DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CE 1257 HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING LABORATORY

LABORATORY MANUAL

BY M. Sivakumar,

M.E., MISTE.

Lecturer in Civil Engineering

P.S.N.A. COLLEGE OF ENGG. & TECH., KOTHANDARAMAN NAGAR, DINDIGUL - 624 622
INDEX
Exp. Date Name of Experiment Page Marks Signature

No. CYCLE - 1 Study of Pressure measuring device Flow through Orifice (Constant Head Method) Flow through Orifice (Variable Head Method) Flow through Orificemeter Flow through Venturimeter Flow through pipes Major losses Flow through a Rectangular notch Flow through a Triangular notch CYCLE - 2 Study of Pumps and Turbine Pelton wheel Turbine Francis Turbine Centrifugal Pump Submersible Pump Gear Pump Flow through pipes Minor Losses Viva Question Average mark

no.

(out of 20)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

1 6 9 12 16 19 22 25

9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

28 35 41 46 50 53 57 61

1 STUDY OF PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICES

OBJECTIVE: To study the various pressure measuring devices.

Pressure Gauges:
The devices which are used, for recording pressure of a liquid at a point are known as pressure Gauges. They are of two types. 1. Manometers 2

2. Mechanical pressure gauges

Manometers:
They are devices, used to register pressure at a point or pressure difference between two points in a system, in terms of liquid. To measure higher ranges of pressures, heavier liquids like mercury are used as manometric liquids, Lighter liquids like water, carbon tetra-chloride, etc., are used as manometric liquids for lower pressure ranges. Types of manometers The common types of manometers are, i. ii. iii. iv. piezometer type U-Tube manometer U-Tube differential manometer and Micro manometers

Piezometer tube:
Piezometer tube is the simplest type of pressure gauge. It is a glass tube open at both ends. One end is open to atmosphere and the other end is connected to the point of the system where the pressure is to be found out. The Piezometer tube is kept in a vertical position. The liquid rises in the Piezometer tube until equilibrium is maintained. The height, through which the liquid rises in the tube, directly gives the pressure head of liquid some of the Piezometer tubes cannot be used to measure high pressures. They also cannot register negative or vaccum pressures.

U-Tube Manometer
U-Tube manometer is a tube bent in U-shape. The pressures in the two limbs are equal, since there is continuity of the manometric liquid at the common surface. Using this principle, the pressure `h` at the point `A` can be determined. The pressure at point `A` is given by the equation.

h = x (sm s1)
The differential manometers are used to measure the difference between two points.Fig.3 shows a U-Tube differential manometer. The two ends of manometer are connected to the point A and B, whose pressure difference is 3

found out. The pressure difference between the points A and B is given by the equation,

hA h

= h2s2 + sm h1s
=

If the liquids at point A and B are same, i.e., s1 difference is given by the equation,

s2, then the pressure

hA h B = x sm + s1(h 2 -h 1) =x

If the points A and B are at the same level, i.e., m = h 2 + x, then, pressure difference is given by the equation, hA h
B

Micro manometers
Micro manometers
are

otherwise called sensitive manometers or

precision manometers. The U-Tube manometer is made sensitive by enlarging one of its limbs. The limb with enlarged end is connected to the pressure point and the other limb is open to the atmosphere. The pressure at point A is given by the equation.

h= h2sm + a/A h2(sm s1) h1s1

`A` and `a` are the cross sectional areas of enlarged end and U-Tube respectively.

2. Mechanical pressure gauges

They can be used to record the pressure at a point. The common types of them are, 1. Bourdon pressure gauge. 2. Dead pressure gauge. 3. Diaphragm pressure gauge.

Bourdon pressure gauge

It is the most common type of pressure gauge. It consists of a hollow, bent, metallic tube of elliptical cross section, closed at the one end. The other end is connected to the point, the pressure of which is required.

When the liquid under pressure goes into the tube, it tends to become circular in cross- section, tending the tube to straighten itself. Since, the tube is encased in a circular cover; it becomes circular instead of straight. With the help of a simple pinion and sector arrangement, the elastic deformation of the Bourdons tube rotates the pointer. The pointer moves over a graduated dial to read the pressure directly. When the gauge is disconnected the pointer reads zero, since the pressure inside the tube is atmospheric pressure.

2 FLOW THROUGH ORIFICE

(Constant Head Method) Determine of Co-efficient of Discharge Experiment No. OBJECTIVE: To determine the co-efficient of discharge (Cd) of the orifice by constant head method. THEORY: Date:

An orifice is a small opening with closed perimeter provide in the side wall or bottom on the vessel. Theoretical discharge, Qt = a2gh Where, a h g Actual discharge, Qa Qa = = = = = Area of the orifice Head of the liquid above the center of orifice Acceleration due to gravity Actual volume of liquid collected in unit time Internal plan area of collection tank (A) Rise of liquid (H) -----------------------------------------------------Time of collection (t) the ratio between Qa and Qt

Cd APPARATUS USED: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Orifice, fitted to an orifice tank Piezomete Meter scale Calipers Stop watch

PROCEDURE: 1. The diameter of orifice and the internal plan dimensions of the collecting tank are measured. 2. The supply valve of the orifice tank is regulated and water is allowed to fill the orifice to a constant head (h). 3. The out let valve of the collecting tank is closed tightly and the time t required for H raise of water in the collecting tank is noted using a stopwatch.

4. The above procedure is repeated for different heads and the observations are tabulated and the coefficient of discharge calculated.

OBSERVATION AND TABULATION: Readin g no. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Head h (cm) Time for H= Raise, t(s) h Discharge (cm3/s) Qt = 2gh Qa = AH/t Coefficient of discharge Cd = Qa/Qt

MODAL CALCULATION: 1. Reading no. 2. Area of orifice a = /4 d2 = =

3. Internal plan area of collecting tank, A = l b = 4. Actual discharge, Qa = AH/t =

5. Theoretical discharge, Qt = 2gh 6. Coefficient of discharge, Cd = Qa/Qt

= =

GRAPH: Graphs Qa Vs h and Qt Vs h and draw, taking h and h on X-axis

RESULTS: The coefficient of discharge of the orifice meter Cd =

3 FLOW THROUGH ORIFICE

(Variable Head Method) Determine of Co-efficient of Discharge Experiment No. OBJECTIVE: To determine the co-efficient of discharge (Cd) of the orifice by variable head method. THEORY: Date:

The time taken for the liquid to descend from one level to another. When the liquid is discharged through the orifice with no inflow, is observed. The coefficient of discharge is calculated using the expression. Cd = 2 A {(h1)1/2 (h2)1/2} --------------------------T a (2g)1/2 Time required for the liquid to descend from h A a h1 h g
2 1

T head,

to h2

= = = = =

Internal plan area of the orifice tank. Area of the orifice Initial head in the orifice tank. Final head in the orifice tank. Acceleration due to gravity

APPARATUS USED: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. PROCEDURE: 1. The diameter of orifice and the internal plan dimensions of the orifice tank are measured. 2. By regulating the supply valve, water is allowed into the orifice tank, so the head above the center of the orifice is above h1 Orifice, fitted to an orifice tank Piezomete Meter scale Calipers Stop watch

