EL/04B/F/PP-148258

ALTERNATIVE FORMS OF OCCUPATION CONTINUING TRAINING IN RURAL AREAS

Vine biological cultivation

Mesolonghi 2006

EL/04B/F/PP-148258 This section aims at teaching vine biological cultivation methods. More specifically, after the seminar the farmer will have gained further knowledge

concerning:
1. the selection of the appropriate location to cultivate and create the necessary facilities 2. the essential soil nutrients and related fertilizing methods 3. pruning methods 4. covering water supply demands 5. ground cover 6. controlling undesirable plants weeds by cultivation, mechanical, natural and organic means. 7. ability to discern the main diseases and their organic control. Keywords
nutrition, fertilization, pruning, water supply demands, ground cover, undesirable plants weeds, organic means against disease

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Index 1. 2. 3. 4. Choice of location planting ....................................................................... 4 Nutrition - Fertilisation............................................................................... 4 Pruning .................................................................................................. 10 Covering water supply demands............................................................... 11

4.1. For dry farming ............................................................................................ 11 4.2. For irrigated farming...................................................................................... 11

5. Ground cover.......................................................................................... 13
5.1. Meaning and role of ground cover .................................................................. 13 5.2. Types of ground cover................................................................................... 13 5.3. Ground cover planning .................................................................................. 13 6.1. 6.2. 6.3. 6.4. Cultivation measures ..................................................................................... 15 Mechanical means ......................................................................................... 15 Natural means .............................................................................................. 15 Organic means.............................................................................................. 15

6. Controlling undesirable plants - weeds ...................................................... 15

7. Organic means of dealing with main diseases ............................................ 16

7.1. 7.2. 7.3. 7.4. 7.5. 7.6. 7.7. 7.8. 8.1. 8.2. 8.3. 8.4. 8.5. 8.6. Botrytis (Botrytis cinerea). ............................................................................. 17 Eutypa disease (Eutypa lata).......................................................................... 17 Esca disease of grapevine or Esca (Stereum hirsutum). ................................... 18 Downy mildew of grapevine (Plasmopara viticola). .......................................... 19 White root rot (Armillaria mellea - Rosellinia necatrix). ................................... 20 Dead arm disease (Phomopsis viticola). .......................................................... 21 Powdery mildew of grapevine (Uncinula necator). ........................................... 21 Equally important fungal grapevine diseases ................................................... 24

8. Crop enemies and organic control ............................................................ 25

Vine moth (Lobesia botrana).......................................................................... 25 Grape leaf louse, Grape Phulloxera, Vine louse (Dactylosphaera vitifolii). .......... 28 Grape mealybug (Pseudococcus citri). ............................................................ 28 Black vine weevil (Otiorynchus sulcatus L.). .................................................... 28 Blister vine leaf mite (Eriophyes vitis) ............................................................. 29 Other enemies .............................................................................................. 30 8.6.1.Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) .................................................................. 30
8.6.2. Coleoptera (beetles) .......................................................................................... 30 8.6.3. Vine thrips ......................................................................................................... 30

9. Birds ...................................................................................................... 30 10. Currant insects...................................................................................... 30 11. References - Links................................................................................ 32

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1. Choice of location planting

Before proceeding with organic farming the vine farmer should examine the area to be cultivated. If, for example, the vineyard is next to land conventionally cultivated by chemical agriculture methods, certain measures are on call so as to minimize repercussions. Specifically, a separating hedge made of trees or bushes or even a dry stonewall, etc must be raised. Naturally, there should be some consultation with the neighbouring owner of the conventional land so that he/she does not spray near the border on adverse wind conditions. The organic farmer should examine the vineyard orientation, as he/she should assess the area microclimate, which may result in serious fungal diseases; the organic farmer should give serious consideration to how he/she should deal with such a situation within the organic farming framework. Land orientation is of great importance as relating to spring frosts. In any case of course Biological Agriculture avails of the means to deal with problems effectively. However, an arising issue is the overall philosophy of this production system whose key target should be the reduction, if not altogether elimination of inputs in the long term.

2. Nutrition - Fertilisation
Vine demands are significantly lower as compared to other types of cultivations. However, it is essential that demands are met or else product quality is degraded. In general, the organic vine farmer should aim at acquiring vine stock of medium vivacity, by maintaining soil fertility at average level, average productivity and especially smooth and appropriate nutrition; this is to decrease production costs in the medium as well as in the long term and to increase product competitiveness. Quality and not quantity is the target. Up until a few years ago, viticulturalists resorted to vineyard overfertilisation, mainly using nitrates, in order to produce up to two times their allowed yield per square metre quota and thus increase their income, even in cases of very fertile soil. This practice was also promoted by the low fertilization share in production costs as compared to other expenses (less than 10%). This resulted in the overall quantitative increase of products albeit of degraded quality. Table 1 shows nutrient quantities annually removed from a vineyard per square metre through leaves, shoots and fruit. These prices should be increased by 5-10% to allow for root and cane annual growth. Naturally, part of the removed nutrients may be restored through leaves and shoots crumbling to remain in the vineyard or through grape pomace which are winemaking byproducts and may be used as organic fertilisers.

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Table 1. Nutrient amounts removed from 100 square metres of vineyard soil per year NITROGEN PHOSPHOR POTASSIUM CALCIUM MAGNESIUM SULPHUR IRON ZINC MANGANESE BORON 4-7 Kg 0.4-1 Kg (1-2 Kg P2O5) 4-7 Kg (5-8 Kg K2O) 4-8 Kg (6-12 Kg CaO) 0.6-1.5 Kg (1-2.5 Kg MgO) 0.6 Kg 60 gr. 10-20 gr. 8-16 gr. 10-15 gr.

