t ' l

THE POTENTIAL FOR COMMUNITY MANAGEMENT OF'

WTLDLIFE RESOURCBSIN THE LUNDA.MKWAMBI GAME
CONTROL ARBA BORDERING RUAHA NATIONAL PARK,
SOUTHERN TANZANIA

Social Anthropologist's Report on the Village Development Componentof the Ruaha

E cosyst em Wi IdI ife Man agemen t P r oj ect (REWM?)

. Martin Walsh

NaturalResources
Institute,Chatham,UK
&
ZaruibarCashCropsFarmingSystemsProject,
Zarzibar,Taruania

reportto ODA

Dar esSalaam,November1995
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Summary

The conclusionofthis reportis, in brie{ t}ratcommunity management

of wildlife
is viable within the currentLunda-MlcvambiGameControlled
Area adjacentto
RuahaNational Park. Given the progressmadeby the current
RuahaEcosystem
wildlife ManagementProject @EWMP), the n.Ld to continue
facilitating the
developmentof an institutionalframework for communitywildlife
management,
and the potentialfor learningimportantlessonswhich wiil assist
the Department
of Wildlife in implementing its new Policy wildtife
for Conservation and
Utilisation elsewherein Tanzania,it is recomm.na"othat oDA
should continue
to provide appropriate technicaland material support to REwMp.
 Introduction

l' Thisreportis oneoftwo whichpresentsthe findingsandrecommendations

of a consultancy
to assess thepotentialfor communitymanagement ofwildlife resourcesin the Lunda-Mkwambi
Game Control Area (LM GCA) which lies adjacentto the south-eastern
and north-eastern
boundaries of RuahaNational Park(RM) in southemTanzania.Theconsultancy wasundertaken
in thesecondhalf of october1995by a tgamcomprisinganecologist,a
socialanttrropologist,
and
a representative of the Departmentof Wildlife (WD) in the tvtinistryof Tourism,Natural
ResourcesandEnvironment(MTNRE)..A separatereporthasbeenwritten
by the consultant
ecologist because of thepracticaldifficultiesinvolvedin Lompilingajoint productin the limited
time availableto us. In the field alargemeasure of agreement wasreachedbetweenall three
consultants aboutthepotentialfor communitymanagemintof wildlife resources in LM GC,\ and
it is hopedthatthe reportswill provide complementary perspectives,reflectingat the same
!o
time the authors'differentareasof concemandexpertise.

Institutionsand Capacity

2' T\e VillageDevelopment component of theRuahaEcosystemWildlife Managementproject

(REWMP)hasmadesignificantprogressin its communitywork, andhas
established a solid
foundationfor future development.It has done so by initiating "na .*pioiing
a rangeof
institutional
mechanismsand linkagesat local,district,uni *idrr levils designed
to facilitatethe
implementationof thewildlife Department's (WD) newpolicyon theconvlrsionof GCAsinto
Wildlife Management Areas(WMAs).

3. Thispolicyis well conceived,

andis widelyunderstoodandsupported by the WD andother
government officialsdownto districtlevelwho havebeenfully exposedto it andwho will be
amongits keyimplementers.REWMPhasmadean importantaddiiionalcontribution
towards
developingthis positiveenablingenvironment by collaboratingcloselywith the Community
ConservationService(CCS)of theTanzaniaNationalParksauthority(TANApA),bothat national
committeelevelandthroughtheirjoint programme of work in LM GcA.

District and RegionalLevels

4- The weakestlinks in the institutionalchainlie at districtandregionallevels,

whereGame
Officers(GOs)in particularfeelthreatened by a lossof theircontroloverresources underthenew
programme.TheWMA conceptanditsarticulationbyREWMPwill, however,provide
significant
resourcebenefits,directlyandindirectly;to the district(andthereforether"gion; asa whole. The
oppositionof individualstakeholders
is neitherintrinsicto nor shouldit bea-lasiingfeatureof the
newinstitutionalframeworkwhichREWMPis helpingto create,thoughearlyactionto resolve
this
problem(through,for example,continuedinteractionanddialogueJ *ouid be desirable.
5. Theformationof a DistrictSteeringCommittee(DSC)to adviseREWMp andhelp
coordinate
district,WD and1ANAPA effortsto establisha Wtue in LM GCA represents a morepositive
development at this level. Althoughstill in its infancy,all thesignsarethatthe DSC will play
an
anincreasinglyimportantrole. It is enthusiastically supported byseniordistrictofficials,incluiing
its chairma4the District ExecutiveOfficer (DEb), unatnr District NaturalResources
Officer
(DNRO).
 i . I

CommunityLevel

6' At communitylevelREWMPhassucceeded in facilitatingtheformationof a smallnumberof

villagewildlife committees (wcs), whichhave*..g.0;.llintotheexisti"; fi-;.work
government'Thewcs areasrepresentative ofvillage
astheymightbe expectedto be at this earlystageof
theirdevelopment in a contextwherevillagesr*pti. *idery scattereasuu-vilagesand are
markedlypolyethnicin overall composition.women
are represented in small but similar
proportions to otherbranchesof villagegovemment, asaremembersof livestock-keeping groups
who are oftennot represented on thesedecision-making bodies.REWMp,srole hasbeento
adviseandfacilitateratherthandictate,andthe wcs alreaiy
exhibita sftongsenseof purposeand
providea lively forumfor debate.Thereis no doubtthatihey
haveboththe wrll andthe basic
capacityto managewildlife resources, andshouldcontinueto maturewith appropriatesupport
from the projectandotherlocal authorities.

7' REWMPhasalsobegunto examinetheneedfor otherkinds

of institutionalarrangement and
linkageat local level. the unequal distributionof landandwildlife resources
Qiv.en -of betrveen
villages,togetherwith existingpatterns openaccessto many
of their naturalresources,it has
becomeevidentthatthe simplevillagemanagement modelwill haveto be combinedwith other
t^ttl3lilts designed to effecttheirclosecollaboration andensurethattheycansharethe benefits
ofwildlife utilisationin asfair a wayaspo^s1ible. Thisproblernis highlightrauv h. caseof Lunda
North(LN), thenorthemsectionof LM GCA which is cunenttyuiinfused
asa touristhunting
blockand,in theoryif not in practice,is out of boundsfor humansettlement
andotherforms of
utilisation' A proportionof therevenues from LN hasbeenallocatedto the villagesin Lunda
South(LS),andREWMPauthorised to collectthemon villagers'behalf.It remainsto be decided
how this moneycanbestbe distributed,anda relatedproil.rn arises
overhow otherformsof
utilisationmightbe organised (if at all) whenLN becomespartof the wMA.

8' Thereis no quickandeasysolutionto problemssuchasthese.