3. The supply valve completely closed and the water valve in the orifice tank is allowed to descend. 4. When the descending water crosses the selected head h1. the stopwatch is started and the time T taken for the water to cross the head h2 is noted. 5. The above procedure is repeated for different heads and the observations are tabulated and the coefficient of discharge calculated. OBSERVATION AND TABULATION: Readin g no. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Head (cm) h1 h2 Time (T) Sec {(h1) (h2)1/2}
1/2

{(h1)1/2

(h2)1/2

Cd = 2 A {(h1)1/2 (h2)1/2}

T a (2g)1/2

MODAL CALCULATION: 1. Reading no. 2. Area of orifice a = /4 d2 3. Internal plan area of collecting tank, A = l b = = =

4. Coefficient of discharge, Cd =2 A {(h1)1/2 (h2)1/2} --------------------------T a (2g)1/2

10

GRAPH: Graphs {(h1)1/2 (h2)1/2} Vs T is drawn taking {(h1)1/2 (h2)1/2} on X-axis

RESULTS: The coefficient of discharge of the orifice meter Cd =

4 FLOW THROUGH ORIFICEMETER

Determination of coefficient of orifice meter Experiment No. OBJECTIVE: To determine the coefficient (K) of the orifice meter. THEORY: Orifice meter is a device, used to measure the discharge of any liquid flowing through a pipe line. The pressure difference between the inlet and diaphragm of the orifice meter is recorded using a mercury differential manometer, and the time is recorded for a measured discharge. Theoretical discharge, Date:

11

Qt = a1a2(2gh) Where, a1 = Area of inlet a2 = Area of orifice x = (h1 h2)

/ (a12 a22)
a2 / a1= 0.45

h = Differential head in terms of flowing liquids. = x [(Sm/S1)-1] = x [(13.6/1)-1] = 12.6 x. h1 = Manometric head in one limb of the manometer. h2 = Manometric head in other limb of the manometer. Sm = specific gravity of manometric liquid = 13.6 (mercury) S1 = specific gravity of flowing liquid = 1 (water) g = Acceleration due to gravity Qa = AH/t where, Qa = Actual discharge A = Internal Plan Area of collecting tank H = Rise of liquid t = Time of collection K = Qa/Qth

Where, K = Coefficient of Orifice meter Qa = Actual discharge Qt = Theoretical discharge APPARATUS USED: 1. An orifice meter 2. Differential U-Tube mercury manometer 3. Collecting tank fitted with piezometer and control valve 4. Stop watch 5. Metre scale. PROCEDURE:

12

1. The diameters of the inlet and the orifice are recorded and the
internal plan dimensions of the collecting tank are measured.

2. Keeping the outlet valve closed, the inlet valve is opened fully. 3. The outlet valve is opened slightly and the manometric heads in
both the limbs (h1 and h2) are noted.

4. The outlet valve of the collecting tank is closed tightly and the time
`t` required for `H` rise of water in the collecting tank is observed using a stop watch.

5. The above procedure is repeated by gradually increasing the flow

and observing the required readings.

6. The observations are tabulated and the coefficient of the orifice

meter computed.

OBSERVATION AND TABULATION: Manometric Readings (cm) Of mercury h1 h2 x= h1- h2

Discharge(cm3/s) h = 12.6 x in cm Time for H=10c Theoretical m Qt = Rise,t a1a2(2gh) 2 2 (s) (a1 a2 ) Actual Qa=AH t Co-efficient of Orifice meter K = Qa/Qt

SL. No.

13

Dimension of the collecting tank, l =

b=

Model Calculation Reading No Diameter of inlet pipe Area of inlet a1 d12 / 4

=
= = = =

Area of throat a2 a1 x 0.45

Internal plan area of collecting tank, A = lx b Actual discharge, Qa = AH t Theoretical Discharge, Qt = a1a2(2gh)
2 2 (a1 a2 )

Co-efficient of Orifice meter K = Qa / Qt GRAPH:

Graph Qa Vs h and Qa Vs h are draw taking h and h on X- axis.

RESULT: Coefficient of Orifice meter, k =

14

5 FLOW THROUGH VENTURIMETER

Determination of coefficient of Venturimeter Experiment No. OBJECTIVE: To determine the coefficient (K) of the venturimeter. THEORY: Venturimeter is a device, used to measure the discharge of any liquid flowing through a pipe line. The pressure difference between the inlet and the throat of the Venturimeter is recorded using a mercury differential manometer, and the time is recorded for a measured discharge. Theoretical discharge, Qt = a1a22gh / a12 a22 Where, a1 = Area of inlet a2 = Area of throat h = Venturi head in terms of flowing liquids. h = x [(sm / s1) 1] h1= Manometric head in one limb of the manometer. h2 = Manometric head in other limb of the manometer. Sm = specific gravity of manometric liquid = 13.6 (mercury a2 / a1= 0.35 Date:

15

S1 = specific gravity of flowing liquid = 1 (water) g = Acceleration due to gravity Qa = AH/t where, Qa = Actual discharge A = Internal Plan Area of collecting tank H = Rise of liquid t = Time of collection K = Qa/Qth Where, K = Coefficient of Orifice meter Qa = Actual discharge Qt = Theoretical discharge

APPARATUS USED:

1. A Venturimeter
2. Differential U-Tube mercury manometer 3. Collecting tank, fitted with piezometer and control valve 4. Stop watch

5. Metre scale.

PROCEDURE:

1. The diameters of the inlet and the throat are recorded and the
internal plan dimensions of the collecting tank are measured.

2. Keeping the outlet valve closed, the inlet valve is opened fully. 3. The outlet valve is opened slightly and the manometric heads in
both the limbs (h1 and h2) are noted.

4. The outlet valve of the collecting tank is closed tightly and the time
`t` required for `H` rise of water in the collecting tank is observed using a stop watch.

5. The above procedure is repeated by gradually increasing the flow

and observing the required readings. 16

6. The observations are tabulated and the coefficient of the

Venturimeter computed.

OBSERVATION AND TABULATION: Manometric Readings (cm) Of mercury h1 h2 x= h1- h2 h = 12.6 x in cm Discharge(mm3/s) Time for H=10 cm Rise, t (s) Theoretic Actual al Qt = Qa=A a1a2(2gh) H 2 2 t (a1 a2 ) Co-efficient of Venturi meter K = Qa/Qt

SL. No.

Model Calculation Reading No.

