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EE 21 Fundamentals of Electronics

2
nd
Sem, A.Y. 2012-2013
AAMSumalde, JPARamoso

BJT and JFET Frequency Response
Introduction
Logarithmic function
a x b a
b
x
log , = =
Common logarithm: a x
10
log =
Natural logarithm: a a y
e
ln log = =
Basic properties of logarithms
1. 0 1 log
10
=
2. ( ) b a b a
10 10 10
log log / . log =
3. ( ) ( ) a n a
n
10 10
log log =
Use of log scales
-
Expands the range of graphing



Reading a typical log plot

-basically, each major division is a factor of 10.
Decibels
-
Decibels are always a relative measure
dBm a decibel measure where the reference power is
1mW
i.e. ( ) mW P A
dBm
1 / log 10
10
=
Typical decibel values and corresponding voltage gains

Recall that these values are computed using
( )
i O dB
V V Av / log 20 =
-
Numerically, the use of dB allows us to represent
10x increase in gains by only 20dB per 10x gain.
Hence the term 20dB/decade (another relation,
6dB/octave, will be illustrated later


General Frequency Considerations
EE 21 Fundamentals of Electronics
2
nd
Sem, A.Y. 2012-2013
AAMSumalde, JPARamoso

-
Analysis in the previous chapter (small-signal
analysis) assumed midfrequency spectrum

-
At low frequencies, coupling and bypass
capacitors have increased reactances and affects
the response of the system.

-
At high frequencies, the frequency-dependent
parameters of the small-signal equivalent circuit
(i.e. ) and stray capacitances will limit response
of the system as well.

Typical gain v. frequency response curves
(see additional handout; page 546 Boylestad 10
th
ed)
-
For the typical RC-coupled amplifier, the
capacitances Cc, Cs, and C
E
affect the low-
frequency response
Corner Frequencies
-
Also known as cutoff, band, break, or half-power
frequencies or points
-
Magnitude of the gain is equal or close to the
midband value, which is designated at 0.707A
vmid
.
( )
Ro
V Av
Ro
Vo
P
i mid
Omid
2
2
| |
= =
At the half-power points,
( )
mid O Ohpf
mid
Ohpf
i mid
Ohpf
P P
Ro
Vi Av
P
Ro
V Av
P
5 . 0
) (
5 . 0
| 707 . 0 |
2
2
=
=
=

Bandwidth: f
2
f
1
, where f
2
and f
1
are the two half-power
frequencies.




Normalization Process
-
Done to obtain a dB vs. f plot
-
Values in the gain axis are divided by the midband
(hence all values are in reference to that gain)
Normalized frequency response curve

Phase Response
-
In small-signal analysis, the accepted phase shift
for a typical common emitter amplifier is 180
o
.
-
However, the complete phase response is
different when considering the lower and higher
frequencies
Low-frequency analysis: Bode Plot
-
RC combinations formed by Cc, C
E
and Cs and
the network resistive parameters determine the
cutoff frequency
RC combination in consideration:

-
At low frequencies, C approaches an open circuit
-
At high frequencies, C approaches a short circuit






During the frequencies between low and high, the
following graph shows the response
EE 21 Fundamentals of Electronics
2
nd
Sem, A.Y. 2012-2013
AAMSumalde, JPARamoso

where f
1
is a cutoff frequency.
Considering the RC circuit above,
c
i
o
X R
RV
V
+
=
With the boldface notation indicating both
magnitude and phase.
The magnitude is given by
2 2
C
i
X R
RV
Vo
+
=
At resonance, where Xc=R,
Vi Vi Vo 707 . 0
2
1
= =
Hence, at the half-power points, Xc = R
This frequency, f
1
, can be calculated as,
RC
f
R
C f
Xc
t
t
2
1
2
1
1
1
=
= =

Note also that we can represent this in terms of angular
frequency (rad/s):
RC
1
1
= e
In terms of logarithms,
( ) dB Gv 3 2 / 1 log 20
10
= =
The voltage divider equation can be manipulated to get an
expression for the voltage gain, as follows:
C
jX R
R
Vi
Vo
Av

