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An Instructional Manual Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School Western Institute of Technology La Paz, Iloilo City
In partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the Course EGC 600 RESEARCH
March 2012
An Instructional Manual Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School Western Institute of Technology La Paz, Iloilo City
In partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the Course EGC 600 RESEARCH
March 2012
i
APPROVAL SHEET
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the course EGC 600 RESEARCH, this instructional manual entitled Instructional Manual in Alternating Current Circuits, has been prepared and submitted by Engr. Boysie T. Tejada, and is recommended for acceptance.
Written Comprehensive Examination passed in March 2012. Accepted in the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the course ECG 600 RESEARCH.
_______________ Date ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author would like to express his heartfelt gratitude and sincere appreciation to the people who have contributed in one way or another, to the success of this instructional manual. They are: Ricarte C. Nuez, Ph. D., Research Adviser and Dean, Western Institute of Technology, La Paz, Iloilo City, who has patiently provided the author with guidance, assistance, suggestions, and never-ending encouragement to pursue with this manual. Mr. Edwin R. Garcia, President and Dean of Garcia College of Technology, Kalibo, Aklan, for his all-out assistance and valuable support that gave this author added strength and enthusiasm. Engr. Jolenie I. Hing, Head of the Academic Council and Electrical Engineering Department Chair, for the trust and the confidence that boosted the morale of this author . Mrs. Violeta Q. Distor, Administrative Officer of Garcia College of Technology, Kalibo, Aklan, who in one way or another had helped me in facilitating the release and approval of my tuition fees under the faculty development fund of Garcia College of Technology, Kalibo, Aklan. Mr. Ronald Tan, Internet Laboratory Custodian, for his untiring help in providing this author with the internet facility for easy access to the internet. Mrs. Maricris L. Servanes, Librarian, Garcia College of Technology. Kalibo, Aklan for her very friendly accommodation for the use of the library. iii
iv 2Lt. Rosalie S. Casabuena Meriveles, (RES) PA, MBM, WIT Graduate School Secretary for her advices, inspiration and editing skills in making this manual possible. My wife, Jocelyn and my son, Nio Jabe, for the financial and emotional support, love, care and understanding. They were the major reason for this authors never-ending search for excellence. And above all, to the Almighty Father for without Him, everything could not have been possible.
July 2012
ABSTRACT
NAME OF THE INSTITUTION ADDRESS TITLE
Western Institute of Technology La Paz, Iloilo City Instructional Manual in Alternating Current Circuits
Engr. Boysie T. Tejada Instructional Manual Personal, Php 10 000.00, and Faculty Development Fund, Php 15 000.00
A. GENERAL
This instructional manual deals with the study and analysis of alternating current circuits as provided for in the program Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering of the Garcia College of Technology, Kalibo, Aklan. v
vi Specifically, this manual will discuss the following lessons: 1. Generation of Sinusoidal Voltage and Current 2. Behavior of Resistive, Inductive and Capacitive Circuits 3. Parallel and Series-Parallel Circuits 4. Resonance 5. Balanced Three-Phase Circuits
METHODOLOGY
The author used the book Electrical Circuits, 2nd Edition by Charles S. Siskind as the guide and the major source of facts and principles. The author then consulted other
vii books like A Course in Electrical Engineering, Volume 2 by Chester L. Dawes and Alternating Current Circuits, 4th Edition by George F. Corcoran and Russell M. Kerchner. The other references gave another perspective of the same topic being discussed thus providing the reader with another view making the topic more understandable. The internet provided an updated version and every topic was referred to the technology existing in the market today.
CONCLUSIONS
Alternating current circuits is a very important course to an Electrical engineering student. The thorough understanding of the said course is very vital due to the fact that other major Electrical engineering courses are founded upon it. The reason is that current and voltages are very essential in the operation of an electrical circuit. A circuit is useless without these electrical quantities. It is therefore highly recommended that an Electrical engineering program should give more emphasis on the course alternating current circuits and recommend that more learning materials must be formulated to offer more opportunities for a student to learn and understand the course. Finally, this manual is being offered as an added study material and must be used together with the book Electrical Circuits 2nd Edition by Charles S. Siskind. This is one attempt to provide the students of Garcia College of Technology taking up the Electrical engineering program another reference material for them to have a solid foundation of the course and a confident mind going into the other major courses.
viii
RECOMMENDATIONS
The following recommendations are presented by the author. 1. This manual should be used by students taking up alternating current circuits. 2. Students using this manual must practice solving problems at the end of each lesson. 3. The manual should be used together with the textbook Electrical Circuits 2nd Edition by Charles S. Siskind. 4. It is very important that other learning materials must also be studied so that comparisons can be made. 5. The student should never proceed to the next topic without understanding first the previous one. 6. Illustrative examples are comprehensively explained based on the foundation of the students enrolled at Garcia College of Technology. 7. It is always assumed that the reader has to understand all details in this manual.
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
1 Schematic diagram Showing the Relationship between the Independent and Dependent Variables in the Present Study 1.1 Graph of one cycle of the generated voltage 1.2 Representation of a phasor 1.3 Phasor diagram 2.1 Pure resistive circuit supplied from an AC source 2.2 Wave and phasor diagrams of voltage and current in a pure resistive circuit 2.3 Pure inductive circuit supplied from an AC source 2.4 Wave and phasor diagrams for a pure inductive circuit 2.5 Pure capacitive circuit supplied from an AC source 2.6 Wave and phasor diagrams for a pure capacitive circuit 2.7 Simple RL circuit 2.8 Phasor diagram of voltages from an RL circuit 2.9 Phasor addition of voltages 2.10 The impedance triangle for an RL circuit 2.11 Simple RC circuit ix 46 48 50 53 54 59 59 59 60 66 5 26 37 39 45
Page
x 2.12 Phasor addition of voltages 2.13 Phasor relation between reactances 2.14 Simple RLC circuit 2.15 Power triangle 3.1 Parallel R, RL, and RC circuits 4.1 Two-branch parallel circuit 5.1 The three phases in a balanced three-phase system 5.2 Phasor diagram of a balanced three-phase system of voltages 5.3 Circuit diagram of a three-phase Y connection 5.4 Circuit diagram of a three-phase delta connection 5.5 Delta-connected impedances and the equivalent wye connection 66 72 72 75 82 102 113 113 115 119 125
LIST OF TABLES
Table A.1 Summary of pure resistive, inductive, and capacitive circuits A.2 Summary of RL, RC, and RLC circuits B.1 Fundamental and electrical units B.2 Trigonometric relations B.3 Hyperbolic relations . B.4 Logarithmic relations B.5 Series Page 137 137 138 140 140 140 140
xi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE PAGE APPROVAL SHEET ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ABSTRACT LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF TABLES CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Background and Theoretical Framework of the Study Statement of the Objective The Conceptual Framework Scope and Delimitations of the Study Significance of the Study Definition of Terms II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Related Studies III THE METHODOLOGY Purpose of the Study xii 17 12 1 3 4 6 6 7 i ii iii v ix xi
IV
PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA LESSON 1 Generation of Sinusoidal Voltage and Current 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 Induced Electromotive Force (EMF) Generated Emf Generation of a Sine Wave of Voltage Frequency and Electrical Degrees Sinusoidal Alternating Current Angular Velocity Alternating-Current Ampere Summation of Out-of-Phase Sinusoidal Waves 19 20 23 26 27 31 31 33 36
LESSON 2 Behavior of Resistive, Inductive, and Capacitive Circuits 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Pure Resistive Circuits Pure Inductive Circuits Pure Capacitive Circuits Series Inductance-Capacitance Circuits Series Resistance-Inductance Circuit 44 45 48 53 56 58
xiv 2.6 2.7 Series Resistance-Capacitance Circuit Series Resistance-Inductance-Capacitance Circuit 2.8 Apparent and Reactive Powers 72 75 81 82 86 89 95 96 102 111 112 114 114 115 119 122 125 66
LESSON 3 Parallel and Series-Parallel Circuits 3.1 3.2 3.3 Relations in Basic Parallel Circuits Admittance Series-Parallel Circuits
LESSON 4 Resonance 4.1 4.2 The Series Resonant Circuit The Parallel Resonant Circuit
LESSON 5 Balanced Three-Phase Circuits 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 Generation of Three-Phase Voltages Double-Subscript Notation Three-Phase Sequence Three-Phase Star Connection Three-Phase Delta Connection Power in Three-Phase Balanced Systems Y and Y Transformation
xv V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS RECOMMENDATIONS REFERENCES APPENDICES Appendix A. Summary of the Basic Relations in the Different Circuit Combinations Appendix B. Units, Constants, and Other Useful Relations . 138 137 130 133 134 135
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
The worlds economic backbone is very dependent to electrical energy. Predominant of this energy is utilizing alternating current sources. From the most sophisticated computers to the simplest house lights is a wide array of electrical devices designed upon alternating current circuits. One major reason for the wide use of alternating current circuits is the efficient transmission of sinusoidal current. Voltages can be raised or lowered to any desired value with the use of transformers. If voltage is raised, current is lowered down thus requiring only small conductors for very high voltage transmission. The voltage is then lowered down at the consumer end for its utilization. Power can therefore be delivered over very long distances without much problem with the design of transmission lines and its supports. Another reason is the more economical designs of generators, which is the source of sinusoidal voltages. Generators can be made very large and at the same time operate three-phase resulting to very large capacities and highly efficient generation of power.