This hascertainlybeenthe
experience of othercommunitywildlife management projectsin Tanzania(in the Selousand
Serengeti)aswell aselsewhere
in Africa. REWMP'srelativelyyouthful.*p"ri"n.. hasbeenno
different' projecthasevolved a processualapproach, andshouldcontinueto work in this
-The
way' Trial andenor meansjust tha! andREWMPhasundoubtedlymade
its fair shareof errors
in the process.REWMP hasalsohad its own institutionalprobl"rnr,
in termsof a lack of
understandingand coordinationbetweenODA staff and, within
the Village Development
componentitself, a periodicshortfallin the numberof staff with the
releiant community
d-evelopment experienceandskills. Thishasled to theneedfor repeatedinput, fro* BDDEA
Nairobi' and hassometimesproduceda lessthanhappyworkingenvironment, in
wherewell-
intentionedadviceandundueexternalpressure havenot-always beeneasyto distinguish.

SomeShortcomingsin the Cunent Approach

9'- on9 essential

aspectof communitywork which hasbeenneglectedhasbeenenvironmental
educationandawareness-raising. Thiscanandshouldbean integralcomponentof participatory
and action-orientedresearch,andnot an activity which is divoicedfrom it. The participatory
productionofvillagenatural mapshasbien a stepin therightdirectiorLbut thereremains
Jesgurce
a lot morework of this.kind whichmightbe undertaken.Insteadtherehassometimes beena
tendencyto approach this issuein formal,almostacademic,terms. To cite but oneexample,the
time-consuming additionof thesemapsto a GIS database, while of potentialvalue-i;; ffi;;;
 r I
tl'. ,
t
I

whereprojectresources areabundant, becomes muchharderto justifo asa priority in a situation

whereno onehasbeenproperlytrainedto useGIS andtheresults
haveno immediaterelevance
to thevillagerswho drewthe originalsexceptto confirmwhat
theyalreadyknow. Exceptin very
generalterms,relativelylittleattempthasbeenmadeto find
out andmakeconstructive useofwhat
villagersdo know and think aboutthe wildlife around
them. The absenceof a creative
participatoryapprglchon the projecthasnot undermined
the viability of communitywildlife
management in LM GCA,but well-designed inputsof this kind could contriuuiesignificantlyto
its implementation.

10' Anotherandrelatedshortcoming of thectrrentREWMPapproachis its narrowinstitutional

focusin thelocalcommunity.At presentREWMP'sworkstargity
wittrformalvillagegovernment
instifutionsandthevariouselectedandappointedofficialsworking
at divisional,wardandvillage
levels' Thiswasevidentduringthe.o*ulian"y in thetypesormeiingr
*ni"tt *"re arranged and
a reluctance to departfrom formalprocedure andchannils.while it obviouslymustbe a priority
foTREWMPto workcloselywithandthroughgovernment institutionsandofficials,thereis clearly
scopefor interactingproductivety with otherlocalinstitutions(for examplewomen,sgroups)and
with villagersoutsideof the villagecentre.

1l' Thisproblemarisesin partbecause of REWMP'slimitedresources in termsof personnel and

the physical distancebetweenproject headquartersin RNp and
the LM GCA villages.
Communications area particularproblemduringthewet season,andthis is especiallythe casein
Pawagadivision'largeareasof whichareclosedto roadtransport
duringand immediatelyafter
the rains. At presenttheonly projectworkerbasedoutsideof RNp is a VSO
attachedto REWMp
who lives in Idodi village(in the divisionof the samename). A good
casecanbe madefor
strengthening REWMP's-community presenceandwork by stationing-projectracilitatorsin each
divisionandequippingthemwith wo-wheeledtranspoj.

12' Despitethesemisgivings,it shouldbereiterated thatREWMp hasmadesignificantprogress

in facilitatingthedevelopment of an institutionalframeworkin whichtheconversionof LM GCA
intoa viablewMA cantakeplace. Thereis still, however,a longway go,
to in largemeasure
because of thecomplexityofthe institutionalissuesinvolvedandtheconsequent
needto adopta
consciouslyexperimentalapproach.

Peopleand Resources

Control OverResources

13' what do thevillagersthemselves think?Theprimaryconcernof villagers,andin particular

ofthe membersofvillagegovernment, is thedesiri to exercisecontrolovertheirown Iocalnatural
resources'The corollaryof this is a desireto excludeor controlaccess
by outsidersto scarce
resources, especiallyresources like largegamewhicharebeingexploitei
overexploited) lanJ in manycases
by peoplefrom outsideof the communitywith tiute o, no uppurent benefitto it.
Thispointwasemphatically madein all of the meetingsheldduringttreconsuttancy, including
meetingswith localofficialsin villageswhichdonothaie wCs and/or
arenot amongthesix pilot
villageswhich REwMp is currentlyfocusingits attentionsupon.

14' Thisperceptionof resource

controlandits potentialbenefitsto thecommunityhasnot arisen
asa resultofREWMP'swork,thoughprojectactivitieshavehelpedto
shapeso'meelementsof
 ,. I

t /
I
t.
:

it' concernsarevoice{
tackleddirectly,andwhich{9ut a rangeof resourceissuesandconflictswhich REwMp hasnot
clearlypredateits recentinterventions.Theseissuesinclude
destructionof localwoodlandsfor fuit by tobacco-gro*., from outside the
of LM GcA, andtheuse
of scarcedry seasonwaterresourcesby the groorlngnurnb",
of livestock-keepers in the area.
villagerskeeninterestin actingupontheseissueshasiuelled
theirready*pLi* of REWMp,s
-game-focused programme,and they are well awareof the linkages
betweenthem. The new
Mapogorovillage wc is in fact called theKamatiya Kuhl{adhi-Mazingira
'committee no wronyo*apori,
for theProtectionof theEnvironment andwildlife' by its members,
its primaryresponsibilities andtheydescribe
asbeingto protectandensurethe sustainable utiiisationof natural
resourcesin the village.

lr. t

ResidentHunting

15 Manyvillagers:[e veryconcerned the pastandpresentactivitiesof residenthunters,

lbout
in particularthosethey identift, rightly_or wrongly,as iembers of the Iringa branchof the
HuntingAssociationof Tanzania(HAT) Residenthuntershavehunted
gun.,.init " LundaSouth
(LS)areasincethecolonialperio4 anduntil recentlywereallocated
all of its gamequotathrough
licencesissuedby the District and RegionalGameofficers (DGo
and RGo). Most of the
residenthuntersare-comparatively wealthycitizenswholive elsewhere in the district. A few are
residentin LS itsel{,but themajorityof vi-llagers
areunableto aflordhunters,Iicensesanddo not
possess the appropriateweaponsfor legalhunting.

l6' This long-standing stateof affairswaschangedin the 1995huntingseason(which

throughthesecondhalf of the year)whenthe WD-directedthat a portion"of runs
the gamequotabe
tansferredto REWMP'ssix pilol villages.Residenthuntershave
beenbanned,at leastfor the
time being, from huntingin this area,the idea beingthat in future,
oncethe wC, u." up and
running,thehunterswill haveto negotiatedirectlywitf, villagesprepared
to sell thempart or all
of theirquotja.Initially a completemoratoriumon residenthuntingin
LS wascontemplated.In
a spiritof compromise, however,residenthuntershavebeenallowedto continuehuntingin
areasin tlte south-west other
andnorth-east ofLS wheretherearealsosignificantconcentrations
game'Nonetheless of
theyhavetemporarilylostlegalaccess to the".niul rruntingareawhich they
favourmostbecauseof its easyaccessiuitityby-roadandopenterrain.

