A rain gauge (also known as an udometer, pluviometer, or an ombrometer ) is a type of instrument used by meteorologists andhydrologists to gather and measure

the amount of liquid precipitation over a set period of time. History The first known rainfall records were kept by the Ancient Greeks, about 500 B.C. This was followed 100 years later] by people in India using bowls to record the rainfall. The readings from these were correlated against expected growth, and used as a basis for land taxes ] In the Arthashastra, used for example in Magadha, precise standards were set as to grain production. Each of the state storehouses were equipped with a rain gauge to classify land for taxation purposes.[1] In 1441, Cheugugi was first standardized rain gauge, invented during the reign of King Sejong the Great in Joseon Dynasty ofKorea. In 1662, Christopher Wren created the first tippingbucket rain gauge in Britain. George James Symons was elected to the council of the British meteorological society in 1863 and made it his life's work to investigate rainfall within the British Isles. He set up a voluntary network of observers, who collected data which was returned to him for analysis. He also collected old rain fall records going back about a hundred years previously. In 1870 he produced an account of rainfall in the British Isles starting in 1725. Due to the ever increasing numbers of observers and Symons prior inspections of the gauges, standardisation of the gauges was necessary. Symons began experiments on new gauges in his own garden. He experimented with variations in size, shape, and height of the gauge. In 1863 he took on the help of Colonel Michael Foster Ward, of Calne, Wiltshire, who undertook more extensive investigations. By including Ward and various others around Britain, the investigations continued until 1890. The experiments were remarkable for their planning, execution, and drawing of conclusions. The results of these experiments lead to the progressive adoption of the well known standard gauge, still used by the UK Meteorological Office today. Namely, one made of ..'copper, with a five inch funnel having its brass rim one foot above the ground...' Principles Most rain gauges generally measure the precipitation in millimeters.The level of rainfall is sometimes reported as inches or centimeters. Rain gauge amounts are read either manually or by automatic weather station (AWS). The frequency of readings will depend on the requirements of the collection agency. Some countries will supplement the paid weather observer with a network of volunteers to obtain precipitation data (and other types of weather) for sparsely populated areas. In most cases the precipitation is not retained, however some stations do submit rainfall (and snowfall) for testing, which is done to obtain levels of pollutants. Rain gauges have their limitations. Attempting to collect rain data in a hurricane can be nearly impossible and unreliable (even if the equipment survives) due to wind extremes. Also, rain gauges only indicate rainfall in a localized area. For virtually any gauge, drops will stick to the

sides or funnel of the collecting device, such that amounts are very slightly underestimated, and those of .01 inches or .25 mm may be recorded as a trace. Another problem encountered is when the temperature is close to or below freezing. Rain may fall on the funnel and ice or snow may collect in the gauge and not permit any subsequent rain to pass through. Rain gauges should be placed in an open area where there are no obstacles, such as building or trees, to block the rain. This is also to prevent the water collected on the roofs of buildings or the leaves of trees from dripping into the rain gauge after a rain, resulting in inaccurate readings.
Types

Types of rain gauges include graduated cylinders, weighing gauges, tipping bucket gauges, and simple buried pit collectors. Each type has its advantages and disadvantages for collecting rain data. Standard rain gauge The standard NWS rain gauge, developed around the start of the 20th century, consists of a funnel emptying into a graduated cylinder, 2 cm in diameter, that fits inside a larger container which is 20 cm in diameter and 50 cm tall. If the rainwater overflows the graduated inner cylinder, the larger outer container will catch it. When measurements are taken, the height of the water in the small graduated cylinder is measured, and the excess overflow in the large container is carefully poured into another graduated cylinder and measured to give the total rainfall. In locations using the metric system, the cylinder is usually marked in mm and will measure up to 250 millimetres (9.8 in) of rainfall. Each horizontal line on the cylinder is 0.5 millimetres (0.02 in). In areas using Imperial units each horizontal line represents 0.01 inch.

Weighing precipitation gauge A weighing-type precipitation gauge consists of a storage bin, which is weighed to record the mass. Certain models measure the mass using a pen on a rotating drum, or by using a vibrating wire attached to a data logger. The advantages of this type of gauge over tipping buckets are that it does not underestimate intense rain, and it can measure other forms of precipitation, including rain, hail and snow. These gauges are, however, more expensive and require more maintenance than tipping bucket gauges. The weighing-type recording gauge may also contain a device to measure the quantity of chemicals contained in the location's atmosphere. This is extremely helpful for scientists studying the effects of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere and their effects on the levels of the acid rain. Some Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS) units use an automated weighing gauge called the AWPAG (All Weather Precipitation Accumulation Gauge).