2 current and voltage. Alternating current is the type of current that is supplied to most houses and businesses. The continuous change in direction of the flow of electric charge is what makes alternating current very easy to transport over long distances. The polarity of AC current is consistently switching between positive and negative and this change in flow occurs at a speed of about 60 cycles per second (for most countries). It was Nikola Tesla who invented alternating current using a motor driven by a rotating magnet. He realized that through the use of transformers, alternating current could be controlled and distributed efficiently. Tesla came to the United States of America and worked under Thomas Edison for a little while. Unfortunately, Edison did not support his idea of the alternating current and favored direct current. Tesla later formed a business of his own and was recognized by George Westinghouse, a businessman. Through Westinghouse, Tesla was able to receive financial backing and was able to publicize alternating current. Eventually, a hydroelectric power plant was built on Niagara Falls and it distributed alternating current over long distances. Before alternating current, Edisons direct current was used in the US. It was developed by Edison and was first use for power transmission. Direct current was used for batteries, motors, incandescent lights, and it provided reliable backup generators. The War of the Currents started but was won by Teslas alternating current. The acceptance of Teslas idea gained recognition during the Chicago World Fair. The Westinghouse Company proposed to provide electricity to all of the fair using alternating current for a much cheaper price than General Electric Company which used
3 Edisons direct current. Westinghouse Company also demonstrated an apparatus of a polyphase system which showed the public that current could be transmitted over long distances. The Fair had a building particularly dedicated to electrical exhibits, and this building was a perfect platform that raised awareness of what alternating current can provide in the future. Alternating current did broaden the range of human interaction and influence to an effectively limitless extent. It not only eliminates a communication gap but also creates a medium through which humans receive and transmit information. Teslas invention of alternating current not only gave a new meaning to electricity, but it also told a story of a progressive disassociation between distance and time mirrored by the progressive interconnections of people.
INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
DEPENDENT VARIABLE
Sinusoidal sources Load behavior Single phase circuits Single phase connections Resonance Three phase circuits Power measurement methods
Figure 1 Schematic diagram showing the Relationship between the Independent and Dependent Variables in the Present Study.
7 system, electronics, and instrumentation are some of the requisites of this course. A full understanding of the said course is therefore a necessity, thus a more comprehensive approach suited to the type of students enrolled at Garcia College of Technology. There is more number of solved problems and exercises giving the students added grasp of the topic in a variety of situations. The solution is presented in a manner that almost all possible questions that might arise from the solution of the problems were explained.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
The following important terms used in the manual are defined for the purpose of providing a definite point of reference and clarify points covered in the discussions. The terms are: Admittance the reciprocal of impedance Alternating current a current that varies in magnitude and direction periodically Alternating voltage an electromotive force that varies in magnitude and direction periodically Angular displacement the angle in degrees, radians, or revolutions through which a point or a line has been rotated in a specified sense about a specified axis Angular velocity is defined as the rate of change of angular displacement and is a vector quantity which specifies the angular speed of an object and the axis about which the object is rotating
8 Apparent power the vector sum of the two power components, reactive and true powers. Balance three-phase system a system with three equal impedances connected in either star or delta connection and supplied from a three-phase source whose voltages are outof-phase by 120 electrical degrees through lines with equal impedances resulting to line and phase currents which are 120 electrical degrees out-of-phase Capacitance the property exhibited by a capacitor indicating its capacity to store charges temporarily Capacitive reactance opposition to alternating current offered by a pure capacitor Capacitor an electrical component used to store charges temporarily Conductance real component of admittance and is the reciprocal of resistance Delta connection an interconnection of three single-phase impedances without any common connection and the terminals of the combination being a connection of any two impedances Double-subscript notation a subscript notation used to indicate the direction to where a current or a voltage wave is measured Electrical degree number of cycle degrees in a circle Electrical energy the ability of a certain electrical component to do work Frequency the number of cycles generated per unit of time Generator an electrical machine that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy
9 Impedance a phasor quantity representing the opposition to alternating current Impedance triangle a right triangle showing the trigonometric relation between the resistance, reactance, and impedance of a circuit through the power factor angle In-phase waves sinusoidal waves whose maximum and zero values occur at the same instants of time Inductance the property of an inductor to produce magnetic induction at a point near it Inductive reactance opposition to alternating current offered by a pure inductor Inductor an electrical component, in the form of coils, used to intensify the magnetic induction capabilities of the current through it Lagging wave a wave that is propagated behind another wave Leading wave a wave that is propagated ahead of another wave Line current a current through any line Line voltage a voltage between any pair of line terminals Sinusoidal wave an alternating current or voltage whose magnitude is directly proportional to the trigonometric sine wave Period the time needed to complete one cycle of a sinusoidal wave Resistor an electrical component used to limit current into another component Resistance the electrical property of a resistor responsible in opposing current Reactance the opposition to alternating current offered by an inductor or a capacitor Susceptance imaginary component of admittance and is the reciprocal to reactance Parallel connection a circuit connection of several electrical components whose
10 voltages across are equal Power factor angle the extent to which the current is out-of-phase with the impressed electromotive force Power factor the cosine of the power factor angle and shows the factor or percent of true power over apparent power Series connection - a circuit connection of several electrical components whose currents through are equal Series-parallel connection a complex circuit combination where the minor circuit is connected series and major circuit is in parallel Parallel-series connection a complex circuit combination where the minor circuit is connected parallel and major circuit is in series Resonance a condition in an alternating current circuit when the power factor is unity and the circuit behaves just like a pure resistive circuit Single-phase circuit the equivalent circuit formed whenever the supply is composed only of two terminals Out-of-phase waves sinusoidal waves whose maximum and zero values do not occur at the same instants of time Power triangle a right triangle indicating the trigonometric relation of the true, apparent, and reactive powers through the power factor angle True power the energy or real component of power dissipated in a resistor Reactive power the quadrature or imaginary component of power dissipated in either
11 an inductive reactance or a capacitive reactance Three-phase system an electrical system supplied from a source with three or four terminals resulting from the interconnection of three single-phase systems. Polyphase system a system resulting from the interconnection of two or more singlephase systems Reference wave a wave that is plotted along the positive real axis Sequence an assumed order of the occurrence of one wave with respect to the other waves within the system Star connection an interconnection of three single-phase impedances with one common connection and the three other terminals being the terminals of the combination Phase voltage a voltage between any line terminal and the common or neutral connection Phase current a current through each phase Wattmeter an instrument used to measure true power Power the rate at which energy is delivered to the impedance
RELATED STUDIES
The study of alternating current circuits is facilitated with the use of complex numbers. Complex numbers are combinations of real numbers and imaginary numbers. Sinusoidal current and voltage can be treated as vector quantities thus complex numbers is a tool used to improve the accuracy and efficiency of the results. Complex numbers may be expressed as z = a + jb where a represents the real part of the complex number z, b represents the imaginary part and j ( i in Advanced Engineering Mathematics) is equal to the square root of negative one. Complex numbers may be expressed into four forms: rectangular, polar, trigonometric, and exponential. The form z = a + jb is a complex number in rectangular form. It can be plotted in 12
13 the complex plane. Where j-axis is the imaginary axis or the axis of the imaginary, r-axis is the real axis or the axis of real, lzl is the magnitude of the complex number z, and is the angle made by the vector with respect to the positive real axis (reference). The trigonometric form is based on the figure above where the values of a and b maybe expressed in terms of the trigonometric functions sine and cosine. a = lzl cos b = lzl sin Therefore, z = a + jb may be written as z = lzl cos + j lzl sin , where lzl can be evaluated using the Pythagorean Formula, lzl = the square root of (a2 + b2), and is the inverse tangent of the quotient b over a. Simplifying further, z = lzl (cos + j sin ) z = lzl cis where cis means cosine imaginary sine The polar form is written as z = lzl bar angle z = lzl
14 The exponential form is written as z = lzl e j where is in radian The use of complex number tos the analysis of alternating current circuits is further enhanced due to the fact that addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division can be performed to it. Aside from the four basic mathematical operations, complex numbers have roots, logarithm, and trigonometric functions. Addition and subtraction of complex numbers is best performed for their rectangular forms. Although modern calculators can add or subtract vectors directly using any form, the basic is still combining real components separately from the combination of the imaginary components. Let z1 = r1 + jx1 and z2 = r2 + jx2 z1 + z2 = (r1 + r2) + j (x1 + x2) or z1 - z2 = (r1 - r2) + j (x1 - x2) Multiplication of complex numbers is done by applying the distributive property of multiplication. z1 z2 = (r1 + jx1) (r2 + jx2)
15 = r1r2 + jr1x2 + jr2x1 + j2x1x2 = (r1r2 x1x2) + j(r1x2 + r2x1) Another method is by considering the polar forms. Let z1 = lz1l 1 and z2 = lz2l 2 1 + 2
z1 z2 = lz1llz2l
Division of complex numbers is done by multiplying both the numerator and the denominator by the complex conjugate of the denominator. The complex conjugate of a complex number is determined by negating the imaginary part of the original complex number. Let z1 = r1 + jx1 and z2 = r2 + jx2
16 It is, however, advisable to use the polar forms of the complex numbers when performing division. Let z1 = lz1l 1 and z2 = lz2l 2
The operation of complex numbers is not limited to the above-mentioned four basic mathematical operations but as far as the study of alternating current circuits, they are the only operations needed to facilitate such study.