= =
( ) R Xc j / 1
1

=
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

fCR
j
t 2
1
1
1

And since
CR
f
t 2
1
1
= ,
( ) f f j
Av
/ 1
1
1

=
In magnitude and phase form,


angle phase
f
f
f
f
Vi
Vo
Av
/
1 1
magnitude
2
1
tan ,
1
1
|
|
.
|

\
|
<
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
= =


When f=f
1
,
dB Av 3 707 . 0
2
1
) 1 ( 1
1
| |
2
= = =
+
=

Going back to the logarithmic form
magnitude
) / ( 1
1
log 20
2
1
10 ) (

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
f f
Av
dB

This equation is then expanded



2
1
2
1
10 ) (
1 log 20
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
f
f
Av
dB

EE 21 Fundamentals of Electronics
2
nd
Sem, A.Y. 2012-2013
AAMSumalde, JPARamoso

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
2
1
10
1 log 10
f
f
.
For frequencies f >> f
1
, or (f
1
/f)
2
>>1, the equation can be
simplified to
2
1
10 ) (
log 10
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
f
f
Av
dB
or
,` log 20
1
) (
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
f
f
Av
dB
where f << f1.
Bode plot points
We now examine the exact equation and take four
important plot points.
1. At f = f
1
, f
1
/f = 1 and -20log(1) = 0dB

2. At f = 0.5f
1
, f
1
/f = 2 and -20log(2) -6dB

3. At f = 0.25f
1
, f
1
/f = 4 and -20log(4) -12dB

4. At f = 0.1f
1
, f
1
/f

= 10 and -20log(10) = -20dB.

We can now use these points to generate and compare an
asymptotic plot of the low-frequency (and later, the high-
frequency) response.
This plot of asymptotes and breakpoints (frequencies) is
known as a Bode Plot.
Observations
1. If frequency is changed by a factor of 2 (known as
an octave), there is a 6dB change in the ratio of
voltages involved. (This is the 6dB/octave term)

2. A 10:1 frequency change results in a 20dB
change (this is the 20dB/decade form)

Note that the change can also be negative (i.e.
6dB/octave or -20dB/dec), depending on the direction.
Steps in making a decibel plot (Low frequency response):
1. Find the LF cutoff frequency, f
1
.
2. Sketch the 0-dB line
3. Sketch either -20dB/dec or -6dB octave line
4. Find the 3dB point and pass the curve there,
asymptotic to the lines created in steps 2 and 3.
The gain at any frequency can still be calculated
logarithmically:
( )
( )
) 20 / (
10
/ log 20
dB
Av
v
dB
Vi
Vo
A
Vi Vo Av
= =
=

Phase angle
f
f
1 1
tan

= u
At f<<f
1,
phase angle approaches 90
o
At f=f
1
, phase angle = 45
o

At f >> f
1
, phase angle approaches 0.
Example:
For the RC circuit shown:

a. Determine the break frequency
b. Sketch the asymptotes and locate the -3dB point
c. Sketch the frequency response curve.








EE 21 Fundamentals of Electronics
2
nd
Sem, A.Y. 2012-2013
AAMSumalde, JPARamoso

Low-frequency response BJT amplifier

-
Above is a sample circuit for analyzing the LFR of
a BJT amplifier.
-
The effect of capacitors Cs, Cc, and C
E
are
identified by matching them with the RC
combination as seen by these capacitors.
C
S
:

-
From this block diagram, the low cutoff frequency
defined by Cs is given by the equation
( )
S i S
LS
C R R
f
+
=
t 2
1

-
By voltage divider:
-

S i
i S
mid
R R
R V
Vi
+
= , similar to SSA derivation

At f=f
LS
, Vi

= 0.707Vi
mid


-
The equivalent resistance seen by C
S
must be
determined:

Localized AC equivalent for R
i
as seen by Cs:

e i
r R R R | // //
2 1
=
And the voltage input (combining magnitude and phase)
can be calculated using the voltage divider rule
S
i
i
jXc R Rs
s R
+
=
1
V
V
Cc:

-
from this block diagram, the total series
impedance is now Ro + R
L
and
( )
C L
LC
C R Ro
f
+
=
t 2
1

-
ignoring Cs and C
E
, the output voltage Vo will be
0.707 of the midband value at f
LC
.
Localized AC equivalent for effect of Cc

O C O
r R R // =
R1//R2
EE 21 Fundamentals of Electronics
2
nd
Sem, A.Y. 2012-2013
AAMSumalde, JPARamoso

C
E
:

-
again it is necessary to determine the resistance
network seen by C
E
, at which
E e
LE
C R
f
t 2
1
=
Localized AC equivalent for R
e
:

Where
2 1
// // ' R R R R
S S
=
And
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
e E e
r
Rs
R R
|
'
//
Quantitative illustration of C
E
effect on gain

E e
C
R r
R
Av
+

=
The gain is heavily altered by the presence of R
E

in the equation; depending on the frequency, the bypass
capacitor C
E
may either short out R
E
or otherwise.
Summary: Low Frequency Response (BJT)
-
At midband frequency level, short-circuit
equivalents are inserted for the capacitors

-
The highest low-frequency cutoff (depending on
Cc, C
E
, or C
S
) will have the greatest impact.

-
Near LF cutoff values may interact and alter
frequency response curves by compounding the
bode plot slopes

Example: For the loaded voltage divider circuit (as
refreshed below),


Cs = 10uF, C
E
= 20uF, C
C
= 1uF
R
S
= 1k, R
1
= 40k, R
2
= 10k, R
E
= 2k, R
C
= 4k,
R
L
= 2.2k, = 100, r
o
= infinite, and Vcc = 20.
a. Determine the lower cutoff frequency
b. Sketch the frequency response using a bode plot.

EE 21 Fundamentals of Electronics
2
nd
Sem, A.Y. 2012-2013
AAMSumalde, JPARamoso

Low-frequency response JFET amplifier
-
Analysis follows in the same manner as that of the
BJT configuration

-
Above is a sample circuit for analyzing the LFR of
a BJT amplifier.
-
The effect of capacitors Cs, Cc, and C
E
are again
identified by matching them with the RC
combination as seen by these capacitors
C
G
:

-
The cutoff frequency as determined by the gate
capacitance C
G
is given by
( )
G i
LG
C R Rsig
f
+
=
t 2
1

Where
G i
R R =
Note: Typically, R
G
>> R
sig
(remember that R
G
is usually in
the order of M). This also allows us to have a low f
LG

even with a small C
G
.



Cc

-
The cutoff frequency is given by the equation
( )
C O
LG
C R R
f
L
+
=
t 2
1

Where, based on the circuit given,
d D O
r R R // =
Cs


-
The cutoff frequency is given by the equation

S eq
LS
C R
f
t 2
1
=
Where
( ) ( )
L D d d m S
S
eq
R R r r g R
R
R
// / 1 1 + + +
=
But for very large r
d
, this equation is simplified to
m
S eq
g
R R
1
// =




EE 21 Fundamentals of Electronics
2
nd
Sem, A.Y. 2012-2013
AAMSumalde, JPARamoso

Example: Consider the loaded JFET self-bias amplifier
below:

Given the following parameters:
C
G
= 0.01F Cc = 0.5F C
S
= 2F
R
sig
= 10k R
G
= 1M, R
D
= 4.7k
R
S
= 1k R
L
= 2.2k
I
DSS
= 8mA V
P
= - 4 V r
d
= infinite
V
DD=
20 V
Sketch the frequency response using a bode plot.
Miller Effect Capacitance
-
In the high frequency region, the capacitive
elements of importance are the interelectrode
(between-terminals) capacitances and the wiring
capacitances (between leads of the network)

-
Capacitors controlling the LFR are replaced with
equivalent shorts at these high frequencies.