Basic nutrient fertilizing tactics which may be applied in Western Greece (as well as most areas in the country) is as follows: Nitrogen: 0-3 Kg per 100 square metres depending on vineyard conditions Potassium: 1.5-2 times the amount annually removed from sandy soil and 2-3 times the amount for clay soil, always in combination with soil CEC (i.e. 8-20 kg) Phosphor: Normally only if there has been no phosphor addition prior to vine planting and soil levels are too low. 2.1. NITROGEN Nitrogen rich plant nutrition results in the following: Delay in expansion proportional to the shoot diameter increase due to the nitrogen high levels. Increase in the number of buds expanded Heightened germination rate (germination speed), greater vivacity usually yielding quality degradation Larger leaves of dark green colour and greater thickness. Yield increase (mainly due to the increased vivacity of vine stock) up to a point. Excessive delay in germination stop or, at worse germination lasting up to the harvesting period or even later (summer pruning constituting the major part of production cost reaching up to even 26% while vine toppings contribute by 47% to this percentage). Great density foliage resulting in adverse microclimate for quality, healthy produce (increase of botrytis infestation and simultaneous nitrogen increase in the must). Sugar and polyphenole decrease and increase in acidity. Maturation delay

EL/04B/F/PP-148258 Increase in wine arginine and urea content Display of potassium chlorosis in soils where stock nutrition supply is poor in potassium. Vulnerability to mildew and botrytis. Delay in defoliation. To conclude by defining all of the above, we refer to increase in plant vivacity, extension of the young plant period and domination of hormonal substances favouring germination although adverse to quality produce (auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins), and vulnerability to various diseases. Thus, in the case of fertile soil, nitrate fertilization is a luxury while in the case of too light and infertile soil, nitrate fertilization could probably be replaced by enriching the soil with organic substances and nourishing the plants by the mineralisation of the organic substance nitrogen. In all cases, the viticulturalist should not stop providing nitrogen since nitrogen stocks are not inexhaustible even in the case of fertile soil. On the contrary, he should frequently review vegetation conditions, especially growth rate, so as to control nitrogen supply of the vineyard and achieve balanced growth. This may be achieved by maintaining soil fertility, which can be ensured with organic fertilization at a cost lower or higher than the corresponding conventional agriculture cost depending on the organic fertilizer source to be used. 2.2.PHOSPHOR The use of phosphate fertilizers is restricted to cases of young vineyards in order to assist in the root system growth or to cases of low phosphor levels in the soil. Generally, phosphor influence on vines is very difficult to show due to low vine requirements in the element and the scarcity of soil totally lacking phosphor. Plan reaction has only been observed in the case of poor, low depth sandy soil; such reaction was demonstrated with root system growth following the addition of phosphate fertilizers. 2.3.POTASSIUM In addition to contributing to plant growth and water savings in relation to wine making varieties and especially increased acidity varieties, potassium also plays another very important role. Grape potassium content, both in the must as well as the skins, is a crucial factor as it helps towards wine acidity reduction. This does not certainly mean that we should resort to uncontrolled fertilisations rich in potassium as there is a risk of magnesium competitiveness and pH increase; this in turn would lead to wine production lacking acidity, normal hue and preservability. The need for, or lack thereof, potassium fertilisers is to be demonstrated by plant tissue analysis on the basis of which the viticulturalist is to proceed. 2.4. Concerning the remaining nutrients, the vine farmer should intervene when shortages are ascertained. Overall, wine features are favoured by soil rich in . Farmers also have commercial products at hand to compensate possible nutrient shortages, especially relating to minerals. Such commercial products should be included in the European Union Regulation 2092/91. 2.5. Organic substance provides soil with nutrients, macroelements and minerals at the same time constituting the sole nitrogen source for vines, always within the moderate vegetation growth dictated by quality grape and wine production in biological farming. Furthermore, it assists in avoiding metal toxicity, such as sulphur

EL/04B/F/PP-148258 and copper in acid soil used to combat vine fungal diseases as well as manganese toxicity. Soil may be enriched with organic substances adding: manure, green manure and mixing of grape pomace, shoots, various composts, etc. Thus, the basic aspect of organic farming is soil fertility enhancement which leads to the well balanced growth in cultivation to produce organic products. Within the organic farming framework, the EEC 2092/91 Regulation allows the vine farmer to improve vineyard fertility supported by green manure, cultivating legumes or other deep rooted plants, mixing decomposing or non decomposing substances (manure, etc) from non intensive farming, creating and mixing various composts. Also, he may use some other products, such as sulphuric magnesium, phosphate minerals, etc, provided the soil and plant tissue analysis documents the need to resort to such products. 2.5.1. For centuries manure has been the sole nutrient source for vineyards, as one ton of manure per 100 square meters (75% humidity) provides 4-5 kg of nitrogen, 23 kg of phosphor (P O ), 7.0 kg of potassium (K O), 6-7 kg of CaO and 2 kg of MgO. Naturally, manure used to be very inexpensive as every household kept animals or could easily and cheaply be provided with the manure required amounts. However, manure is no longer a cheap fertilizing material neither readily available and thus it is not always the best solution for the grape farmer. Manure is to be fully fermented before being mixed with the soil. Following fermentation, nutrients in the manure take absorbable forms. The fermentation procedure destroys weed and various pathogen spores; however, part of the nutrients is also lost. Manure content levels in minerals are also important, as shown in Table 2 that follows. Table 2. Manure average content in microelements (mg/kg) Fresh manure Boron Cobalt Copper Manganese Molybdenum Zinc 3,5 0,2 2,0 43,8 0,13 16,4 Dry manure 18,50 1,0 13,0 209,0 1,5 89,0
2 5 2

Recommended dosage for vineyards varies depending on the manure type. 200-300 kg of chicken manure/ 100 square metres more than suffice while in the case of manure, the dosage may even rise up to 2 tons/ 100 square metres. In very well aerated sandy soil, the manure should be incorporated at a depth of 1520cm so as to avoid its decomposition being too fast. On the contrary, in badly aerated heavy soil, it should be mixed on the surface (5-10cm). It has been demonstrated that in areas of low rainfall, digging the manure in a depth of 25 cm favours nitrogen use by plants as compared to a 12 cm depth. Manure has residual action so green manure is recommended as its annual alternate. This mainly applies to nitrogen, which is used by plants at an approximate rate of 30% in the first year and at approximately 10% in the second year. The most