A barometer A barometer is a scientific instrument used in meteorology to measure atmospheric pressure. Pressure tendency can forecast short term changes in the weather. Numerous measurements of air pressure are used within surface weather analysis to help find surfacetroughs, high pressure systems, and frontal boundaries. History Although Evangelista Torricelli is universally credited with inventing the barometer in 1643,[1][2][3] historical documentation also suggests Gasparo Berti, an Italian mathematician and astronomer, unintentionally built a water barometer sometime between 1640 and 1643.[1][4] French scientist and philosopher Ren Descartes described the design of an experiment to determine atmospheric pressure as early as 1631, but there is no evidence that he built a working barometer at that time.[1] On July 27, 1630, Giovanni Battista Baliani wrote a letter to Galileo Galilei explaining an experiment he had made in which a siphon, led over a hill about twenty-one meters high, failed to work. Galileo responded with an explanation of the phenomenon: he proposed that it was the power of a vacuum that held the water up, and at a certain height the amount of water simply became too much and the force could not hold any more, like a cord that can support only so much weight.[5][6] This was a restatement of the theory of horror vacui ("nature abhors a vacuum"), which dates to Aristotle, and which Galileo restated as resistenza del vacuo. Galileo's ideas reached Rome in December 1638 in his Discorsi. Raffaele Magiotti and Gasparo Berti were excited by these ideas, and decided to seek a better way to attempt to produce a vacuum than with a siphon. Magiotti devised such an experiment, and sometime between 1639 and 1641, Berti (with Magiotti, Athanasius Kircher and Niccol Zucchi present) carried it out.[6] Types Water-based barometers The concept that decreasing atmospheric pressure predicts stormy weather, postulated by Lucien Vidie, provides the theoretical basis for a weather prediction device called a "storm glass" or a "Goethe barometer" (named for Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe, the renowned German writer and polymath who developed a simple but effective weather ball barometer using the principles developed by Torricelli). The weather ball barometer consists of a glass container with a sealed body, half filled with water. A narrow spout connects to the body below the water level and rises above the water level. The narrow spout is open to the atmosphere. When the air pressure is lower than it was at the time the body was sealed, the water level in the spout will rise above the water level in the body; when the air pressure is higher, the water level in the spout will drop below the water level in the body. A variation of this type of barometer can be easily made at home. [9] Mercury barometers A mercury barometer has a glass tube with a height of at least 84 cm, closed at one end, with an open mercury-filled reservoir at the base. The weight of the mercury creates a vacuum in the top of the tube. Mercury in the tube adjusts until the weight of the mercury column balances the atmospheric force exerted on the reservoir. High atmospheric pressure places

more force on the reservoir, forcing mercury higher in the column. Low pressure allows the mercury to drop to a lower level in the column by lowering the force placed on the reservoir. Since higher temperature at the instrument will reduce the density of the mercury, the scale for reading the height of the mercury is adjusted to compensate for this effect. Torricelli documented that the height of the mercury in a barometer changed slightly each day and concluded that this was due to the changing pressure in the atmosphere.[1] He wrote: "We live submerged at the bottom of an ocean of elementary air, which is known by incontestable experiments to have weight"[source?]. Vacuum pump oil barometer Using vacuum pump oil as the working fluid in a barometer has led to the creation of the new "World's Tallest Barometer" in February 2013. The barometer at Portland State University (PSU) uses doubly distilled vacuum pump oil and has a nominal height of ~12.4 m for the oil column height; expected excursions are in the range of 0.4 m over the course of a year. Vacuum pump oil has very low vapor pressure and it is available in a range of densities; the lowest density vacuum oil was chosen for the PSU barometer to maximize the oil column height.[ An aneroid barometer, invented in 1843 by French scientist Lucien Vidie uses a small, flexible metal box called an aneroid cell (capsule), which is made from an alloy of berylliumand copper.[11] The evacuated capsule (or usually more capsules) is prevented from collapsing by a strong spring. Small changes in external air pressure cause the cell to expand or contract. This expansion and contraction drives mechanical levers such that the tiny movements of the capsule are amplified and displayed on the face of the aneroid barometer. Many models include a manually set needle which is used to mark the current measurement so a change can be seen. In addition, the mechanism is made deliberately "stiff" so that tapping the barometer reveals whether the pressure is rising or falling as the pointer moves.