17'-Not surprisingly,
thismajorshift in resource
accessin favourof the LS villageshasnot been
welcomedbyFIAI'members.At thetimeof the consultancy residenthunterswlerestill hunting
in the closedarea,the RGo and DGo havingsanctioneithem
to do so. The conflict and
confi'rsionwhichhasarisenhasbeenfurtherstokedup by reportsandallegations
of continuing
malpractice by residenthunters.Villagers,togetherwith ; varietyof otherJbr"*.rr,
allegethat
nmongothermisdeeds manyhuntersshootanimalsandnumbeisof animalswhichthey
havelicensesfor,thattheyfrequentlybrellhytingregulationsby shooting do not
fromvehicles,andthat
someof themalsocrossoverintoLN andRNPto-takiadvantaglof the
ich pickingswhich can
behadalongtheGreatRuahaRiver. Thegeneralfeelingis thatiesidenthunters
areoverexploiting
thegameresources ofLM GCA andhavedoneso for ro-" y"urr, with "---- ---'--
little "rr-
apparentbenefitto
thevillageswhichtheypassthroughon theway.

18' F{AT officials stateclearlythat they would neversanction

suchpracticesamongtheir
membership, anddenythattheyhaveeverbeenpartof anyoverexploitationwhichhas
takenplace.
Iruteadthey pointto the fact that theyhaveprbvidedmuch-needed
financialandothersupport
 r ' l
a
,

i . ,.

:
to theWD at districtlevel,andhavecontributedin variouswaysto the
developmentof someof
thevillagesin LS. Needless to sayvillagerswho arecriticalorirnr respondto inrsby sayingthat
thecostto themin termsof overhunting andextracted valuehasfar outweighed thebenefitswhich
theyhavereceivedor beenpromised.cynics accuseFIAT of acting
ouiof ulteriormotivesin
providingassistance to localvillagesandindividualoffrcialsatdifferentlevels.Whatever
substance
theremaybeto thesedifferentclaimsandallegations, theresulthasbeenan unhealthyafinosphere
of verbalconflict' Thishasbeena difficult situationforREWMp to deal
with, andin attempting
to do so it hasquitenaturallytakenthe sideof thevillagers.

19' Mattersreacheda headjust beforethe startof the consultancy,when

the chairmanof FLAT
Iringa wrotea strongly-worded letterto oDA's VillageDevelopment Adviser(vDA) allegingthat
REWMPappeared to be workingagainstFIATandagainstthe interestsof wildlife conservation
il GCA' This provided
!M an excellentopportunityfor the consultancy teamto .seethingsat
their worst', to assessthe implicationsof this situationfor the futurebf ,o.rrrunity wildlife
management in LM GgA andto explorewaysin whichthecrisismightberesolved.Two
fruitful
meetingswereheldwith HAT officialsandmembersin attend*.", Jn, at
districtlevelchairedby
theDNRo' theotherwith MalinzangavillagewC. TheRGo andthe DGo
werealsopresentin
the first meeting'aswasthe DGo in the second,togetherwith a rangeof other .key
players,.
Bothofthesemeetingssawsomelively andat timeshiateddebate,andioth
endedon a positive
note.

20' Various misunderstandings were clearedup aboutthe institutionalnatureand role of

REWMP,andaboutthe presentstatusandfutureirop. for residenthuntingin LM
GCA in the
light of thewD's wMA policy. FIATandthe Gos exilainedtheir different-concerns,
andways
in whichthesecouldbeaddressed andtheir fuller pariicipationin the planningprocessenswed
werediscussed andprovisionallyagreed,aswasa moreiransparentmechanismby which F1AT
couldcontinueto supportWD work andvillagedevelopment. The Malinzangameeting included
a longdebateabouttherole andresourcing of theviliagegamescouts,undth. HAT chairman
pledgedvariousforms-ofmaterial supportwhich*.r" gt .tJd by enthusiastic clappingandcheers
from the largeassemblyof peoplepresent.

21. Whilethiswasonly a smallbeginning,andthe roadaheadwill probablybe as

roughas it is
smooth,thereis anevidentneedto continueinteractionsofthis kind andkeepthe momentumof
constructive
discussiongoing. Resident
ofcommunitywildlifemanagement, !ryling doesnot posean intrinsicthreatto the viability
butchallengesprojectimplementers to devisemeansby which
suchmajorresource conflictscanbesettled.Theseionflictscannotalwaysbesolvedat locallevel,
andthisunderlinestheneedto facilitatethedevelopment of institutionaicapacity
outsideaswell
aswithin thecommunities in a WMA

CommercialPoaching

22' Allegationsof overhunting arenot only levelledat residenthuntersandthemembersof HAT.

Somevillagesalsocomplairydthata largegangof poachers,numberingasmany
as 50-60men,
periodicallycamefrom outsideof LM GCA to raid itr gu*. ,erourc.s. The provenance
of this
gangis saidto bethevi.llage of Kipelaandthereabouts on the roadto Iringa. Villagerssaythat
theyhavebeenrelativelypowerless to actagainstthesepoachers,who travelon foot andoff the
mainroads.However,theynotedthatthegang(or gangs)havebeenmuchless
activeoverthe
pastyear,attributingthis factto theimpactsof REWMP'Swork. Although
villagegamescouts

:
 havesofar onlybeendeployedin Malinzanga, it seemsthattheirpresenceandknowledgeof the
increasing
concemandvigilanceofvillage authoritieshavealready
begunto deterpoachers.A
numberof wc membersandothers*o.king with themfreely
admitto havingpoachedin thepast
themselves'
andtherearesignsthattheug.oto strateryoftuming poachers
into gamekeepers
will
work aswell within the local ro**unities as it t uilrcrr"r,.r".

23' rn thedecadeor sobeforethenationwideoperation

uhai in l9g9 andthe internationalban
on ivory and rhino horn trade,elephant-and ririno poaching were rife wiirrin and alongthe
boundaries of RNP' Thereareno thinot left in RNP no*, but the elephant
populationappears
to be recoveringwell. Recently,however,therehasbeen
a noticeable,Lrurg"nr" in ivory
poaching,albeititat amuchlower level thanin the past,
various sourcesallegethat powerful
business interestsin Iringaareimplicatedin this. o*ring *ith this
situationis ltearly thejob of
theanti-poactrins unjljn RNPandlring4 andnot of REivMp, thougha well functioning
maymakeit more.difficultfor suchpoachers wMA
to operatein thisparticulararea. Giventhatthe
greatest concentratio,n of elephantsis andalwayswill be in RNp'andthe adjoining
ivory poacherspreferto infiltrate duringthe wet ,.uron, there GRs,where
is no ,"urin why LM GCA,s
viability asa wMA shouldbe affected,&"n if ivory pourhing
continues.

