Indonesia telah bergabung menjadi peserta dalam GATT SEJAK 24 Februari 1950 atau tiga tahun setelah di sepakatinya

persetujuan umum tentang tarif dan perdagangan (GATT) pada tahun 1947.

Sebagai tindak lanjut dari Bretton wood Conference dan setelah terbentuknya PBB, maka pada tahun 1948di Havana dibentuk pula ITO (International Trade Organization). Namun, Amerika menolak perjanjian ini di karenakan kepentingan Amerika dalam perdagangan internasional akan terbatasi, sehinnga lembaga ini tidak pernah efektif.

Pada tanggal 30 oktober 1947, GATT telah di sahkan oleh beberapa negara, yakni Australia, Belgia, Brazil, Burma, Kanada, Ceylon, Chili, China, Kuba, Cekoslovakia, Perancis, India, Libanon, Lexamburg, Belanda, Selandia Baru, Norwegia, Pakistan, Rhodesia Selatan, Syiria, Afrika selatan, Inggris, Irlandia Utara, dan Amerika.

Pada akhir dekade ini, GATT telah beranggotakan sebanyak 130 negara, walaupun GATT telah merupakan perjanjian yang melibatkan banyak negara, tetapi sekretariat GATTtidak pernah menjadikannya sebagai organisasi internasional.

Adapun maksud didirikannya GATT adalah untuk menerapkan prinsip-prinsip umum tentang liberalisasi perdagangan berdasarkan traktat multirateraldengan melalui pengurangan tarif, menghapuskan kendala perdagangan, menghapuskan praktik perlakuan diskriminasi antarnegara dalam perdagangan internasional.

1. Klausula MFN(Most Favoured Nation) Klausula ini merupakan isu sentral dari GATT yang menyatakan bahwa para pihak harus berdasarkan prinsip nondiskriminasi antara pihak dalam perdagangan internasional dengan meminta semua anggota GATT untuk memberikan konsesi serupa, tetapi GATT memberikan

eksepsi yakni tidak untuk transaksi komersial yang tidak berupa produk (physical item), seperti transportasi, transfer paten, lisensi, dan hal-hal lain yang invisible, termasuk perpindahan modal.

Dalam klausula MFN ada pengecualian lain, yakni terhadap barang-barang atau produk yang harus dilindungi dari persaingan asing, hal inipun di benarkan oleh provisi GATT, tetapi hanya dengan melalui pengenaan tarif, seperti tarif bea masuk terhadap produk luar negeri. Klausula pengenaan tarif ini secara progresif dapat di kurangi dengan melalui negosiasi sampai pada level kepahaman bersama dan mutual commitment. Hal ini tidak bisa di aplikasikan pada zona perdagangan bebas, negara yang terbentuk custom union atau adanya tawaran kekhususan / keistimewaan terhadap negara berkembeng.

Selain hal di atas, GATT melarang menggunakan restriksi kuantitatif, misalna kuota ekspor dan impor lisensi, pengontrolan pembayaran tentang transaksi produk sebagai dalih perlindungan. Masih ada exemption (kelonggaran) dalam hal kesulitan neraca pembayaran, merujuk artikel XIV, negara berkembang dapat menikmati fasilitas preferential treatment (pengkhususan perlakuan). Selain adanya klausula MFN, GATT mengharuskan anggotanya menghormati prinsip.

2. NTB (Nontariff Barrier) Hambatan nontarif ini dapat berupa standar, kuota, anti produk asing serta kampanye untuk mencintai produk dalam negeri, yang dapat menghambat perdagangan antarnegara anggota. 3. Klausula Angka Bea Terikat Setiap negara sepakat dalam menerima kewajiban-kewajiban GATT atas seperangkat angka/tingkat tarif majsimum yang spesifik yang tidak boleh di kenakan tanpa pembenaran khusus.

F. ORGANISASI PERDAGANGAN DUNIA (WTO) Setelah tujuh tahun lebih perdebatan dan negosiasi, putaran uruguay tentang GATT akhirnya dapat di lengkapi pada tanggal 15 april 1994, dengan 111 negara dari 125 negara menadatangani final document.