EL/04B/F/PP-148258 appropriate season to fertilise with manure is autumn so that winter precipitation may be used to best advantage and the manure is dissolved and absorbed by trees. 2.5.2. The compost is another type of organic fertiliser produced during the aerobic biological decomposition of organic residues and their conversion to humus, rather stable substances as well as the formation of clay-humus complexes. Animal manure and plant residues, easy to be found within the area of cultivation, may be used to produce compost. In regions around Greece where citrus, olives and vines are cultivated, the farmer wishing to prepare his own compost may use branches from citrus prunings, olive leaves, olive kernels and winery . Cotton gin unit wastes, fruit processing unit wastes as well as well washed seaweed may also be used. Composting takes place in heaps 2-3 m in width, approx. 1.5 in height and unlimited length. Before the formation of the heaps, the material to be fermented is cut in pieces of 1.5-7.5 cm in length if it is thick and water is added if needed. Such preparation ensures the best possible conditions as concerns humidity, temperature and oxygen in order for the microflora to start action. Optimal humidity ranges from 40% up to 60% while piece size ensures the heap has the required oxygen available. To start composting, residues must have the appropriate nitrogen and carbon balance. This way microorganism propagation and increase is favoured. The optimal C/N ratio is 25-30. This ratio may be achieved by mixing different materials, such as three parts of plant waste and one part animal waste. Immediately after heaping the prepared materials, microbial action begins releasing energy which results in temperature rise in the heap. In about 10 days time, temperature begins to fall due to the exhaustion of available oxygen. At this point, heap oxygenation is essential which is achieved by turning it over. In total, three heap turnings are required while the procedure lasts 8-10 weeks. The compost is ready when the material crumbles in dry form and is moldable in wet form. When fermentation is not complete or fully mature, the compost may cause various deficiency diseases, mainly nitrogen deficiency, and even phytotoxic symptoms. Deficiency diseases are a result of the continuation of the decomposition of non fermented compost after being added to the soil which leads to nitrogen and other element use by decomposition micro-organisms on the expense of plants. Following the completion of fermentation, it is recommended for the compost not to be used for two months so that it matures. Mature compost does not attract flies, does not carry odour but smells nice similar to a forest after rain. Compost content in nutrients depends on the source materials. Element ratios range from 1-2% nitrogen, 0.5-1% phosphor, 0.5-1% potassium and there are aslo significant amounts of minerals. For the fertilisation to be satisfactory required amounts reach 1.5-3 tons/100 square metres, which may be achieved with the alternate use of manure or green manure. It has been demonstrated that following application, compost yields 5-15% of its components while it has residual action for a three-year period. 2.5.3. Green manure The term green manure applies to plant mass incorporation in the soil wherein the plant mass consists of plants specially cultivated for this purpose. Green manure favourably influences crops by increasing fertility although in

EL/04B/F/PP-148258 order to be successful it requires soil humidity and it is impossible when there is no water available. In addition to providing the soil with organic material, green manure also enriches it with nutrients especially if the plants used are leguminous. Such nutrients are stored within the plant mass and are not removed with spargings. They gradually return to the soil through the organic material decomposition. It also covers the ground promoting structure and limiting erosion. It reduces the soil nutrient sparging, utilizes rain water by creating plant mass and contributes to soil slaking, mainly subsoil. Green manure may combat weeds as a result of competition and lack of light and reduce nematode infestations. Plants suitable as green manure are classified into cultivation plants and non plant species, in leguminous and non leguminous and in seed and root propagated weeds. Leguminous plants cultivated as green manure are various clover species, vetch, soya, lentils, peas, lucerne and lupines. Other non leguminous green manure crop are graminaceous plants (mainly oat and others) and the cruciferae. In relation to viticulture, the appropriate legumes are vetch (soil pH <7) and lupin (soil pH >7). Vetch is also cost effective as seeds are cheap. 12-13kg of vetch are required to cover 100 square metres. Seeding may take place in autumn while cutting and incorporation at the beginning of the blooming stage (early April). More nitrogen is available in the content at this stage. If plants are harvested in time and incorporated in the soil with care, they decompose fairly fast and contribute to the increase of the humus, biological action and enhancement of soil composition. This way, the soil is enriched in organic material (2 tons of green manure per 100 square metres may yield 300-600 kg of humus, estimating on the basis of a humus making factor of 0.1-0.15, whereas the corresponding manure factor is 0.4-0.6). 2.5.4. Another option for the viticulturalist is to use grape pomace from organic wineries as soil enhancer. This is an inexpensive solution to either produce compost or directly use in vineyards. Moreover, pruned shoots could be used albeit with care because in areas where wood diseases are present bacterial, viral this may lead to the contamination to healthy vine stock as well.

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3. Pruning
a) Winter pruning Winter pruning starts in January or February. In the cup like formation, pruning maintains two heads on each branch each of which contains two fruit bearing buds. In linear formations, three to six heads are maintained depending on the formation system. b) Green pruning Green pruning aims at correcting winter pruning errors, balancing between vegetation and production, ensuring better blooming and breeding conditions, obtaining healthy shoots and strong stock all finally resulting in the better quality of produced grapes. The main green prunings are ofshoot cutting and topping. Offshoot cutting takes place between April and May when shoots are 10-20 cm long and concerns: Removing shoots from the trunk which do not normally bear fruit and are therefore not vivacious and Removing shoots from buds which did not develop in last year's growth or from non fruit bearing buds of the annual wood. In cup like formations, following offshoot cutting, the shoots are tied together with straw so as to avoid damage from the wind. Topping refers to the removal of the tender tops just before blooming aiming at better fruit setting conditions and better grape nutrition at a later stage. It should be noted that topping is rather severe with the top cutting being of several cm in length; as a result the remaining shoot carries only a few leaves which may not nourish the grapes..

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4. Covering water supply demands

4.1. For dry farming a. Increase of rain efficiency by: Sloping relief arrangement in a way that ensures restriction of surface runoff and soil erosion. Conservation of natural plant cover (weeds) up to the end of the raining season in sloping areas. Increase of soil filtration and water capacity through the addition of organic materials (manure, plant residues, green manure, etc.) or inorganic soil enhancers (lime, gypsum, etc.) wherever necessary. Limiting rain loss due to foliage retention through the reduction of leaf surface area (diameter and height reduction, foliage thinning), so as to ensure sufficient soil penetration by rain, especially around the end of the rain season (late winter, spring). b. Balancing water consumption availability through: Foliage root restriction (heavy pruning). Annual pruning Soil moisture loss restriction through: a) restriction of evaporation from uncovered ground through mechanical processing at the end of the rain season, and b) weed control through: cutting them mechanically in early spring, incorporating them in the soil mechanically at the end of the rain season and applying the cover crops system. 4.2. For irrigated farming The tensiometer use with available crops and conditions provides a practical solution which is quite reliable as concerns checking irrigation depth and quantity required. Poorly planned surface irrigation methods (sloping furrows, border-strips, rills, basins) or water jet pump systems for neighbouring crops should be avoided as runoffs as well as deep filtration with transfer of undesirable agrochemicals are possible. Drip irrigation is preferable for neighbouring crops so as to reduce the risk of runoffs and deep filtration to a minimum or even eliminate such risk.

Cleaning local irrigation networks from chemical deposits or other organic or inorganic materials leading to blockage is not permitted through chemical means. Reparative or provisionary measures to be taken are: The use of good quality water low in salt content.

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EL/04B/F/PP-148258 The restoration of organic or inorganic material blockages only by mechanical or natural means and methods such as: Frequent network cleaning by opening the trickler tips or inserting compressed air or water (5-6 atm). Restoring chemical deposit blockages only by mechanical means or replacement of blocked tubes or distributors. In local irrigation systems, additional measures should be taken to restore compounds which are exhausted underneath the tricklers. Such measures are: Moving the trickler tubes every one or two years as the crop allows to a neighbouring strip of the ground. Addition of allowed organic material especially in irrigated areas so as to assist in activating new mineral quantities in the ground.

