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VariableStressesin MachineParts

VedatTemiz Assistant Professor ofMachine Design

Introduction
Wehavediscussed discussed,inthepreviouscourses courses,thestressesdue tostaticloadingonly. Butonlyafewmachinepartsaresubjectedtostaticloading loading. Sincemanyofthemachineparts(suchasaxles,shafts, crankshafts, ,connecting grods, ,springs, p g ,p pinionteethetc.) )are subjectedtovariableoralternatingloads(alsoknownas fluctuatingorfatigueloads),thereforeweshalldiscuss,the variable or alternating stresses inthiscourse.

Completely p yReversedorCyclic y Stresses


ConsiderarotatingbeamofcircularcrosssectionandcarryingaloadW, asshowninFigbelow.Thisloadinducesstressesinthebeamwhichare cyclic li i innature. Alittleconsiderationwillshowthattheupperfibres ofthebeam(i.e.at pointA) p )areundercompressive p stressandthelowerfibres ( (i.e.atp pointB) ) areundertensilestress.Afterhalfarevolution,thepointBoccupiesthe positionofpointAandthepointAoccupiesthepositionofpointB. ThusthepointBisnowundercompressivestressandthepointAunder tensilestress.Thespeedofvariationofthesestressesdependsuponthe speedofthebeam.
Fromaboveweseethatforeach revolutionofthebeam,thestresses arereversedfromcompressiveto tensile.Thestresseswhichvaryfrom onevalueofcompressivetothe samevalueoftensileorviceversa, areknownascompletelyreversed orcyclicstresses.

Notes
F ll reversed Fully dstresses. t

Fluctuating gstresses.
Thestresses whichvaryfrom zerotoacertain maximumvalue arecalled repeated stresses.

Fatigue g and Endurance Limit


Ithasbeenfoundexperimentallythatwhenamaterialissubjectedto repeatedstresses stresses,itfailsatstressesbelowtheyieldpointstresses stresses.Such typeoffailureofamaterialisknownasfatigue. The failureiscausedbymeansofaprogressivecrackformationwhichare usuallyfineandofmicroscopicsize.Thefailuremayoccurevenwithout anypriorindication.Thefatigueofmaterialiseffectedbythesizeofthe component,relativemagnitudeofstaticandfluctuatingloadsandthe numberofloadreversals. Inordertostudytheeffectoffatigueofamaterial,arotatingmirrorbeam methodisused used.Inthismethod method,astandardmirrorpolishedspecimen specimen,as showninFig.,isrotatedinafatiguetestingmachinewhilethespecimenis loadedinbending.

Standard specimen

Fatigue g and Endurance Limit


Thespecimeninrotatingbeammachineis subjectedtoacompletelyreversedstresscycle.A recordiskeptofthenumberofcyclesrequiredto producefailureatagivenstress,andtheresults areplottedinstresscyclecurveasshowninFig. A littl consideration little id ti will illshow h that th tifthe th stress t is i keptbelowacertainvalueasshownbydotted lineinFig.,thematerialwillnotfailwhatevermay bethenumberofcycles.Thisstress,as representedbydottedline,isknownas enduranceorfatiguelimit(e). Itisdefinedasmaximumvalueofthecompletely reversedbendingstresswhichapolishedstandard specimencanwithstandwithoutfailure failure,for infinitenumberofcycles(usually107 cycles).
Itmaybenotedthatthetermendurancelimitisusedforreversedbendingonlywhilefor othertypesofloading,thetermendurancestrengthmaybeusedwhenreferringthe fatiguestrengthofthematerial.Itmaybedefinedasthesafemaximumstresswhichcanbe appliedtothemachinepartworking under actual conditions.

