6 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES AND STUDIES

The researchers topic tackled about the Amicable Pair. In this chapter, you will see some of the related literature and studies about the topic.

Related Literatures:

AMICABLE NUMBER

Two numbers are said to be amicable (i.e., friendly) if each one of them is equal to the sum of the proper divisors of the others (i.e., whole numbers less than the given numbers that divide the given number with no remainder). For example, 220 have proper divisors 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 11, 20, 22, 44, 55, and 110. The sum of these divisors is 284. The proper divisors of 284 are 1, 2, 4, 71, and 142. Their sum is 220; so 220 and 284 are amicable. This is the smallest pair of amicable numbers.

The discovery of amicable numbers is attributed to the neo-Pythagorean Greek philosopher Iamblichus of Chalcis (c. AD 250330), who credited Pythagoras (582500 BC) with the original knowledge of their nature. The Pythagoreans believed that amicable numbers, like all special numbers, had a profound cosmic significance. A biblical reference (a gift of 220 goats from Jacob to Esau, Genesis 23: 14) is thought by some to indicate an earlier knowledge of amicable numbers.

No pairs of amicable numbers other than 220 and 284 were discovered by European mathematicians until 1636, when French mathematician Pierre de Fermat

7 (16011665) found the pair 18, 496 and 17, 296. A century later, Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (17071783) made an extensive search and found about 60 additional pairs. Surprisingly, however, he overlooked the smallest pair after 220 and 284, which is 1184 and 1210. It was subsequently discovered in 1866 by a 16-year-old boy, Nicolo Paganini.

During the medieval period, Arabian mathematicians preserved and developed the mathematical knowledge of the ancient Greeks. For example, the polymath ThabitibnQurra (836901) formulated an ingenious rule for generating amicable number pairs: Let a = 3(2n) 1, b = 3(2n-1) 1, and c = 9(22n-1) 1; then, if a, b, and c are primes, 2nab and 2nc are amicable. This rule produces 220 and 284 when n is 2. When n is 3, c is not a prime, and the resulting numbers are not amicable. For n = 4, it produces Fermats pair, 17, 296 and 18, 416, skipping over Paganinis pair and others.

Other scientists who have studied amicable numbers throughout history are Spanish mathematician Al Madshritti (died 1007), Islamic mathematician Abu Mansur Tahir al-Baghdadi (9801037), French mathematician and philosopher Ren Descartes (15961650), and Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (17071783).

Professionals and amateurs alike have for centuries enjoyed seeking those (Amicable Pairs) and exploring their properties.

An amicable pair is a pair of positive integers (m, n), (n)=m+n, where

, such that

(m)=

(.) denotes the sum of divisors function. These number pairs have a

long and interesting history. Euler was the first who systematically studied amicable

8 pairs, and a great part of the known pairs were found with his methods and the use of electronic computers.

PROPER DIVISORS

A positive proper divisor is a positive divisor of a number , excluding itself. For example, 1, 2, and 3 are positive proper divisors of 6, but 6 itself is not. The number of proper divisors of is therefore given by

(n)

(n)-1

where

(n) is the divisor function. For n=1, 2, ...,

is therefore given by 0, 1, 1, 2, 1, 3,

1, 3, 2, 3, .... The largest proper divisors of n=2, 3, ... are 1, 1, 2, 1, 3, 1, 4, 3, 5, 1, ....

The term "proper divisor" is sometimes used to include negative integer divisors of a number n (excluding -n ). Using this definition, -3 , -2, -1, , 1, 2, and 3 are the proper divisors of 6, while -6 and 6 are the improper divisors.

To make matters even more confusing, the proper divisor is often defined so that 1 and 1 are also excluded. Using this alternative definition, the proper divisors of 6 would then be -3, -2, 2, and 3, and the improper divisors would be -6, -1, 1, and 6.