Area of inlet a1 = d12 / 4 = = =

Area of throat a2 = a1 x 0.35

Internal plan area of collecting tank, A = 1x b Actual discharge, Qa = AH t Theoretical Discharge, Qt = a1a2(2gh)
2 2 (a1 a2 )

Co-efficient of Venturi meter K = Qa / Qt = GRAPH: Graph Qa Vs h and Qa Vs h are drawn taking h and h on X- axis. RESULT: Coefficient of Venturimeter, k =

17

6 FLOW THROUGH PIPES MAJOR LOSSES

Determination of pipe friction factor Experiment No. Date:

OBJECTIVE: To determine the friction factor (f) of the given pipe. THEORY: When liquid flows through a pipe line, it is subjected to frictional resistance. The friction resistance depends upon the roughness of the inner surface of the pipe. More the roughness, greater is the frictional resistance. The loss of head between a selected length of pipe is observed for a measured discharge. The friction factor (f) is calculated by using the expression. hf =flv2 / 2gd Where, hf = Loss of head due to friction x = (h1 h2) x [(Sm / S1) 1] = 12.6 x h1 = Manometric head in one limb of the manometer. h2 = Manometric head in other limb of the manometer. Sm = Specific gravity of manometeric liquid = 13.6 (mercury) S1 = Specific gravity of flowing liquid = 1 (water) f = Friction factor L = Length of pipe (between the pressure tapping cocks). V = Velocity of flow in the pipe Qa = AH / t A = internal plan area of collecting tank. H = Height of collection in the collecting tank.

18

t = Time of collection for H rise in the collecting tank. a = Cross sectional area of pipe. d = Diameter of pipe. g = Acceleration due to gravity APPARATUS USED: 1. A pipe provided with inlet and outlet valves and tapping cocks. 2. Differential U-Tube mercury manometer 3. Collecting tank fitted with piezometer and control valve 4. Stop watch 5. Metre scale. PROCEDURE:

1. The diameter of the pipe is measured and the internal plan

dimensions of the collecting tank and the length of the pipeline between the two pressure tapping cocks are measured.

2. Keeping the outlet valve closed, the inlet valve is opened fully. 3. The outlet valve is opened slightly and the manometric heads in both
the limbs (h1 and h2) are noted.

4. The outlet valve of the collecting tank is closed tightly and the time
`t` required for `H` rise of water in the collecting tank is observed using a stop watch.

5. The above procedure is repeated by gradually increasing the flow and

observing the required readings.

6. The observations are tabulated and the friction factor computed.

OBSERVATION AND TABULATION: SL no Manometric Readings (cm) Of mercury Loss of head (12.6 x) Time for H= 10 cm Rise, t (s) 19 Discharge Velocity Q = AH /t V= Q/a Friction factor F= 2gdh Lv2

Differen h1 h2 ce x =h1h2 cm cm3 / sec cm/s

Dimensions of the collecting tank, l =

cm; b =

cm

Model calculation (reading no. . )

Cross sectional area of pipe, a = d2 / 4 Internal plan area of collecting tank, A = l x b Actual discharge, Qa = AH / t Velocity, V = Q /a Frictional factor = f = 2gdh Lv2 GRAPH: A Graph hf versus V2 is drawn, taking hf on X- axis. RESULT: = =
=

= =

mm2

Friction factor of the given pipe, f =

7 FLOW THROUGH A RECTANGULAR NOTCH

Determine of Co-efficient of Discharge OF A Rectangular Notch Experiment No. OBJECTIVE: 20 Date:

To determine the co-efficient of discharge (Cd) of the rectangular notch. THEORY: A notch may be defined as a large orifice with its liquid surface below its upper edge. Notches are used to measure discharges. The head over the sill of the notch is determined by collecting the water in a collecting tank for a particular raise and observing the time required for that rise. The coefficient of discharge is calculated by taking the ratio between the actual discharge and theoretical discharge. Theoretical discharge, Qt Where, B H g Actual discharge, Qa Qa = = = = = = 2/3B2gh3/2

Breadth of the notch Head above the sill of the notch Acceleration due to gravity Actual volume of liquid collected in unit time Internal plan area of collection tank (A) Rise of liquid (H) -----------------------------------------------------Time of collection (t) the ratio between Qa and Qt

Cd

APPARATUS USED: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. PROCEDURE: Notch tank Rectangular notch Hook gauge Collecting tank Stop watch Meter scale

21

1. The internal plan dimensions of the collecting tank and the breadth of the notch are measured. 2. The supply valve is opened and water is allowed to rise only up to the sill of the notch and then the supply valve is closed that. 3. The tip of the pointer of the hook gauge is adjusted such that the tie coincides with the free water surface 4. The sill level of the notch (h1) is noted from the hook gauge. 5. The supply valve is opened and the water is allowed flow through the notch, the tip of the pointer is adjusted to coincide with the water surface. 6. The reading in the hook gauge (h2) is noted. 7. The outlet valve of the collecting tank tightly closed. The time (t) taken for a know raise (H) in the collecting is noted. 8. Similarly, the above procedure is repeated by gradually increasing the heads of flow. 9. The observations are tabulated and the certificient of discharge calculated.

OBSERVATION AND TABULATION: Breath of the rectangular notch, B =

Internal plan dimensions of collecting tank Length, Breadth, l b = =

Hook gauge (mm) SI n o 1. Sill level Level at free surface

Head over the notch h = (h1h2 )

Time for H= mm raise, t (s)

Discharge (mm3/s) Coefficient Qt = of discharge Qa = AH/t 2/3B2gh3/ Cd = Qa/Qt 2

22

2. 3. 4. 5.

MODAL CALCULATION: 1. Reading no. 2. Internal area of collecting tank A = l b 3. Actual discharge Qa = AH/t 4. Theoretical discharge Qt = 2/3B2gh 3/2 5. Coefficient of discharge Cd = Qa/Qt GRAPH: A graph Qa Vs h is drawn taking h on x-axis = = = =

RESULTS: The coefficient of discharge Cd =

8 FLOW THROUGH A TRIANGULAR NOTCH

Determine of Co-efficient of Discharge OF A Triangular Notch Experiment No. OBJECTIVE: To determine the co-efficient of discharge (Cd) of the triangular notch. Date:

23

THEORY: A notch may be defined as a large orifice with its liquid surface below its upper edge. Notches are used to measure discharges. The head over the sill of the notch is determined by collecting the water in a collecting tank for a particular raise and observing the time required for that rise. The coefficient of discharge is calculated by taking the ratio between the actual discharge and theoretical discharge. Theoretical discharge, Qt Where, h g Actual discharge, Qa Qa = = = = = = 8/152gtan/2h5/2

Angle of the triangular notch Head above the sill of the notch Acceleration due to gravity Actual volume of liquid collected in unit time Internal plan area of collection tank (A) Rise of liquid (H) -----------------------------------------------------Time of collection (t) the ratio between Qa and Qt

Cd

APPARATUS USED: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. PROCEDURE: Notch tank Rectangular notch Hook gauge Collecting tank Stop watch Meter scale

24

1. The internal plan dimensions of the collecting tank and the breadth of the notch are measured. 2. The supply valve is opened and water is allowed to rise only up to the sill of the notch and then the supply valve is closed that. 3. The tip of the pointer of the hook gauge is adjusted such that the tie coincides with the free water surface 4. The sill level of the notch (h1) is noted from the hook gauge. 5. The supply valve is opened and the water is allowed flow through the notch, the tip of the pointer is adjusted to coincide with the water surface. 6. The reading in the hook gauge (h2) is noted. 7. The outlet valve of the collecting tank tightly closed. The time (t) taken for a know raise (H) in the collecting is noted. 8. Similarly, the above procedure is repeated by gradually increasing the heads of flow. 9. The observations are tabulated and the certificient of discharge calculated.