Pastoral Resources

24'-Anotherkeyissuein the contol of nahral resources revolvesaroundthe questionof access

to theseby livestock-keepers. Thevastmajorityofvillagersin LS aremixed farmerswho derive
mostof theirlivelihoodfrom the cultivationofiubsisterie andcash
crops,the mostimportantof
thesebeingirrigated.rice.lndeedthepotentialfor irigated agricultur.^uiong
the GreatRuaha,s
tributaries,andthehignfertility of newlyclearlyland,f,aveatkactedmanyfarmers
from thesouth
to settlein thisarea.As a resultof thisthe economyandsocialcomposiiion
oirs arenow very
differentfrom what they were in the earlycolonialperiod.
Livestock-k".pingis much less
importantforthe indigenous Heheandcoso-t1ran it formerlywas,andthey havebeenjoined by
manyBena,Kingaandotherimmigrantcultivators.The iivelihood
of the Kosisamba, former
residents of RNPwhooncereliedmoreheavilyonhuntingandfishing,has
alsoshifledin thesame
direction'Ironicallyricewasfirst introducedandthis pricess
setin rnotionby a small groupof
professionalelephanthunters,Makuafrom southernTanzania.

25' while the indigenousethnicgroupsof LS havefewer livestock

than in the past,other
immigrantgroupshavecomeinto thJ areawith substantial livestockholdings. The first of these
weremembersof the-Il-Parakuyu (Baraguyu)sectionof the Maasai,*t o u'"g* to settlein
areain the early 1950s.Many of themsubsequently this
took up cultivationaswell as livestock-
keeping,as manyothergroupsof ll-Parakuyul,ihoti". in close
contactwith mixedfarmershave
done' Overthe pastdecadeor so otheragropastoralist groupshavealsomovedinto LM GCA
with largeherdsof cattle. TheseincludenumbersofBaraiaigand
sukuma,who havemovedup
from theUsanguPlainsto the southof RNP. Thedry season'water
resourcesof the Mtera Dam,
on theboundarybetweenLS andLN, form a particuiarattaction to
thesecattleherders,as do the
cropresidueson irrigatedfarmsin LS. Estimatesofthe number
of cattlenow to be found in LM
GCA varybetween40,000and60,000accordingto season.At present
this doesnot seemto be
a seriousproblem.The maindangerlies in co=ntinued spilloverfrom usangu,wheregrowing
populationpressure y9 th! imminentgazettement of the UsanguGR may well promptan even
largerinflux of cattleherdersinto LMGCA.
 I

26' while localconflictsdo occuroveraccessto resources betweencultivatorsandlivestock-

keepersandbetween.different groupsof livestock-keepers,theseareu.*lly;;olved within the
village'Immigrantlivestock-keepers, however,form a smallandoftenn.,ouit.minorityof the
population'andthis is reflectedin their low degreeof representation
in villagegovernment,
includingthenewlyformedwCs. Giventhefearolcontinuedencroachment
by livestock-keepers,
somevillagersseethe wCs asameansby whichtheycancontrolthis
andrt"r *y futuretide of
immigration' The livestock-keepers themselves lften feel that their interestsare not well
representedandthat they arethe victims of ethnicstereotyping.

27' Recenteventsin Mlowa ward,whichincludesMalinzangavillage,

illustratethis. Earlier in
1995 the Maasai living in this area were approachedby HIMWA (Huduma
ya Injiri na
Maendeleo ya Wafugail,'GospelServiceandPastoralist Development'), aMaasai-focused NGo
basedin Iringawhichwantedto includethemin its programme.The Maasai
complainedabout
theirtreatrnentby othervillagersandexpressed particiar concernabouttheir exclusionfrom a
localareawhichthey-had previouslybeenableio gr*and watertheiranimalsin quitefreely.
Thisbanhadbeeneffectedthreeyearsearlierat theinstigationof theDGO,
andwassubsequently
backedby the local village authorities.The reasongiv-enfor the banwasthat
their herdswere
competingwith gamefor the sameresources, andtheiewasa dangerthat diseases would spread
from the livestockto wild herds.

28' with HIMWA's encouragement theMaasaiformeda committeeto pressfor a reversalof this

banandallocationof a definedareaof landfor their exclusiveuse. Theyhavenot
donethis yet
andfi'fther actionappearsto be awaitingHIMWA's assistance.It is proposedthat
their chairman
shouldfirst meetwith thechairmanofMalinzangaWC to discussthe issue.ThenHIMryA
will
approach REWMPto dotheszrme.Thereafterit is hopedthata meetingof thevillagegovernment
will becalledto reacha final decision.If this failsio producethe dJsiredresultthen
theywill
pursuethe matterthroughhighergovemmentchanneli.

29' Whatevertheoutcomemaybe, this case pointsto the kinds of negotiation

which are
beginningto take placeand which will probably become
-formation increasingly f.""qu"ntas the wMA
develops.Theperceivedrole of the WC, andthe of a .o.iritt.", with NGO help,to
representthe interestsof this particulargroupof livestock-keepers, can be seenas a positive
development.The WCs on their own, with or without REWMi's help,cannot
hopeto tackle
every resourceissueand representevery sectionof interestsin the community
Lffectively.
Women'sinterests,.for example,might be betterservedby encouraging the participationof
women'sgroupsin similarways. Otherorganisations like fniraWe with'sp-ecial concernswhich
fall outsideof REWMP'simmediatebrief canalsoplay an importantrole in
this process,and
shouldbeencouraged to do so. To citeanother.*urpl., tlrereis obviousscopefor collaboration
with the DANIDA HIMA (Hifadhi Mazingira,'Protectthe Environment')project
in Iringa to
explorewaysin whichvillagers'concemoverthedestuctionof their woodlands
canbe tackled.
Thisprojecthasbeenimplemented throughregionalanddistrictadministrativechannels,and its
experiencein this regardcouldalsoform an importantassetto REWMp.

