11 Unit 2: Developments, Plants & the Environment

Topic 3: The voice of the Genome

The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle

After studying this section, you will be able to:

From our last class, recap the relationship between the plant cell wall and the plasmodesmata and middle lamella.

Every cell that is capable of undergoing division passes through a cyclic sequence of events involving growth and division. It is called the Cell Cycle. It encompasses the entire sequence of events that occurs in a cell from the time it is formed from its parent cell till the time of its own division into daughter cells. The cell cycle and mitosis serve two functions: 1. Allows for asexual reproduction 2. Enables multicellular organisms to grow

Edexcel AS Biology (8BIO 1)

Learning Objective(s)

Explain the role of DNA replication and mitosis in the cell cycle Explain the significance of mitosis for growth and asexual reproduction Describe the stages of mitosis How to prepare and stain a root tip squash in order to observe mitosis practically. Explain the role of meiosis in the production of gametes and genetic variation through recombination of alleles and genes including independent assortment and crossing over (details of the stages of meiosis are not required)

The Cell Cycle

Mo Idriss, Quick Revision Notes

12 Unit 2: Developments, Plants & the Environment

Topic 3: The voice of the Genome

For AS Biology Unit1, we looked at the structure of DNA. Revise

DNA, Genes and Chromosomes

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Polymer - made of monomers called nucleotides, inside the nucleus of all cells, carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms. It is responsible for inheritance of characters

Genes
A gene is a length of DNA that codes for a specific protein. So, for example, one gene will code for the protein insulin, which has an important role in helping your body to control the amount of sugar in your blood. Genes are the basic unit of genetics. Genes control protein synthesis by passing the triplet code first to mRNA and then from mRNA into a series of amino acids.

Chromosomes
In Eukaryotes, DNA molecules are tightly packed around proteins called histones to make structures called chromosomes. The cells of different organsisms have a fixed number of chromosomes. Humans have 46 (23 pairs)

The Cell cycle has three main stages namely: Interphase - This is a period of intense synthesis and growth in the cell. Newly formed cells grow and carry out normal function. The cell produces many materials required for division. Some organelles increase in number. The genetic material DNA replicates during interphase. Mitosis (nuclear division or Karyokinesis) - It is the process of nuclear division, which involves separation of chromatids and their redistribution as chromosomes into daughter cells. Mitosis is divided into four phases; prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. Cytokinesis (cell division) Organelles become arranged at opposite ends of the around the two newly separated nuclei and the cytoplasm divides resulting in the formation of daughter cells.

Edexcel AS Biology (8BIO 1)

Mo Idriss, Quick Revision Notes

13 Unit 2: Developments, Plants & the Environment

Topic 3: The voice of the Genome

Interphase is divided into two growth phases (G1 & G2) separated by a synthesis (S) phase: G1 phase. Gap phase 1 or Growth phase 1. Metabolic changes prepare the cell for division. At a certain point - the restriction point - the cell is committed to division and moves into the S phase. S phase. DNA synthesis replicates the genetic material. Each chromosome now consists of two sister chromatids. G2 phase. Metabolic changes assemble the cytoplasmic materials necessary for mitosis and cytokinesis.

The events in mitosis (also known as karyokinesis) occur continuously but are divided for convenience into the following subphases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. Mitosis is usually followed by cytokinesis. Edexcel AS Biology (8BIO 1) Mo Idriss, Quick Revision Notes

14 Unit 2: Developments, Plants & the Environment

Topic 3: The voice of the Genome

How To Observe Mitosis Mitosis can be observed by looking at actively dividing cells under the microscope. In a growing plant root, the cells at the tip of the root are constantly dividing to allow the root to grow. Because each cell divides independently of the others, a root tip contains cells at different stages of the cell cycle. This makes a root tip an excellent tissue to study the stages of cell division. Onion or garlic root tips are often used to observe mitosis. They are easy to squash between the microscope slide and cover slip. We use a dye such as acetic ocean which stains the chromatin threads. Preparing the slide 1. Cut the final 5 mm tip from a growing root (e.g. garlic or onion). This is where the most division (mitosis) occurs. What safety precautions do you take? 2. Place the root tip on a watch glass and add a few drops of hydrochloric acid for 5 mins 3. Put in 5 cm water for 5 mins and dry with filter paper 4. Add one drop of Toluidine Blue for 2 mins it stains chromosomes dark. What safety precautions do you take with the acid and the stain? 5. Place the root tip on a microscope slide and cover with cover slip and blot dry 6. Macerate with mounted needle. What safety precautions do you take? 7. View under microscope

USES OF MITOSIS: Growth of multi-cellular organisms. Mitosis produces cells identical to the parent cell. Repairing damaged tissues In some organisms, mitosis is important for reproducing asexually producing offspring that is genetically identical to parent offspring.

Edexcel AS Biology (8BIO 1)

Mo Idriss, Quick Revision Notes

11 Unit 2: Developments, Plants & the Environment

Topic 3: The voice of the Genome

How the stages may actually look under the microscope.

Prophase

Metaphase

Anaphase

Telophase

Asexual reproduction and natural cloning

Asexual reproduction is reproduction involving only one individual. The individual may divide by mitosis to produce two identical daughters or clones. The main disadvantage is that the progeny are all identical and there is no genetic diversity. If there is a change in the environment for the worse, e.g. a new disease, the individuals will not be adaptable and may all die out. Edexcel AS Biology (8BIO 1) Mo Idriss, Quick Revision Notes

12 Unit 2: Developments, Plants & the Environment Asexual reproduction takes several forms

Topic 3: The voice of the Genome

1. Binary fission in simple unicellular organisms like bacteria and amoeba.It is also used for growth and repair of tissues in complex multicellular organisms.It involves mitosis (nuclear division) followed by cytokinesis (splitting of cell into two). 2. Sporulation spores may be formed and they may be dormant for some time but can grow into a new individual when conditions are right. Restricted to fungi like yeasts and some plants 3. Regeneration fragments of some organisms like starfish can grow into a whole new organism.

Edexcel AS Biology (8BIO 1)

Mo Idriss, Quick Revision Notes