Aquacultural Engineering 5 1986) 135-146

Comments on the Development of Techniques for Management of Environmental Quality in Aquaculture

Claude E. B o y d
Department of Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures, Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn University, Alabama 36849, USA

ABSTRACT Management procedures which improve or stabilize environmental quality in aquaculture ponds are needed. The develop.tent of" such procedures requires knowledge of quantitative relationships among two sets of variables: (I) fish production attd specific aspects of environmental quality artd (2) the management procedure and environmental qualio t The specific changes desired in environmental quality must be identified, and the effect oJ'a given degree of application oJ'a mam~ge.tent procedure otl both environmental quality and aquacultural production must be ascertained. Management procedures must produce predictable results at a reas'onable cost. Environmental factors which must be considered in managing water quali O, in fertUized ponds and in ponds in which JOe& are applied are discussed. Some examples of the development of successfid environmental quality management techniques are provided and topics for fitture research are mentioned.

INTRODUCTION The most fundamental and complex aspect of aquacultural engineering involves the management of environmental quality, and the ability of a manager to maintain a high quality environment in a pond often determines the margin of profit. Most water quality management techniques were developed through research, or sometimes by trial and error, at one or a few locations. Because of differences in environmental conditions among localities and an incomplete knowledge of
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factors influencing response, the benefits of a management technique may yaw greatly. Furthermore, management procedures should be based upon a sound understanding of cause and effect; but many were developed from untested hypotheses. The ultimate goal of environmental research in aquaculture is two-fold: ( 1 ) to develop quantitative methods for predicting the effects of fish culture on environmental quality and vice versa, and (2) to devise management procedures which will predictably improve or stabilize environmental quality at a reasonable cost. I will discuss research on management of environmental quality in fertilized ponds and in ponds to which feeds are applied. I will demonstrate the complexity of the systems and the wide range of factors that should be considered; I will also show that it is possible to develop reliable management procedures. In essence, the development of a reliable procedure requires a model of the processes in question, so the applicability of simulation techniques will be obvious.

FERTILIZED PONDS The positive correlation between phytoplankton productivity and fish yield in ponds has been demonstrated many times. It is also widely recognized that txvo nutrients, phosphorus, and nitrogen to a lesser degree, normally limit phytoplankton productivity in ponds. Therefore, applications of phosphate and nitrogen fertilizers have been used to increase fish yields. Research at several stations has demonstrated that for ponds on a station, a particular application rate of a fertilizer will result in a predictable increase in the yield of a given aquacultural species. However, in practice the yield response to the fertilizer dose is not so predictable because of differences in environmental conditions and aquacultural species. Below I will discuss factors that influence the response to pond fertilization. There are probably more factors than given, and interactions are also likely.
Need for lime

For a pond to respond properly to fertilization, the bottom muds must not be highly acidic and the water should have a total alkalinity and

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total hardness of 20 mg liter-~ or more as CaCO~. Acidic muds strongly adsorb phosphate; benthic organisms, including bacteria, do not grow well at low pH; phytoplankton do not have adequate carbon and calcium for growth in soft, weakly alkaline waters. Acidic muds may be neutralized and alkalinity and hardness of water increased by application of liming materials. Liming has more than doubled fish production in some fertilized ponds with acidic muds and waters of low alkalinity. The quantity of liming material required per hectare will vary greatly among ponds. The following discussion describes a technique for calculating the lime requirement of fish ponds. It also demonstrates how knowledge of basic processes in ponds can be used in developing a management procedure. Boyd (1974) found that total hardness and total alkalinity of pond waters exceeded 20 mg liter-~ when the base unsaturation of muds was 0"2 or less. Furthermore, there was a strong correlation between the base unsaturation of pond muds and their pH values, and a mud pH of 6 corresponded to a base unsaturation of 0"2. Therefore, if the pH of a mud is known, the base unsaturation can be computed from the regression equation relating pH and base unsaturation of muds. The reduction of pH in a buffer solution caused by a known weight of dry mud provided an estimate of total exchange acidity. Neutralization of the total exchange acidity would give a base unsaturation of 0-2. Therefore, the amount of exchange acidity (in milliequivalents)which must be neutralized to lower the base unsaturation to 0-2 -- this corresponds to 20 mg liter-~ total hardness and alkalinity in pond water -was calculated as follows: Acidity to be neutralized = Exchange acidity x Initial base unsaturation - Desired base unsaturation Initial base unsaturation