Crop Raiding

3-0'In additionto expressinga desireto exercisecontol overtheirownnaturalresources, villagers

also complainaboutcropraidingby wild animals.Whereasin theorytheycan
call uponWD
officersto assistthem,this oftenprovesimpractical,andvillagersarefrustratedby
their inability
 to huntverminbecause of therestrictions
placeduponthemby theanti-poaching
outside of RNP boundaries. This affects tn.n unJ unitswhichwork
*omen farmersthroughoutLS, and is
especiallyworryingto thosein poorerhouseholds whohavefew artemative sourcesof subsistence
and income' Villagers do not always distinguish
u"t*""n the different park and wildlife
and this problem fostersa negativeimage which
might ,"uouna upon project
ilj::,TJt"J'

3l' Thereis obviouslya-needin this casefor more

carefulcoordination betweenthe different
authorities
concernedandsomepotentialfor creating;;;;" positive
view of theiractivities.one
wayto do thiswouldbeto allow villagersto huntreignised
verminrp".i.r r""r, aswild pigs. In
somevillagescommunalhuntingof verminusedto u.
ina"rtur.enbeforeplanting,but thispractice
hasbeeneffectivelyforbiddenoverthe pasttwo decades.
The reinstitutionof suchhuntscould
form an additionalincentiveto.wc formation,especially
in vilrages*ni"r, ur. predominantly
agriculturalandhavelimitedaccess to largegamespecieswithin tn"L uo*au.i"r. Action against
verminwouldalsoprovidea moreimmediatebenentto
a largerandwider cross-section of the
populationthantheprovisionof gamemeatdoes.

VillageDevelopment

32' In the meetingsheld with villagersduringthe

consultancy, the development of village
infrastructuredid not loom aslargein the ageidaasthe
issueof resourcecontrolandall that
stemsfrom this' This wasin part a function-ofthe nature
of the meetingsthemselves.It also
reflectedthe factthatrevenues from wildlife utilisationin LM GCA haveonlybegunto
wc account'anda moreimmediateconcernwashow it might enterone
fund embryonicwc activities,
especiallythe employmentof villagegamescouts.However,
villagersareclearlyawarethat
communitywildlife management andthe fundsderivingfrom it canandshouldin future
channelledin this direction,and as revenuesincrease be
it i, tit.ty that this will becomean
increasingly importantincentiveto them-
LN to villagesin LS means ]he- ilnending transferof revenues fromtouristhunting
in that this shourd ttupp"niinirty,oon.
33' A numberofvillagesin LS havealreadybenefitted
substantiallyfrom fundsprovidedthrough
TANAPA's scIP (supportfor community lnitiutJ
tt"*,rl programme.Thesefundshave
beenusedto improvelocalschoolsanddispensarier,
undiluu. hada noticeablypositiveimpact
uponperceptions of RE\MVIPandits work,not to mentionthebenefitsprovideito
facilities' Thecurrent-annual usersof these
budgetof scP for assistin!rlrn**itles aroundRNp
million,whichexceeds is Tshs 16
the annualdevelopmerturJg.lF"i the wholeof the district
million)' scIP fundsare,however,alsointended6, (c.Tshsl2
ur. in villagesnearthe parkwhich are
outsideof LM GCA andlie in otherdisbicts.It is also
noicertainwhethertheallocationto RNp
will bemaintained,glventhatit makesa lossandthat
tt .r. i, somepressure for moresclp funds
to be directedto the northernparkswhich generatethem.

34' while it is not at presentclearexactlyhowmuchrevenue

LN will generatefor villagesin LS,
on somepredictions thesesumsmaywell matchor evensurpass thoseprovidedthroughsclp.
whatevertheprecisefi-q:res,theviliageswhichbenefit
from thisrevenuewill presumablyfeel a
greatersense of ownershipandwill befreeto allocatethefundsasthey
at presentwith scP funds. This will be evenmore wish,whichis not thecase
true of funds*irirr, uirtug; generatefrom
theirown utilisationactivities.
 35' At thesametime thereis somedangerthatthesevillagesfundswill
themselves becomethe
subjectof conflictovertheir controlanddisbursement, Jspeciallyif theyr*.."d othervillage
revenues'The mostobviouspatternof economicdiffereniiationin the
iS villagesis linked to
ethnic origin and associated modeof livelihood,while a loosestratumof relativelywealthy
individuals'includingsalariedofficials,traders,andmenwho have
allegedlymadetheir money
from commercialpoachingcanbefoundin thevillagecenhes.It would
beunfortunate if wildlife
utilisationfosteredthe.furtherdevelopmentof economicdifferentiation
in either of these
directions,aswell aswideningthegendergapin accessto resources, thoughthis may happenin
someinstances.Forthisreasonit is all themoreimportantto ensurethatthe interests
of different
sectionsof the communityareas fully represente-d in wildlife management andutilisationas
possible,whetherthisbe on theWC or via otherlocalinstifutionsandmechanisms.
Measuresto
enstuemaximumtansparency andaccountability in thehandlingof fundsderivedfrom utilisation
shouldalsobe workedout in conjunctionwith thevillagers.

Wildlife and Utilisation

36' Is there or will there be enoughgame in LM GCA to sustaincommunity

wildlife
management? As thisquestionwill beteatedmorethoroughlyin the accompanying consultant
ecologist'sreport,I will confinemyselfhereto a numberof generalobservations.
Theseall lead
to the conclusionthat thereis and will alwaysbe sufficientgamein the areafor
utilisation,
1t:gilg that the pattern of institutional
development and institritional
linkagesbeingfosteredby
REWMPwill continueto evolvein thedirectionswhichthis reportsuggests they Should.At the
sametime the casecanbe madethat effectivecommunitywildlife lt'"n"g.-"nt neednot
and
shouldnotrevolvearoundtheutilisationofgamealone:.u.n ifth"r. *.r" nJl*g" animals
in LM
GCA themanagement andutilisationof otherformsof wildlife andnaturalres6urcewould still
be viable. This broaderperspective is at the heartof the WD's new policy,and it would be
inadvisable to taketoo narrowa view of whatcommunitywildlife *unug.*.nt means.

VillageHunting

37' ThecurrentstrateryofREWMP in its six pilot villagesreliesheavilyuponthe

allocationof
a quotaofgameanimalsto villageWCswhichtheymay,infuhue,useoidiipose of asthey
wish
for the benefitof the villageand its inhabitants.fnis is a novelinterventionin the
hunting
economyofLM GCA. In theorylocalresidents havein thepastbeenableto huntpermittedgami
speciesin LS, providingthat theypossess the appropriateiicense,the appropriaieweapon,and
abideby WD regulations abouthow, what,when-andwherethey hunt. in practiceonly a small
minorityof villagerspossessthefinancialmeans(andin somecasesthe inclination)to huntunder
theseconditions,andthevastmajorityofresidenthuntersoperatinglegallyin LS haveinsteadbeen
relativelywealthypeoplefrom Iringatown andelsewheiein the,.gion

38' Thetransferof the gamequotafrom wealthyresidenthuntersto thevillage

WC therefore
enables(or will enable)morevillagersto huntlegallyand/orbenefitfromtheproJeeds
of legalised
huntingthanhashithertobeenthecase.It alsoslrvis to givethe WC a kick-start.
The financial
proceedsfroma huntcanbeusedto fi,rndotherWC activiiies,includingtheemployment of village
gamescouts,while the veryact of huntingandsellingpreviously'iorbidden'meatprovideJa
 t

potentsymbolof villagers'legitimaterepossession
of their own resources.
39' To dateonly oneof thesix pilot villagps,Malirzanga,
hasbegunto tastethe benefitsof this
transferof resources,lhoughplansarerndenay to orglnisehunisin the other
divisionwhichhaveformeowcs. Malinzangawc rtu"t, villagesin Idodi
*itrt REWMp,s urrir,un"", conducted
two huntssofar in the 1995season.Thefirst-tlurttoonptace
in May unauiotur of rshs 77,g00
wasraisedfromthesaleofmeatfrom onebuffaloandsix
impala. ihe secondhunt,in August,
baggedthreebuffalo,threeimpalaand one-eluno, it. proceedsof which amountedto Tshs
194,000'Afterpalngvariousexpenses, includingth,"ostJor-aintaining lo uiirug"gamescouts,
thewc currentlyhasTshs174,000in ils bankaciountand
hasmadea reasonable startwhichwc
membersareclearlyquiteproudof. Theothervillagesin trt" pilot
haveevidentlytakennotice,and
areeagerto follow suitassoonaspossible.