OBSERVATION AND TABULATION: Angle of the triangular notch Internal plan dimensions of collecting tank Length, Breadth, l b = = =

SI n o 1. 2.

Hook gauge (mm) Level at Sill free level surface

Head over the notch h = (h1h2 )

Time for H = mm raise, t (s)

Discharge (mm3/s) Qa = AH/t Qt =

8/152gtan/2h5/
2

Coefficient of discharge Cd = Qa/Qt

25

3. 4. 5.

MODAL CALCULATION: 1. Reading no. 2. Internal area of collecting tank A = l b 3. Actual discharge Qa = AH/t 4. Theoretical discharge Qt = 8/152gtan/2h 5/2 = = =
=

5. Coefficient of discharge Cd = Qa/Qt GRAPH: A graph Qa Vs h is drawn taking h on x-axis

RESULTS: The coefficient of discharge Cd =

9 STUDY OF PUMPS AND TURBINES

PUMP
A pump is a machine or a device, used for lifting liquids level to a higher level. It converts mechanical energy into pressure energy. Hence, it is used to increase the pressure energy of a closed system. A prime mover or an electric motor is required to operate the pump.

26

Classification of pumps
Pumps are broadly classified as 1. Reciprocating pump 2. Centrifugal pump

Reciprocating pump
A reciprocating pump derives its name from the reciprocating motion of the piston. It is also called a positive displacement pump. In this pump, the liquid is drawn and forced out of the cylinder by the movement of a piston or a plunger, working in a cylinder.

Description
The pump consists of a piston moving inside a cylinder. The cylinder is connected to the pump through a suction pipe on one side. There is a delivery pipe on the other side of the cylinder to discharge the liquid. Both the suction and delivery pipes are provided with one way valves or nonreturn valves near the cylinder. The piston has a crank and a connecting rod mechanism to drive it and is connected to a prime mover. When the prime mover is operated, the piston moves to and fro by the rotation of the crank wheel. Classification Reciprocating pumps are classified according to the strokes. 1. Single acting or single stroke reciprocating pumps. 2. Double acting or double stroke reciprocating pumps.

Single acting reciprocating pumps

In a Single acting reciprocating pump, the liquid acts on one side of the piston only. The vaccum, caused by the movement of the piston inside the cylinder sucks the liquid into the cylinder during the suction stroke and delivers it out during the delivery stroke. One revolution of the crank wheel produces only one suction stroke and only one delivery stroke.

Double acting reciprocating pump

27

In a double acting reciprocating pump, the liquid acts on both side of the piston. The suction and delivery strokes occur simultaneously. When the liquid is being sucked at one end of the piston, at the same time, it is being delivered at the other end. Each revolution of the crank wheel produces two, suction strokes and two delivery strokes.

Working of a Single acting reciprocating pump

When the piston moves forward (called suction stroke), vaccum is created inside the cylinder. The suction valve opens and the atmospheric pressure, acting on the surface of the liquid in the sump, pushes the liquid inside the cylinder through the suction pipe. During the backward stroke (called delivery stroke), the suction valve closes, the delivery valve opens and the liquid that is being sucked inside the cylinder during the suction stroke is pushed out into the delivery pipe. The operation is repeated. Thus, for each revolution of the crank wheel, there is one suction stroke and one delivery stroke.

Working of a Double acting reciprocating pump

It has two suction pipes and two delivery pipes connected to the cylinder. Both suction and delivery strokes take place simultaneously for every forward and backward strokes. The liquid acts on both sides of the piston. For each revolution of the crank wheel, there are two suction strokes and two delivery strokes. It is to be noted that only diagonally opposite suction and delivery valves open simultaneously. Reciprocating pumps may also be classified according to the number of cylinders as single cylinder (one cylinder only), two cylinders two cylinders only) and multi cylinder (more than two cylinders) pumps.

Centrifugal pump
A centrifugal pump derives its name from its centrifugal action. It raises the liquid from a lower level to a higher level by the action of centrifugal force. It converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy. It is otherwise known as rotodynamic pump.

28

Description A centrifugal pump has the following components. 1. Foot valve and strainer 2. Suction pipe 3. Vacuum gauge 4. Casing 5. Inlet or Eye 6. Impeller or Rotar 7. Outlet 8. Pressure gauge 9. Delivery valve 10. Delivery pipe 11. Air cock

Foot valve and strainer:

They are fitted to the bottom of the suction pipe. The foot valve is an one way valve. It keeps the suction pipe full even when the pump is not working. The strainer screens any solid matter from entering the foot valve.

Suction pipe:
It is the device, which measures the negative pressure inside the suction pipe.

Costing:
It is an air and watertight metallic covering within which the impeller is housed.

Inlet or Eye:
It is a wide circular opening through which the liquid enters the eye of the impeller from the suction pipe.

Impeller or rotar:

29

It is a rim made of strong meal and is provided with a number of vanes held between two circular discs.

Outlet:
It is the portion of the casing from where the liquid enters from the casing into the delivery pipe.

Pressure gauge: It is the device, which measures the pressure inside the
delivery pipe, which is above atmospheric.

Delivery valve:
It is to operate and regulate the flow of the liquid into the delivery pipe.

Air cock:
It is an outlet for the air to escape from the casing and suction pipe during priming.

Working:
Before starting the prime mover, priming is done by filling the casing and suction pipe with liquid to remove the air. Keeping the delivery valve closed, when the prime mover is started, the impeller rotates in the liquid leaves the vanes at the outer periphery with a high velocity and pressure. At the same time, a partial vacuum is created at the eye of the impeller. Due to this vacuum pressure in the eye of the impeller, the liquid from the suction pipe flows into the casing through the suction pipe. This is because of the atmospheric pressure acting on the liquid in the sump. Due to the high pressure of the leaving liquid, the liquid is raised from a lower level.

Precautions:
While starting a centrifugal pump, the following precautions are to be observed. 1. The pump should be primed completely. 2. The delivery valve should be fully closed.

30

3. The pump speed should be gradually increased. While stopping the pump, first the delivery valve should be fully closed and then only the prime mover should stopped. In order to develop high head, multi-centrifugal pumps are used. In these pumps, a number of impellers are connected in series so that the discharge from one pump goes into the inlet of the next and so on. All impellers are identical and keyed to the same shaft and enclosed in the same casing. Pressure is built up in steps. The impellers are surrounded by guide vanes and the liquid is guided through a bypass channel from the outlet of one stage to the entrance of the next until it is finally discharged into a wide chamber, from where it is pushed in to the delivery pipe.

Turbines
They are hydraulic machines, which converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy by utilizing the potential and kinetic energies of liquid. They are the prime movers, which run the electrical generators in a power station.

Classification of Turbines
The major classifications of turbine are 1. Impulse turbine (e.g. Pelton wheel) and 2. Reaction turbines (e.g. Francis turbine and Kaplan turbine) Impulse turbine are those turbines in which the liquid, when passes over the vanes of the wheel at atmospheric pressure and falls into the tail race at atmospheric pressure. the available head of liquid is converted into kinetic energy before the jet strikes the vanes. Reaction turbines are those turbines in which the liquid when passes over the moving vanes is under pressure (above atmospheric pressure). When the liquid flow out of the turbine into the tail race, the pressure is slightly below atmospheric. They utilise both pressure and kinetic energies of liquid.