Miller Input Capacitance

-
For inverting amplifiers, input and output
capacitance is increased by a capacitance level
sensitive to (a) interelectrode capacitance b/w
input and output and (b) the gain A
v
.

-
This feedback capacitance is denoted by C
f
.

Applying KCL:
2 1
I I I
i
+ =
by ohms law:
i
i
i
i
i
R
V
I
Z
V
I = =
1
,
And
( )
Cf
i v
Cf
i v i
Cf
o i
X
V A
X
V A V
X
V V
I

=

=
1
2

Substituting to the KCL equation:
( )
Cf
i v
i
i
i
i
X
V A
R
V
Z
V
+ =
1

And
( )
v Cf
A X Ri Zi
+ =
1 /
1 1 1

Simplifying the quantity X
cf
/(1-Av)
( ) ( )
CM
C
v f v
Cf
X
A C A
X
M
=


1
1
1 e

Finally,
CM
X Ri Zi
1 1 1
+ =
We now define the Miller Input Capacitance as
( )
f Mi
C Av C = 1

EE 21 Fundamentals of Electronics
2
nd
Sem, A.Y. 2012-2013
AAMSumalde, JPARamoso

Illustration of the Miller effect capacitance:

Notes:
-
The above equivalent circuit shows the
representation of the equation

CM
X Ri Zi
1 1 1
+ =
-
The effect of C
M
is a parallel combination that
would be important esp. when frequency
increases

-
Other interelectrode capacitances will simply be
added to C
M
in parallel with R
i.

Miller Output Capacitance
-
Miller effect would also increase the level of
output capacitance

Applying KCL:
2 1
I I Io + =
Cf
X
Vi Vo
I
Ro
Vo
I

= =
2 1
,


-
We assume that the resistance Ro is sufficiently
large enough to ignore the I
1
term, thus:
Cf
i O
O
X
V V
I

~
Since Vi = Vo/Av,
Cf Cf
O
X
Av
Vo
X
Av
Vo
Vo
I
|
.
|

\
|

=

=
1
1

And
Cf
X
Av
Vo
Io / 1 1
=
We rearrange this equation as such:
( )
Mo
CMo
f
Cf
C Av C Av
X
Io
Vo
e e
1
/ 1 1
1
/ 1 1
=

=


Thus, we define the Miller Output Capacitance as
f Mo
C
Av
C
|
.
|

\
|
=
1
1
Typically, Av >> 1 , so
f Mo
C C =
Again, this has the same capacitor-in-parallel effect as
that of the miller input capacitance.

EE 21 Fundamentals of Electronics
2
nd
Sem, A.Y. 2012-2013
AAMSumalde, JPARamoso

High-Frequency Response BJT Amplifier
At the high-frequency end, the cutoff frequency is
determined by:
a. Network capacitance (parasitic and introduced)
b. Frequency dependence of (or h
fe
)
Network Parameters

-
The above RC network is the configuration of
concern for the high-frequency response (note its
difference with the low-frequency response!)
Derivation similar to the low-frequency response corner
frequencies will yield
( )
2
/ 1
1
f f j
Av
+
=
-
Again, note its difference from the low-frequency
equation!
Resulting frequency plot

Note the asymptotes of the bode plot (the 0-dB line and
the -6dB/octave or -20dB/decade line).


-
The above circuit is a typical loaded + internal source voltage divider with the parasitic capacitances (C
be
,C
ce
and
C
bc
) and the wiring capacitances (C
wi
and C
wo
)

-
Cc, C
S
and C
E
are assumed shorted at the high frequencies


EE 21 Fundamentals of Electronics
2
nd
Sem, A.Y. 2012-2013
AAMSumalde, JPARamoso

Equivalent AC circuit with capacitances included

-
The input capacitance Ci includes the input wiring capacitance Cwi, transition capacitance Cbe and the input
miller capacitance C
Mi


-
The output capacitance Co includes the output wiring capacitance Cwo, parasitic capacitance Cce and the output
miller capacitance C
Mo
.

-
In general, the largest capacitance is C
be
and the smallest being C
ce
.