GamePopulations

40' Malinzanga, it shouldbe noted,liesin themiddleofthe centralhunting

areain LS, and most
of thisareafalls within theboundaries of thevillage. rhe questionthereforeariseswhetherthere
is sufticientgameavailablein thisareato satisfytheaspiiations
of all of the pilot villagesand
whetherits exploitationin this waycanbesustained in fuiure. unfortunatelythire areno reliable
dataon gameanimalpopulations, eitherin LS asa wholeor in thecentralp6tti"r of it. Available
estimates differ widelyandthekindsof datacollectionwhich would be
neededto resolvethese
diffe.rencesand providea moreaccuratepicture- animalcounts
on the groundand/orcareful
monitoringof offiake andtrophysizeandquality- havenever
beenatteripted.
41' The questionof gamepopulation:"nq their adequacyfor
sustainable exploitationcan,
however,be answeredby taking a wider view. Informants generally
are agreed that game
populationsin the centralportionof LS havedeclinednoticeabtyier
tne pai tenyearsor so.
Theyascribethisdeclinetoov_erhunting (in otherwordspoaching)by viltagersandby resident
huntersfrom outsideof LM GCA. There-isconsequently u.*"J'*ntrast i; ;;*" densitieson
oppositesidesof theRNP boundary,with high concenirations
within theparf andmuchlower
onesoutsideof it.

42' when overhunting occurs,thegameresourcesof LS aredepletedin two ways: directly,

thekilling of animals;andindirectly,by themovement by
ofdisturbedanimalsacrosstheGreatRuaha
Riverto thesafetyof thepark It is importantto realisethat the game
populationsof LS, indeed
the wholeof LM GcA, do not comp.isean isolatedandfinitJrerour"".
Rathertheyexistas
components of thewiderecosystem whighfocusesuponRNP. when overexploitedor disturbed
by otherformsof naturalresource utilisationoutsideortn. fark boundaries,
thJywill retreatwithin
thepark' Whenutilisationis carefullymanaged, theywill crossbackinto the LM GCA. This is
preciselywhathashappened in thecaseof el-ephants, whiJ havebecomea seasonalmenaceto
cropsin LS (astheywerebeforethe 'ivory crlsis')sincethe - crackdownon ivory
' poachingand
tradefrom 1989onwards.

43' As long asthe gameanimalsin RNP andadjoininggame

reserves (GRs)enjoyadequate
protection'thecommongamespeciesin the "rotyJt"rnoniiin"u".
bethreatenedby utilisationon
its borders.Thekeyto sustainable
utilisation(sustainabre
{bt th;;o;;itiol"
managingandmonitoringof theoffiakeandothernafuralresources #l liesin caretul
which gameanimalsusein
LS' TheexistingGCA systemof management hasclearlythiledandis incapableof providing
 sustainablebenefitsto thepeopleliving in LS. ThewMA approach
beingpioneered by REWMp
offers much betterchancesof su"ceis. As we haveseen,
lrillug"r, trrr"ougrrout
LS are clearly
unhappyabouttheoverexploitation of localgnmeresources by poachers andhuntersfrom outside
of theircommuniti?l Ey:n in villageslike itununau,*rti"rris
ou*ide oiirr" piro, anddoesnot
haveextensiveland(andthereforepotentialgame),.ro*",
of its own,stepshavebeentakento
monitor the activitiesof hunterspassingtrtrougrrto hunt
elsewhere.As a resultpoachingby
outsidersis widely reportedto hauediminished-over the pastyear.
44' Thereis everyindicationthattheconversion of LM GCA into a wMA andthe development
of communify-based management systems will afforda betterlevelof protectionto RNp andthe
gamearoundits easternbordersthanhaspreviouslybeen
attainable.The onifuiuul. alternative
wouldbe a completemoratoriumon huntingandrestriction
of otherforms of humanresource
utilisationwhichareincompatible with thep.ir.n"" org*n., combinedwith effectivepolicing
thesemeasuresby RNP and otherauthorities.Howeler, it i, of
i, un option *rrich would both
consume the Iimitedfinancialresourcesof theseauthorities andoffer tittie in the way of benetits
andincentivesto the local population.This is precisely*t y tlr.
' J WD hasformulatedits wMA
policy.

45' Returningto the questionof gamepopulationsand human

impactsuponthem,the most
appropriatestrategywouldbe to encoutps"tt" development of monitorlngu"tiuitiesat village
level' simplerecordsof huntingexpeditions,
theirsuccesVfailure
andkophy quality canbe kept
by wcs andcollatedand_analysed by wD officersasa working substitu; ior.*p"nrive animal
censuses'Informationof thiskind canbeusedto helpsetgamequotas:
at presenttheseseemto
be basedon no morethaninformedguesswork.

Uilisation Optiow

46' rthasalreadybeennotedthatvillagen' primaryconcernis to

establishcontrolover accessto
nafuralresources, includinggameanimatsanaotherformsof wildlife, sothat tt "y
"un enjoythe
benefitswhichmayderivefrom theirufilisation.In thecaseof game,
theircurrentconceptionof
differentpossiblefonnsof utilisationis largelyshapedby their
whichREWMPhassponsored fast experi"n"" unothe activities
to date,focusingupondiiectconsumption.Thefactthatrelatively
little consideration
is givento indirectro*urpion andnon+onsumptiveuse game
of resources
at thisstagedoesnot entailthattheylackfeasiLilitynor thattheywilf remain
low prioritiesin the
future' lndeed,andasREWMPhasrecognised, onl of its own futureroleswill beio helpvillagers
explorethediflerentoptionswhichareavailable.Forthetime being
REwMp has,quitesensibly,
givenhigherpriorityto theestablishment of theWCs,andnotwishedto rushvillagersinto making
decisionsaboutdifferentutilisationoptionswhenit is clearlytoo
earlyro,.tnefi to do so.
47' Theongoingprogramme of villagegamehuntingexercisesis thereforebestconceivedas
meansto anendratherthanasanendin itself It is necessary a
to saythisbecauseof the tendency
of someobservers to judge the projectprematurelyon the basisof this activityalone.
provisionofgamemeat,for example,shouldnot beihought The
of asmajorfactorin assessing the
viabilityof directconsumption.The fact that presentunifirtur"
huntingquotasareunlikely to
havea significantimpact
fPon thesupplyof meatin LS is relatively*i.frrt^igiu.n
role of animalmeatin villagers'dietj. thecurrent
Villagersreportthattheygenerallyeatmeatno morethan
oncea weekor so. Whenaskedthereasons for this,theypoinito its relativelyhigh costandthe
factthatit is generallyin shortsupply:cattleandsmallstockarenot
slaughtereclon a daily basis
 in most of the villagesin LS. Gamemeat,poached
or otherwjse,is an evenlessfrequent
componentof the localdiet. As far ascanbe established
the ma;orityoruiirug"r, haveonly
occasionallytastedgamemea! if at all..Villagersnafurallyexpressa desire
are enthusiasticaboutthe prospectof havingreadieru"J"r, to eatmoremeat,and
to gamemeattlrroughthe hunting
quota' More thananything.else,though,thii symbolisestheir rlgitimate ;;;,"r" of a resource
whichtheycouldonly previouslyaccesiillegiiimatet.