RULES USED IN FINDING AMICABLE PAIRS In Wiethaus rule, Wiethauslet a, S N with S squarefree, gcd(a, S) = 1, and ( ) ( )

( )

Write (S)(S+ (S) 1) =; with , N. If p := + S + (S) and q := + (S) - 1 are distinct prime numbers

with gcd(p, aS) = gcd(q, a) = 1, then the following Thabit-rule holds:

if for some k 2 N the two numbers := (p + q) - 1 and := (p - S) -1 , aq ) is an amicable pair.

are prime with gcd( ,aS) = gcd( ; aq) = 1, then (aS

In Borhos Rule (special case), Borho let (au,as) be an amicable pair with gcd(a,us) = 1 and s a prime, and let p = u + s + 1 be a prime not dividing a. If for some k N both (u + 1) - 1 and a = (u + 1)(s + 1) - 1 are primes not dividing a, then (au = ;

) is an amicable pair.

In Borhos rule with breeders, Borho let (au, a) be a breeder, with integer solution x. If a pair of distinct prime numbers r, s exists, with gcd(a, rs) = 1, satisfying the bilinear equation (r - x)(s - x) = (x + 1)(x + u) and if a third prime q exists, with gcd(au, q) = 1, such that q = r + s + u, then (auq, ars) is an amicable pair.

10 ThbitibnKurrah'srule is a beautiful result of ThbitibnKurrah dating back to the tenth century (Woepcke 1852; Escott 1946; Dickson 2005, pp. 5 and 39; Borho 1972). Take n 2 and suppose that h = 3 t= 3 s= 9

-1

-1

-1 ) is an amicable pair, where h is sometimes called a

are all prime. Then (

ThbitibnKurrah number. This form was rediscovered by Fermat in 1636 and Descartes in 1638 and generalized by Euler to Euler's rule (Borho 1972). In order for such numbers to exist, there must be prime 3

-1for two consecutive n,

leaving only the possibilities 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6, 7. Of these, is prime for n = 2, 4, and 7, giving the amicable pairs (220, 284), (17296, 18416), and (9363584, 9437056).

In fact, various rules can be found that are analogous to ThbitibnKurrah's. Denote a "Thbit rule" by T ( dividing , ) ) for given natural numbers ( ) ( ) and , a prime p not

, and polynomials
)

[X] . Then a necessary condition for ( )with , prime

the set of amicable pairs (

of the form

and na natural number to be infinite is that

( )

( )

11 where(n)is the divisor function (Borho 1972). As a result, an amicable pair, if for some n 1 , both ( )( ( ) ) ( ) form

For i=1, 2 are prime integers not dividing

p ( Borho 1972).

The following table summarizes some of the known Thbit ibn Kurrah rules T (au, p, (u +1)X,(u + a)X,(u + a) (u) X-1 )(Borho 1972, te Riele 1974). Eulers rule stated that the numbers ( ( ( ) ) )

pq and

are an amicable pair if the three integers

p q r

are all prime numbers for some positive integer m satisfying 1 m n - 1 (Dickson 2005, p. 42). However, there are many amicable pairs which do not satisfy Euler's rule, so it is a sufficient but not necessary condition for amicability. Euler's rule is a generalization of ThbitibnKurrah rule.

The first few (m, n) for which Euler's rule is satisfied are (m, n) = (1, 2), (3, 4), (6, 7), (1, 8), (29, 40), ... (Sloane's A094445 and A094446), with no others for n < 2500 , corresponding to the triples (p, q, r) = (5, 11, 71) , (23, 47, 1151), (191, 383, 73727), ..., giving the amicable pairs (220, 284), (17296, 18416), (9363584, 9437056), ....

12 DIFFERENT AMICABLE PAIRS

Let pair if

(m) be the divisor function of m. Then two numbers m and n are a quasiamicable

(m) = (n) = m + n +1.

The first few are (48, 75), (140, 195), (1050, 1925), (1575, 1648), ... (Sloane's A005276). Quasiamicable numbers are sometimes called betrothed numbers or reduced amicable pairs.

Two integers (m, n) form a super unitary amicable pair if ( ( )) ( ( ))

where

( )is the unitary divisor function. The first few pairs are (105, 155), (110, 142),

(2145, 3055), (47802, 65278), (125460, 164492),

A pair of numbers m and n such that ( ) ( )is the unitary divisor function. ( )

where

A rational amicable pair consists of two integersa andb for which the divisor functions are equal and are of the form
( ( ) )

(a) = (b) =

R (a,b),

13 where ( ) and ( ) are bivariate polynomials, and for which the following

properties hold (Y. Kohmoto):

1. All the degrees of terms of the numerator of the right fraction are the same.

2. All the degrees of terms of the denominator of the right fraction are the same.

3. The degree of Pis one greater than the degree of . ( ) is of the formm

If

and

, then it reduces to the special case

( a) = a ,
m

so if

/nis an integer, then a is a multiperfect number.

