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Alternating-Current Indicating Instruments

1. Introduction to Alternating-current Indicating Instruments
The d'Arsonval movement responds to the average or dc value of the current through the
moving coil. If the movement carries an alternating current with positive and negative half
cycles, the driving torque would be in one direction for the positive alternation and other
direction for the negative alternation. If the frequency of the ac is very low, the pointer would
swing back and forth around zero point on the meter scale. At higher frequencies, the inertia
of the coil is so great that the pointer cannot follow the rapid reversals of the driving torque
and hovers around the zero mark, vibrating slightly.
To measure ac on d'Arsonval movement, some means must be devised to obtain a
unidirectional torque that does not reverse each half cycle. One method involves rectification
of the ac, so that the rectified current deflects the coil. Other methods use the heating effect of
the alternating current to produce an indication of its magnitude.
2. Electrodynamometer
Figure 1 shows a schematic arrangement of an electrodynamometer movement. The
operation of the instrument may be understood by returning to the expression for the torque
developed by a coil suspended in a magnetic field as shown in Equation (1).
N I A B T = ..................................................................................................(1)
The deflection of coil is directly proportional to the coil constants (A and N), the strength of
the magnetic field in which the coil moves (B), and the current through the coil (I). In the
electrodynamometer the flux density (B) depends on the current through the fixed coil and is
therefore directly proportional to the deflection current (I). Since the coil dimension and the
number of turns on the coil frame are fixed quantities fo any given meter, the developed
torque becomes a function of the current squared (I
2
).
If the electrodynamometer is exclusively designed for dc use, its square-law scale is
easily noticed, with crowded scale markings at very low current values, progressively
spreading out at the higher current values. For ac use, the developed torque at any instant is
proportional to the instantaneous current squared (i
2
). The instantaneous value of i
2
is always
positive and torque pulsations are therefore produced. The movement, however, cannot follow
the rapid variations of the torque and takes up a position in which the average torque is
balanced by the torque of the control springs. The meter deflection is therefore a function of
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the mean of squared current. The scale of the electrodynamometer is usually calibrated in
terms of the square root of the average current squared, and the meter therefore reads the rms
of effective value of the ac.

FIGURE 1. Schematic diagram of an electrodynamometer movement
An alternating current that produces heat in a given resistance at the same average rate
as a direct current (I) has, by definition, a value of I amperes. The average rate of producing
heat by a dc of I amperes in a resistance R is I
2
R watts. The average rate of producing heat by
an ac of i amperes during one cycle in the same resistance R is
}
t
0
2
1
dt R i
T
. By definition,
therefore,

}
=
t
o
dt R i
T
R I
2 2
1

and
2
0
2
1
i average dt i
T
I = =
}
t
..................................................................................(2)
This current, I, is then called the root-mean-square (rms) or effective value of the alternating
current and is often referred to as the equivalent dc value.
The electrodynanometer is very useful as a calibration instrument and is often used for
this purpose because of its inherent accuracy. But it has certain disadvantages. One of these is
its high power cunsumption, a direct result of its construction. In spite of this high power
consumption, the magnetic field is very much weaker than that of comparable d'Arsonval
movement because there is no iron in the circuit. Some instruments have been designed using
special laminated steel for part of the flux path, but the presence of metal introduces
calibration problem caused by frequency and waveform effects.

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3. Moving Iron Instruments
Moving-iron instruments can be classified into two types: attraction and repulsion
instruments. The latter are among the more commonly used instruments. A radial vane
repulsion movement is shown in diagrammatic form in Figure 2.