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5. Ground cover
Ground cover is the method of covering the soil with materials or plants to maximize geoponic, ecological, social and economic benefits arising from covering the ground. Ground cover relates to the soil management system and constitutes the basis for long term preservation of both the productivity of vine produce systems and the beauty of rural landscape. 5.1. Meaning and role of ground cover Maximizing agricultural benefits of ground cover relies on the enhancement of soil fertility, favourable microclimate changes, beneficial species hosting as well as undesirable grass control on the basis of the relation between the ground cover time period and the weed phenomenological cycle. The ecological importance of ground cover consists in soil erosion control, biovariety preservation, avoidance of environmental pollution with agrochemicals and limiting the use of non-renewable resources. Finally, the social and economic importance of ground cover consists in the preservation of an aesthetic landscape, the minimization of soil processing, weed control and nutrition costs; at the same time the social or hidden cost associated with the use of non ecological methods is eliminated. 5.2. Types of ground cover Ground cover is achievable through either green manure, that is to say incorporation of ground cover plants in the soil, or layer formation, which denotes plant residues or other materials (e.g. black plastic sheets) being applied on soil surface. Also, the ground cover may be permanent with the use of the appropriate plant mix. To this purpose, depending on the vineyard soil management system, annual winter legumes are used, characteristic among which are the various vetch, clover and lucerne species or even perennial legumes. The improvement of the soil natural properties may also be achieved using plants storing excess nitrogen within their biomass; such typical plants are cereals and selfpropagating or summer grasses. However, plants to be used for ground cover should be selected based on the following criteria: Increase rate and quantity of dry material produced. Cost due to input demands (seed, irrigation water) Obstruction of other farming activities. Amount of nitrogen or organic material added to the soil. Vineyard soil management method. 5.3. Ground cover planning Planning ground cover should be rather careful so as to maximize benefits and avoid adverse effects. Thus the organic farmer must be aware of the vineyard needs,

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EL/04B/F/PP-148258 proceed to the appropriate planning for soil management and ground cover while keeping to planning principles as follows: Establishment of current vineyard status, the environment and the farmers options. Definition of main and secondary targets to be achieved by ground cover as well as of parameters relating to specific targets. Definition of the ground cover type for which the following should be considered: How and when ground cover preparation is to take place either for ground cover plants or artificial layers. How the essential nutrients are to be provided for the ground cover plant nutrition. Whether soil inoculation with nitrogen-fixing bacteria and the amount of seed to be used considering the ground cover plant species as well as the desirable ground cover rate in the vineyard. Ground cover management is quite important for both its success and related cost and is based on the following: Incorporation of ground cover plants in the spring Consecutive cutting of ground cover plants. Combining the two methods above with slight sheep grazing during winter. In order to maximize ground cover benefits, the organic viticulturalist should be aware of the following: Ground cover plant seeding takes place in the autumn, early winter, at the start of the rains. Ground cover with plant residues (straw, leaves) takes place in the spring to fight weeds. Ground cover plants are incorporated in the spring during their blooming period. Incorporation is to take place prior to the beginning of the vine blooming so as to avoid competition for water and nutrients. Using legumes for ground cover ensures the provision of significant nitrogen amounts to the vineyard. System water supply demand modification is effected through the use of perennial ground cover plants. Ground cover is applied between vine lines when the arrangement is linear. In contrast, in old fashion vineyards, it is essentially applied to the total surface.

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6. Controlling undesirable plants - weeds

The term weeds a rather disputed term today refers to wild (self-sown) plants germinating and growing on their own within the limits of a crop field, without having been seeded. They lead to competing with crops thus depriving the latter of precious nutrients and water and eventually creating serious problems for crop yield. Measures to be taken are classified in cultivation, mechanical, natural and organic. 6.1. Cultivation measures Adjustment of seeding time and planting density Mixed crops, e.g. farming legumes with cereals Crop rotations Prevention of weed dispersion 6.2. Mechanical means A range of small tools specially designed for weeding out mainly vegetables and aromatic plants Grass cutting and scrub clearance equipment to exterminate difficult weeds In the large scale cultivation areas, the focus is on soil surface machines for light processing Use of rotating brushes with the simultaneous arrangement of the ground relief. 6.3. Natural means Temperature use. The use of thermal methods relies on the principle that undesirable plants, mainly at young stage, are exposed to high temperature for a very short time period; this leads to solidification with subsequent expansion and break of cellular walls. The plant is unable to carry out natural functions and soon dies. Sun heat. Moist soil is covered with transparent plastic sheets during the hot summer period. Ground cover either with black plastic sheets or dry grasses, straw, sawdust, etc. 6.4. Organic means. Higher level plants as weed competitors e.g. ground cover plants such as clover. Micro-organism, usually pathogenic fungi, with specialized action. Insects. Natural weed enemies with specialized action. Controlled grazing by cattle, sheep and goat, etc also taking into account manure recycling, animal feed utilization, etc. The organic farmer is in a position to combine available mild methods in full knowledge and sensitivity and successfully manage the weed problem.

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7. Organic means of dealing with main diseases

Plant protection is a fundamental agricultural improvement applied in all forms of agriculture. In conventional agriculture, it mainly focuses on using toxic, synthetic pesticides which have resulted in the serious imbalance of the agro-ecosystem today. The ecologically friendly way to deal with disease as well as animal enemies in plants aims at appropriate and ecologically balanced combination of preventive, farming, biological, biochemical and biotechnological methods to achieve long term as opposed to short term optimization of productive results at the lowest environmental and financial cost. At the same time, it develops such strategies as to be able to repair damages inflicted on the agro-ecosystems through conventional plant protection. The basic principles governing this ecological approach for crops and therefore vines can be summarized as follows: Development and application of strategic restoration of the damage due to the conventional plant protection of the ecosystem Avoidance of toxic synthetic pesticides as well as genetic engineering products whose effects are non controllable Financial and ecological study of the control methods available for the specific disease so as to be able to select an appropriate combination. The need to study in depth all factors involved in the specific pathological ecosystem, especially the biological three aspect basics: plant pathogen competitive micro- and macro-flora and fauna. The main fungal diseases infesting Greek vineyards are downy mildew, powdery mildew, botrytis, eutypa, esca, white root rot and dead arm disease. Preventive measures play a great role in the fight against fungal diseases reaching approximately 70%. Prevention is achieved in the following two ways: a. Providing plants with balanced nutrition which, in the long term, may change the biochemical composition and thus plant behaviour against infestations. b. Non contamination. Vine high support so that the shoots do not touch the ground, thinning the foliage and green pruning for good aeration are steps to be taken to this purpose. Another fundamental measure is the appropriate selection of predefined grape varieties and stock so as to be adjusted to local conditions