Alternating gstresses
Basicdefinitions
Thevariablestress, stress ingeneral, general maybeconsideredas acombinationofsteady(ormeanoraverage)stress andacompletelyreversedstresscomponentv. Mean or average stress, Reversedstress componentoralternating orvariablestress

Forrepeated F t d l loading, di th thestress t varies i f from maximumtozero(i.e.min =0)ineachcycle

Alternating gstresses
Basicdefinitions
St Stress ratio ti

Forcompletelyreversedstresses,R= 1 andforrepeatedstresses,R=0.Itmaybe notedthatRcannotbegreaterthanunity.


Th following f ll i relation l ti b t d li itand dstress t ti maybe b used d The between endurance limit ratio

'e =EndurancelimitforanystressrangerepresentedbyR. e =Endurance limit and E d li itfor f completely l t l reversed dstresses, t d R=Stress ratio.

EffectofLoadingonEnduranceLimit L dFactor Load F t


Theendurancelimit(e)ofamaterialasdeterminedbytherotatingbeam method th di isf forreversed dbending b di load. l d Th Therearemanymachine hi members b whicharesubjectedtoloadsotherthanreversedbendingloads.Thusthe endurancelimitwillalsobedifferentfordifferenttypesofloading.The endurancelimitdependinguponthetypeofloadingmaybemodifiedas discussedbelow:

Kb =Loadcorrectionfactorforthereversedorrotatingbendingload load.Its
valueisusuallytakenasunity.

Ka =Loadcorrectionf factorfor f thereversedaxialload.Itsvaluemay ybe


taken as0.8.

Ks =Loadcorrectionfactorforthereversedtorsional orshearload.Its
l mayb k as0.55f il materials i l and d0.8f i l value betaken ford ductile forb brittle materials.

EffectofSurfaceFinishonEndurance Limit SurfaceFinishFactor LimitSurface


Whenamachinememberissubjectedtovariableloads, loads theendurance limitofthematerialforthatmemberdependsuponthesurface conditions.Fig.belowshowsthevaluesofsurfacefinishfactorforthe varioussurfaceconditionsandultimatetensilestrength. strength
LetKsur =Surfacefinishfactor. E d Endurance li it limit, For reversed bending load

For reversed axial load

Forreversedtorsional or shearload

EffectofSizeonEndurance Li it Si Factor LimitSize F t


Alittleconsiderationwillshowthatifthesizeofthestandardspecimenas showninFig.isincreased,thentheendurancelimitofthematerialwill decrease.Thisisduetothefactthatalongerspecimenwillhavemore defectsthanasmallerone one.Let Ksz =Sizefactor, factor Endurance limit

Notes:1.Thevalueofsizefactoristakenasunityforthestandardspecimenhaving nominaldiameterof7.657 7 657mm. mm 2.Whenthenominaldiameterofthespecimenismorethan7.657mmbutless than50mm,thevalueofsizefactormaybetakenas0.85. 3.Whenthenominaldiameterofthespecimenismorethan50mm,thenthevalue ofsizefactormaybetaken as0.75.

EffectofMiscellaneousFactors onEndurance E d Li it Limit


Inadditiontothesurfacefinishfactor(Ksur), ) sizefactor(Ksz)andload factorsKb,Ka andKs,therearemanyotherfactorssuchasreliabilityfactor (Kr),temperaturefactor(Kt),impactfactor(Ki)etc.whichhaseffectonthe endurancelimitofamaterial. material Consideringallthesefactors, factors theendurance limitmaybedeterminedbyusingthefollowingexpressions:
1. Forthereversedbendingload, endurancelimit, 2. Forthereversedaxialload, endurancelimit 3. Forthereversedtorsional or shearload,endurance limit Insolvingproblems,ifthevalueofanyoftheabovefactorsisnotknown,itmaybe takenasunity.