Consider polynomials of the form

( )

(a, b) =

For n=1, it reduces to

(a) = (b) = (a + b)

of which no examples are known. For n =2, it reduces to

( )

(a) = (b) =

(a + b) ,

so ( a, b) form an amicable pair. For n = 3, it becomes

14

(a) = (b) =

A pair of numbers m and nsuch that

(m)= (n) =m + n -1,

where (m)is the divisor function. Beck and Najar (1977) found 11 augmented amicable pairs.

Harshad (or Niven ) numbers are those numbers which are divisible by their sum of the digits. For example 1729 (19*91) is divisible by 1+7+2+9 =19, so 1729 is a Harshad number.

Harshad Amicable Pair defined as an Amicable Pair (m, n), such that both m and n are Harshad numbers. For example, consider amicable pair (2620, 2924), where 2620 is divisible by 2+6+2+0 = 10 (i.e. 2620/10 = 262) and 2924 is divisible by 2+9+2+4 = 17 (i.e. 2924/17 = 172). So both 2620 and 2924 are Harshad numbers and hence the Amicable Pair (2620, 2924) is Harshad Amicable Pair.

If you iterate the process of summing the squares of the decimal digits of a number and if the process terminates in 1, then the original number is called a happy number.

For example 7 -> 49 -> 97 -> 130 -> 10 -> 1.

We define Happy Amicable Pair as an Amicable Pair (m, n), such that both m and n are Happy numbers. For example, consider amicable pair (10572550, 10854650),

15 where 10572550 -> 129 -> 86 -> 100 -> 1 and 10854650 -> 167 -> 86 -> 100 -> 1. So both 10572550 and 10854650 are Happy numbers and hence the amicable pair (10572550, 10854650) is Happy Amicable Pair. A reduced amicable pair is a pair of natural numbers, m and n, such that m= (n)-n-1; n{m) -m-1,

where d is the sum of divisors function. Jerrard and Temperley studied numbers k satisfying k = a(k)-kl which they named almost perfect numbers. Let (m, n) be a pair of amicable numbers common with m<n , and

write m=gM and n=gN where g is

the greatest

divisor of m and n.

If M and N are both coprime to g and square free then the pair (m, n) is said to be regular, otherwise it is called irregular or exotic. If (m, n) is regular

and M and N have i and j prime factors respectively, then (m, n) is said to be of type (i, j). For example, with (m, n) = (220, 284), the greatest common divisor is 4 and so M = 55 and N = 71. Therefore (220, 284) is regular of type (2, 1). Related Studies: The purpose of the study Amicable pair, a Survey is to update the 1972 paper of Lee and Madachy, in order to document the developments which have led to the explosion of known amicable pairs in the past thirty years. The researchers hope that the said study may stimulate research in the direction of finding a proof that the number of amicable pairs is infinite.

16 The study On Generating New Amicable Pairs from Given Amicable Pairs by Herman J. J. teRiele aimed on generating new amicable pairs from Given Amicable pairs. Methods are given for constructing new amicable pairs from given amicable pairs. By applying these methods to 1575 mother pairs known t the author, 1782 amicable pairs were generated, so that the offspring of these mother pairs is greater than 1.

The study Quasi-amicable numbers are rare by Paul Pollack Quasi-amicable pairs proved that the set of n belonging to a quasi-amicable pair has asymptotic density zero. The study Amicable Numbers and Their Distributipon by P. Bratley, F. Lunnon and J. McKay made a conjecture about the distribution of amicable pairs. A result on "crowds" (sociable numbers of order 3) is also given.

The study Breeding Amicable Numbers in Abundance by W. Borho and H. Hoffmann gave some new methods for the constructive search for amicable pairs. Their numerical experiments using these methods produced a total of 3501 new amicable pairs of a very special form. They provide some experimental evidence for the infinity of such pairs. The research paper entitled Are There Odd Amicable Numbers Not Divisible by Three? by W. Borho and S. Battiato a conjecture of Bratley and McKay, according to which odd amicable numbers should be divisible by three, was disproved by some counterexamples.