48' FormuchthesamereasorLit is diflicult at presentfor

villagersto contemplate sellingon their
on theirquotato theresidenthunterswhomttreyreetthemselves
to be in conflictwith. And while
FIATofficialshavedeclaredtheir willin$esl to p1yhigherfees
for gamehcenses, thesumsthey
proposefor differenL:p".i"l still represent
only afractiJnof thevalui of thern"u,on thecarcase.
Thereis thereforestill a widegulf betrveenthelnterestsandintentionsof theJo partiesinvolved,
andit maybe sometime beforethis gulf canbe bridged,even
with REWMp,s adviceandhelp.
In theshorttermat leastit is probablethatdirectconiumption
will continueto providevillagers
with thebestreturnson theirquota,thoughit is impossidr.
to predictwhat kinis of negotiation
mighttakeplaceandcompromises reachedin the future.

49' While somewC membersarealreadythinkingaboutthepossibility

of touristhuntingand/or
gameviewing,thereis a generallack of knowledgeabout
whatthis would entail. The valueof
gametrophies,for example,is notwidelyappreciated. Thisis anotherareain whichREWMp can
playanimportantfacilitatory in conjunction
Io1.,n"1nuis *th otherinterested partiesor agencies.
Theprogramme ofvisits to RNPwhichREIVIIP is arrangingforvillager, ,un'b"
seenaspart of
this process'At presentLS villagersrarelyinteractwittriorirists,
and-RNpdoesnot in any case
attractlargenumbersof them.

50' It is generallyagreedthatpresentgamedensitiesin LS are insufficient

for it to be usedasa
touristhuntingbloclqthoughoneillicit quasi-tourist
campis rumouredto havebeenoperatedby
a residenthunterin the *.:1in recentyears,andsmall-scalelegalisedtouristoperations
ruledout asa futurepossibilityshoddgamenumbersincreaseand cannotbe
viilagersagree.LN, however,
is cunentlybeingusedasa touristhuntingblock,andholdsthe greatesipot"itiur
As alludedto above,it alsopresents for utilisation.
u nrr-b"r ofproblems,andvlll provide* i-po*nt testcase
in thetransitionto communitywildlife management.

5l ' TheFrenchcompanywhichusesLN alsohuntsin the Rungwa

andKisigo GRsto the west.
Theprofessionalhunterscomplainthathumandisturbancein_thesouthernpart
of LN bordering
theGreatRuahaRiverandtheMteraDam made it unprontable
!ay9 to huntin this particulararea.
As well as being the site of an unofficial settlement,this area is frequentlyvisited by
honey-gatherersaswell aslivestock-keepers andfisherswhoexploitits permanent waterresources
andthegoodpastures whichbordertheJe.Thesouthernstretchof LN is arsorefuted
by residenthunters.who to be used
illegallycrossinto it from LS. Elsewherein LN, the French
complainthattheyfind themselves hunters
competingwith poachers who comeinto the huntingblock
from thevillageof Ilangali. Thisvillageis locatedtoihe north
of LN, anda fails within Dodoma
region.

52' Despitetheseproblefs,LN clearlygenerates morerevenuethroughtouristhuntingthanis

currentlyor everlikely to begenerated
throughgameutilisationin LS. Touristspayconsiderably
morefor theirtrophiesthanresidenthuntersdo for their licences
or the ,unr, uillugerscanraise
fromthesalesof gamemeat. For example,whereanordinary
- buffalo licencecostsTshs6,000
peranimal'andthemeatmight besoldfor someTshs50,000,iouristhunterspayUS$g00for
the
 firstbuffaloshotandus$ 600persubsequent kill. In 1994thecompanyoperatingin LN declared
thattheyhadcollectedc.US$11,000in trophyfeesfrom it. Underexistingarrangements
thisrevenuehasgoneto tlretreasurynaz6"l" ofit suuselulntly all of
claimeoffi" ottrict. Noneof
this revenuehasbeenof directbenefitto the viltagers-orlS,
a number'ofwhom lived in LN
beforeit becamea GCA in 19g5.

53' Therearea numberof optionsfor the futureof LN.

one proposalis that it shouldbe taken
outof LM GCA andgivenGR status.In this case,however,
LS villagerswouldcontinueto be
deniedanyrole in its management andthet_ene{1-s accruingfror it. tI is more likely, however,
andconsistent with the wD's policy,that LN will bedeveLpedasa wMA
in conjunctionwith
therestofLM @A. Thi.sontionii supportedby the chief
warden of RNP aswell asofficials
in thedisfict administation.The qutrfion thenremainsas
to which fonns of utilisationin LN
would be mostappropriatein future.

54' The simplestsolution,at leastin theshortterm,is to retain

LN asa touristhuntingblock.
FollowingnewwD a proportionof its 1995revenues
rylicy' will be directedto thevillagesin LS.
25o/oof therevenues for thecurrenthuntingseasonwill accrueto local villagers(via
a further 20Yoto the districtauthorities,and the remaining55yotothe REwMp),
tieasury. when LN
achieves full wMA statusthevillagers'sharewill in theoryriseto 75oA,with
l5o/oforthedistrict,
l0o/ofor the Tanzaniawildlife Protection.Fund (TWPF;,and nothingfor the treasury.The
transferof thesefundsto villagesin LS will clearlygrvea considerable
boJstto anyincomeswhich
theymightderivefrom gameutilisationin LS iheff.