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EL/04B/F/PP-148258 7.1. Botrytis (Botrytis cinerea). SYMPTOMS: It infests tender shoots, leaves on which it forms brown circular or irregular stains, young bunches before and after blooming and mature grapes which show surface breaks or cuts. Table vine varieties are particularly affected. ECOLOGICAL CONTROL. The pathogen may be combated by the following measures and methods: 1. Inspection of shoots during pruning so as to ascertain their contamination potential lingering from the previous farming period. Shoots with dispersed hard, black and irregular masses display intense pathogen infestation. 2. Avoidance of vivacious germination. Organic fertilizers with high N content should be avoided. 3. Rational pruning so that the plants are well aerated. 4. Prevention of the grapes being infested by powdery mildew or the vine moth. 5. Copper compounds in the last sprays against downy mildew harden grape skins and render it untouchable to the pathogen. This similarly applies to potassium salts of fatty acids and resinous copper. 6. The copper salt of picric acid controls botrytis. 7. Paraffinic and vegetable oils act satisfactorily. 8. Thyme and oregano essential oils as well as alanosin derived from Streptomyces alanocinicus in vitro and in vivo significantly restricted the fungus. 9. Competitive Trichoderma spp, Cladosporium cladosporioides, C. herbarum, Epicoccum sp etc. significantly restrict the fungus. 10. Sour grape extract activates the plant immune system and restricts botrytis set in. Sour grapes contain organic acids obstructing botrytis spore germination. 11. Various organic substance extracts, especially knot extract. 12. Use of hardy cultivated varieties. The Gamete hybrid, a cross breeding product of Gamy x Reichensteiner is used in Switzerland with very good results. 7.2. Eutypa disease (Eutypa lata) SYMPTOMS. The main displaying symptoms of the disease are shoot metabolism upheaval in spring due to mucotoxins. Often a part of the stock demonstrates delayed growth. Sometimes leaves die off followed by intense blossoming or the formation of small fruit without any seeds. A large branch cut shows a partial desiccation of the wood circular sector. Infected wood is brittle.

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EL/04B/F/PP-148258 ECOLOGICAL CONTROL: It consists of the following: 1. Reduction of the pathogen contamination potential in the wider vineyard area. Therefore, the farmers are to destroy all pruning byproducts, especially sick stock. 2. Reduction of stock receptivity. Pruning must take into account the infliction of the fewest possible wounds. In order for the next years production not to be reduced, pruning must allow for the creation of new tops by hungry shoots. 3. In the case of severe pruning, coating the wounds with bung putty and/or disinfection with an appropriate solution. As bung putty, bee wax based products may be used in combination with resins, microcrystallic wax and pine pitch. Potassium permanganate is a good sterilizer. Copper, pine oil and vegetable oil and resin mix are effective in preventing wound contamination. 4. Infusion of the trunk with 10 ml of Trichoiject or the placement of 1-2 Tricho minidowels tablets inside the trunk of each stock, both containing competitors of the Trichodeum species. Such interventions protected stock for three consecutive farming periods from the Eutypa lata and Botryosphaeria stevensii in New Zealand. 7.3. Esca disease of grapevine or Esca (Stereum hirsutum). SYMPTOMS. Initial symptoms are displayed at the lower shoot leaves. Edge chlorosis is established which later invades the between the nerves section. Many shoot tops, even crowns, may desiccate. Apoplexy is a very frequent symptom. In a stock transverse section, medulla rot is observed reaching the heart wood. The infected part of the wood is soft, spongy, brittle and acquires yellow white colour. ECOLOGICAL CONTROL. Recommended: 1. Removal and burning of infected parts. 2. Stock life extension by exposure to light and air. To this purpose, the stock wood is cut and remains exposed to light and air with the aid of stone wedges. 3. Wood protection with the substances referred to in the eutypa case. 4. Interventions in winter with vegetable or paraffinic oils or wetting with sulphur or dense Bordeaux spray.

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7.4. Downy mildew of grapevine (Plasmopara viticola). SYMPTOMS. The pathogen infests all green parts such as shoots, tendrils, leaves and young bunches. Infestation after the young bunch pollination give them an ashy hue and rot is characterized as downy mildew. Late infestation before setting is displayed on the young bunches with brown rot symptoms. Serious late infestation causes total foliage loss resulting in shoot maturation delay, increase of sensitivity to other pathogens and reduction of the next blossoming. ECOLOGICAL CONTROL. It is based on prophylactic, mainly preventive measures which can be summarized as follows:

1. Avoiding to plant vineyards in fields of very wet and cool microclimate. 2. During planting, lines should follow wind direction. Thus, stock are better
aerated and the water from any rain or dew dries out faster.

3. The same applies to appropriate pruning. 4. If grape pomace is used as organic fertilizer, it should be well fermented so
as to avoid any seed germination which would constitute pathogen growth foci. For the same reason, harvesting should be effected with care and no grapes should be left on the ground. overwintering. They should be either removed or deeply buried. points for the pathogen to the shoots.

5. Leaves falling on the ground constitute excellent layers for fungus 6. Destruction of offshoots at the low stock trunk as they function as transfer 7. During pruning, shoots should be inspected for macroscopic symptoms of

downy mildew infestation. If, for example, knees display tissue swelling and cracks lengthwise, then care should be taken to prevent initial infestation. prognosis models for downy mildew, intervention scheduling and the means to use have already been developed. The Diouys and Milvit are of special interest. The second model is descriptive and definitive of the quantity of the pathogen asexual reproduction. should know that copper compounds cause phytotoxicity on new vegetation in cool and wet weather conditions. Vulnerable stages during which vegetation should remain covered with a copper compound is at 8-10 cm length, after 10 days, during grape setting, veraison and up to harvest maturation. This does not denote that all sprayings should be made. There is need for systematic review of the disease development. Initial infestation is effected at 8-10 cm vegetation length, rainfall of 10-12 mm for 24 hours and temperature range of 10-12 C.

8. Development of a warning system for disease dispersion. Epidemiologic risk

9. Application of preventive sprayings with Bordeaux spray. Viticulturalists

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10. The preparations of sulphuric clay and wettable sulphur and lignite aluminum

sulphate (Mycosan) and silicon, aluminium and titanium acids in compounds with wettable sulphur demonstrate satisfactory action.

7.5. White root rot (Armillaria mellea - Rosellinia necatrix). SYMPTOMS. Progressive stock desiccation is the characteristic feature. A pathogen symptom is the presence of white mycelial fans or brown blackish shoestring-like structures called rhizomorphs beneath the bark of the root collar and roots. Infected stock wood becomes brittle. ORGANIC CONTROL. A range of prophylactic - preventive measures and organic methods are included.