Boyd and Cuenco (1980) determined that agricultural limestone reacted to a depth of approximately 15 cm in pond muds over a 2 year period, and that the air-dry weight of the upper 15 cm layer of mud in ponds averaged 1 4 0 0 0 0 0 kg ha-~. The amount of acidity to be neutralized as estimated for the sample may be expanded to give the amount of acidity to be neutralized in the pond mud. The liming rate in kilograms per hectare of CaCO 3 is calculated from the acidity. A

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liming factor of 1.5 is multiplied by the liming rate, because agricultural limestone is not 100% effective in neutralizing soil acidity. The method developed by Boyd (1974) has proven effective, and it has been widely used. However, the procedure was developed for ponds in Alabama, USA, and relationships between pH and base unsaturation of muds differ geographically. For most accurate results, the relationship between pH and base unsaturation of muds should be determined for each region where the procedure is used. This is a difficult task that is often impractical. A simple method for determining the lime requirement of pond muds that does not require data on the relationship between pH and base unsaturation was developed by PiUai and Boyd (1985). This method involves measuring the total exchange acidity with a buffer, and calculating the liming rate necessary to provide a base unsaturation of 0. Because this technique will always provide a higher liming rate than necessary, the liming factor of 1"5 is omitted. Not all acidity problems in ponds result from exchange acidity. Cat's clay, mine overburden, and certain other soils are acidic because of the presence of pyrite (acid-sulfate soils). The soils have both exchange and sulfuric acid acidity; Boyd (1979a) presents a procedure for determining the lime requirement of acid-sulfate soils. Acidsulfate soils are common in many coastal tropical regions, and research on neutralization of acid-sulfate soils on the watersheds of fish ponds is badly needed. Water exchange The water retention time in a pond has a pronounced influence upon pond fertilization and the residual effect of lime applications. If water is rapidly flushed through ponds, fertilizer nutrients may be discharged before they can affect increases in phytoplankton; the influence of liming will be short-lived. Although the influence of water exchange rate on fertilization and liming is widely recognized in practice, there has been no research to provide quantitative relationships between water exchange rates and the effectiveness of liming and fertilization. Weed problems Higher aquatic plants compete with phytoplankton for nutrients. Therefore, if a pond is infested with aquatic weeds, fertilization may

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encourage the growth of weeds rather than increasing phytoplankton production. Grass carp may be used as a biological control agent, or herbicides may be applied to affect weed control before fertilization is initiated.

Water chemistry.
In waters with naturally high pH and high calcium concentrations, the phosphate applied in fertilizers may be quickly precipitated from the water as an insoluble calcium phosphate. Hence, the phosphorus application rate must be greater in hard water of high pH than in softer water with more moderate pH. There is also evidence that nutrients in addition to nitrogen and phosphorus may limit phytoplankton productivity in some waters.

Turbidity
Turbidity resulting from high concentrations of suspended clay particles restricts light penetration in water and prevents optimum growth of phytoplankton. Treatment with aluminum sulfate (alum) or gypsum will remove clay turbidity quickly, but unless the source of the turbidity is eliminated the turbidity will return. Alum treatment is the most efficient means of removing turbidity (Boyd, 1979b); a test for determining the alum dose rate is available. The use of alum for turbidity removal is an example of taking information from another field (sanitary engineering) and developing methodology for aquaculture.