Persetujuan final WTO (World Trade Organization) di terima oleh 104 negara dan berlaku sejak tanggal 1 januari 1995 dan 81 anggota menunjukkan representasi dari 90% perdagangan internasional, termasuk triad power; Jepang, Amerika, dan Eropa. Satu instrumen hukum yang sangat berperan adalah DSU (Dispute Setlement Body) atau Lembaga Penyelesaian Sengketa antar anggota yang bertikai, sejauh menyangkut perdagangan internasional.

Dengan melalui Undang-Undang nomor 7 Tahun 1994 tentang aksesi Agreement Estabilishing The World Trade Organization (Persetujuan Pembentukan Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia), maka Indonesia terikat oleh segala ketentuan yang di tuangkan dalam Marrakesh Agreement tersebut. Lantas apa saja ketentuan-ketentuan pokok dari persetujuan tersebut? Ada lima belas item atau agenda yang telah di sepakati dalam persetujuan tersebut.

Tariffs, non-tariffs measures, tropical products, natural resource based product, textiles and clothing, agriculture, GATT articles, multilateral trade negotiation agreement, subsidies and countervailing measures, dispute settlements, trade related aspects intellectual property rights including trade in conterfeit goods, trade related investment measures, functioning of the GATT system, safeguards and service (tarif, tindakan nontarif, produk-produk tropis, produk-produk yang berasal dari sumber daya alam, tekstil dan pakaian jadi, pertanian, pasal-pasal GATT, persetujuan pengaturan hasil perundingan multirateral, subsidi dan tindakan penyeimbang, penyelesaian sengketa, aspek-aspek dagang yang terkait dngan hak-hak atas kekayaan intelektual, termasuk perdagangan barang palsu, ketentuan investasi yang berkaitan dengan perdagangan, fungsionalisasi sistem GATT, tindakan pengamana, dan jasa).

1. Funngsi dan Struktur WTO

Dalam menjalankan program-programnya, WTO mempunyai fungsi sebagai beriut. 1) Mendukung pelaksanaan, administrasi, dan penyelenggaraan persetujuan yang telah di capai, untuk mewujudkan sasaran persetujuan-persetujuan tersebut.

2) Merupakan forum perundingan bagi negara anggota mengenai persetujuan-persetujuan yang telah di capai, termasuk keputusan-keputusan yang di tentukan kemudian dalam pertemuan tingkat materi.

3) Mengadministrasikan pelaksanaaan ketentuan mengenai penyelesaian sengketa perdagangan.

4) Mengadministrasikan mekanisme tinjauan kebijakan di bidang perdagangan.

5) Menciptakan kerangka kerja sama internasional dengan Dana Moneter Internasional (IMF) dan Bank Dunia serta badan-badan lain yang terafiliasi.

2. Struktur organisasi Organisasi perdagangan dunia di lengkapi dengan organ-organ, yang struktur organisasinya seperti berikut.

1) Ministerial conference (konferensi tingkat menteri), yang merupakan forum pengambilan keputusan tertinggi yang mengadakan pertemuan secara reguler setiap dua tahun sekali.

2) General Council (Dewan Umum) yang bertugas sebagai pelaksana harian, terdiri dari wakil para anggota. Mereka mengadakan pertemuan sesuai kebutuhan.

3) Council for Trade in Goods (Dewan Perdagangan Barang), yang bertugas memantau pelaksanaan persetujuan yang di capai di bidang perdagangan barang.

4) Council for Trade in Services (Dewan Perdagangan Jasa), yang bertugas mementau pelaksanaan persetujuan yang di capai di bidang perdagangan jasa.

5) Council for Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (Dewan Perdagangan yang berkaitan dengan Aspek-Aspek Hak-Hak atas kekayaan intelektual.

6) Dispute settlementy Body (Badan Penyelesaian Sengketa perdagangan antar anggota.