MATERIALS
The data written on this manual were the result of collating ideas from different references such as books, manuals, IIEE magazines, and the internet. 17
18 The main reference book used is Electrical Circuits, 2nd Edition by Charles S. Siskind. Added information and some topics that were not tackled by Siskind were discussed based on other books like Electrical Engineering 4th Edition Volume II by Chester L. Dawes, Alternating Current Circuits 4th Edition by Russell M. Kerchner and George F. Corcoran, to name a few. Illustrative problems were carefully selected from these references and some were taken from previous Board Exam problems to give the students an idea of how problems were formulated and given in the Licensure Examination. A lot of updated information was also collected over the internet to reinforce the explanation of the theories by relating it to the latest actual applications. Through this, students interest will be enhanced thus increasing their interest for further study.
PROCEDURE
Thorough the use of the references including the use of the library, materials, textbooks, internet, knowledge and experience of the author, this instructional manual was formulated.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson the students will be able to: 1. Identify the characteristics and behavior of sinusoidal waves. 2. Represent waves similar to vector quantities. 19
20 3. Solve for average, root-mean-square, and maximum values of a wave. 4. Add, vectorially, sinusoidal voltages or sinusoidal currents.
LESSON PROPER
A voltage can be developed in a coil of wire in one of three ways; these are (1) by changing the flux through the coil, (2) by moving the coil through a magnetic field so that flux cutting results, and (3) by altering the direction of the flux with respect to the coil.
21 EXAMPLE: A 40-turn coil of wire of radius 3 centimeters is placed between the poles of an electromagnet. The field increases from 0 to 0.75 T at a constant rate in a time interval of 225 seconds. What is the magnitude of the induced emf in the coil if (a) the field is perpendicular to the plane of the coil? (b) the field makes an angle of 30o withhe plane of the coil?
UNKNOWN Magnitude of e, if a. field is perpendicular to the plane of the coil b. field makes an angle of 30o with the plane of the coil
SOLUTION a.
e = 3.77 x 10-4 V
ANSWER
b. of the coil) sin where: = angle made by the magnetic field with the coil = 0.75[ (0.03)2] sin 30o
where: B = flux density, in Maxwells per square inch l = length of the wire, in inch, that is moved relative to the flux v = velocity of the wire, in inch per second, with respect to the flux EXAMPLE A square coil, 2 inches on a side, has 240 turns of wire and is placed between the poles of a magnet that are slightly more than 2 inches apart. If the horizontally directed field has a uniform flux density of 11 180 Maxwells per square inch and the coil is rotated from a vertical plane to a horizontal plane in 0.05 second, calculate the generated voltage.
24 GIVEN Square coil, 2 in. on a side N = 240 turns B = 11 180 Maxwells per sq. in. Distance traveled by the coil, d, is from vertical to horizontal plane Time, t = 0.05 s
SOLUTION et = number of wires x e number of wires = 2N et = 2Ne (there are two coil sides or wires per turn)
l = 2 in.
(the coil side directly facing the flux is 2 in., the coil being square)
25
d= C = circumference of the circle formed by rotating the coil = D d= = in. = 0.5 in.
= 10
26
27 The figure shows one cycle of the generated voltage showing the elapsed time to complete it. It is called the period, the wave produced being periodic. Since the generated voltage is proportional to the sine function, it is called sinusoidal voltage.
EXAMPLE The maximum value of the sinusoidal voltage wave generated in one coil of an alternator is 15 Volts. How many electrical degrees from zero point in the cycle (increasing positively) will the voltage be (a) 10.5 V, (b) -10 V?
28
GIVEN Em = 15 V
UNKNOWN a. 1 b. 2
29 b. The negative value of voltage occurs between 180o to 360o, -10 = 15 sin 2 2 = -41.81o or 2 = 180o + 41.81o ANSWER
2 = 221.81o EXAMPLE:
An alternator has 6 poles. (a) At what speed must the machine be driven to develop 50 cycles? (b) What frequency is developed if the speed is 1 200 rpm?
30 SOLUTION a. f = 120f = PN =N
ANSWER
b. f =
31
= i = Im sin
, and
amount of time equivalent to one period, T and T = , for a given frequency At any other time, t, , and therefore,
32 i = Im sin 2ft EXAMPLE A 60-cycle current has a maximum value of 10.3 Amperes. What will be the instantaneous value of current (a) 1.5 milliseconds after the wave passes through zero in the positive direction, (b) 9.23 milliseconds after the wave passes through zero in a negative direction? GIVEN Im = 10.3 A f = 60 Hz (a) t = 1.5 ms (b) t = 9.23 ms UNKNOWN i SOLUTION a. i = 5.519 V ANSWER b. i = 10.3 sin 2(60)t = 10.3 sin 2(60)(1.5 x10-3) c. i = 10.3 sin 2(60)t (Calculator must be set to radian mode.)
Since the wave is moving towards the negative direction, the value of time cannot be directly substituted. Solve first for the period by taking the reciprocal of frequency.
33 T=
Before the wave moves toward the negative direction, it must have elapsed one-half of period or . Therefore, + 9.23 x10-3)
= 3.416 V ANSWER, or
i = 10.3 sin [2(60)(9.23 x 10-3) + ] (The wave becomes zero and will move in the negative direction at an angle of or 180 electrical degrees, or after completing the positive alteration.) i = 3.416 V ANSWER
34 the heating effect is proportional to the square of current. For the same current, i passing through a resistor for a differential time period of dt in second, dH = ki2 dt = k (Im sin t)2 dt = kIm2 sin2 t dt The total amount of heat generated in one-half cycle therefore the integral of the above differential equation from zero to one-half the period T. H = kIm2 Heat generated is proportional to the area under the i2 curve for one alteration. It follows that the average value of i2 producing heat is Ieff2 = , the squared value of the current that is effective in
= Im2 ( ) Ieff = Im = Im = Im * ( ) = Im ( *( ) ( ) ) + +
from 0 to 0.5T +
EXAMPLE A sinusoidal voltage wave having an effective value of 220 V is impressed across a 50-Ohm resistor. Calculate the root-mean-square and maximum values of current.
= = 4.4 A ANSWER
b.