The -3dB frequency is defined by the equations
i Th
Hi
C R
f
1
2
1
t
= and
o Th
Ho
C R
f
2
2
1
t
= ,
Where the thevenin resistances R
TH1
and R
TH2
pertain to the TECs of the input and output circuit, as shown:

Clearly,
i S TH
R R R R R // // //
2 1 1
= ,
where R
i
is the total resistance at the base (for this particular example, Ri = re)
, also,
( )
bc be Wi Mi be Wi i
C Av C C C C C C + + = + + = 1

EE 21 Fundamentals of Electronics
2
nd
Sem, A.Y. 2012-2013
AAMSumalde, JPARamoso

Notes:
-
At high frequencies, X
Ci
will decrease,
consequently reducing the total impedance of
the combination
i i
XC R R R // // //
2 1
,
-
This in turn reduces the voltage across Ci, the
current I
b
, and finally ,the gain of the system
For the output network,
o L C TH
r R R R // //
2
=
And
Mo ce Wo O
C C C C + + =
-
Similarly, Xc
o
decreases as frequency increases,
thus the total impedance of the output parallel
branches is reduced (thus Vo 0).

-
Both f
Hi
and f
Ho
will define a -6dB/octave (or -
20dB/decade) asymptote


h
fe
or Variation
Beta varies with frequency as defined by the following relationship:
( )
|
|
|
f f j
mid
/ 1+
=
(note: and h
fe
are interchangeable)

The quantity f
is determined by a set of parameters in the hybrid pi model (aka Giacoletto Model)

Where r
bb'
base contact, base bulk, and base spreading resistance
Base contact actual connection to the base
Base bulk resistance from external terminal to the active region of the transistor
Base spreading resistance actual resistance within the active base region
r
b'e ,
r
ce
and r
bc
resistances between the indicated terminals (BCE) in the active region
C
bc
and C
be
capacitances between the terminals (Cbc transition, Cbe diffusion)
EE 21 Fundamentals of Electronics
2
nd
Sem, A.Y. 2012-2013
AAMSumalde, JPARamoso

Replacing some of the quantities with more familiar terms:

In terms of the circuit parameters,
( )
( )
u
h
C C r
f f
fe
+
=
t t
|
t 2
1
or

Or, since
e mid
r r |
t
=

Then
( )
( )
u e mid
h
C C r r
f f
fe
+
=
t
|
| t 2
1
or

Since the equation involves the resistance r
e
, then f is a function of the bias configuration.

EE 21 Fundamentals of Electronics
2
nd
Sem, A.Y. 2012-2013
AAMSumalde, JPARamoso

h
fe
(beta) and h
fb
(alpha) versus frequency in the high-frequency region

Observations:
-
From the equation of f , the value of will drop from its midband value upon hitting f , similar to how the gain
drops after hitting a cutoff frequency associated with its RC network

-
The above graph compares a common-emitter connection (with parameter ) and a common-base connection
(with parameter ).

-
From the figure, the common-base configuration displays improved high-frequency characteristics (for ) as
compared to the common-emitter connection.

-
The miller effect capacitance is ABSENT at a common-base configuration. (why?)

-
With these characteristics, common-base high frequency parameters are often given instead of common-emitter
configurations

Conversion between f and f
( ) o
o |
= 1 f f



EE 21 Fundamentals of Electronics
2
nd
Sem, A.Y. 2012-2013
AAMSumalde, JPARamoso

Gain-bandwidth product
Defined by the condition
( )
1
/ 1
=
+
|
|
f f j
mid

So that
( )
dB
f f j
mid
dB
0 1 log 20
/ 1
log 20 = =
+
=
|
|
|
We define a frequency
T
f at which
dB
| =0dB (see above figure). We compute the magnitude of at the
condition point
|
f f
T
>> as
( )
( )
1
/
/ 1
2
= ~
+ |
|
| |
f f
f f T
mid
T
mid