RelationBetweenEnduranceLimit and dUlti Ultimate t T Tensile il St Strength th


Ithasbeenfoundexperimentallythatendurancelimit(e)ofamaterial subjected bj t dto t fatigue f ti loading l di i isafunction f ti of fultimate lti t tensile t il strength t th(u). ) Fig.belowshowstheendurancelimitofsteelcorrespondingtoultimate tensilestrengthfordifferentsurfaceconditions.Followingaresome empiricalrelationscommonlyusedinpractice: Forsteel, e =0.5u ; Forcaststeel steel, e =0.4u ; Forcastiron, e =0.35 0 35u ; Fornonferrousmetals andalloys, e =0.3u

FactorofSafetyfor F ti Loading Fatigue L di


Whenacomponentissubjectedtofatigueloading, loading theendurancelimitis thecriterionforfailure.Therefore,thefactorofsafetyshouldbebasedon endurancelimit.Mathematically,

For steel, ,
e =Endurancelimitstressforcompletely reversed cycle, dstress t l and d y =Yield point stress.

Stress Concentration
Wheneveramachinecomponentchangestheshapeofitscrosssection, th simple the i l stress t distribution di t ib ti nol longerh holds ld good dand dth theneighborhood i hb h d ofthediscontinuityisdifferent.Thisirregularityinthestressdistribution causedbyabruptchangesofformiscalledstressconcentration. Itoccursforallkindsofstressesinthepresenceoffillets,notches,holes, keyways,splines,surfaceroughness or scratches etc.
Alittleconsiderationwillshowthatthe nominalstressintherightandlefthand sides(seeFigureontheright)willbe uniformbutintheregionwherethe crosssection ischanging,aredistributionof theforcewithinthemembermusttake place.Thematerialneartheedgesis stressedconsiderablyhigherthanthe averagevalue value.Themaximumstressoccurs atsomepointonthefilletandisdirected paralleltotheboundaryatthatpoint.

TheoreticalorFormStress C Concentration t ti Factor F t


Thetheoreticalorformstressconcentrationfactorisdefinedastheratio ofthemaximumstressinamember(atanotchorafillet)tothenominal stressatthesamesectionbaseduponnetarea. Mathematically, h ll theoretical h lorf formstressconcentrationf factor,

ThevalueofKtdependsuponthematerialandgeometryofthepart. Notes: 1. Instaticloading,stressconcentrationinductilematerialsisnotsoseriousasinbrittle materials, becauseinductilematerialslocaldeformationoryieldingtakesplacewhich reducestheconcentration. 2. Incyclicloading,stressconcentrationinductilematerialsisalwaysseriousbecausethe ductilityofthematerialisnoteffectiveinrelievingtheconcentrationofstresscausedby cracks,flaws,surfaceroughness,oranysharpdiscontinuityinthegeometricalformofthe member.

MethodsofReducingStress C Concentration t ti
The presenceof stressconcentrationcannotbetotallyeliminatedbutit maybereducedtosomeextent. extent Adeviceorconceptthatisusefulin assistingadesignengineertovisualizethepresenceofstress concentrationandhowitmaybemitigatedisthatofstressflowlines,as shown h i inFigs. Fi b below. l

g (a) )weseethatstresslinestendtobunchup pandcutvery yclosetothesharp pre InFig. entrantcorner.Inordertoimprovethesituation,filletsmaybeprovided,asshowninFig. (b)and(c)togivemoreequallyspacedflowlines.

Methodsofreducingstressconcentration incylindricalmemberswithshoulders.

Methodsofreducingstressconcentrationin cylindricalmemberswithholes.

Methodsofreducingstressconcentrationin cylindricalmemberswiththreads.

FactorstobeConsideredwhileDesigning MachinePartstoAvoidFatigue Failure


Thefollowingfactorsshouldbeconsideredwhiledesigningmachineparts toavoidfatiguefailure: 1) Thevariationinthesizeofthecomponentshouldbeasgradualas possible. 2) Theholes holes,notchesandotherstressraisersshouldbeavoided. avoided 3) Theproperstressdeconcentratorssuchasfilletsandnotchesshouldbe providedwherever necessary. 4) Thepartsshouldbeprotectedfromcorrosiveatmosphere. 5) Asmoothfinishofoutersurfaceofthecomponentincreasesthefatigue life. life 6) Thematerialwithhighfatiguestrengthshouldbeselected. 7) Theresidualcompressivestressesoverthepartssurfaceincreasesits fatiguestrength.