37 time. This implies, therefore, that the rms value of the resultant wave is not equal to the sum of the effective values of the component waves; it is, in fact, always less than the arithmetical sum, and may be as little as the arithmetical difference when the waves are as much as 180o ( radians) out of phase. In the analysis of alternating current circuits, it is often necessary to perform mathematical operations that involve out-of-phase voltages and/or currents. The solution of such problems, frequently complex, inaccurate and time-consuming when wavedrawing procedures are employed, is greatly facilitated by the so-called phasor method. A wave maybe represented by a vector showing the following parts:
Assume the following voltage waves e1 = Em1 sin (t + ) e2 = Em2 sin (t e3 = Em3 sin (t -
Note that the voltages have the same frequency. In terms of the rms values, the voltages can be written in phasor form as
38 E1 = E2 = E3 =
or or or where:
E1 = E2 = E1 =
is read as bar angle The voltages can now be plotted on a coordinate system known as the voltage phasor diagram.
NOTE 1. IA means imaginary axis 2. RA means real axis 3. Phasors are always plotted with magnitudes from the origin and directions measured as angles in standard positions It can be seen from the phasor diagram that E1 and E3 have the same direction although the magnitude of E3 is greater than the magnitude of E1. Such phasors are said to be in phase. E2 has a different direction from either E1 or E3, making E2 out-of-phase with respect to both. To be specific, E2 is out-of-phase with respect to either E1 or E3 by 105o, the sum of 60o and 45o.
39 With respect to E1, E3 is in phase, while E2 lags by 105o. Another way of describing the relations between the phasors is by referring them to E2. Then, E1 and E3 lead by 105o. After such representation, phasors can now be manipulated in the same manner as vector.
EXAMPLE Four units, Units A, B, C, and D, connected in parallel, are energized by an alternating current source. If the component currents are 12, 10, 5, and 15 Amperes, respectively, with IA and Ic being in phase while IB lags them by 70o and ID leads them by 36o. Solve for the magnitude of the total current supplied by the source.
GIVEN IA = 12 A IB = 10 A IC = 5 A ID = 15 A IA and IC are in phase IB lags IA and IC by 70o ID leads IA and IC by 36o
SOLUTION The units are connected in parallel, therefore, the total current is the sum of the four branch currents through the four units. The choice of the reference phasor is very important since there was no mention about any specific reference. In this case, the best reference will be either IA or IC since the other phasors were described based on them.
I = IA + IB + IC + ID , as vectors. Selecting IA as reference: IA = 12 0o A, the reference IB = 10 -70o A (negative angle means that it is below the reference
thus it lags the phasor at the reference) IC = 5 0o A ID = 15 36o A (in phase with the phasor at the reference) (positive angle means that it is above the reference
41 I = 12 0o + 10 -70o + 5 = 32.561 I = 32.561 A -1.021O A ANSWER 0o + 15 36o (But the unknown is just magnitude)
Another solution is by selecting another phasor as reference, say ID. The phasors may now be rewritten with respect to ID. ID = 15 0o A IA = 12 -36o A IC = 5 -36o A IB = 10 -106o A I = 12 -36o + 10 -106o + 5 -36o + 15 0o = 32.561 -37.021o A I = 32.561 A ANSWER
EXAMPLE The voltage drops across two series-connected units A and B are 100 and 75 Volts, respectively. Assuming EB to be the reference phasor, calculate the resultant voltage and the angle it makes with the reference if EB leads EA by 60o.
GIVEN EB = 75 0o V
42 EA = 100 -60o V
b. = 34.715o
ANSWER
EXERCISES
1. A sinusoidal alternating voltage has a maximum value of 170 V and a frequency of 25 Hz. (a) Determine the value of voltage 0.004 s after crossing zero axis in a positive direction. (b) Determine the effective value of voltage. 2. A 50-cycle sinusoidal current has a maximum value of 42.42 A. It crosses the zero axis in a positive direction when time is zero. Determine (a) the time when current first reaches a value of 30.0 A; (b) the time when current, after having
43 gone through its maximum positive value, reaches a value of 36.7 A. 3. A current is given by i = 22.62 sin 377t. Determine (a) maximum value; (b) rms value; (c) frequency; and (d) radians through which its vector has rotated in 0.0015 s. 4. Two currents i1 = 12 sin 260t and i2 = 9 cos 260t flow in a wire. Determine (a) their resultant i3 and (b) rms value of the resultant. 5. An emf e1 = 100 sin (250t 75o) is in series with an emf e2 = 120 sin (250t 105o). Determine their resultant. 6. How many turns of wire are there in a coil in which 35.7 Volts are induced when the flux through it increases uniformly at the rate of 3 x 106 Maxwells per second? 7. An alternator has 8 poles. What frequency is developed if the speed is 1 350 rpm? 8. The following information is given in connection with an alternating current source that delivers current to three loads in parallel: I1 = 15 A; I2 = 12 A and leads I1 by 40o; I3 = 24 A and lags I1 by 67o. Using I1 as the reference phasor, determine the resultant current and the angle between it and I3. 9. Two electric devices A and B are connected in parallel, and the rms current in A is 15 A. If the current in B lags behind A by A, determine the current in B. radians and the line current is 23.4
44
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to: 1. Evaluate current through each of the three basic types of units. 2. Evaluate current through each of the four possible series combinations. 3. Solve for power.
45
LESSON PROPER
The three basic types of units affected by impressing sinusoidal voltage at the terminals are (1) pure resistive circuits, (2) pure inductive circuits, and (3) pure capacitive circuits.
Applying Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL) yields e eR = 0 e iR = 0, since eR = iR 1. The behavior of a pure resistor in an alternating current circuit is exactly similar to that in a direct current circuit. 2. The laws governing resistors in direct current circuits may therefore be applied to alternating current circuits.
46 3. The effective value of voltage and current must be used. 4. Current and voltage phasors are always in phase.
5. Instantaneous power, p, is equal to the product ei. p = ei = (Em sin t) ( Im sin t) = EmIm sin2 t Since sin2 t = p = EmIm ( = It is interesting to note that the power delivered to a resistor changes periodically between zero and EmIm. The average power delivered to the resistor is the constant term . Or in equation form Pave = = ( )
47 Pave = EI, similar to the condition for direct current circuit power
EXAMPLE An incandescent-lamp load, generally considered to be made up of resistors, takes 5.4 kW from a 220-V AC source. Calculate (a) the total current, (b) the instantaneous maximum value of power, (c) the resistance of the load.
SOLUTION a. P = EI
=I
ANSWER
49 1. The resulting current will lag behind the impressed voltage by 90 o or radians. 2. Current in the inductor is zero when the impressed voltage is a maximum. eL = Em sin t = L Em sin t dt = L di di = sin t dt
Integrating both sides yields i= = Since cos t = sin ( -cos t = sin ( i= Therefore, Im = where: L = inductive reactance, X, in Ohm () ( ) ) ) ( )
3. The maximum instantaneous values of power are EI and EI, making the average value of power in the inductor zero.
EXAMPLE An inductance of 0.106 Henry is connected to a 220-V 60-cycle source. Calculate the inductive reactance, (b) the current in the circuit, (c) the maximum power delivered to the inductor or returned to the source. Write the equations for (d) the current, and (e) the power.
b. I = = I = 5.505 A ANSWER
e. p = ei = (Em sin t)(- Im cos t) = - EmIm sin t cos t = - EmIm (2sin t cost) p = - EmIm sin 2t =( )sin 2t
53
1. The resulting current will lead the impressed voltage by 90o or radians. 2. Storing and releasing equal amounts of energy per cycle means that the average power delivered to a capacitor is zero. From = Em sin t
54 i= ( )
Therefore, Im =
EXAMPLE A 127-F capacitor is connected to a 110-V 50-cycle source. Calculate (a) the capacitive reactance, (b) the current in the circuit. Write equations for (c) the current.
b. I = = I = 4.389 A ANSWER
56
X = XC XL, if XC > XL under which condition a 90o out-of-phase current would result. There is, moreover, the possibility that XL might equal XC, in which event, the condition is said to be in resonance, a topic to be discussed in Lesson VI. Remembering that XL is directly proportional to frequency while XC is inversely proportional to frequency, it is evident that the behavior of an LC circuit is affected by the variation in frequency. It is possible that the behavior of current will reverse from being lagging to leading, or conversely, for a very large change in frequency.