55' How to divideoutthesefunds,or howto manageaccessto LN

if villagersarealsopermitted
to utilise someof the resources within it, arernJr. aim.ult questions to answer.REWMp's
currentunderstanding-is thatthevillagesofPawagadivisionhavehistoricallandrightswithin
whileit is suspected, LN,
thoughnotyetproverLtlrat villages in Isinrani division (where
hasnot worked)mayhavesimilarrights. Sorting lome REWMp
out thise rightson a vitiage'uyvillagebasis
wouldundoubtedly be a time-consuming andgimcgt taslggiventhehistoricalpatternof village
andpopulationmovementsin this areaandthe differenttlnas of
claimsuporir.rourcesin LN
whichdifferentvillagesandsubvillagescouldmake.Someofthe
complexitfus involvedemerged
duringtheconsultancy in a discussionof thisissuewith theDNRo *dtn" District Beekeeperin
ld.lgu As suggestedearlier,the bestapproachto this questionwould seemto be to
'villagisation'of avoid the
access to resourceswherethisis likely to provecounterproductive,
thebenefitsof utilisationasfairly aspossiblebetrveen and to divide
viilages.

Conclusion

56' communitymanagement of wildlife is viablein LM GCA,andthe processof converting

intoa wMA hasalreadybeensetin motionby the wn unJngwMp. it
The issuesinvolvedare
complex'and balancingthe interestsof a wide anay of stakeholders
from communitylevel
upwardsdemandsinstitutionalinnovationand"ur.ful facilitation.
The VillageDevelopment
componentof REWMP has playeda key role in this respect,
and has estabtisheda good
foundationfor futuredevelopment- At thesametimethereis clearlystill a lot of workto bedone.
If ODA supportwerewithdrawnat this stage,it is likely thatthemomentum
whichhasdeveloped
wouldbe lost,andunlikelythatanotherd_"_l"l9oul9 nit ttregap. If oDA supportis maintained,
andcurrentshortcomings addressed,
LM wMA will havea iruch greaterchanceof successand
the potentialto actasa modelfor thedevelopment of otherwMAs in Tanzania.

| .,
 Recommendations

57. oDA supportto the development

of LM GCA asa wMA shourdcontinue.
58' Thewiderobjectiveofthis support'should beto assistthe wD in implementingits policyfor
wildlife conservationand (rilistation,with specialreference
to the conversionof GCAs into
WMAs.

59' Thespecificobjectiveshouldbethe^conversion,
ideallywithin the lifetime of the project,of
LM GCA into a well-functioningWMA

60' Theprojectshouldbe explicittyconcernedwith the whole

of LM GCA, includingthe areas
in whichREWMPhasneverworked,for exampleIsimani
division.This is ;";";ruqy becauseof
the interestsof Isimaniin LN aswell asthe Mtera Dam and
therzazarrunting ur"u.
61' A phasedexpansion of village-levelfacilitationstartingfrom currentwork in
villagesshouldbe combinedwith planningandfacilitationfrom the six pilot
the district-leveldownwards,
buildingupon currentwork with ihe DSa. The issueol'LN
and villale airtriuutionof the
revenuesfrom it shouldbe an earlypriority.

62' Closecollaborationwith TANAPA at nationalcommittee

level and throughthe SCIp
programmeat RNP level shouldcontinue.

63' closerlinks shouldbe established

with government
deparhnentsat bothregionaland district
levels'ThisshouldincludemeetingsandcJnsultations u, upprop.iate
with ut-ltt . departments
concerned with naturalresourceissuesin LM GCA.

64' Particularattentionshouldbepaidto ensuringthemoreeffective

participationofthe Gos and
otherofficerswhohavehithertobeendistanced frim theproject,partlybecauseof theirperception
that theyhavenot benefiuedfrom it but lost someof theii authority
instead.
65' Particularattentionshouldbe paidto ensuringthe moreeffective
participationof resident
huntersandespeciallythemembersofHAT FlATispotential
to makea'positivecontributionto
communitywildlife management shouldbe encouraged, and uppropriut.channelsfor this
established.
A confrontational approachshouldbe avJided.

66' Closerlinks shouldbe established

with otheragenciesandNGos whichareworkingin or
preparedto work in L-M especiallythosedealing
-GCA, with naturalresourceissuesand/or
stakeholder interestswhichcomplement the concerns
of-theproject.
67' A specialeffort shouldbe madeto exploreways in which
women,sparticipationin
communitywildlife management
canbeimprovid,whetherdirectly(e.g.through*o*"n,, groups)
or throughotherorganisations
with a focusupongenderissues.

68' Likewisemoreeffortshouldbemadeto-facilitatethe participation

of otherminority groups
(e'g' immigrantlivestock-keepers,
peopleliving in sub-villagesfa, outsideof thevillagecentre).
69' In view of the likely knock-onefrectsof developments
in Usangutheseshouldbemonitored,
if possiblethroughtheproposedWorldBankprojeciand/orODA,s
inputinto it. In theeventthat
 thisgetsoffthe groundthepossibilityof closecollaboration
on issuesof mutualconcern(e.g.the
management of resourceconflicts,the problemof the seasonal drying-upof the GreatRuaha
River)shouldbe explored.

70' Abroaderconceptionof wildlife andrelatedresources,

consistentwith that espoused
by the
wD aswell asstakeholdersat communitylevel,shouldinro.rn the project. Fishing(the
of a separate
consultancy) subject
andhoney-gathering / ue"t ""fing arethe mostobviousadditional
components'Likewisethenee-d for crop protectionand.unug",n.nt of scarcewaterresources
shouldbe drawninto the wildlife utilisaiionframework,*rti.rt
hastendedin the pastto focus
almostexclusivelyon largegameanimals.

71' The projectshouldhavean activeandcreativeawareness-raising

component at different
levels'Thisshouldinclude'amongotherthings,explanation
anddiscussionofwD policyand
projectobjectivesat regionalanddistrictlevel,ind pu.ti.ipuiory
examination
of theprosandcons
of differentformsof wildlife utilisationat communityleveland
how thesemight be developed.
72' Apptopriate trainingandsupportshouldbe givento wcs to facilitatevarious
aspectsof their
operation'This shouldincludetrainingofvillagegamescouts(in
collaboration with the WD), the
development of gamepopulationrnonitoringlrJcedures, udui." on how to operateunfamiliar
formsofutilisationandnegotiatewith extemalciientsandaiencies,andadviceontt . management
of fundsgeneratedby utilisation.

73' Mechanisms for inter-villagewC collaboration

andcoordinationshouldbe given particular
attention,andtheir developmentfaciIitated.

74' The potentialfor inter-villagesharingof resourceutilisation

shouldbe followedup as a
priority,includingthe proposalthatvillagessharequotason
discretehuntingUtort, within LS.
75' The projectandits staff shouldbe basedwheretheyare
mostlikely to impactuponkey
institutionsandstakeholders.Seriousconsiderationshouldbegivento theproporutthat advisers
bestationed in kingatown,with directaccess
to regionalanddistrictlevelinstitutionsandagencies
andbetteraccessto thenortherndivisionsof LS thanfrom RNp
headquarters- consideration
shouldalsobegivento thestationingof counteryartsandcommunitycoordinators within LS itselfl,
andtheprovisionof two-wheeled transportto them.