StressConcentrationFactorfor V i Machine Various M hi Members M b


Theoreticalstressconcentrationfactor(Kt )foraplatewithhole(ofdiameterd)intension. tension

Theoreticalstressconcentrationfactor( (Kt)forashaftwithtransversehole( (ofdiameterd)in bending.

StressConcentrationFactorfor V i Machine Various M hi Members M b


Theoreticalstressconcentrationfactor(Kt )forsteppedshaftwithashoulderfillet(ofradius r)intension.

StressConcentrationFactorfor V i M hi M b Various Machine Members Theoreticalstressconcentrationfactor(Kt)forasteppedshaftwithashoulderfillet(ofradius


r)inbending.

StressConcentrationFactorfor V i Machine Various M hi Members M b


Theoreticalstressconcentrationfactor(Kt)forasteppedshaftwithashoulderfillet(ofradius r)intorsion.

Fatigue g Stress Concentration Factor


Whenamachinememberissubjectedtocyclicorfatigue loading,thevalueoffatiguestressconcentrationfactorshall beapplied pp insteadoftheoreticalstressconcentrationfactor. Sincethedeterminationoffatiguestressconcentrationfactor isnotaneasytask,thereforefromexperimentaltestsitis definedasFatigue stress concentration factor,

Notch Sensitivity y
Incyclicloading,theeffectofthenotchorthefilletisusuallylessthanpredictedby theuseofthetheoreticalfactorsasdiscussedbefore.Thedifferencedepends uponthestressgradientintheregionofthestressconcentrationandonthe hardnessofthematerial. Thetermnotch sensitivity (q)is applied tothisbehaviour. behaviour Itmay bedefinedasthedegree towhichthetheoretical effectofstress concentrationisactually reached.Itmaybe d fi dasth defined thed degreeto t whichthetheoretical effectofstress concentration isactually reached.

Notch Sensitivity y
Whenthenotchsensitivityfactorqisusedincyclicloading, thenfatiguestressconcentrationfactormaybeobtainedfrom thefollowing grelations:

For tensileor bending stress For shear stress


Kt =Theoreticalstressconcentrationfactorforaxialorbendingloading,and Kts =Theoreticalstressconcentrationfactorfortorsional orshearloading.

Combined Steady and V i bl Stress St Variable


Thefailurepointsfromfatigue testsmadewithdifferentsteels andcombinationsofmeanand variablestressesareplottedin Fig.asfunctionsofvariable stress(v)andmeanstress(m). Themostsignificant observationisthat,ingeneral, thefailurepointislittlerelated t the th meanstress t h itis i to when compressive butisverymucha functionofthemeanstress whenitistensile tensile. Inpractice,thismeansthatfatiguefailuresarerarewhenthe meanstressiscompressive(ornegative).Therefore,the greater t emphasis h i must tb begiven i t toth thecombination bi ti of f a variablestressandasteady(ormean)tensilestress.

Gerber Method for Combination ofStresses


Aparaboliccurvedrawnbetweenthe endurancelimit(e)andultimate tensilestrength(u)wasproposedby Gerberin1874.Generally,thetestdata forductilematerialfallclosertoGerber parabolaasshowninFig., Fig butbecause ofscatterinthetestpoints,astraight linerelationship(i.e.Goodmanlineand Soderberg line)isusuallypreferredin designingmachineparts. AccordingtoGerber,variablestress,

Considering the fatigue stress concentrationfactor(Kf),theaboveequation maybewritten as F.S.=Factor ofsafety, m =Meanstress(tensileorcompressive), compressive) u =Ultimate stress (tensileor compressive),and e =Endurancelimitforreversalloading.