LATER VEDIC PERIOD (B.C. 1000 - B.C. 600) The period between B.C. 1000 and B.C. 600 is generally known as Later Vedic period. This age is also called as the Epic Age because the two great epics Ramayana and Mahabharata were written during this period. The Aryans during this period moved to the Gangetic Valley. Sources The Sama, Yajur, Atharva Vedas, Brahmanas, Upanishads, Aranyakas and the two epics are the sources of information for this period. Political Life The Gangetic Valley or Aryavartha became the centre of political activity. Kingdoms like Kosala, Videha, Kuru,Magadha, Kasi, Avanti and Panchala came into existence. The position of the king was considerably high. Sabha and Samiti did not stand in his way. Kingship became hereditary. The kings were in charge of defense and maintaining law and order of their kingdoms. They built vast empires. They tried to extend their territories. Therefore frequent wars were fought. Rituals and sacrifices such as Rajasuya Ashvamedha, Vajapeya and Yagas were performed by the kings. Kings assumed titles like Ekrat Samrat and Sariahaurna, Village administration was looked after by the village councils. Taxes like Pall, Sulk and Bhaga were collected from the people. The revenue was spent for the benefit of the subjects. Social Life Family conhnued to be the basic unit of the society. The father was the head of the family. Joint family system was quite common. Varna or Caste system developed during the later Vedic period. To start with the fourfold caste came into existences, namely, the Brahmins Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras. The Brabmins were priests and teachers. The Kshatriyas were rulers and soldiers. They enjoyed high position in the society. The Vaishyas were traders, artisans and farmers. The Sudras were the uneducated workers who served for the other three castes. According to the religious texts, the life of an individual was divided into four stages or Ashramas They were Brahmacharya or student life, Graihasta or life of a father and husband. Vanaprasta or life as a hermit and finally Sanyasa or total renunciation of the world. Position of Women There was a decline in the status and dignity of women during the Later Vedic period. Women were subordinated. Submissiveness was considered as an ideal virtue of a wife. Women were not allowed to participate in public affairs. They could not own property. Child marriage was not prevented. Widow Remarriage was not allowed. Though monogamy was the rule, polygamy was practised Women degradation started from the later Vedic period. Education

Education was limited to the three upper castes. Pupils stayed with their teachers at the Gurukula. Women were not sent to the Gurukula. However, women like Gargi and Maitreyi were educated. Students were taught philosophy logic, religion, grammar, astronomy, medicine, ethics and arithmetic. Dhanur Veda or war tactics was taught to princes. Pupils observed strict discipline, obedience and respect for the teachers. Economic Life Farming was the chief occupation. Iron was used extensively in this period. Iron ploughs substituted the wooden ploughs. Another improvement of this period was maturing the field. It increased the yield Barley. Wheat, rice and dhal were produced. Cattle rearing continued. Wealth was calculated in terms of cows. Nishka, Swarna and Sathamana were the names of gold coins in circulation. Copper produced war weapons and ornaments. They obtained copper from the Khetri mines of Rajastan. Ironsmiths produced arrowheads and spearheads. They also crafted agricultural tools. Weavers, leather workers, carpenters, chariot - makers and jewel makers also lived in the villages. People in the Later Vedic period used painted grey mud vessels. The Gray wares were painted. Such vessels have been found in many places in North India, Archaeologists call these sites as Painted Gray ware sites. Both internal and foreign trade flourished. Medicinal plants, medicine, clothings and leather products were exported to countries like Babylonia. Food and Entertainments Rice, wheat, barley, milk and milk products, vegetables and fruits were their diet. Fish was also eaten. The flesh of oxen, sheep and goats were eaten Soma and Sura were their common drinks. Indoor and outdoor games were played during this period. Gambling, dicing, chariot racing and horse racing were some of their pastimes. The people were fond of music and dance. Dress and Ornaments Woolen and Cotton dresses were used by the people. Ornaments made of gold and silver were worn. The other metals used by the Later Vedic period were iron, copper and tin. Religion Many changes occurred in the field of religion. The Gods of early Vedic age lost their significance. In the Later Vedic period, people worshipped new Gods like Prajapathi, Pasupathi, Vishnu and Krishna. Prayers and scarifies became important ways of worshipping God. Animals were killed during sacrifice. The religion became complex affair. The theory of Karma and the theory of incarnation were accepted. People believed that the God is the supreme head and he was not only a creator but also a destroyer. They believed in the concept of Moksha.