And so we have

product) bandwidth - (gain



BW
mid T
f f
~
~
|
|

And
mid
T
f
f
|
|
=

We can now obtain an expression for
T
f which mirrors the form of the other cutoff frequency equations:
( )
u e mid
mid T
C C r
f
+
~
t
t|
|
2
1

=
( )
u e
T
C C r
f
+
~
t
t 2
1


EE 21 Fundamentals of Electronics
2
nd
Sem, A.Y. 2012-2013
AAMSumalde, JPARamoso

Example: Consider the BJT configuration shown below:

Given the following parameters:
R
S
= 1k , R
1
= 40k, R
2
= 10k, R
E
= 2k, R
C
= 4k, R
L
= 2.2k
C
S
= 10 uF, C
C
= 1uF, C
E
= 20uF
= 100, r
o
= infinite, Vcc=20V
C(C
be
) = 36pF, Cu(C
bc
) = 4pF, C
CE
= 1pF, Cw
i
= 6pF, and Cw
o
= 8pF
a. Determine the frequencies
Ho Hi
f f and
b. Find the frequencies
T
f f and
|

c. Sketch the complete frequency response by combining the low-frequency response previously obtained and the
results of (a) and (b).

EE 21 Fundamentals of Electronics
2
nd
Sem, A.Y. 2012-2013
AAMSumalde, JPARamoso

High-Frequency Response JFET Amplifier
-
Analysis proceeds in a similar nature as the BJT amplifier, but without the variation
-
Miller effect capacitance still comes into play
Equivalent Circuit with parasitic and wiring capacitances


AC Equivalent (with capacitors of interest)

From the circuit, we can obtain a similar input TEC / output TEC as we did in the BJT amplifier:


EE 21 Fundamentals of Electronics
2
nd
Sem, A.Y. 2012-2013
AAMSumalde, JPARamoso

From the input circuit,
i Th
Hi
C R
f
1
2
1
t
=

And
G sig Th
R R R //
1
=

Also,
Mi gs Wi i
C C C C + + =

With the miller input capacitance defined by
( )
gd Mi
C Av C = 1

For the output circuit,
o Th
Ho
C R
f
2
2
1
t
=

With
d L D Th
r R R R // //
2
=
And the equivalent output capacitance
Mo ds Wo
C C C Co + + =

The miller output capacitance is given by
gd Mo
C
Av
C |
.
|

\
|
=
1
1
It must be noted that unlike the BJT amplifier, we did not quickly generalize the miller output capacitance; voltage
gains of JFET networks are relatively small, not exactly >>1 unlike BJT gains.


EE 21 Fundamentals of Electronics
2
nd
Sem, A.Y. 2012-2013
AAMSumalde, JPARamoso

Example: Consider the JFET circuit below:

The parameters of the circuit are as follows:
C
G
= 0.01uF, C
C
= 0.5uF C
S
= 2uF
R
sig
= 10k, R
G
= 1M, R
D
= 4.7k, R
S
= 1k, R
L
= 2.2k
I
DSS
= 8mA, V
P
= - 4 V, r
d
= infinite V
DD
= 20 V
C
gd
= 2pF C
gs
= 4pF C
ds
= 0.5pF C
Wi
= 5pF C
Wo
= 6pF

Determine the high-cutoff frequencies for the network and sketch the full frequency response.
Multistage Frequency Effects
-
Additional stages introduce their own low- and high-cutoff frequencies.
-
The highest low-cutoff and lowest high-cutoff frequencies determine the overall frequency response of the
system.
-
Note the compounding of slopes occurring when a nearby cutoff frequency is hit.
For identical stages, the low- and high-cutoff frequencies are calculated via the following equations:
1 2
'
/ 1
1
1

=
n
f
f (low-cutoff frequencies)
( )
2
/ 1
2
1 2 ' f f
n
= (high-cutoff frequencies)


EE 21 Fundamentals of Electronics
2
nd
Sem, A.Y. 2012-2013
AAMSumalde, JPARamoso

Effect of identical stages

Table of values of the quantity 1 2
/ 1

n


Reference: Boylestad and Nashelsky, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory. 7
th
and 10
th
editions.

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