Goodman Method for C bi ti of fStresses St Combination


Astraight t i htli lineconnecting ti th theendurance d limit(e)andtheultimatestrength(u),as shownbylineABinFig.,followsthe suggestionofGoodman.AGoodmanlineis usedwhenthedesignisbasedonultimate strengthandmaybeusedforductileor brittlematerials.
InFig.,lineABconnectinge andu iscalled Goodman'sfailurestressline.Ifasuitablefactor ofsafety(F.S.)isappliedtoendurancelimitand ultimatestrength,asafestresslineCDmaybe d drawn parallel ll ltothe h li lineAB. Let usconsider adesignpointPonthelineCD. NowfromsimilartrianglesCODandPQD,

Goodman Method for C bi ti of fStresses St Combination

Thisexpression doesnotincludetheeffectofstress p concentration.Itmaybenotedthatforductile materials,thestressconcentrationmaybeignored understeadyloads.Sincemanymachineand structuralpartsthataresubjectedtofatigueloads containregionsofhighstressconcentration,therefore aboveequationmustbealteredtoincludethiseffect. Insuchcases,thefatiguestressconcentrationfactor (Kf)isusedtomultiplythevariablestress(v).The aboveequationmaynowbewrittenas

Goodman Method for C bi ti of fStresses St Combination

F.S.=Factor of fsafety, f y m =Mean stress, u =Ultimate stress, v=Variable stress, e =Endurancelimitforreversedloading,and Kf =Fatiguestressconcentrationfactor. Consideringtheloadfactor,surfacefinish factorandsizefactor,theaboveequationmay bewritten as Kb =Loadfactorforreversedbendingload, Ksur =Surfacefinishfactor,and Ksz =Size Si factor. f t

NOTES

Goodman Method for C bi ti of fStresses St Combination

1.Theaboveequationisapplicabletoductile materialssubjectedtoreversedbendingloads (tensileorcompressive).Forbrittlematerials,the theoreticalstressconcentrationfactor(Kt)shouldbe applied li dto t th themeanstress t and dfatigue f ti stress t concentrationfactor(Kf)tothevariablestress.Thus forbrittlematerials,theequationmaybewrittenas

2.Whenamachinecomponentissubjectedto aloadotherthanreversedbending,thenthe endurance d li limit itf forthat th tt typeof f l loading di should h ld betakenintoconsideration. For reversed axial loading

Soderberg Methodfor C bi ti of fSt Combination Stresses


Astraight g lineconnecting gtheendurance limit(e)andtheyieldstrength(y),as shownbythelineABinFig.ontheright, followsthesuggestionofSoderberg line. line Thislineisusedwhenthedesignisbased onyield strength.
Proceedinginthesamewayasdiscussed inGoodmanscriteria,thelineABconnectinge andy,asshowninFig.,iscalledSoderberg's f l stressline. failure l If fasuitable bl factor f of fsafety f (F.S.)isappliedtotheendurancelimitandyield strength,asafestresslineCDmaybedrawn parallel ll lto t the th line li AB. AB BymakingthesamecalculationswithGoodmans line,thefollowingequationcanbefound

Soderberg Methodfor C bi ti of fSt Combination Stresses


Formachinepartssubjectedtofatigueloading, loading the fatiguestressconcentrationfactor(Kf)shouldbe appliedtoonlyvariablestress(v).Thustheabove equationmaybewrittenas

Consideringtheloadfactor,surfacefinishfactorand sizefactor,theequationmaybewritten as Note:TheSoderberg methodisparticularly usedforductilematerials.Foraxialloadingand torsion,theequation q shouldbemodifiedwith suitableparametersasinthecaseofGoodmans criteria.