Parts of turbine

31

Guide blades: they are provided to guide the water in the proper direction into the runner vanes

Rotating wheel or runner

It has vanes on its periphery. The water from the guide blades strikes the vanes, which rotates the runner.

Penstock
It is a pipeline which convey the water to the turbine

Tailrace
It is a water poll into which the water from the turbine ultimately discharges.

Casing
The casing of an impulse turbine prevents splashing of water. It leads water into the tailrace and acts as a safeguard against accidents the casing of reaction turbine leads water into the tailrace. It acts as a safeguard and maintains a difference in pressure.

Regulating arrangements
They are essential to control the discharge

Pelton wheel
It is named after its inventor, L.A.Pelton, an American engineer. It is used for high heads of water. The flow of water is tangential to the wheel. The runner of the pelton wheel turbine has a number of hemispherical twin cups called buckets with a driving wall called splitter. The jet of water impinges on the buckets with a high velocity it after flowing over the vanes leaves with a low velocity. The pressure of water is atmospheric. The splitter splits the jet into two parts and it glides over the buckets. After performing the work on the buckets, water is discharged into the tall race.

32

In general, pelton turbines have only a single jet. When a single jet could not develop the required power more number of jets may be provided by evenly spacing them around the same runner.

Francis turbine
It is named after its designer, James Francis, English engineer. It is an inward mixed flow reaction turbine under medium discharge. The jet of water enters radically at the outer periphery and leaves axially at the centre. The turbine consists of stationery guide blades, which guide the water to enter the wheel at the correct angle without shock. The guide blades can be rotated around a pivot at each of its centre. The runner consists of two annular plates placed parallel with a number of vanes. In this turbine, the pressure at the inlet is more than that at the outlet. After doing the work, water is discharged to the tailrace through a closed tube called draft tube.

Kaplan turbine
It is named after its inventor, Dr. Victor Kaplan, a German scientist. It is a low head, high discharged reaction turbine with axial flow. The runner resembles the propeller of a slip. Hence it is also called an improved propeller turbine. The flow of water is parallel to the shaft. It is very ideal when a large quantity of water is available of low head. The water from the scroll casing flows over the guide blades first and then over the vanes, the force exerted on the vane causes the shaft to rotate.

10 PELTON WHEEL TURBINE

33

Experiment No. OBJECTIVE:

Date:

To conduct the load test on the given pelton wheel turbine by keeping constant speed and variable gate opening and to draw the characteristic curves. THEORY: The pelton wheel turbine has been classified as an impulse turbine, where the available head is wholly converted into velocity energy with approximate axial flow. It is used for very high heads. It is a most efficient type of impulse turbine. The jet of water impinges on the wheel from one or more nozzles and strikes on the buckets. The buckets are of double hemispherical cup shape. The needle nozzle regulates the flow of water. The buckets are so shaped that the jet is discharged backwards. The supply to the turbine is affected by means of a centrifugal pump. An orifice meter measures the discharge. A differential Mano-meter measures the difference in pressure. The pressure gauge at the inlet of the turbine measures the net head supplied by the pump to the turbine. Input power supplied to the turbine is calculated from the net supply head on the turbine and the discharge through the turbine. The output power from the turbine is calculated from the readings taken on the rope dynamometer and the speed of the shaft. A tachometer is used to measure the speed of the shaft. The efficiency of the turbine is computed from the output and the input. For any setting of the spear first the turbine is run for sometime at a light load. In the variable speed test, the brake load is increased gradually by adding dead weights on the load hanger until the turbine finally ceases to revolve. Regulating the discharge gate valve of the pump can vary the net supply head on the turbine. Formula used: Discharge to the turbine, 34

Cd = a1a2 (2gh) / (a12 a22) Where, K = Coefficient of orifice meter = 0.98 h = Manometric head in metres a1 = Area of pipe in sq.m a2 = Area of throat in sq.m g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m /sec2 Input power to the turbine, P = WQH Nm/s or Joules/s or Watts H = Total head (or net supply head) in metres Po = (2NT) / 60 Nm/s or watts Where, T = Torque in Nm = (effective radius of brake drum in metres)x (Net brake load on the drum in N) = (D +t/2) x W N= Speed of shft in rpm D = Diameter of brake drum in metre t = thickness of the belt Wb = brake load in N

Where,

= (Po / Pi) x 100 %

= Efficiency

Po = Output power Pi = Input power At the point of maximum efficiency, the specific speed of the runner and the speed ratio are calculated. Specific speed of turbine = Ns = (N Po) / H5/2 Speed ratio = Nr = Dn / 60 2gh Where, Po = Maximum output power in Nm/s or J/s or Watts

= Speed corresponding to maximum output power in rpm

H = Total head corresponding to maximum output power in m APPARATUS USED: 35

1. Pelton wheel unit 2. Supply pump 3. Orifice meter with differential manometer 4. Rope brake dynamometer 5. Tachometer PROCEDURE: Constant speed 800rpm 1) The supply pump is first started with the discharge valve completely closed. 2) The head is adjusted to be 30 m of water by fully opening the gate (18 turns ) 3) The loads on the brake drum are adjusted to get the constant speed of 800 rpm and the following readings are taken. a) Pressure gauge reading (H) b) Manometer reading (h1 and h2) c) Speed of the shaft (N) d) Dead weight on the load hanger (W) 4) Subsequent set of above readings are taken and tabulated for various gate openings (i.e. 16, 14, 12, 10, 8.turns) and varying the brake loads for constant speed of 800 rpm. Constant Head (30 m) full gate opening 1. The supply pump is first started with the discharge valve completely closed. 2. The gate valve is fully opened and the head on the water supplied to the turbine is adjusted to 30 m of water by regulating the discharge valve. 3. The Dead loads on the brake are adjusted for 600 rpm and the following e) Pressure gauge reading (H) f) Manometer reading (h1 and h2) g) Speed of the shaft (N)

36

h) Dead weight on the load hanger (W) 4. The dead loads on the brake are adjusted for various speeds and the above sets of readings are observed and are tabulated. OBSERVATIONS & TABULATION: Diameter of pipe Diameter of orifice d1 = m d2 = m m WH = N

Constant of orifice meter C = Diameter of brake drum D = Weight of load hanger and rope, GRAPH: The following graphs are drawn separately for constant speed test and constant head test. Constant speed test (% Efficiency as ordinate) 1. Output power (Po) Vs % Efficiency () 2. Gate opening (turns ) Vs % Efficiency () Constant Head test (Speed as abscissa) 1. Speed (n) Vs Output power (Po) 2. Speed (n) Vs % Efficiency () At the point of maximum efficiency of the graphs the corresponding values of efficiency output power and speed are arrived at from the graphs. Then the specific speed of runner and speed ration are computed. Diameter of Rope, thickness of the belt, t = m

37

Constant speed gate opening

variable Constant head full gate opening

3 38

Reading No. Gate opening (turns) Pressure gauge reading H Kg /cm2 Kg /cm2 X 10 h1(m) h2(m) H = 12.6 (h1-h2)(m)

Discharge Q = KCh (m3/s) W = 9.81 x 103 x Q (N/s) Input power p = WH (Nm/s or J/s) Dead weight on the load hanger WD (N) Total brake load WB = WH + WD(N) Spring Balance Reading S(N) Targue T = D + t / 2 (WB-S) (Nm) Shaft Speed n (rpm) Output power Po = 2Nt / 60 (Nm / s or J/s) % Efficiency n = (Po / Pi) x 100 REMARKS

Manometer reading

RESULT:

Sl.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Characteristics Maximum efficiency Output power Speed Specific speed Speed ratio

Constant speed

11 FRANCIS TURBINE
Experiment No. 39 Date:

OBJECTIVE
To study the characteristics of the Francis turbine at full and 0.6 guide vane opening.