FIGURE 2. Radial-vane moving-iron mechanism. The aluminum damping vane, attached
to the shaft just below the pointer, rotates in a closely fitting chamber to bring
the pointer to rest quickly.
The movement consists of a stasionary coil of many turns, which carries the current to
be measured. Two iron vanes are placed inside the coil. One vane is rigidly attached to the
coil frame; the other frame is connected to the instrument shaft which can rotate freely. The
current through the coil magnetizes both vanes with the same polarity, regardless of the
instantaneous dirction of current. The magnetized vanes experience a repelling force, and
since only one vane can move, its displacement is an analog of the magnitude of coil current.
The repelling force is proportional to the current squared, but the effects of frequency and
hysteresis tend to produce a pointer deflection that is not linear that does not have a perfect
square-law relationship.
The radial-vane repulsion instrument is the most sensitive of the moving-iron
mechanisms and has the most linear scale. A good design and the high quality magnetic vanes
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are required for instruments of good grade. Note the aluminum vane attached, just under the
pointer, which rotates in a closely fitting chamber to bring the pointer to rest quickly.

4. Rectifier-Type Instruments

This method is very attractive, because it has a higher sensitivity than either the
electrodynamometer or the moving-iron instrument.
Rectifier-type instrument generally use a PMMC movement in combination with some
rectifier arrangement. Rectifiers for instruments work sometimes consist of four diodes in a
bridge configuration, providing full-wave rectification. Figure 3 shows an ac voltmeter circuit
consisting of a multiplier, a bridge rectifier, and a PMMC movement.

FIGURE 3. Full-wave rectifier ac voltmeter
The bridge rectifier produces a pulsating unidirectional current through the meter
movement over the complete cycle of the input voltage. Because of the inertia of the moving
coil, the meter will indicate a steady deflection proportional to the average value of the
current. Since alternating currents and voltages are usually expressed in rms values, the meter
scale is calibrated i terms of the rms value of a sinusoidal waveform..
A nonsinusoidal waveform has an average value that may differ considerably from the
average value of a pure sine wave (for which the meter is calibrated) and the indicated reading
may be very errorneous. The form factor relates the average value and the rms value of time
varying voltages and currents :

wave ac the of value average
wave ac the of value effective
factor form =
5
For a sinusoidal waveform :

( )
1 . 1
2
2
2
=
|
.
|

\
|
= =
m
m
average
rms
E
E
E
E
factor form
t
................................................................(3)
The ideal rectifier element should have zero forward and infinite reverse resistance. In
practise, however, the rectifier is a nonlinier device, indicated by the characteristic curves of
Figure 4.

FIGURE 4. Characteristic curves of a solid-state rectifier
The resistance of the rectifying element changes wit varying temperature, one of the
major drawbacks of rectifier-type ac instruments. The meter accuracy is usually satisfactory
under normal operating conditions at room temperature and is generally on the order of + 5 %
of full-scale reading for sinusoidal waveforms. At very much higher or lower temperatures,
the resistance of the rectifier changes the total resistance of the measuring circuit sufficiently
cause the meter to be gravely in error.
Frequency also affects the operation of the rectifier elements. The rectifier exhibits
capasitive properties and tends to bypass the higher frequencies. Meter readings may be in
error by as much as 0.5 % decrease for every 1-kHz rise in frequency.
General rectifier-type ac voltmeters often use the arrangement shown Figure 5. The
commercial multimeter often uses the same scale markings for both its dc and ac voltage
ranges. Since the dc component of a sine wave for half-wave rectification equals 0.45 times
the rms value, a poblem arises immediately. In order to obtain the same deflection on
coresponding dc and ac voltage ranges, the multiplier for the ac range must be lowered
proportionately. The circuit of Figure 6 illustrates a solution to the problem. Figure 7 shows a
multirange ac voltmeter circuit of the Simpson Model 260 multimeter.


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FIGURE 5. Typical ac voltmeter section of a commercial multimeter

FIGURE 6. Computation of the multiplier resistor and the ac voltmeter sensitivity

FIGURE 7. Multirange ac voltmeter circuit of the Simpson Model 260 multimeter
(courtesy of the Simpson Electric Cimpany)

5. Thermoinstruments
The historical foreruner of the thermoinstruments is the hot-wire mechanism, shown
schematically in Figure 8.