Watersheds
Ponds on fertile soils require less fertilizer for initiation of plankton blooms that ponds on infertile soils. Management of watersheds also int'luences pond fertilization. Boyd (1976) demonstrated that unfertilized ponds in pastures were as productive of phytoplankton as fertilized ponds, but unfertilized ponds in woods were much less productive than fertilized ponds.

Previous management
Nutrients and organic matter tend to accumulate in fertilized ponds over the years. Therefore an old pond with a history of fertilization

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does not require as much fertilizer as a newer pond. Unfortunately, the age and history of ponds have not been considered in pond fertilization experiments. Phytoplankton communities Pond fertilization normally increases the abundance of phytoplankton, but the taxonomic composition of the phytoplankton is unpredictable. A l t h o u ~ one cannot define the most desirable planktonic taxa for a particular aquacultural system, blue-green algae are generally less desirable than green algae, euglenophytes, and diatoms. Unfortunately, current fertilization practices often lead to a preponderance of blue-green algae. Research to determine the most desirable planktonic forms for fish culture systems and to develop techniques for encouraging the growth of these forms could prove valuable. Weather and climate It is widely recognized that soil fertility and crop management practices are greatly influenced by weather and climate. I assume that weather and climate also influence the response of ponds to fertilization. For example, during a wet year, greater water exchange and more cloudy weather are likely to result in less phytoplankton production than would be expected for a normal year. Similarly, ponds in regions with warm, dry climates would probably be more productive of phytoplankton than ponds in regions with cool, wet climates. However, there has been little effort to investigate the influence of weather and climate on pond fertilization. Type of fertilizer Boyd (1981) demonstrated that liquid fertilizers were much more effective than granular fertilizers for fish ponds. However, liquid fertilizers are not available everywhere, and granular fertilizers will continue to be used in many places. Several different chemical compounds are used as sources of liquid and granular fertilizers. Knowledge of the most satisfactory sources for nitrogen and phosphorus for pond fertilization is badly needed, t expect that the best nutrient source would differ among waters of markedly different chemistry.

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Culture species
Phytoplankton abundance required for optimum production of different aquacultural species probably varies. For example, experience at Auburn Univesity, Alabama, suggests that much greater abundance of phytoplankton is required in the culture of Tilapia than in the culture of Lepomis (sunfish). Pond fertilization research has been limited to comparatively few species.

FISH FEEDING Feeds are supplied to cultures of many species of fish to increase production above that obtained with fertilizers. Metabolic wastes from feed reach the water, exert an oxygen demand, and serve as a source of nutrients for phytoplankton. The phytoplankton also exert an oxygen demand. Therefore, as feed rates increase, phytoplankton abundance increases, and water quality deteriorates. Considerable research on the relationships between feeding of channel catfish and water quality has been conducted at Auburn University. We have been able to develop predictive equations and devise management strategies. Because similar relationships are likely to exist in other types of fish culture, a discussion of the findings seems appropriate here.

Chemical budgets
Budgets for water, nitrogen, phosphorus, chemical oxyen demand (organic matter), and dissolved oxygen (DO) were estimated over a growing season (March-October) for three channel catfish ponds (Boyd, 1985). In addition to rainfall and runoff, 190 cm of water were applied from a pipe line to offset seepage and evaporation. Each kilogram of live fish required for production 1-32 kg of feed, and released to the water in metabolic wastes 51.1 g nitrogen, 72 g phosphorus, and 1"1 kg chemical oxygen demand (COD). Metabolic wastes resulting from production of 1 kg of fish led to the synthesis of an additional 2.59 kg of COD in photosynthesis. Thus, 1 kg of live fish resulted in 3"69 kg COD. Fish harvest accounted for removal of only 26'8% of nitrogen, 30-1% of phosphorus, and 25"5% of organic matter (COD) applied in feed. The remainder of the nitrogen and organic matter was