THEORY
The Francis turbine is a reaction turbine with mixed flow runner. Around the runner, a set of stationery guide vanes directs the water into the moving vanes. The guide vanes also serve as gates. A handle can adjust the gate openings. A chamber called spiral chamber surrounds the guide vanes. On the discharge side, the water passes to the tail race by a tube called Draft Tube. The draft tube enables the turbine to be set at a higher level without sacrifice in head. Moreover, it entails regaining of pressure energy, thus increasing the efficiency of the turbine. Pressure gauge and vacuum gauge are set to measure the heads at certain points. The supply to the turbine is affected by means of a centrifugal pump. An orifice meter measures the discharge passing into the turbine. A differential mano-meter measures the difference in pressure. The input power supplied to the turbine is calculated from the net supply head on the turbine and the discharge through the turbine. The output power from the turbine is calculated from the readings taken on the rope brake dynamometer and the speed of the shaft. A tachometer is used to measure the speed of the shaft. The efficiency of the turbine is computed from the output and the input. For any particular setting of the guide vanes, first the turbine is run for sometime at a light load then the brake loading is increased gradually by adding dead weights on the load hanger. The net supply head on the turbine can be maintained constant at the required value by adjusting the discharge valve of the pump. Discharge to the turbine, Cd = a1a22gh / a12 a22

40

Where, Cd = Constant of orifice meter = a1a22gh / a12 a22 h = Manometric head in metres a1 = Area of pipe in sq.m a2 = Area of pipe in sq.m Input power to the turbine, P = WQH Nm/s or Joules/s or Watts Where, W = Q = Specific weight of water = 9.81 x 103 N/m3 H = Total head (or net supply head) in metres h = Hs +Hd +X Hs = Vaccum head in metres Hd = Pressure head in metres X = Height of centre of pressure gauge above the centre of vacuum gauge in metres. Output power from the turbine Po = 2nT / 60 Nm / s or joules/s or watts Where, T = Torque in Nm = (effective radius of brake drum in metres) x (Net brake load on the drum in N) = (D +H2x (Ws-s) t = thickness of the belt n = Speed of shaft in rpm D = Diameter of brake drum in metre Ws = brake load in N % Efficiency of the pump

a2 / a1 = 0.35

g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m /sec2

= (Po / Pi) x 100

Specific speed of turbine = Ns = Unit speed of turbine = No =

Po / H5/2

/H

Unit power of turbine = Po = Po/H3/2

41

Where, Po = Maximum output power in Nm/s or J/s or Watts

= Speed corresponding to maximum output power in rpm

H = Total head corresponding to maximum output power in m

APPARATUS USED: 1. Francis turbine unit 2. supply pump 3. Orifice meter with differential manometer 4. Rope brake dynamometer 5. Tachometer 6. Pressure gauge 7. Vacuum gauge PROCEDURE: 1. The supply pump is first started with the discharge valve completely closed. 2. The turbine is adjusted to the requested gate opening by operating the handle. 3. Water is fed into the turbine and the turbine is allowed to run for sometime. 4. The rope brake is adjusted for the required speed of the shaft (say 600rpm) and the following sets of readings are taken. i) Speed of the shaft (n) j) Manometer reading (h1 and h2) k) Pressure gauge reading (Hd) l) Vaccum gauge reading (Hs)

42

m) Height of centre of pressure gauge above the centre of vaccum gauge (X). n) Dead weight on the load hanger (Wd) o) Spring balance reading(s) 5. Subsequent set above readings are taken and tabulated by gradually increasing the brake load for different speeds. GRAPH: The following graphs are drawn separately for each guide vane opening (full open and 0.6 open), taking the speed on the X-axis. 1. Speed (n) Vs Output power (Po) 2. Speed (n) Vs % Efficiency (n) 3. Speed (n) Vs Discharge At the point of maximum efficiency of the graphs the corresponding values of efficiency, output power, discharge and speed are arrived at from the graphs. Then the specific (Ns),Unit speed (Nu) and Unit power (Pu)are computed. RESULT: Sl.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Characteristics Maximum efficiency Maximum output power Speed Discharge Specific speed Unit speed Unit power Reading No. h1 (M) Mercury h2 (M) h =12.6 (h1-h2)(M) Water reading (m) Manometer Guide vane setting Full open 0.6 open

43

Discharge Q = (m3/sec) Cd = a1a22gh / a12 a22 W = 9.81 x 103 x Q (N/s)

Vaccum gauge reading (Hs) m Pressure gauge reading (Hd) m Net supply head or total head H=Hs + Hd + x (m) Input power p = WQH (Nm/s or J/s) WD (N) Wb (N) Torgue T = D + t / 2 (WB-S) (Nm) Shaft Speed N (rpm) Output power Po = 2nt / 60 (Nm / s or J/s) % Efficiency = Po / Pi x 100 Full open

12 CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
Experiment No. OBJECTIVE: Date:

44

To determine the best driving conditions of the given centrifugal pump of constant speed and to draw the characteristic curves. THEORY: A pump is a device, used for lifting liquids from a lower level to a higher level. The pump increases the energy of a liquid in a closed system. It converts mechanical energy into pressure energy. A centrifugal pump derives its name from its centrifugal action. It converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy. The energy supplied to the pump is measured from an energy meter. The work done by the pump is obtained from the measured discharge and the total lift. The total lift is computed from the observations of the suction gauge, pressure gauge and their relative positions. Discharge, Qa = AH/t where, Qa = Actual discharge A = Internal Plan Area of collecting tank H = Rise of liquid = 10 cm t = Time of collection Total head, (H) = Hs +Hd +X Where, Hs = Suction head in meters of water. Hd = Delivery head in meters of water X = Difference in level between the centres of vaccum and pressure gauges. Input to the motor, (p1) = pi = 3600 x Nr x 1000 watts Ne T Where, Ne = Energy meter constant in revolution per KWh. Nr = Number of revolutions of energy meter disc in seconds. T = Time taken for 5 revolutions in the energy meter. Output from the pump, Po = WQH 45

