Notes on Earth Science:

EARTH SCIENCE
-is the all-embracing term referring to the study of the earth as a whole-its solid structure, its waters, its atmosphere and its status in the universe.

BRANCHES:
GEOLOGY study of the solid earth, the materials of which it is composed and the processes by which it evolves. ASTRONOMY-study of all matter and energy in the universe involving celestial bodies such as planets, stars and galaxies. METEOROLOGY is the study of the earths atmosphere, its composition, structure and the many changes taking place in it. OCEANOGRAPHY- study of the earths oceans HYDROLOGY study of the earths waters in their several states

GEOLOGY- study of the solid earth, the materials of which it is composed and the processes by which it evolves. BRANCHES: PHYSICAL GEOLOGY science of the earth, the materials of which it is composed, and the processes that are acting upon them. HISTORICAL GEOLOGY the use of the principles of geology to reconstruct and understand the history of the earth -study of the evolution of the earth

ASTRONOMICAL STUDIES ABOUT THE EARTH

HELOICENTRIC MODEL sun-centered universe Supporters: 1. Aristotle -1st to propose the idea that the sun is the center of the universe but his idea is rejected 2. Aristarchus -1st Greek to advocate the heliocentric model 3. Pythagoras proposed that the earth rotates upon on its axis and revolves around the sun on its orbit 4. Copernicus the man best known for the heliocentric theory 5. Galileo- invented the 1st astronomical telescope 6. Kepler- three fundamental laws of planetary motion 7. Newton- laws of gravitation and motion

GEOCENTRIC MODEL earth-centered universe Supporters: 1. Claudius Ptolemy- man best known for the geocentric theory 2. Tycho Brahe- opposes the heliocentric theory of Copernicus

AGE OF THE EARTH

-4.6 billion years old How do they determine the age of the Earth? Carbon dating or isotopic dating By collecting rock samples in the moon (Apollo lunar mission) Examining meteorites, extraterrestrial fragments of rocks and/ or metals fallen to earth

SIZE AND SHAPE OF THE EARTH

Size: 43 200 km, proposed by Erasthosthenes How? Measuring angles of celestial bodies in different location Measuring the distance between these points Finding their circumference

Shape: oblate spheroid (flattened poles, bulging equator) Cause: rapid rotation of the earth on its axis Effect: produces slight disturbances on the motions of the moon and artificial satellites

MOTIONS OF THE EARTH

ROTATION earths motion around its axis Causes day and night Completed within 24 hours =1 day

REVOLUTION earths movement around the sun in its orbit As the earth revolves, the earth tilts at 23.5, causing seasons around the world. Completed within 365.25 days = 1 solar year

STRUCTURES AND COMPOSITION OF THE EARTH

- 75% - water - 25% -land LAND SURFACE -characterized by different land forms - CONTINENTS- biggest land mass - ISLANDS smallest land mass SOIL: - TOPSOIL-fertile soil, clay, gravel, sands, large boulders - SUBSOIL pebbles, sands - BEDROCK- big rocks WATER SURFACE OCEANS are deeper and more complicated than the highest land form. Example: Mt. Everest tallest land form( 8, 800 meters) Marianas Trench deepest ocean feature ( 11 034 meters)

Why oceans are hard to explore: 1. Lack of oxygen 2. Pressure in depth Echo sounder the device used to study the geography of the oceans

THE INTERIOR STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

Studied and known through the study of earthquake waves

Two Kinds of waves: 1. TRANSVERSE WAVES -particles move at right angles to the wave motion - also known as shear waves or secondary waves - can only travel in solids -ex. Shaking ones end of the rope up and down 2. LONGITUDINAL WAVES - moves in the same direction that that the waves are traveling, creating rarefactions and compressions of the particles - also known as P waves or Primary waves - can travel through solids, liquids and gases

Note: Since the transverse waves cannot pass through the earth, it supports the theory that the core of the earth must be liquid.