1. In fields where a new vineyard is to be planted after an older vineyard,

forest trees or plants are uprooted, the land should necessarily be left fallow or grain crops should be cultivated for two or more years as they are not infected by the pathogen. Also, the roots of previous vegetation should be carefully removed. development rate avoids pathogen infestation. cultivation means.

2. Use of healthy propagating material. Propagating material with high 3. Avoid transferring contamination with various tools and mechanical 4. Removal of infected vine stock. 5. Application of 100-150 Kg of agricultural lime per 100 square metres if
needed.

6. If the infestation is partial, the infected vines as well as two lines of healthy
stock should be isolated from the rest of the vineyard with a ditch of 60 cm in depth and 30 cm in width or with the use of a vertically incorporated plastic sheet. Soil works should be left at the end for these infected parts.

7. The crown and main trunk root area should be exposed and smeared with

paste or the addition of Bordeaux spray to the rhizosphere, 10% and 2-3% respectively. This method should be applied on a limited scale though.

8. Heating of the soil by steam or geothermical water at 43 C for 2 hours.

Such temperature kills the pathogen, does not damage the vine root system and preserves the competitive microflora.

9. Heating of the soil by sunlight, especially in new vineyards and wherever

conditions allow, for at least 8 weeks during summer months with the use of a transparent polyethylene sheet 100mm thick. The combination of this method with an organic substance from well fermented grape pomace or other bioactivators enhances results further. viride, Bacillus subtilis etc and the Boletus granulatus, B. luteus, Scleroderma spp. Mycorrhizals.

10. The use of competitive microorganisms such as Trichoderma harzianum, T.

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EL/04B/F/PP-148258 7.6. Dead arm disease (Phomopsis viticola). SYMPTOMS. Plants are vulnerable when vegetation has reached 10cm in length. In spring, within 15 days from offshoot expansion, the first black linear or rough surface spots appear on the cane basal region. At the beginning of summer, these spots develop into bulging brown blackish necrotic areas, suber like with many tears. In autumn, infected canes become typically white in colour and their surface fills with spherical pycnidia. Dead arm disease damage is demonstrated in several ways.

1. In spring, many buds do not open. Cane growth is slow. 2. In summer, if the necrotic spots surround the cane, its growth is very
limited and it breaks under the weight of the grapes or wind force.

3. Yield reduction and decimation of plant capital is observed.

ORGANIC CONTROL. Various measures and methods are included.

1. During pruning, it is essential to inspect canes to ascertain the

infestation size in the last years growth. Whitish canes with many pycnidia testify to severe contamination and demand appropriate protective measures to be taken. should be undertaken collectively by all viticulturalists in the wider vineyard carrying area. the Pinot Meuvier variety.

2. Infected canes should be burnt immediately after pruning. This task

3. The use of varieties resistant to dead arm disease, typical of which is 4. Pruning with more buds so that crowns or canes are not lost. In the

following growth periods, pruning should aim at restoring to initial condition. infection does not coincide with the dense spore release.

5. Late pruning so that the development of shoots vulnerable to the 6. Use of healthy propagating material. 7. Interventions with various preparations after bud expansion. Wettable
sulphur is used in 2 sprayings with an 8-day interval between them. The first spraying should take place when the vegetation is 2-3 cm long. Potassium or aluminium phosphates should be included in the organic compound list as they result from natural raw materials and cannot play the role of a bioactivator for the plant defense system through the pathogen.
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8. Disinfection of pruning tools with Bordeaux spray or KMnO

7.7. Powdery mildew of grapevine (Uncinula necator). SYMPTOMS. Leaves, tendrils, shoots and young bunches are infested. The infected parts show the typical white powdery fungus spores. The greatest damage is inflicted

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EL/04B/F/PP-148258 on berries which crack and are later infected by various rots. In the first stages of infestation, leaves typically crimp upwards. The cultivar is susceptible when shoots are 10cm long, 10 days later, at blooming and immediately after that, at fruit setting. If the conditions are favourable, vine stock should be protected by interventions at 10-day intervals. ORGANIC CONTROL. It relies on:

1. The inspection of canes at pruning to assess the overwintering

pathogen contaminating potential with a view to planning a comprehensive disease control programme. Canes with dark cross lines on the surface demonstrate serious infestation during the previous years growth. In such a case, even with the buds still closed or at the time of their opening, sprayings limit total intervention number by 40% and adequately control the disease.

2. Vine stock light topping in areas of serious powdery mildew infestations. 3. The use of varieties resistant to the disease, mainly in areas with
favourable climatic conditions prevailing. The Aramon, Cot, Folle blanche, Grenache, Syrah varieties are relatively resistant to the pathogen. sprayings and is of five types

4. Interventions with sulphur. Sulphur is used in dry treatment and

Sublimed sulphur, resulting from the sulphur vapour sublimation and condensation. It is the most effective. Sulphur flour. A result of mineral sulphur milling. Sulphur milk, a result of sulphur precipitation consisting of crystallic grains. Sulphur compound mixed with talc or kanoline or lime used when temperatures are adverse for sulphur use due to phytotoxicity. Black sulphur. A by-product of gas production. It contains bitumen and cyanides and should not be used in organic farming. Sulphur for spraying is also known as wettable sulphur and is classified as: Normal wettable sulphur produced from the above mentioned types after further pulverisation and addition of wetting substances, Precipitated or white sulphur which is produced by mixing polysulphuric calcium with hydrochloric acid and is not used in organic farming due to the chlorine content.

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EL/04B/F/PP-148258 Fine grain wettable sulphur with 80% of grains smaller in diametre than 12m. Colloid wettable sulphur with grains smaller in diametre than 1m. Wettable sulphur used when shoots are 2-3 cm long restricts initial infestation and adequately controls powdery mildew. Sulphur adequately restricts the blister vine leaf mite, red spider mite and rust mites in general. Use should be stopped three months before harvesting for excellent quality wine production as is the case of the Aruaguac and Cognac French wines, as it gives an unpleasant taste overpowering their special aroma. Appropriate measures should also be taken for the use of sulphuric calcium to control powdery mildew. This is produced by mixing sulphur and calcium in water and constitutes a protective and exterminating fungicide. The following products may also be used effectively. 1. Sulphur + Thiobaccilus sp. Is used from the ground. 2. The sulphuric clay + wettable sulphur + lignite aluminum sulphate, silicon, aluminium and titanium oxides in mixtures with wettable sulphur and Feoniculum vulgare oil extract. 3. Canola vegetable oil. 4. Paraffinic oils at 1% dosage in combination with sodium or potassium bicarbonate at 0.5% dosage. 5. Grape fruit seed extract (commercial product BC1000). 6. Phosphates used alone or in combination with sodium or potassium bicarbonate. 7. Fine grain sulphur and Bacillus thuringiensis compound for concurrent control of the vine moth. Vegetable and paraffinic oils do not harm grapes in any way whatsoever, may also control Botrytis cinerea and have no adverse effect on the quality of the wine produced. 8. Betonite, sodium silicate and diatomaceous earth compounds. 9. Bacillus megatherium, B. thuringiensis and Curtobacterium flaccumfaciens promote vine resistance to powdery mildew. 10. Sodium salicylate, used as a painkiller for man, activates the vine defense system limiting powdery mildew infestations. 11. The competitor fungus Ampelomyces quisqualis.