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FIGURE 8. Schematic representation of the hot-wire ammeter
The current under measurement passes through a fine wire tightly stretched between two
terminals. A second wire is attached to the fine wire at one end and, at the other, to a spring,
which exerts a download pull on the fine wire. This second wire passes over a roller to which
the pointer connected. The current under measurement causes the fine wire to heat and thus
expand approximately in proportion to the heating current squared. The change in wire length
drives the pointer, which indicates the magnitude of the current. Instability due to wire stretch,
sluggishness in response, and lack of ambient temperature compensation have made this
mechanism commercially unsatisfactory.
Figure 9 shows a combination of a thermocouple and a PMMC movement that can be
used to measure both ac and dc. This combination is called a thermocouple instrument, since
its operation is based on the action of the thermocouple element. In Figure 9, CE and DE
represent the two disiimilar metals, joined at point E, and are drawn as a light and a heavy
line, to indicate dissimilarity. The potential difference between C and D depends on the
temperature of the so-called cold junction, E. A rise in temperature causes an increase in the
voltage and this is used to advantage in the termocouple. Heating element AB, hich is in
mechanical contact wit he junction of the two metals at point E, forms part of the circuit in
which the current is to be measured. AEB is called the hot junction. Heat energy generated by
the current in the heating element raises the temperature of the cold junction and causes an
increase in the voltage generated across terminals C and D. The potential difference causes a
dc current is directly proportional to the current squared (I
2
R), and the temperature rise (and
hence the generated voltage) is proportional to the square of the rms current. The deflection of
the indicating instrument will therefore follow a square-law relationship.

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FIGURE 9. Schematic representation of a basic thermocouple instrument using
thermocouple CDE and a PMMC movement.

FIGURE 10. Compensated thermocouple to measure the thermovoltage prouced by current i
alone. Couple terminals C and D are in thermal contact with heater terminals A
and B, but are electrically insulated from them.
The compensated thermoelement, shown schematically in Figure 10, produces a
thermoelectric voltage in the thermocouple CED, which is directly proportional to the current
through circuit AB. Since the developed couple voltage is a function of the temperature
difference between its hot and cold ends, this temperature difference must be caused only by
the current being measured. Therefore, for accurate measurements, points C and D must be at
the mean temperature of points A and B. This accomplished by attaching couple ends C and D
to the center of separate copper strips, whose ends are in thermal contact with A and B, but
electrically insulated from them.
Self-contained thermoelectric instruments of the compensated type are available in the
0.5-20-A range. Higher current ranges are available, but in this case the heating element is
external to the indicator. Thermoelements used for current ranges over 60 A are gnerally
provided with air cooling fins.
Current measurements in the lower ranges, from approximately 0.1-0.75 A, use a
bridge-type thermoelement, shown schematically in Figure 11. This arrangement does not use
a separate heater: the current to be measured passes directly through the hermoelements and
raises their temperature in portion to I
2
R. The cold junctions (marekd c) are the pins which are
embedded in the insulating frame, and the hot junctions (marked h) are at splices midway
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between the pins. The couples are arranged as shown in Figure 11, and the resultant thermal
voltage generates a dc potential difference across the indicating instruments. Since the bridge
arms have equal resistances, the ac voltage across the meter is 0 V. The use of several
thermocouples in series provides a greater output voltage and deflection than is possible with
a single element, resulting in an instrument with increased sensitivity.

FIGURE 11. Bridge-type thermocouple instrument
Thermocouple voltmeters are available in ranges of up to 500 V and sensitivities of
approximately 100 to 500
V
O
.
A major advantage of a thermocouple instrument is that its accuracy can be as high as 1
%, up to frequencies of approximately 50 MHZ. For this reason, it is classified as an RF
instrument. Above 50 MHZ, the skin effect thends to force the current to the outer surface of
the conductor, increasing the effective resistance of the heating wire and reducing instrument
accuracy.