EXAMPLE A series circuit consisting of a 0.0795-Henry inductor and a 177-F capacitor is connected to a 220-V 60-Hz source. Calculate (a) the equivalent reactance of the circuit, (b) the circuit current, indicating whether the latter lags or leads.
SOLUTION
58 = XC = 14.986 a. Since XL > XC, X = XL - XC X = 29.971 14.986 X = 14.985 b. The equivalent circuit is ANSWER
59
Assuming that the impressed emf wave is sinusoidal 1. the common current will be sinusoidal. 2. the common current will be out-of-phase with the impressed voltage. 3. the voltage drop across R, the IR drop, will be in phase with I. 4. the voltage across L, the IXL drop, will be 90o ahead of current. 5. E will be the vector sum of ER and EL .
Note that the phase angle between the current, I, and the line voltage, E, that is, , is less than 90o but greater than 0o.This is the result because the circuit parameters are neither pure resistances nor pure inductances.
60 Representing the total opposition to current, the combination of R and XL by the symbol Z, and designating it as the impedance of the circuit, then
Z = R + jXL
Since indicates the extent to which the current is out-of-phase with the impressed emf, it is an extremely important property of a circuit. As such it is usually called the circuit power factor angle. The cosine of the power factor angle is called the power factor (p.f.) of the circuit. p.f. = cos = = p.f. = ( )
since E = IZ
61 P = IE cos Note particularly that the circuit power is directly proportional to the power factor. When current is in phase with voltage, = 0o and p,f, = 1, while when current is out-of-phase by 90o with voltage, = 90o and p.f. = 0. EXAMPLE A 240-V 60-cycle source is connected to a coil of wire that has a resistance of 7.5 Ohms and an inductance of 47.7 milliHenrys. Calculate the following: impedance, current, power, power factor.
UNKNOWN a. Z b. I c. P d. p.f.
62 SOLUTION a. Z = R +jXL XL = 2fL = 2(60)(47.7 x10-3) = 17.982 Z = 7.5 + j17.982 Z = 19.483 ANSWER, or ANSWER
67.36o
b. I = = I = 4.742 j11.369 A I = 12.318 -67.36o A Take note (E was chosen as reference) ANSWER, or ANSWER
63 P = 1 137.998 W ANSWER, or
P = EI cos = (240)(12.318) cos 67.36o P = 1 138.005 W P= ER = IR = (12.318)(7.5) ER = 92.385 V P= P = 1 137.998 W d. p.f. = cos = cos 67.36o p.f. = 0.385 ANSWER ANSWER (Voltage across R) ANSWER, or
EXAMPLE A load of 18.4 kW operating at a power factor of 0.8 lagging is connected to a 500V 60-Hz source. Calculate (a) the load current; (b) the power factor angle; (c) the equivalent impedance, resistance, and reactance of the load. (d) Write the equations for the voltage and current.
UNKNOWN a. P = IE cos I= = = 46 A (P must be in W) (18.4 kW = 18 400W, because there are 1 000 W in 1 kW) ANSWER
65 c. Z = (I must be expressed in phasor form) I = 46 -36. 87o A I = 36.8 j27.6 A Z= = 8.696 + j6.522 Z = 10.87 36.87o ANSWER, or ANSWER ANSWER ANSWER (Since p.f. is lagging, must be negative)
R = 8.696 XL = 6.522
66
Assuming that the impressed emf wave is sinusoidal 1. the common current will be sinusoidal. 2. the common current will be out-of-phase with the impressed voltage. 3. the voltage drop across R, the IR drop, will be in phase with I. 4. the voltage across C, the IXC drop, will be lagging current by 90o. 5. E will be the vector sum of ER and EC .
Similar to that of an RL circuit, is the angle between E and I, and therefore, all the formulas for RL circuit are applicable to RC circuit except that of Z.
EXAMPLE A 110-V 60-cycle source is connected to a series circuit consisting of a 30-Ohm resistor and a 159-F capacitor. Calculate the following: impedance; current; power factor; power.
UNKNOWN a. Z b. I c p.f. d. P
68 SOLUTION a. Z = R jXC
Z = 34.327 -29.078o
69 P = IE cos = (3.205)(110) cos 29.078o P = 308.114 W ANSWER, or P= ER = IR = (3.205)(30) = 96.15 V P= P = 308.161 W EXAMPLE A series resistance-capacitance (RC) circuit is connected to a 220-V 50-cycle source. If the power taken by the circuit is 4 500 W and the voltage drop across the resistor is 115 V, calculate (a) the current, (b) the power factor, (c) the circuit impedance, (d) the ohmic value of the resistor, (e) the capacitance. (f) Write the equation for current. ANSWER
I = 39.13 A
ANSWER
E = 220 -cos-1 0.523 = 220 -58.466o V = 115.061 j187.513 V Z= Z = 2.94 j4.792 ANSWER
d. R = 2.94
ANSWER
ANSWER
72
The circuit will behave like an RL circuit if XL is greater than XC, and the circuit will behave like an RC circuit if XC is greater than XL. If however, XL is equal to XC, then the circuit will behave like a resistive circuit, a condition of significance to resonance.
The circuit analysis will then become similar to any of the analysis of a resistive, an RL, or an RC circuit.
73 EXAMPLE A series circuit consisting of a 70-Ohm resistor, a 0.2-Henry inductor, and a 50F capacitor is connected to a 100-V 60-cycle source. Calculate the following: (a) equivalent impedance of the circuit; (b) current; (c) voltage drops across the several units; (d) power and power factor.
74 SOLUTION a. Z = R + j(XL XC) XL = 2fL = 2(60)(0.2) = 75.398 XC = = = 53.052 Z = 70 + j(75.398 53.052) Z = 70 + j22.346 ANSWER
d. P = I2R = (1.361)2(70) P = 129.662 W P= = P = 129.662 W ANSWER p.f. = cos = cos 17.705o p.f. = 0.953 ANSWER ANSWER, or
76 EXAMPLE A load of 50 kVA, operating at a power factor of 0.866 lagging, is connected to a 2 300-V AC source. Calculate (a) power, (b) current, (c) reactive kilovolt-ampere, (d) reactive factor.
I = 21.739 A
c. sin = Q = S sin = cos-1 p.f. Q = 50 sin cos-1 0.866 Q = 25.002 kVAr (S is in kVA therefore, Q will be in kVAr)
ANSWER
78
EXERCISES
1. A large room is illuminated by twenty 100-W lamps and ten 200-W lamps all connected in parallel. If the circuit voltage is 220 V, calculate the total current. 2. How much power is represented by a circuit in which the voltage and current equations are e = 160 sin 314t and i = 42.5 sin (314t 0.1)? 3. A coil of wire having a negligible resistance and an inductance of 0.211 H is connected to a 110-V 50-cycle source. Calculate the (a) inductive reactance, (b) current, (c) maximum power delivered to the inductor or returned to the source, (d) average power. Write the equations for (a) current and (d) power. 4. A 40-F capacitor is connected to a 110-V 60-cycle source. Calculate (a) the capacitive reactance, (b) the current, (c) the maximum power delivered to the capacitor or returned to the source, (d) the average power. Write equations for (e) current and (f) power. 5. A series circuit consisting of a 30-F capacitor and a 155-mH inductor is connected to a 220-V 60-cycle source. Calculate the circuit current and indicate whether it lags behind or leads the voltage. 6. A series circuit consisting of a 0.4-H inductor and a 212-F capacitor is connected to a 110-V variable-frequency source. At what frequency will the circuit take a lagging current of 1.5 A?
79 7. An impedance coil has a resistance of 7.5 and an inductive reactance of 15 . (a) What is the equation of the voltage wave that produces a current of i = 10.2 sin t? (b) Calculate the value of E, I, ER, and EL. 8. A small AC motor used in a washing machine is, in effect, an RL circuit. If the machine takes 311 W and 6.5 A from a 220-V source when operating normally, calculate its power factor. 9. A series RL circuit takes 369.7 W at a power factor of 0.8 from a 110-V 60-cycle source. What are the values of R and L? 10. Two impedance coils A and B are connected in series to a 220-V AC source. Coil A has a resistance of 12 and an inductive reactance of 15 . Coil B has a resistance of 20 and an inductive reactance of 9 . Calculate the voltage drop across each coil. 11. A resistor, in series with a 138-F, is connected to a 60-cycle source. If the voltage drop across the capacitor is 112 V and the power taken by the circuit is 912 W, calculate (a) the circuit current, (b) the ohmic value of the resistor, (c) the line voltage, (d) the circuit power factor. 12. A series RC circuit takes a current whose equation is i = 0.8 sin (754t + 0.8) when connected to a source of emf having the equation e = 340 sin 754t. Calculate (a) the values of Z, R, and XC, (b) the circuit power. 13. A series RLC circuit consists of a 20-Ohm resistor, a 220 mH inductor, and a 66F capacitor. For what 60-cycle impressed voltage will the current be 2.2 A?