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EL/04B/F/PP-148258 7.8. Equally important fungal grapevine diseases Such are the fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum), anthracnose (Cleosporium ampelophagum), verticillium wilt (Verticillium dahliae), white rot (Coniothyrium diplodiella) and others. Concerning organic control especially for soil bourne diseases, the following extracts to water the roots and pastes to smear on the crown and the trunk are recommended: paste from nettles, potassium permanganate as wound disinfectant, sodium silicate, fossilised seaweed powder as well as homeopathic extracts from pathogenic or infected plants. To control the diseases over ground, nettle extracts or nettle, prostrate knotweed, seaweed, garlic and onion juice are used. Aromatherapy, homeopathy and isopathy are frequently used. Potassium permanganate is also recommended to disinfect wounds or for sprayings. Protection and prevention are the foundation for fungal disease control in vineyards. Therefore, the foremost care is to develop and properly organise alert systems and epidemiological models for specifying epidemic risks, time and means of intervention.

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8. Crop enemies and organic control

Control of animal enemies of the vine is a serious problem especially for organic agriculture. The major such enemies are the vine moth, the Vine louse, the grape mealybug, the black vine weevil, certain mites as well as various lepidoptera, heteroptera and thrips. 8.1. Vine moth (Lobesia botrana) The vine moth is a butterfly of about 12mm. It mainly flies at sunset and in the night. Its flight time ranges between 10-30 days depending on temperature. Each female places up to 100 eggs of 1mm each on the bunch and berries. Depending on temperature, the larva hatches in 12 days (15 C) and 6 days (25 C). The hatch period is the most appropriate for control measures. Otherwise, the 1mm larva develops to 12mm during blooming, destroys blossoms and later generations pierce the berries and make them rot creating spots for botrytis to set in. The viticulturalist should then be aware of the vine moth biological cycle and within this butterfly egg larva cycle he should especially know when eggs hatch. This biological cycle lasts 45 days in spring and 33 in the summer. 3 generations typically develop in a year.

Adult vine moth The specific control day for the vine moth larva is set based on insect trap catches. The insect traps should be placed in the vineyard in mid April when the first vine moth generation starts. As the generation develops, daily trappings increase gradually and after a while, e.g. 10-12 days, they start to decrease. Setting the intervention date is similar in conventional and organic agriculture. However control methods differ. Chemical control uses poisons while organic farming controls the vine moth larva with the Bacillus thuringiensis. The B. Thuringiensis is an aerobic, Gram negative bacterium, which during spore production also produces a crystal protein, protoxin. When swallowed by the larvae and, under the alkalic environment and the lysis protein enzymes in the insect gut, it is converted to a toxin, delta-endotoxin, which has insecticide action. Endotoxins disperse, attack and destroy midgut epithelial cell walls. The larvae stop feeding and die after 2-4 days.

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Vine moth in the vineyard

Berry infestation by vine moth

This bacillus specifically acts on lepidoptera larvae and has no effect on the eggs, the butterfly or any other organisms. To make the bacillus more attractive to the larva, we also add sugar in the tank, approximately one kilo per ton. In our vineyard, trapping records in recent years have demonstrated that the maximum number of flights was reached around mid May, 16-20 June and 16-20 August.

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EL/04B/F/PP-148258 More specifically: 1st generation 2

nd rd

April - May June - July August - September

Intervention not necessary Control necessary Control necessary

generation

3 generation

Also, another organic farming method to control the insect is the moth mating disruption through the use of pheromones. Experimental studies have demonstrated that the application of 50 pheromone dispensers (BASF type) per 100 square metres protected an area of 4000 square metre equally well or better that insecticides (Tsitsipis et. Al, 1995). This method is also being tested in other areas by other researchers and improvements are predicted (Zartaloudis et al, 1995). For the method to be successful though, it has to be applied in large vineyard areas and no re-contamination from neighbouring farms should occur. Moreover, there are the so called insect growth regulators. It refers to bioanalogues of the youth hormone, also known as gonadal steroid hormone. The role it plays in insect growth is crucial. It controls pre-pupa growth, metamorphosis and intervenes in important biological functions (egg production, mating, metabolism). Fenoxycarb (Insegar) is a well known preparation of this type.. It is a contact and stomach insecticide imitating the youth hormone. It is applied just before the start of egg laying or at the latest at recent egg laying and interrupts germinal growth. It is highly effective and it is essential to meet use requirements (timely application, berry total coverage). It is also possible to use appropriate insect growth inhibitors which obstruct the chitin biosynthesis. The larva is unable to create a new chitin casing after they are rid of the previous one and die. They also destroy the eggs as they inhibit the embryogenesis process. The group includes several insecticides. Teflubenzuran has been used to control the vine moth. It is applied preventatively at the first generation as well as the following generations. In conclusion, we must mention the action of certain hymenoptera of the Trichogrammatidae family. They are parasitoids certain species or races of which have been selected as they successfully parasitise on the vine moth eggs from first generation. T. cacoeciae, T. evanenscens, T. principium, T. embryophagum are indicatively mentioned. During the initial limited experimental applications, 40,00060,000 individuals per 100 square metres were used and 20,000 release positions were set. Today, the numbers reach 20,000 individuals/100 square metres and 40 release positions. With three releases per generation (in ten-day intervals), parasiting percentage may reach up to 90% which is extremely satisfactory. However, an important problem for applying this biological control is how to synchronise the parasite presence with egg laying.