EARTHS INTERIOR LAYERS:

CRUST thinnest layer, where we live MOHOROVICIC DISCONTINUITY boundary between the crust and the mantle MANTLE- 80% of the Earths volume, magma is located and formed GUTENBERG DISCONTINUITY boundary between mantle and core INNER CORE solid, composed of nickel and copper OUTER CORE liquid, composed of nickel and copper LITHOSPHERE rocky portion of the earths crust ASTHENOSPHERE solid part between the mantle and the crust that can flow like plastic

OTHER LAYERS OF THE EARTH:

LITHOSPHERE outer earth HYDROSPHERE -water, oceans ATMOSPHERE - air MAGNETOSPHERE earths magnetic envelopes CENTROSPHERE - earths interior BIOSPHERE living sphere

MAPS systematic representation of all or a part of the earth on a flat surface

Charts other term for hydrographic and aeronautical maps Atlas- collection of maps and charts Globe- a sphere with a representation of the earth on its surface Most accurate representation of the earth

BASIC FEATURES OF MAPS

TYPES: TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS POLITICAL MAPS - show landforms - show national and local boundaries -show relative sizes of towns and cities and their political importance - show routes and distances - show dept of water and the topography of the ocean floor -shows weather phenomena for a particular period - shows the distribution of rock formations GRID lines on the maps Ex. Longitude, latitude, meridians, equator SCALE- the ratio between the distance or area on the map to the distance or area of the earths surface SYMBOLS AND COLORS RED- urban areas, important roads, public land, subdivision lines BLUE- water features BLACK- construction work(homes, schools, churches, roads and so on)

NAVIGATION CHARTS HYDROGRAPHIC MAPS WEATHER MAP GEOLOGIC MAP

NOTE: A separate note is given for the common map symbols.

TIME- basic concepts that deals with the occurrence of events

Can be measured in terms of a year, month, week, day, hour, minute or second

SOLAR TIME based on the earths rotation around its axis Ways of Measuring Time: 1. 2. 3. 4. Burning a grass rope Hourglass Sundials Clocks operated by electric power

TROPICAL YEAR measured by the time the earth takes to make one revolution around the sun EQUINOX time of the year of equal lengths of days and nights NOTE: Study time conversion.

DIASTROPHISM -refers to deformation of the Earth's crust, and more especially to folding and faulting.
FAULTS - surfaces along which rocks have fractured and been displaced. The tectonic stresses caused by plate motions build up over time and eventually cause breaks in the crust of the Earth along which the rocks sporadically grind past one another. When this happens, earthquakes occur. PLATE BOUNDARIES are found at the edge of the lithospheric plates. Types: CONVERGENT plates move toward one another Ex. Mountain formation DIVERGENT plates move away from each other Ex. Rift valleys TRANSFORM plates move side by side to one another Ex. San Andreas Fault in California

EARTHQUAKES - (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the result of a sudden release of
energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves. Types: NATURAL caused by tectonic movements and occurs along tectonic plate lines( fault lines) -90% of tectonic earthquakes happen at the PACIFIC RING OF FIRE MAN-MADE/ARTIFICIAL caused by explosions detonated by man, wells and artificial water reservoirs NOTE: Artificial earthquakes could be prevented or minimized but not the natural (tectonic) ones.

EARTHQUAKE VOCABULARY Crust - the top layer of the earth, which consists of solid rock. Both the continental crust (land
masses) and oceanic crust (the land beneath the ocean) belong to the crust. Epicenter - the point directly above the focus or source of the earthquake. Fault - a break or separation in rock, usually between two or more tectonic plates. Focus - the source of the earthquake inside the earth, where the rock first begins to break. Intensity- the amount of shaking and type of damage at a particular location. Intensity can be greater or weaker depending on the distance from the epicenter. Liquefaction - this happens when loose, moist soil or sand is shaken so hard that individual grains separate, turning the earth into a soft, fluid slurry that can swallow entire buildings.

 Lithosphere - the uppermost layer of the earth, which consists of all solid rock. It includes both the crust and the upper mantle. Magnitude - the amount of energy released from the earthquake. The size of the seismic waves at the epicenter, which can be determined by the size of the wavy lines on the seismogram. Mantle - the layer beneath the crust. The upper mantle is solid rock; the lower mantle is molten rock. Mercalli Scale - a subjective measure of the strength of an earthquake. It measures the degree of intensity. Richter Scale - an objective measure of the strength of an earthquake. It measures the degree of magnitude. Seismic Waves - vibrations that move through the earth in a way similar to waves moving in water. They can travel through solids and liquids. Seismogram - written recording of the earth's vibrations, produced by a seismograph. Seismograph - instrument that plots the intensity of earthquake waves on a roll of specially marked graph paper. Seismologist - scientist who studies earthquakes. Tectonic Plates - individual sections of the lithosphere of the earth. They fit together in a way similar to a jigsaw puzzle, but are always moving very slowly, floating on the molten rock of the lower mantle.