Where, W = unit weight of water 9810 N / m3 Q = actual discharge m3/s H = Total head m Efficiency of the pump (n) = (Po / Pi) x 100 Where, Po = Output Power Pi = Input power APPARATUS USED: 1. centrifugal pump 2. Collecting tank 3. piezometer 4. Metre scale. 5. Stop watch 6. Energy meter 7. Pressure gauge 8. Vaccum gauge 9. Driving unit. PROCEDURE: 1. The internal plan dimensions of the collecting tank and the difference in level between the centres of vaccum and pressure gauges (x) measured. 2. The speed of the pump and the energy meter constant (Ne) are noted. 3. The pump is primed with water. 4. With the delivery valve fully closed the driving unit is started. 5. By regulating the delivery valve, the discharge and hence the delivery head are varied. For each position of the delivery valve, from completely closed to maximum open. a) Vaccum gauge reading(Hs) b) Pressure gauge reading (Hd)

46

c) Time (T) taken for Nr revolutions of the energy meter disc. d) Time taken for a particular rise (h) of water level in the collecting tank, keeping output valve completely closed. 6. The above observations, for different delivery valve openings, are tabulated. The efficiency of the pump is computed. 7. GRAPH: The following grapes are drawn taking Q on X-axis. 1. Discharge (Q) Vs head (H) 2. Discharge (Q) Vs output (Po) 3. Discharge (Q) Vs percentage efficiency (n) RESULT: The characteristic curves are drawn from the point of maximum efficiency the best driving conditions are found out. The best driving conditions of the pump are obtained when, 1. Discharge (Q) = 2. Head (H) 3. Output (Po) = =

4. Efficiency (n) =

Observations & Tabulation

Discharg Input the motor Remarks Time for Time for Efficienc Output Sl. N o Suction head(Hs ) Total Delivery head (Hd)

47

Kg/cm2 x10 m of water

h = 10 cm Rise,

Nr = 5 Revolutions of energy meter disc, t(s)

H= Hs + Hd + X(m)

Kg/cm2

of water

watts

TPi = 3600 x Nr x 1000 Watts

10-3 x 13.6

t(s)

Po = WQH

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Speed of the pump = Energy meter constant (Ne) =

rpm revolutions/Kwh m m

Internal plan dimensions of collecting tank, Length Breadth = m l= b=

Difference in level between the centres of the vaccum and pressure gauge, x

Model calculation (reading no.)

Internal an area of collecting tank A = l x B Actual discharge Qa = Ah / T = = mm2 mm3 / s

48

from the pump

head

y of the pump

Ne

n = (Po / Pi) x 100

e Q = Ah/t

mm of Hs

Output from the pump Po = WQH Input the motor Pi = 3600 x Nr x 1000 Ne T

= = =

watts watts %

% Efficiency of the pump n = (Po / Pi) x 100

13 SUBMERSIBLE PUMP
Experiment No. OBJECTIVE: To draw the characteristic curves of submersible pump. THEORY: Pump devices are used for lifting liquids from a lower level to a higher level. It converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy. Submersible pump essentially consists of a multi stage set. Each set is made of a mixed flow impeller with axial diffuser assembly. The shaft of the pump is connected to the motor, which is housed on the bottom of the set. The pump and the motor assembly are submerged in water. The energy supplied to the pump is measured using energy meter. The work done by the pump is obtained from the measured discharge and total lift. Discharge, Total head (h) Input the motor Efficiency APPARATUS USED: 1. Submersible pump 2. Collecting tank 3. Metre scale 4. Pressure gauge Qa = Cd a1a2(2gh) / (a12 a22) = Hd + X Pi = 3600 x Nr x 1000 Ne T = (Po / Pi) x 100 = % Date:

Output from the pump Po = WQH

49

5. Stop watch 6. Driving unit PROCEDURE: 1. The motor is started. 2. The following readings are noted. a. The pressure gauge readings in the delivery side of the pump (Hd). b. The height between the pressure gauge and water level (X). c. Time taken for 3 revolutions in energy meter by means of stopwatch. 3. Take several set of readings, varying the head from maximum to minimum. 4. For various heads input, output and efficiency pump are calculated.

GRAPH:
1. Discharge Vs Efficiency 2. Discharge Vs head, taking discharge along X-axis.

Observations & Tabulation: Discha rge Qa = Cd Output from Efficie ncy of Sl.N Manometer readings o Total Time Delivery pressure

50

Input of the

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
h1 h2 cm cm h = 12.6 x (h2 h1) x 10-2 Kg/c m2

Model calculation
Hd m of water head H= Hd + X

Area of inlet, a1 =

Diameter of inlet, d1 =

Area of throat, a2 = a1 x 0.35 =

51 a1a2(2gh) the pump 1 Ne Tpump the pump

for Nr = 5 Revolutions of energy meter disc, T(s)

2 2 (a1 a2 )

Po = WQH

Nm / s

Pi = 3600 x Nr x 1000 watts

n = (Po / Pi) x 100

Qa = Cd a1a2(2gh) / (a12 a22) = = Output of pump Po = WQH W = unit weight of water = 9810 N/m3 Input of pump Pi = 3600 x Nr x 1000 = Ne T watts % m3/s

% Efficiency of the pump

= (Po / Pi) x 100 =

RESULT: 1. The maximum efficiency = 2. Head corresponding to maximum efficiency = 3. Discharge corresponding to maximum efficiency =

14 GEAR PUMP
Experiment No. Date:

52

OBJECTIVE: To study the performance and to draw the characteristic curve of gear pump. THEORY: Although the gear pump which consists of two gears, yet its action on liquid to be pumped is not dynamic and it merely displaces the liquid from one side to the other. However, the flow of liquid to be pumped is continuous and uniform and there is no change of velocity and acceleration under normal stable conditions. This type of pump is widely used for cooling water and pressure oil to be supplied for lubrication to motors, turbines machine tools etc.. The external gear pump in its simplest form consists of two identical intermeshing spur wheels working with a fine clearance inside the casing. The wheels are so designed, that they form a fluid tight joint at the point of contact. One of the wheels is keyed to the driving shaft (rotor) and the other revolves as a driven wheel (idler). The pump is first filled with the liquid to be pumped before it is started. As the gear wheels rotate, the liquid is trapped in between their teeth and flown to the discharge end round the casing. The rotating gears build up sufficient pressure to force the liquid into the delivery pipe. Each tooth of the gear acts like a piston or plunger of on reciprocating pump and hence the pump can be termed a positive displacement pump. % Efficiency of the pump n = (Po / Pi) x 100 = Where, Po = output power = WQaH W = specific weight of oil = 9810 x 0.8 Qa = Actual discharge = Ah / t H =Total head = Hs +Hd A = Internal plan dimensions of the collecting tank h = Rise in the collecting tank = 10 cm = 0.01 m %

53

t = Time taken for the rise in the collecting tank Input power to the motor,(p1) = pi = 3600 x Nr x 1000 watts Ne t Ne = Energy meter constant Nr = Number of revolutions of energy meter disc T = Time taken for Nr revolution of the energy meter disc. APPARATUS USED: 1. Gear pump with driving unit 2. Stop watch 3. Metre scale 4. Collecting tank with a piezometer tube PROCEDURE: 1. The pump is switched on by adjusting the delivery valve, the pressure gauge is set. 2. For this particular pressure gauge reading the time taken T for Nr revolution in the energy meter, time taken t for a particular volume in the collecting tank and the vacuum gauge reading are recorded. 3. The experiment is repeated for different delivery pressures and the observations are tabulated. 4. The internal plan dimension of collecting tank and the energy meter constant are noted.