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EL/04B/F/PP-148258 8.2. Grape leaf louse, Grape Phulloxera, Vine louse (Dactylosphaera vitifolii). DISPERSION METHOD. Climatic conditions play an important role in the vine louse development and growth. In conditions in our country, the insect may grow and disperse as first or second instars nymphs. It multiplies parthenogenetically and has 8-9 or more generations. Phylloxera causes nodosities with its galls on small roots while on larger roots tuberosities (carcinoma) are created. Infected parts rot and decay while over ground the plant demonstrates delayed growth, chlorosis, leave desiccation, premature defoliation and finally vine stock desiccation. The insect is assisted in germination by soil transfer by machines, air, and irrigation ditch water. CONTROL. To control the insect, especially in the organic farming framework, the combination of the European variety with the appropriate American species or hybrid rootstock must be ensured. 8.3. Grape mealybug (Pseudococcus citri). They prefer shady locations where their body comes to contact with plant organ surrounding surfaces, such as underneath the various fruit calyx, contact points between fruits or even leaves. Larvae produce honey like secretions during growth. In the vineyard, they demonstrate different development from the citrus trees. During winter, when the stock lacks green plant organs, the insects are protected in appropriate spots of the trunk, such as the roots; they may descend down to 60 cm in depth or more. In spring, the insects climb, settle on tender parts and weaken the vine stock by sucking. Also with berries, as insect populations rise, honey secretions also increase becoming hotspots for the development of fungi with the well known smut covering the leaves, shoots and bunches, promoting stock weakening and degrading grape quality. The destruction is heavier when grapes are covered with leaves as the louse populations do not grow in well aerated, sun lit spots. CONTROL. a. Clearing stock, shoots and leaves to promote aeration and exposure to sunlight. b. Biological control application with beneficial insects and predators such as: Anagyrus pseudococci (eucyrtidae), Leptomastidea abuormis (Eucyrtidae), Leptomastix dactylopii and the Coccinelidae predators: Cryptolaemus montrouzieri and Nephus reunionii. 8.4. Black vine weevil (Otiorynchus sulcatus L.). It attacks and feeds on buds or young leaves or shoots. Intense infestation is similar to hail attacks. It is a harmful insect and it also affects other cultivated or self-sown plants, such as fruit bearing trees, decorative plants, bushes, strawberries, etc. It overwinters as larva and adult in the soil, on vine roots or other tissues. After the larva stage, the insect appears on the vines from beginning of April to mid June. During daytime, adults hide and climb the stock to feed only during the night. Males are very rare as they multiply parthenogenetically. It has one generation per year with adults living approximately 15-17 months. Eggs are laid at a shallow depth while larva development may last 9-10 months up to 2 years. Larvae feed on the host roots and create a soil pupation chamber underground. CONTROL. This insect is controlled with the Beanveria sp. Fungi as well as preparations of insect eating nematodes.

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EL/04B/F/PP-148258 8.5. Blister vine leaf mite (Eriophyes vitis) It feeds on the lower surface of the leaf by stinging, which results in the formation of galls which protrude on the upper surface. Oversized hairs grow in the hollow of the lower surface and microscopic examination proves the presence of the mite together with eggs and larval stages, which feed by sucking the juices from the leaf. The mite develops 5-7 generations a year. The colour of the hollow is white at first, then red and finally dark brown. A number of 20-30 galls per lear does not affect production but causes the leaves to fall earlier. In winter, the mite overwinters in protected locations on the stem and in the buds of the vine stock, and in spring it migrates to the young leaves.

galls of Blister vine leaf mite on vine leaves

infestation of a bunch of grapes by the blister vine leaf mite

This particular mite can cause growth retardation of young vine stock. Sulphur can be used to treat this mite with good results. Vine bud mite. This is due to one of the subspecies of Eriophyes vitis which was first defined in California in 1938. This subspecies only grows in buds of the vine and does not form galls on the leaves. The different parts of the shoots are infested when they are still in the bud. All of the infested parts sprout and grow abnormally or do not grow at all, whereas non-infested buds grow normally. The buds from the 1st to the 6th knots of the shoot are usually destroyed and the grower is forced to leave more buds during pruning. This results in the rapid elongation of the vineyards shoots, something which cannot be continued over many years. Amongst other symptoms there is also the deformation of the shoots, short internodes , the characteristic shrubby growth, the deformation of the leaves, and the delay of their unfolding, et al. resulting in a serious decrease of production.

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EL/04B/F/PP-148258 A large number of eggs and mites is destroyed when pruning is done early and they are exposed to weather conditions as well as being destroyed by various predators of the Tydeidae family. Since dealing with the mite is difficult because it is hidden in the buds of the vine stock most of the year, care must be taken so that it will not be transmitted with the use of infested plant material. 8.6. Other enemies Various other animal enemies create problems for the cultivation of vineyards. At times they are only of local interest. Such insects are:
8.6.1.Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths)

Sparganothis pilleriana Sciff (Torticidae) commonly known as the vine leafroller tortrix moth. Theresimina ampelophaga Baylle-Barelle (Zygaeinidae).
8.6.2. Coleoptera (beetles)

Byctiscus betulae L. (Curculionidae) commonly known as the vine leafroller. Anomala vitis F. (Scarabeidae) Lethrus apterus Laxmann (Scarabeidae) Synoxylon sp. Scale insect. Pulvinaria vitis L. (Lecanidae)
8.6.3. Vine thrips

The thrip Drepanothrips reuteri exists locally and particularly infests the early stages of sprouting, causing characteristic scabs. The newly introduced Frankniella occidentalis. Perhaps it will soon turn into a serious entomological enemy of the vine as well. In that case, the restoration biological balance must be sought with the effective predators of the genus : Orius sp., Anthocoris sp., Amblyseius sp., et al. which have already been tried.

9. Birds
They are often a problem for table grapes. A combination of special nets and various sound instruments provide effective protection.

10. Currant insects

They attack a large number of stored produce and have a similar life cycle. They overwinter at the larval stage and become active in spring and summer. There are approximately 4-6 generations a year. When there are favourable conditions, the

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EL/04B/F/PP-148258 insect does not undergo diapause, but continues its development. This chiefly occurs in warm areas. The insects feed upon the dried grapes of the vines until the beginning of winter. The eggs are usually deposited when the grapes are still on the dryings rack and their development continues in the storage sacks. TREATMENT. Nowadays, after the ban on the use of methyl bromide, only phosophine is used for the treatment of conventionally grown currants. For organic currants, however, it is recommended that the storehouses be without any openings and well sealed; therefore the mass entrapment of insects in pheromone traps gives satisfactory results (Bouchelos, personal contact).

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11. References - Links

1. Vineyard Cultivation: ZEUS Publications, Xouthou 14, Athens, tel.2105243323 2. Making my wine (G.Politis) : STAMOULIS Publications, tel.210-5238305 3. ORGANIC FARMING (T.Epitopais) : Bibilioekdotike Publications, tel.2103842094 4. VITICULTURE (Hofman,Kopfer,Werner): Publications PSYCHALOS tel.2103827278 5. 6. 7. 8. www.ciheam.org www.agronews.gr www.agrotypos.gr www.bioagro.gr

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