SEISMIC WAVES -sound waves traveling through and across the earth that are produced by earthquakes TYPES: 1. PRIMARY WAVES 2. SHEAR WAVES/ SECONDARY WAVES 3. SURFACE WAVES - Longitudinal waves - Transverse waves - travel along the outer layer of the earth, this kind of wave is the last to arrive since it travels relatively slow

WAYS ON DESCRIBING THE STRENGHT OF AN EARTHQUAKE

MAGNITUDE vs. INTENSITY MAGNITUDE calculated mathematically using the amount and duration of movements - this is based on an instrumentally derived information INTENSITY - Based on how people, man-made structures, natural objects, and land surfaces behaved and react in the areas affected by an earthquake NOTE: A separate note will be given for the intensity and magnitude scale. (photocopy of page 195-196 textbook of earth science for tertiary level)

EARTHQUAKES PREDICTION DILANTANCY THEORY Most of the prediction research is centered around the theory of Dilatancy. It has been noticed that when a rock is stressed it begins to expand; to dilate. This is caused by micro-cracks and fractures in the rock opening up and becoming larger. This only seems to start when a rock is roughly half way toward its breaking point. ANIMAL BEHAVIOR It has long been known that animals, birds and insects seem to change their behavior patterns before an earthquake. STATISTICAL DATA

EARTHQUAKES SAFETY
What to Do Before an Earthquake

Make sure you have a fire extinguisher, first aid kit, a battery-powered radio, a flashlight, and extra batteries at home. Learn first aid. Learn how to turn off the gas, water, and electricity. Make up a plan of where to meet your family after an earthquake. Don't leave heavy objects on shelves (they'll fall during a quake). Anchor heavy furniture, cupboards, and appliances to the walls or floor. Learn the earthquake plan at your school or workplace.

What to Do During an Earthquake

Stay calm! If you're indoors, stay inside. If you're outside, stay outside. If you're indoors, stand against a wall near the center of the building, stand in a doorway, or crawl under heavy furniture (a desk or table). Stay away from windows and outside doors. If you're outdoors, stay in the open away from power lines or anything that might fall. Stay away from buildings (stuff might fall off the building or the building could fall on you). Don't use matches, candles, or any flame. Broken gas lines and fire don't mix. If you're in a car, stop the car and stay inside the car until the earthquake stops. Don't use elevators (they'll probably get stuck anyway).

 What to Do After an Earthquake

Check yourself and others for injuries. Provide first aid for anyone who needs it. Check water, gas, and electric lines for damage. If any are damaged, shut off the valves. Check for the smell of gas. If you smell it, open all the windows and doors, leave immediately, and report it to the authorities (use someone else's phone). Turn on the radio. Don't use the phone unless it's an emergency. Stay out of damaged buildings. Be careful around broken glass and debris. Wear boots or sturdy shoes to keep from cutting your feet. Be careful of chimneys (they may fall on you). Stay away from beaches. Tsunamis and seiches sometimes hit after the ground has stopped shaking. Stay away from damaged areas. If you're at school or work, follow the emergency plan or the instructions of the person in charge. Expect aftershocks.

LANDFORMS
1. MOUNTAINS high lands, characterized by high slopes OROGENESIS process of mountain building Main Cause: convergent plate boundaries 2. PLAINS land surface that is comparatively flat and relatively close to sea level 3. PLATEAUS extensive upland region 4. VOLCANOES is a vent or a hill or mountain from which molten or hot rock and gaseous materials are ejected.

TYPES OF VOLCANIC CONES:

1. COMPOSITE VOLCANO Composite volcanoes are also commonly called stratovolcanoes Formed from many layers of hardened lava They have moderately steep slopes and can reach up to 8,000 feet tall Have very periodic and unpredictable eruptions Can produce the most explosive eruptions when they do erupt Eruptions can consist of toxic volcanic ash or lava Volcanic lava can be very thin and runny to thick and goopy

2. CALDERA VOLCANO it is big and round large, steep walled, basin shaped depressions they often have a lake inside the crater might have new volcanic cones growing inside

3. CINDER-CONE VOLCANO Steep cone-shaped formations, giving them the simple name cinder cone Form in groups and clusters near composite and shield volcanoes Form from loose lava fragments erupted into the air by nearby volcanoes Are generally smallest volcanoes, usually under 1,000 feet tall Typically have weak eruptions pouring from side vents of the volcano Cinder cones commonly have a distinctive crater like shape at their peak They have short life spans due to their loose rock fragments weathering Cinder cone volcanoes are the most common kind of volcanoes. They are steep sided cones of basaltic fragments and are smaller and simpler than composite volcanoes.