Example p
Amachine component is subjectedtoaflexuralstresswhich fluctuatesbetween+300MPa and 150MPa. Determinethevalueofminimumultimatestrengthaccording to 1.Gerberrelation; ;2.Modified f Goodmanrelation; ;and3. Soderberg relation. Takeyieldstrength=0.55Ultimatestrength; Endurancestrength=0.5Ultimatestrength;and f factor of fsafety f y =2.

Given :1 =300MPa ; 2 = 150MPa ; y =0.55u ;e =0.5u ; F.S.=2 Weknowthatthemeanoraveragestress,

and variable stress,

1.According gtoGerberrelation
WeknowthataccordingtoGerberrelation relation,

(Taking +vesign)

2.AccordingtomodifiedGoodmanrelation
WeknowthataccordingtomodifiedGoodmanrelation

3.According gtoSoderberg g relation


We W k knowthat th taccording di to t Soderberg S d b relation, l ti

CombinedVariableNormal St Stress and dV Variable i bl Sh ShearSt Stress


Whenamachinepartissubjectedtobothvariablenormalstressanda variableshearstress;thenitisdesignedbyusingthefollowingtwo theoriesofcombinedstresses: 1.Maximumshear h stresstheory, h and d2.Maximumnormal lstresstheory. h According to Soderberg's formula (For reversed bending load)

Multiplyingthroughoutbyy, weget Thetermontherighthandsideoftheaboveexpressionisknownasequivalentnormal stressdue to reversed bending.

CombinedVariableNormal St dV i bl Sh Stress and Variable ShearSt Stress


Equivalent E i l tnormal lstress t duetoreversedbending,
Similarly,equivalentnormalstress duetoreversedaxialloading,

andtotalequivalentnormalstress,

CombinedVariableNormal St dV i bl Sh Stress and Variable ShearSt Stress


Forreversed F dtorsional t i l or shearloading,
Multiplyingthroughoutbyy,weget

Thetermontherighthandsideoftheaboveexpressionisknownas equivalentshearstress stress. Equivalentshearstressduetoreversedtorsional orshearloading,

CombinedVariableNormal St Stress and dV Variable i bl Sh ShearSt Stress


Themaximumshearstresstheory yisusedindesigning g gmachineparts p ofductilematerials. Accordingtothistheory,maximumequivalentshearstress,

Themaximumnormalstresstheoryisusedindesigningmachine fbrittle b i l materials. i l partsof Accordingtothistheory,maximumequivalentnormalstress,

Example p
Acantileverbeammadeofcolddrawncarbonsteelofcircularcrosssection asshowninFig.,issubjectedtoaloadwhichvariesfrom Fto3F. Determinethemaximumloadthatthismembercanwithstandforan indefinitelifeusingafactorofsafetyas2. 2 Thetheoreticalstress concentrationfactoris1.42andthenotchsensitivityis0.9. Assumethefollowing values : Ultimate stress =550MPa Yield stress =470MPa d li i =275MPa Endurance limit Sizefactor =0.85 0.89 Surface finish factor factor=0 89

Given :Wmin = F;Wmax =3F;F F.S. S =2;Kt = 1.42;q=0.9;u =550Mpa =550N/mm2 ; y =470MPa=470N/mm2 ;e =275MPa =275N/mm2 ;Ksz =0.85 0 85;Ksur =0.89 0 89 ThebeamasshowninFig.issubjectedtoa reversedbendingloadonly.Sincethepoint Aatthechangeofcrosssectioniscritical, thereforeweshallfindthebending momentatp pointA.
Weknowthatmaximumbending momentatp pointA, ,

Meanoraveragebendingmoment,

and variable bending moment,

andminimumbendingmomentatpointA, A

Section modulus

Mean bending stress,

and variable bending stress

Fatigue stress concentration factor

according to Soderberg Soderbergs s formula

according to Goodmans formula

Takinglargerofthetwovalues,wehave F=57.3NAns.

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