80 14. An impedais then impressed across the combination. If the voltage drops across the coil and resistor are 70 and 80 V, respectively, when the circuit current is 1.5 A, calculate the resistance and inductance of the impedance coil. 15. An AC circuit takes a load of 150 kVA at a lagging power factor of 0.8 when connected to a 480-V source. Calculate the current, power, reactive kVA, and reactive factor. 16. An RLC circuit consists of a 55.1-Ohm resistor, a 0.17-H inductor, and an 82.5F capacitor. If the potential drop across the resistor is 71 V, calculate the emf of the 60-cycle source.
81
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to: 1. Analyze circuits in series and in parallel; 2. Combine series with parallel connection; 3. Solve for power and all other electrical quantities.
82
I3 =
EXAMPLE The following information is given in connection with three loads that are connected in parallel to a 220-V AC line: Load A = 4.5 kW at unity power factor; Load B = 11.2 kVA at a lagging power factor of 0.65; and Load C = 5.45 kW at a leading power factor of 0.75. Calculate (a) the total current, (b) overall power factor, (c) total power, (d) total reactive kVA, (e) equivalent impedance of the combination.
GIVEN Parallel-connected loads E = 220 V PA = 4.5 kW p.f.A = 1.0 SB = 11.2 kVA p.f.B = 0.65, lagging PC = 5.45 kW p.f.C = 0.75, leading
84 UNKNOWN a. Total current, IT b. Overall p.f., p.f. T c. Total power, PT d. QT in kVAr e. Equivalent Z, ZT
SOLUTION a. IT = IA + IB + IC IA = = cis cos-1 p.f.A cis cos-1 1.0 (PA was converted to W)
= 20.455 cis 0o A = (20.455 + j0) A IB = = cis [-cos-1 p.f.B] cis [-cos-1(0.65)] (SB was converted to VA)
= 50.909 cis (-49.458o) A = (33.091 j38.687) A IC = = cis [cos-1p.f.C] cis [cos-1 0.75] (PC was converted to W)
85 = 33.03 cis 41.41o A = (24.772 + j21.847) A IT = (20.455 + j0) + (33.091 j38.687) + (24.772 + j21.847) = (78.318 j16.84) A IT = 80.108 cis (-12.135o) A b. p.f.T = cos T = cos 12.135o p.f.T = 0.978 ANSWER ANSWER
c. ST = SA + SB + SC SA = PA + jQA = (4 500 + j0) VA SB = PB - jQB = 11 200 cis (-49.458o) VA = (7 280.059 j8 511.213) VA SC = PC + jQC = 5 450 + j5 450 tan 41.41o = (5 450 + j4 806.512) VA ST = (4 500 + j0) + (7 280.059 j8 511.213) + (5 450 + j4 806.512) = (17 230.059 j3 704.701) VA = 17 623.84 cis (-12.135o) VA
86 ST = 17.624 cis (-12.135o) kVA solution (b)) Since ST = PT jQT PT = 17 230.059 W, or 17.23 kW ANSWER (T = 12.135o, which agreed with
e. ZT =
3.2. ADMITTANCE
Admittance, Y = = (Assuming, for definiteness, that the impedance is inductive)
87 = Y = G j where: G = conductance in mho ( ) = susceptance in mho EXAMPLE The following information was given in connection with a two-branch parallel circuit: E = 220 V; R1 = 2.5 Ohms; X1 = 3.7 inductive Ohms; R2 = 5 Ohms; and X2 = 3 capacitive Ohms. Calculate (a) the admittance of each branch, (b) the total admittance of the circuit, and (c) the total current. -j
GIVEN
UNKNOWN a. Y1, Y2 b. YT c. IT
88 SOLUTION a. Y1 =
= = -j ANSWER
= = +j ANSWER
EXAMPLE The following information is given in connection with the series-parallel circuit shown below. Za = (5 j3) , Zb = (4 + j7) , Zc = (2.5 - j3) , and E = 110 V. Calculate (a) the single equivalent impedance of the circuit; (b) the total current; (c) the current through Zc; (d) the power taken by Zb; (e) the total power; and (f) the voltage across ZA..
90 GVEN E = 110 V Za = (5 j3) Zb = (4 + j7) Zc = (2.5 j3) UNKNOWN a. ZT b. Ia c. Ic d. the power taken by Zb, Pb e. the total power, PT f. voltage across ZA, EA
SOLUTION a.
91
= (0.062 j0.108) + (0.164 + j0.197) = (0.226 + j0.089) mho Z1 = Z1 = (3.831 j1.509) ZT = Za + Z1 = (5 j3) + (3.831 j1.509) ZT = (8.831 j4.509) b. ANSWER
Ia =
c.
92 Applying KVL: E IaZa IcZc = 0 110 - 11.094 cis 27.048o (5 j3) Ic(2.5 j3) = 0 Ic = Ic = 11.697 cis 55.744o A ANSWER
d. Pb = Ib2Rb Using KCL: Ib = Ia - Ic = 11.094 cis 27.048o - 11.697 cis = 5.678 cis (-54.509o) A Pb = (5.678)2 (4) Pb = 128.959 W ANSWER 55.744o
EXERCISES
1. A unity power-factor load of 1 790 W is connected in parallel with a load of 1 506 W operating at a lagging power factor of 0.6. If the line voltage is 120 V, calculate (a) the current in each load, (b) the total current, (c) the total power, (d) the reactive volt-amperes. 2. The following information is given in connection with three loads connected to a 220-V source: load A = 15 A at unity power factor; load B is 38 A at a power factor of 0.6 lagging; load C is 18.5 A at a leading power factor of 0.85. Calculate (a) the total current, (b) the total power, (c) the overall power factor. 3. A coil of wire having a value of (4 + j2) is connected in series with a capacitive reactance XC, and this series combination is then connected in parallel with a resistor R. If the equivalent impedance of the circuit is (5.2 + j0) , calculate the values of XC and R. 4. A resistor and an inductor are connected in parallel to a 220-V 60-cycle source. If the total current and power in the circuit are, respectively, 20 A and 2 000 W, calculate the values of R and L.
94 5. Calculate the equivalent impedance of a three-branch parallel network given the following particulars: Z1 = (4 + j6) ; Z2 = 4.567 cis (-21.786o) ; and Z3 = (6 j4) . 6. An impedance equal to 4.5 cis 60o is connected across a 220-V source. What should be the value of a second impedance, in parallel with the first, if the total power delivered to the circuit is to be 17.1 kW and the overall power factor is to be unity? 7. An impedance ZL = (11 + j10.5) Ohms is connected in parallel with another impedance ZC = (7 j15) Ohms. Calculate the total conductance, susceptance, and admittance of the circuit.. 8. An inductive reactance of 8 Ohms is connected in parallel with a capacitive reactance of 15 Ohms. This combination is then connected in series with a variable resistance. For what value of resistance will the power factor be 0.5?
95
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to: 1. Solve for the resonant frequency; 2. Vary the values of L or C to attain resonance; 3. Evaluate other electrical quantities pertaining to a resonant circuit.
96
EXAMPLE A series circuit consists of a 25-Ohm resistor, a 0.114-Henry inductor, and a 45F capacitor. If a variable-frequency 110-Volt source is connected across its terminals, (a) solve for the resonant frequency. For the resonant condition, determine (b) the circuit current, (c) the circuit power, (d) the voltage drop across the resistor, (e) the voltage drop across the inductor, and (f) the voltage across the capacitor.