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apparently lost from ponds, for no accumulation of these substances was detected in muds. Denitrification and ammonia volatilization apparently removed large amounts of nitrogen; organic matter was consumed in respiration. Most phosphorus not harvested in fish was apparently adsorbed by muds. Seepage and overflow removed only small quantities of nitrogen, phosphorus, and organic matter. Phytoplankton photosynthesis produced large amounts of DO, but 75% of this DO was consumed by respiration of phytoplankton and other microorganisms within the water column. Total respiration within ponds exceeded DO production by photosynthesis, but diffusion was usually adequate to maintain adequate DO concentrations for fish survival. However, mechanical aeration was occasionally necessary to prevent fish mortality.
Dissolved oxygen

Several studies have demonstrated that fish eat and grow best at dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations near air saturation. However, in ponds it is usually impossible to maintain DO concentrations near saturation at night. Most workers feel that if DO does not drop below about 25% of saturation during the night, adequate levels of fish production may be achieved. Nevertheless, Tucker et al. (1978) demonstrated that channel catfish production increased with increasing average concentrations of DO at dawn. The concentration of DO at dawn decreases as feeding rate increases, and at high feeding rates emergency aeration must frequently be applied during early morning hours to prevent DO depletion and fish mortality. Boyd et al. (1978) developed a method for predicting the instantaneous rate of change of DO during darkness (DO,) with respect to time: dDO~ -- -+ D'Odt- DOt-- D'Om - D'Op dt where D'Odf is the rate of gain or loss of O, to diffusion; DO t is the rate of 02 consumption by fish; D'O m is the rate of loss of 02 to benthic respiration; DOp is the rate of 02 consumption by the planktonic community. (The dot notation refers to time derivatives; x = d x / d t . ) Methods, equations, and tabular functions for estimating D'Odf, DOt-, D'Om, and D'Op are presented by Boyd et al. (1978). The DO

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concentration at dawn may be computed by integrating the instantaneous rate function as follows: I ,, -J~n DOd~wn= DOdusk +
dr. = dusk

dDOn dt

dt

The method was reliable in predicting DO concentrations at dawn. Romaire and Boyd (1979) developed an equation based on solar radiation, chlorophyll a, and DO saturation at dawn for estimating the change in DO concentration between dawn and dusk (ADOd~y). The day-time equation was coupled to the night-time equation to permit simulation of DO concentrations over one or more days:

I t =dus k
DOdusk = DOdawn -t- ADOd~yt,,

= da'o,'n

(DOt-) dt

Simulations permitted estimations of the influence of different values for phytoplankton density, solar radiation, temperature, and fish standing crop on DO regimes.
Aeration

Two types of aeration have been employed in channel catfish ponds -emergency aeration and supplemental aeration. Emergency aeration has been conducted primarily with large tractor-powered aerators which quickly raise DO concentrations and prevent fish stress and mortality. Supplemental aeration is used during night-time hours in an attempt to increase fish production by preventing critically low DO concentrations and to reduce dependence upon emergency aeration. Emergency aeration is a proven management tool that is essential in commercial production of channel catfish. At feeding rates in excess of 40-50 kg ha-~ day- ~, DO depletion and fish deaths are likely to occur in a channel catfish pond during each growing season (Tucker e t at., 1978). Armstrong and Boyd (1982) and Petrille and Boyd (1984) developed procedures for testing the performance of emergency aeration devices. Large paddlewheel aerators and pumping-sprayer devices are the most effective types. Supplemental aeration with small electric aerators has increased the production of channel catfish in research, but the economic advantage of supplemental aeration in commercial production is uncertain.

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Shelton and Boyd (1983) presented a method for estimating oxygentransfer rates of supplemental aerators in fish ponds. However, there is currently no procedure for estimating the increase in fish production that can be expected from a Nven amount of supplemental aeration. Without this information, it is impossible to evaluate the benefit of supplemental aeration.