4. DOME/ SHIELD VOLCANO Shield volcanoes are characterized by broad, gently sloping flanks and a dome shape that resembles an ancient warrior's shield. These volcanoes are built almost entirely of layers of solidified basaltic lava flows. Most shield volcanoes feature a central summit vent, and often flank vents, that eject low-viscosity basaltic lava that flows long distances in all directions before solidifying. Shield volcano eruptions are typically effusive, not explosive, and pose little danger to human life. Shield volcanoes are among the largest volcanoes in the world.

PARTS OF A VOLCANO:

VOCABULARY TERMS: MAGMA molten rock inside the earth LAVA - molten rock that had been ejected to the surface

VOLCANO SAFETY: Preparation before an Eruption -Mudflows and flash floods -Landslides and rockfalls -Earthquakes -Ashfall and acid rain -Tsunamis Make evacuation plans. If you live in a known volcanic hazard area, plan a route out and have a backup route in mind. Develop an emergency communication plan. In case family members are separated from one another during a volcanic eruption (a real possibility during the day when adults are at work and children are at school), have a plan for getting back together. Ask an out-of-state relative or friend to serve as the "family contact," because after a disaster, it's often easier to call long distance. Make sure everyone knows the name, address, and phone number of the contact person. Have disaster supplies on hand: -Flashlight and extra batteries -First aid kit and manual -Emergency food and water -Non-electric can opener -Essential medicines -Dust mask -Sturdy shoes Get a pair of goggles and a throw-away breathing mask for each member of the household in case of ashfall. Contact your local emergency management office or American Red Cross chapter for more information on volcanoes. Although it may seem safe to stay at home and wait out an eruption, if you are in a hazardous zone, doing so could be very dangerous. Stay safe. Follow authorities' instructions and put your disaster plan into action. During an Eruption: Follow the evacuation order issued by authorities. Avoid areas downwind and river valleys downstream of the volcano. If caught indoors: -Close all windows, doors, and dampers. -Put all machinery inside a garage or barn. -Bring animals and livestock into closed shelters. If trapped outdoors: -Seek shelter indoors. -If caught in a rockfall, roll into a ball to protect your head. -If caught near a stream, be aware of mudflows. Move upslope, especially if you hear the roar of a mudflow.

Protect yourself during ashfall: -Wear long-sleeved shirts and long pants. -Use goggles to protect your eyes. -Use a dust mask or hold a damp cloth over your face to help breathing. -Keep car or truck engines off. Stay out of the area defined as a restricted zone by government officials. Effects of a volcanic eruption can be experienced many miles from a volcano. Mudflows and flash flooding, wildland fires, and even deadly hot ashflow can reach you even if you cannot see the volcano during an eruption. Avoid river valleys and low lying areas. Trying to watch an erupting volcano up close is a deadly idea. If you see the water level of a stream begin to rise, quickly move to high ground. If a mudflow is approaching or passes a bridge, stay away from the bridge. Mudflows are powerful "rivers" of mud that can move 20 to 40 miles-per-hour. Hot ash or lava from a volcanic eruption can rapidly melt snow and ice at the summit of a volcano. The melt water quickly mixes with falling ash, with soil cover on lower slopes, and with debris in its path. This turbulent mixture is dangerous in stream channels and can travel more than 50 miles away from a volcano. Also intense rainfall can erode fresh volcanic deposits to form large mudflows. Listen to a battery-operated radio or television for the latest emergency information.

After an Eruption: If possible, stay away from volcanic ashfall areas. When outside: -Cover your mouth and nose. Volcanic ash can irritate your respiratory system. -Wear goggles to protect your eyes. -Keep skin covered to avoid irritation from contact with ash. Clear roofs of ashfall: Ashfall is very heavy and can cause buildings to collapse. Exercise great caution when working on a roof. Avoid driving in heavy ashfall. Driving will stir up more ash that can clog engines and stall vehicles. If you have a respiratory ailment, avoid contact with any amount of ash. Stay indoors until local health officials advise it is safe to go outside. Remember to help our neighbors who may require special assistance -- infants, elderly people, and people with disabilities.