97 GIVEN
f is variable
SOLUTION a. fR = =
fR = 70.269 Hz
ANSWER
b. I = Z = R + jXL - jXC
98 XL = 2fRL
= 2(70.268)(0.114) = 50.332 XC =
= = 50.332 Since XL = XC, the circuit is at resonance when f = 70.268 Hz. Z = R = 25 Ohms I= I = 4.4 A ANSWER
d. ER = IR = (4.4)(25) = 110 V
ANSWER
ANSWER
EXAMPLE A series circuit consisting of a 20-Ohm resistor, an 88-F capacitor, and a variable inductor is connected to a 110-V 25-Hz source. Calculate (a) the value of inductance when current is maximum, and (b) the value of the maximum current.
L=
= L = 0.461 H ANSWER
EXAMPLE A series circuit consisting of a 18-Ohm resistor, a 0.06-Henry inductor, and a variable capacitor is connected to a 110-V 25-Hz source. Calculate (a) the value of capacitance when current is maximum, and (b) the value of the maximum current.
SOLUTION a. XL = XC 2fL = C=
A parallel circuit can exhibit resonance properties only when one or more branches contain an excess of inductive reactance with respect to other branches that possess an excess of capacitive reactance. A parallel circuit can exhibit resonance properties by 1. varying the frequency, 2. varying the inductance,
103 3. varying the capacitance, and 4. varying the resistance in any of the branches. When the two-branch parallel circuit of Fig. 4.1 is in resonance, the quadrature components of the two branch currents are equal; therefore L = C where: L = susceptance of the inductive branch or branches C = susceptance of the capacitive branch or branches
(Cancel E)
EXAMPLE The following information is given in connection with a two branch parallel circuit such as Fig. 4.1: R1 = 12 ; R2 = 22 ; X2 = 38 ; E = 120 V; and f = 60 Hz. For the condition of resonance, calculate (a) the two values of L, (b) the two values of current.
104 GIVEN
SOLUTION a. XL = XC (
) ) )
105
XL =
XL1 =
= 3.018
106
IT1 = I1 + I2 I1 =
= (0.595 j2.365) A I2 =
= = (1.369 + j2.365) A IT1 = (0.595 j2.365) + (1.369 + j2.365) IT1 = 1.964 A ANSWER
107 IT2 = I1 + I2 I1 =
= = (9.405 j2.365) A I2 =
= = (1.369 + j2.365) A IT2 = (9.405 j2.365) + (1.369 + j2.365) IT2 = 10.774 A ANSWER
EXAMPLE Calculate the resonant frequency of a two-branch parallel circuit given the following particulars: RL= 40 ; RC = 20 ; L = 0.254 H; C = 40 F. GIVEN:
108 UNKNOWN fR
SOLUTION a.
fR =
ANSWER
fR = 44.613 Hz
109
EXERCISES
1. A series circuit consists of an impedance coil having a resistance of 55 Ohms and an inductance of 0.281 H, and a 25-F capacitor. Calculate the resonant frequency. 2. A series R-L-C circuit is to be made resonant when connected to a 208-V 400cycle source. If the inductance is 0.0396 H, determine the capacitance of the capacitor and the minimum ohmic value of the resistor if the voltage drop across the capacitor is to be limited to 600 V. 3. An impedance coil takes 144 W at a lagging power factor of 0.6. What values of capacitance and resistance should be connected in series with the coil if the power input to the latter is to remain unchanged and the overall circuit power factor is to be unity? The circuit is energized by a 120-V 60-cycle source. 4. An impedance coil having a resistance of 25 Ohms and an inductance of 20 mH is connected in parallel with a variable capacitor. For what value of C will the circuit be resonant if a 90-V 400-cycle source is applied? What will be the line current under this condition? 5. A series circuit consisting of a 30-Ohm resistor and a 4-F capacitor is connected in parallel with a variable inductor. For what value of inductance will the circuit be in resonance if the frequency of the source is 1 200 cps? 6. Calculate the resonant frequency of a two-branch parallel circuit given the following particulars: RL = 30 Ohms, RC = 30 Ohms, L = 0.106 H, C = 48 F.
110 The following data are given for a two-branch parallel circuit: E = 120, RL = 30, XL = 25, XC = 40. Calculate the value of RC that will make the circuit resonant, and determine the total current and power under this condition.
111
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson the students will be able to: 1. Apply network laws and theorems to three-phase systems. 2.Solve for current through, voltage across, and power dissipated in a threephase system.
112 3. Use tools like double-subscript notation, sequence, and phasor diagrams in the analysis of three-phase system.
113
The instantaneous voltages (or currents) may now be written as eA = EA sin t eB = EB sin (t 120o) eC = EC sin (t 240o), or eC = EC sin (t + 120o) The corresponding effective (or rms) phasors will be EA = lEAl cis 0o EB = lEBl cis (-120o) EC = lECl cis 120o, or EC = lECl cis (-240o)
114
115
Star connection is attained when three identical coil ends are joined to become a common or neutral point. From the diagram and assuming sequence A-B-C, the three phase voltages are VAN, VBN, and VCN, while the corresponding line voltages are, respectively, VAB, VBC, and VCA. If VAN is chosen as the reference phasor, and VP as the magnitude of the phase voltages, then under conditions of balanced loading: VAN = VP cis 0o Volts VBN = VP cis (-120o) Volts, or VP cis 240o Volts VCN = VP cis 120o Volts, or VP cis (-240o) Volts The following are the corresponding equation of line voltages based on the Fig. 5.3: VAB = VAN + VNB = VAN - VBN = VP cis 0o VP cis (-120o) = VP [1 cis 0o 1 cis (-120o)]
116 = VP * ( = VP ( = VAB = ( (
)+ )
) )
The same relation maybe obtained for VBC = VBN + VNC, and for VCA = VCN + VNA Therefore, VL = VP, and VL leads the corresponding phase voltage by 30 degrees If the neutral is brought out and used with the three line wires it is called a fourwire three-phase system; in such cases an alternator, or its equivalent transformer equipment, can supply three independent single-phase loads. If, on the other hand, the neutral is not brought out but is left intact, usually by grounding, it is called a three-wire three-phase system; it is characterized by its general application to three-phase loads only. The three line currents, IA (the current through line A), IB (the current through line B), and IC (the current through line C) are equal in magnitude and differ in phase by 120o; their positions with respect to each phase voltage is determined by the load power factor. Moreover, IA = IAN, IB = IBN, and IC = ICN.
117 EXAMPLE Three identical impedances whose values are 5 + j2 Ohms are connected wye and the combination is supplied from a balanced three phase 380-V 60-cycle source. Assuming sequence A-C-B and VCN as reference, compute for the three line currents.
GIVEN
UNKNOWN a. IA b. IB c. IC
VCN =
VBN = 219.393 cis (-120o) V VAN = 219.393 cis 120o V IA = IA = 40.74 cis 98.199o A ANSWER
119
Delta connection is attained when three identical coils are joined such that each terminal is composed only of two coil ends forming the diagram shown in Fig. 5.4. From the diagram and assuming sequence A-B-C, the three phase voltages are equal to their corresponding line voltages. Line currents are, however, related to phase currents such that IA = IAB cis (-30o) IB = IBC cis (-30o) IC = ICA cis (-30o) The derivation is similar to that of the voltage relation in star connection. Kirchhoffs Current Law should be applied first to any junction and then proceed with vector addition.
120 EXAMPLE Three identical impedances whose values are 6 j4 Ohms are connected delta and the combination is supplied from a balanced three phase 480-V 60-cycle source. Assuming sequence 1-2-3 and V23 as reference, compute for the three line currents.
GIVEN
UNKNOWN a. I1 b. I2 c. I3
121 SOLUTION V23 = 480 cis 0o V V31 = 480 cis (-120o) V or V31 = 480 cis 240o V V12 = 480 cis 120o V or V12 = 480 cis (-240o) V
a. I1 + I31 = I12 I1 = I12 I31 I12 = = = 66.564 cis 153.69o A I31 = = = 66.564 cis (-86.31o) A I1 = 66.564 cis 153.69o - 66.564 cis (-86.31o) I1 = 115.292 cis 123.69o A ANSWER
122 = = 66.564 cis 33.69o A I2 = 66.564 cis 33.69o - 66.564 cis 153.69o I2 = 115.292 cis 3.69o A ANSWER
c. I3 + I23 = I31 I3 = I31 I23 I3 = 66.564 cis (-86.31o) - 66.564 cis 33.69o I2 = 115.292 cis (-116.31o) A ANSWER
123 P = 3( )
= =
( )
P = VLIL cos
, while IP = IL
= =
( )
P = VLIL cos EXAMPLE Three identical impedances whose values are 5 + j2 Ohms are connected wye and the combination is supplied from a balanced three phase 380-V 60-cycle source. Compute for the power.