OBSERVATION AND TABULATION:

54

Sl.

No.

Input watts Length Breadth l=

L = 0.3 m

Suction head in mm Hg m of oil Hs kg /cm

2

Model Calculation

power

Ne m oilTotal head m

Specific gravity of oil b = 0.2 m b=

Kg/cm2Pressure gauge reading rise in collection tankTime taken for h = 10cm

Pi

Output power Po = WQH =

Actual discharge, Q = Ah / T =

% Efficiency = (Po / Pi) x 100 =

= 0.8 (given)

Pressure head Hd `m` of oil H = Hs+ Hd in `m` of

Internal plan dimensions of collecting tank,

Energy meter constant (Ne) = 900 rev/Kwh

3600

55

Time taken for Nr = Revolutions of energy meter in seconds Actual discharge Qa mm3/s Input power Pi Watts Output power Po =Watts Efficiency % Remarks

Nr

1000

Specific weight of oil W oil = 0.8 x103

H=P/W Specific gravity = (Woil / Wwater) 0.8 = (Woil / 1000 kg/m3) Woil = 0.8 x 1000

GRAPH: The following grapes are drawn taking total head H on X-axis 1. Total head (H) Vs (Qa) Actual discharge 2. Total head (H) Vs (Pi) Input power 3. Total head (H) Vs % Efficiency

RESULT: 1. Maximum percentage efficiency of the pump = 2. Input power corresponding to maximum efficiency = 3. Head corresponding to maximum efficiency = 4. Discharge corresponding to maximum efficiency =

15
56

FLOW THROUGH PIPES MINOR LOSSES

Experiment No. OBJECTIVE To determine the loss of head coefficient for flow through pipes due to i) ii) iii) iv) THEORY Whenever the velocity of a fluid is changed, either in direction or magnitude, by a change in direction or size of the pipe, friction is generated in addition to the skin friction from flow through the straight pipe. Such friction includes from friction resulting from vortices that develop when the normal streamlines are distrusted when boundary layer separation occurs. The expressions for loss of head sudden expansion, sudden bend, sudden contraction and gradual bend are obtained based on equation of continuity and Bernoullis theorem. Sudden enlargement Sudden bend Gradual bend Sudden contraction Date:

a. Loss of head due to Sudden enlargement He=(V1 V2)2/2g b. Loss of head due to Sudden bend Hb=0.5 V2/2g c. Loss of head due to Gradual bend Hb= V2/2g d. Loss of head due to Sudden contraction Hc=0.375V2/2g APPARTUS REQUIRED 1. 2. 3. 4. PROCEDURE Piezo meter Stop watch Meter scale Collecting fitted with piezo meter

57

1. The pipe section having sudden contraction is connected to piezo meter by flexible tube 2. The remaining pipes are kept closed 3. The main inlet valve is opened and piezo meter head h1 and h2 are noted 4. The control valve in the connecting tank is closed and the time taken for H cm raise in water level in the tank is noted 5. The above procedure is repeated for various discharges 6. The same procedure is repeated for the flow through pipes (having sudden bend, gradual bend and sudden expansion)

For Sudden Enlargement Sl. No. S1---------- XSm S1Loss of head (HF) Manometric readings mm Velocity (cm/s) Discharge Q = AH/t (mm3/sec) Coefficient Cc or Cb = He/HF

Time for H =

X = (h1-h2)

V1

V2

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

58

He=(V1 V2)2/2g

V = (V1 V2)

Raise t(s)

For Sudden bend, Gradual bend and Sudden contraction Sl. No. Manometric readings mm Raise t(s)Time for H = S1---------- XSm S1Loss of head (HF)

Discharge Q = AH/t (mm3/sec)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Model calculation Reading no. Cross sectional area of a pipe a = d 2/4 Internal plan area of collecting tank, A = l b Actual discharge, Qa = AH/T 59 = = = =

Coefficient Cc or Cb = He/HF

Head lossHe=0.5 (V2/2g)

(mm/s)Velocity V = Q/a

X = (h1-h2)

V2

(mm/s)

Velocity = Q/a

Loss of head due to Sudden enlargement He=(V1 V2)2/2g= Loss of head due to Sudden bend Hb=0.5 V2/2g = Loss of head due to Gradual bend Hb= V2/2g =

Loss of head due to Sudden contraction Hc=0.375V2/2g= GRAPH 1. Toatal head hf Vs V2 2. hf Vs V, taking V on X-axis RESULTS 1. Loss of head due to Sudden enlargement He= 2. Loss of head due to Sudden bend Hb= 3. Loss of head due to Gradual bend Hb= 4. Loss of head due to Sudden contraction Hc=

60

16
VIVA QUESTIONS FLOW THROUGH PIPES Determination of pipe friction factor Losses in pipe flow due to change of section and change of direction 1. Why does pressure along a horizontal pipe go on decreasing? 2. On what factors Darcys friction factor depending? 3. What are HGL and TEL? 4. Differentiate major and minor losses? FLOW THROUGH VENTURIMETER 1. What is the use of venturimeter? 2. What are the important components of venturimeter? 3. Why is the length of diverging cone greater than that of converging cone of venturimeter? 4. Compare the Cd of venturimeter with other flow meters. FLOW THROUGH ORIFICEMETER 1. What is the principle of Orificemeter? 2. What are the advantages of Orificemeter over than flow meters? 3. What is Vena- contracta? 4. Write the Bernoullis equation between inlet and orifice plate? RECIPROCATING PUMP 1. Give the working principle of reciprocating pump? 2. What is the difference between SARP and DARP? 3. What is the use of air vessel? 4. What is indicator diagram? 5. Which type of pump is used for general day to day purposes? CENTRIFUGAL PUMP 1. What is the energy conservation that takes place in the case of a pump? 2. What is the working principle of centrifugal pump? 3. Define specific speed of a pump? 4. What is NPSH of a pump?

61

5. What is the purpose of foot valve? GEAR PUMP 1. Give the working principle of gear pump? 2. Give its uses. 3. What are the other rotary pumps? 4. What is the max. Pressure that can be developed by the gear pump? SUBMERSIBLE PUMP 1. What is multi-stage pump? 2. How many impellers are there in the submersible pump? 3. What is the significance of specific speed? 4. Mention the important characteristics of submersible pump? FLOW THROUGH RECTANGULAR NOTCH 1. 2. 3. 4. What is use of rectangular notch? What is necessity for providing baffle walls? What are the different between notch and weir? In what way triangular notch is superior to a rectangular notch.

FLOW THROUGH TRIANGULAR NOTCH 1. What are the basics equation used in deriving the discharge formula for triangular notch? 2. What is use of a triangular notch? 3. What are the advantages of a triangular notch over a rectangular notch? PELTON WHEEL TURBINE 1. What is an impulse turbine? 2. Define specific speed. 3. What is the need for casing in Pelton wheel? FRANCIS TURBINE 1. 2. 3. 4. Differentiate between impulse and reaction turbine? What is purpose of draft tube? Define specific speed of turbine. State the function of spiral casing.

62

63