Feeding rates and water quality

Cole and Boyd (1986) established maximum daily feeding rates of 0, 28, 56, 84, 112,168, and 224 kg ha-l in channel catfish ponds. Aeration was supplied at 6.1 kW ha-I when DO concentrations were expected to fall below 2 mg liter-~. Strong correlations (r=0"85 to 0"98) were observed between feeding rates (X) and concentrations (Y) of DO at dawn, cholorophyll a, chemical oxygen demand, carbon dioxide, and total ammonia nitrogen. The correlation for DO was negative. Little aeration was required at feeding rates of 56 kg ha- ~or less; aeration was applied almost constantly at night in ponds with feeding rates of t l 2 kg ha-~ day-~ and above. Net fish production was correlated (r=0'99) with feeding rate up to a maximum daily feeding rate of 112 kg ha- ~. Feed conversion ratios (feed applied + net fish production) were also essentially constant up to a feeding rate of 112 kg ha-~ day-~. At higher feeding rates, feed conversion ratios increased and fish production declined. Water quality deterioration obviously limits the amount of feed that can be applied with a given aeration regime. It is also apparent that the amount of aeration must be limited by cost factors. However, even if economic considerations are ignored, and enough aeration is applied to prevent low DO at unusually high feeding rates, fish production will no doubt be limited by large concentrations of ammonia.

Nitrogenous waste products

The accumulation of ammonia and the production of nitrite has resulted in reduction in catfish growth and in mortality of catfish. The toxicity of ammonia and nitrite to catfish has been studied, but there is an incomplete knowledge of factors regulating the concentrations of ammonia and nitrite in pond water. Research in this area is badly needed.

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CONCLUSIONS The environment within pond culture systems is dynamic and complex, and the quality," of this environment has profound influences upon fish production. Effective manipulation of the environment to favor greater fish production requires an understanding of basic physical, chemical, and biological processes. Environmental conditions differ within a pond over time and among ponds in different localities. These differences must be considered when developing procedures for environmental management. Models and simulation techniques are necessary in research on environmental quality in aquaculture.

REFERENCES Armstrong, M. S. & Boyd, C. E. (1982). Oxygen-transfer calculations for a tractor-powered paddlewheel aerator. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 111, 361-6. Boyd, C. E. (1974). Lime requirements of Alabama fish ponds. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn University, Ala. Bull., 459, 19 pp. Boyd, C. E. (1976). Water chemistry and plankton in unfertilized ponds in pastures and in woods. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 105,634-6. Boyd, C. E. (1979a). Water quality in warmwaterfish ponds, Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn Univesity, Alabama, 359 pp. Boyd, C. E. (1979b). Aluminum sulfate (alum) for precipitating clay turbidity from fish ponds. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 108,305-1 i. Boyd, C. E. ( 1981). Comparison of five fertilization programs for fish ponds. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 110,541-5. Boyd, C. E. (1985). Chemical budgets for channel catfish ponds. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 114,291-8. Boyd, C. E. & Cuenco, M. L. (1980). Refinements of the lime requirement procedure for fish ponds. Aquaculture, 22,293-9. Boyd, C. E., Romaire, R. P. & Johnston, E. (1978). Predicting early morning dissolved oxygen concentrations in channel catfish ponds. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 107,484-92. Cole, B. A. & Boyd, C. E. (1986). Feeding rates, water quality, and channel catfish production in ponds. Prog. Fish-Cult., 48, 25-9. Petrille, J. & Boyd, C. E. (1984). Comparisons of oxygen-transfer rates and water-circulating capabilities of emergency aerators for fish ponds. Aquaculture, 37,377-86. Pillai, V. K. & Boyd, C. E. (1985). A simple method for determining lime requirements of fish ponds. Aquaculture, 46, 157-62.

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Romaire, R. R & Boyd. C. E. (1979). Effects of solar radiation on the dynamics of dissolved oxygen in channel catfish ponds. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 108,473-8. Shelton, J. L. Jr. & Boyd, C. E. (1983). Correction factors for calculating oxygen-transfer rates of pond aerators. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 112, 120-2. Tucker, L., Boyd, C. E. & McCoy, E. W. (1978). Effects of feeding rate on water quality, production of channel catfish, and economic returns. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 108, 389-96.