UNKNOWN P
SOLUTION P=
LIL
cos
IP =
= 40.742 A IL = 40.742 A
------------- Equation 1
= ILZY
VL = ILZY -----------Equation 2
= ILZY
Z = 3ZY EXAMPLE Three identical impedances whose values are 5 + j2 Ohms are connected wye and the combination is connected parallel to a delta-connected impedances each with a value of 2 j6 . If the entire combination is supplied from a balanced three phase 380-V 60cycle source, compute for the line current.
UNKNOWN IL
127 = 3(5 + j2) Ze = 15 + j6 The total per phase impedance of the entire combination, ZT, connected delta will be: ZT = ZT = ZT = 6.01 cis (-49.764o) , connected delta IP = VP = VL IP = = 63.228 A IL = IP = IL = 109. 514 A ANSWER (parallel connection)
The total per phase impedance of the entire combination, Zt, connected delta will be:
128 Zt =
( ( ) )
Zt = Zt =
IL =
IL = 109.532 A
ANSWER
EXERCISES
1. The voltage across each phase of a star-connected source is 265 V. What will be the current in each of the three line wires if a balanced load of 200 kW at a power factor of 0.82 is delivered? 2. What is the voltage of a delta-connected source that delivers an 0.85 power-factor load of 500 kW at 148 A? 3. A 10-Hp 230-V three-phase motor draws a line current of 25 A when operating at rated output. If the motor efficiency is 91%, calculate the power factor. 4. Two balanced loads are connected in parallel to a three-phase 460-V source. Load A is 900 kVA at a power factor of 0.6 lagging, and load B is 400 kW at a power factor
129 of 0.8 leading. Calculate (a) total kilowatts, (b) total kilovolt-ampere, (c) overall power factor, (c) line currents.
131 voltages is treated as a vector quantity thus it can be vectorially operated but to some extent have to met definite requirements. They may be described as in-phase or out-ofphase. If the two waves are out-of-phase, then a wave maybe either lagging or leading and the phase or angle difference should also be specified.
LESSON 2 dealt with the behavior of the three types of load to the sinusoidal
sources, resistive, inductive, and capacitive loads. First each component is treated as ideal. The behavior of a resistor to a sinusoidal source is that the resulting current is inphase with the impressed voltage. In other words, it simply obeys Ohms Law. In an ideal or pure inductor, current lags behind the impressed voltage by exactly 90 electrical degrees. An ideal or pure capacitor behaves exactly the opposite to the way a pure inductor respond to sinusoidal voltages. The current through an ideal capacitor leads the impressed voltage by exactly 90 electrical degrees. After treating them as pure, the combination of two or more of these components were discussed starting with a resistorinductor (RL) combination, then resistor-capacitor (RC) combination, inductor-capacitor (LC) combination, and resistor-inductor-capacitor (RLC) combination. These were the simplest electrical load subject to a sinusoidal source, meaning to say, any complex load combination may be simplified to any of these combinations before proceeding with the actual analysis.
LESSON 3 was all about single-phase circuits. Circuits having two terminals or
the so-called single-port circuits are the types of circuits classified under such category. They may be purely resistive, purely capacitive, purely inductive, or a heterogeneous
132 composition of inductive or capacitive circuits. Their impedances are determined, then from its knowledge comes power factor. The resulting current is then computed together with power. Admittance is also taken up in this lesson. Composed of the real component called conductance and the imaginary component called susceptance, it is defined as the reciprocal of impedance.
LESSON 3 was also about the combination of loads into two basic
connections, series and parallel. Series circuits, in general are a connection where the current through each is the same. The summation of voltages across is equal to the impressed voltage. Parallel circuits are circuits where the voltages across each are equal and are equal to the impressed voltage. The summation of currents through each should be equal to the current delivered by the source. Simplification of either combination is also discussed in this lesson.
LESSON 4 tackled resonance to both series RLC and the two-branch parallel
circuits. The general behavior of a resonant circuit was discussed before proceeding to the conditions behind series resonance and then two-branch parallel circuit resonance or sometimes known as antiresonance.
LESSONS 5 dealt with the balanced three-phase circuits and the two types of
connections, respectively. Generalizations regarding current and voltage relations were discussed together with the use of the double-subscript notation and phase sequence.
133 Phase and line currents in the wye or star connection are equal while the line voltage is equal to the square root of three times the phase voltage and the former leads the latter by 30 electrical degrees. Phase and line voltages in a delta connection on the other hand, are equal while line current is square root of three times the phase current and the former lags the latter by 30 electrical degrees.
CONCLUSIONS
Alternating current circuits is a very important course to an Electrical engineering student. The thorough understanding of the said course is very vital due to the fact that other major Electrical engineering courses are founded upon it. The reason is that current and voltages are very essential in the operation of an electrical circuit. A circuit is useless without these electrical quantities. It is therefore highly recommended that an Electrical engineering program should give more emphasis on the course alternating current circuits and recommend that more learning materials must be formulated to offer more opportunities for a student to learn and understand the course. Finally, this manual is being offered as an added study material and must be used together with the book Electrical Circuits 2nd Edition by Charles S. Siskind. This is one attempt to provide the students of Garcia College of Technology taking up the Electrical engineering program another reference material for them to have a solid foundation of the course and a confident mind going into the other major courses.
134
RECOMMENDATIONS
The following recommendations are presented by the author. 1.This manual should be used by students taking up alternating current circuits. 2.Students using this manual must practice solving problems at the end of each lesson. 3.The manual should be used together with the textbook Electrical Circuits 2nd Edition by Charles S. Siskind. 4.It is very important that other learning materials must also be studied so that comparisons can be made. 5.The student should never proceed to the next topic without understanding first the previous one. 6.Illustrative examples are comprehensively explained based on the foundation of the students enrolled at Garcia College of Technology. 7.It is always assumed that the reader has to understand all details in this manual.
135
REFERENCES A. Books
Siskind, Charles S. Electrical Circuits, 2nd Edition, Copyright 1965 by the McGraw-Hill, Inc. Dawes, Chester L. A Course in Electrical Engineering, Vol. 2, Copyright 1956 by the McGraw-Hill, Inc. Corcoran, George F. and Kerchner, Russell M. Alternating Current Circuits, 4th Edition, Copyright 1960 by John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Hayt, William Jr. H. and Kemmerly, Jack E. Engineering Circuit Analysis, 5th Edition, Copyright 1993 by the McGraw-Hill, Inc. Richardson, Robert C., Richardson, Betty McCarthy, and Giambattista, Alan, College Physics, 2nd Edition, Copyright 2007 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
136
B. Internet
www.cliffsnotes.com physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/ACcircuits.html www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_2/index.html http://www.tutorvista.com/videos http://www.agmlabs.com
137
APPENDICES Appendix A. Summary of the Basic Relations in the Different Circuit Combinations
Table A.1 Summary of pure resistive, inductive and capacitive circuits
138
SYMBOL
DESCRIPTION
Length
meter (m)
Mass
kilogram (kg)
Time
second (s)
Energy
Watt-second(W-s)
Frequency
Hertz (Hz)
Period
second (s)
Power
Watt (W)
139
Admittance
mho ()
Capacitance
Farad (F)
Charge
Q,q
Current x time
Coulomb (C)
Conductance
mho ()
Impedance
Ohm ()
Potential
Volt (V)
Reactance
Ohm ()
Resistance
Ohm ()
Susceptance
mho ()
Inductance
Henry (H)
140 Table B.2 Trigonometric relations sin (x y) = sin x cos y cos x sin y cos (x y) = cos x cos y sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x cos 2x = cos2 x sin2 x sin x sin y sin2 x + cos2 x = 1 tan (x + y) = tan (x - y) = tan 2x =
Table B.3 Hyperbolic relations sinh x = cosh x = tanh x = coth x = sinh (x jy) = sinh x cos y jcosh x sin y cosh (x jy) = cosh x cos y jsinh x sin y
Table B.4 Logarithmic relations , common logarithm , natural logarithm e = 2.71828 ln x = 2.3026 log x