas
F.S.=Factor of fsafety, f y m =Mean stress, u =Ultimate stress, v=Variable stress, e =Endurancelimitforreversedloading,and Kf =Fatiguestressconcentrationfactor. Consideringtheloadfactor,surfacefinish factorandsizefactor,theaboveequationmay bewritten as Kb =Loadfactorforreversedbendingload, Ksur =Surfacefinishfactor,and Ksz =Size Si factor. f t
NOTES
1.Theaboveequationisapplicabletoductile materialssubjectedtoreversedbendingloads (tensileorcompressive).Forbrittlematerials,the theoreticalstressconcentrationfactor(Kt)shouldbe applied li dto t th themeanstress t and dfatigue f ti stress t concentrationfactor(Kf)tothevariablestress.Thus forbrittlematerials,theequationmaybewrittenas
2.Whenamachinecomponentissubjectedto aloadotherthanreversedbending,thenthe endurance d li limit itf forthat th tt typeof f l loading di should h ld betakenintoconsideration. For reversed axial loading
Example p
Amachine component is subjectedtoaflexuralstresswhich fluctuatesbetween+300MPa and 150MPa. Determinethevalueofminimumultimatestrengthaccording to 1.Gerberrelation; ;2.Modified f Goodmanrelation; ;and3. Soderberg relation. Takeyieldstrength=0.55Ultimatestrength; Endurancestrength=0.5Ultimatestrength;and f factor of fsafety f y =2.
1.According gtoGerberrelation
WeknowthataccordingtoGerberrelation relation,
(Taking +vesign)
2.AccordingtomodifiedGoodmanrelation
WeknowthataccordingtomodifiedGoodmanrelation
andtotalequivalentnormalstress,
Example p
Acantileverbeammadeofcolddrawncarbonsteelofcircularcrosssection asshowninFig.,issubjectedtoaloadwhichvariesfrom Fto3F. Determinethemaximumloadthatthismembercanwithstandforan indefinitelifeusingafactorofsafetyas2. 2 Thetheoreticalstress concentrationfactoris1.42andthenotchsensitivityis0.9. Assumethefollowing values : Ultimate stress =550MPa Yield stress =470MPa d li i =275MPa Endurance limit Sizefactor =0.85 0.89 Surface finish factor factor=0 89
Given :Wmin = F;Wmax =3F;F F.S. S =2;Kt = 1.42;q=0.9;u =550Mpa =550N/mm2 ; y =470MPa=470N/mm2 ;e =275MPa =275N/mm2 ;Ksz =0.85 0 85;Ksur =0.89 0 89 ThebeamasshowninFig.issubjectedtoa reversedbendingloadonly.Sincethepoint Aatthechangeofcrosssectioniscritical, thereforeweshallfindthebending momentatp pointA.
Weknowthatmaximumbending momentatp pointA, ,
Meanoraveragebendingmoment,
andminimumbendingmomentatpointA, A
Section modulus
Takinglargerofthetwovalues,wehave F=57.3NAns.