G.BRETTON WOODS SYSTEM DAN ORGANISASI EKONOMI INTERNASIONAL Pada akhir abad 19, sistem perdagangan internasional masih menggunakan standar emes untuk menentukan nilai transaksi perdagangan antar negara (gold standard and on the convertibility of national currencies). Dalam praktiknya, erdagangan bilateral menggunakan perjanjian yang di kenal dengan dengan FCN treaties on friendships, commerce and navigation. Sistem ini colapse dengan pecahnya perang dunia pertama dan terjadinya instabilitas dan proteksi mata uang selama periode antar perang dunia pertama dan perang dunia kedua (interwar period). Kemudian, Inggris dan Amerika memendang erlu menciptakan dan menumbuhkan transaksi ekonomi internasional dengan basis akses pasar bebas, dengan persyaratan yang sama untuk mengakses semua pasar secara internasional. Pada tahun 1944 terselenggara Bretton Wood Conference, yang mempunyai tugas untuk menciptakan konsep ekonomi global (to create a global economic frame work) dan usaha-usaha untuk mengurangi tarif dan kendala-kendala lain dalam perdagangan internasional. ,ka lahirlah dua organisaso ekonomi internasional yang bernsms IMF (International Monetary Fund) dan IBRD (The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development) yang lebih populer dengan sebutan bank Dunia. Setelah itu, tidak lama kemudian lahir GATT pada tahun 1947.

Selain itu, ada beberapa lembaga ekonomi Internasional yang lahir setelah berdirinya PBB tahun 1945, di antaranya adalah Ecosoc (Economic And Social Council), UNCTAD (United Nations Conference On Trade and Development), FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization), UNDP

(United IFAD (International Funds for Agriculture Development). Dari sekian lembaga internasional tersebut yang concern dengan masalah ekonomi, keuangan dan pembangunan, yakni IMF dan IBRD yang akan di jelaskan lebih lanjut.

1. International Monetary Funds (IMF)

Suatu pertanyaan timbul, apa sebenarnya perbedaan prinsipil antara Bank Dunia dengam IMF, selain sama-sama lembaga keuangan Internasional? Menurut John Matnard Keynes (UK) dan Harry Dexter (USA), dengan mendasarkan pada Aticle VI IMF Agreement, bahwa maksud yang esensial, yakni embentukan sistem moneter Internasional yang akan menuju pada suatu frame work yang dapat memfasilitasi pertukaran barang , servis (jasa), dan modal di antara negaranegara anggota untuk terciptanya pertumbuhan ekonomi yang berkelanjutan (sustainable economic growth).

Lebih jauh, artikel 1 menegaskan bahwa maksud pendirian IMF adalah untuk tujuan sebagai berikut:

(II)To facilitate the expansion and balanced growth of international trade, and to contribute there by to the promotion and maintenance of high level of employment and real income and to the developmentof the productive resources of all members as primary objectives of economic policy. (III). ... (IV) To assist in the establishment of a multirateral system of payments in respect of curent transaction of foreign exchange restriction which hamper the growth of world trade.

Keanggotaan IMF pada tahun 1975 mencapai 179 negara, termasuk negara-negara bekas pecahan unisoviet ( comon wealth independent states). Hak dan kewajiban anggota di tentukan oleh kuota yang merefleksikan kemampuan ekonomi dan financial negara anggota tersebut.

Organ inti dari IMF terdiri dari dewan gubernur di bantu oleh seorang wakil yang di calonkan oleh anggota. Selain dewan gubernur, juga ada dewan eksekutif yang terdiri dari 20 anggota,

dengan ketentuan 5 anggota ditunjuk dan 15 anggota di pilih. Negara yang berhak menunjuk adalah 5 negara yang memiliki kuota 5 terbesar dari total kuota di IMF ialahh Inggris, Amerika, Perancis, Jerman dan Jepang.

2. Bank Dunia ( World Bank ) Bank dunia atau secara resmi mempunyai nama IBRD ( International Bank For Recontruction and Development ) adalah merupakan saudara kembar dari IMF yang lahir dari Bretton Wood Conference. Sebagai mana tercantum dalam pasal 1 ketentuan ter sebut, tugas world bank adalah:

a) Untuk membantu rekonstruksi dan pembangunan di wilayah negara anggota.

b) Untuk mempromosian investasi swasta asing dengan menjamin dan berpartisipasi dalam loan serta segala sesuatu yang berkaitan dengan dunia investasi swasta.

c) Untuk mempromosikan program pinjaman jangka pinjam dalam perdagangan internasional, menyeleksi proyek-proyek yang urgent untuk di bantu yang akan berpengaruh terhadap investasi internasional. Sesungguhnya Bank Dunia ini bertujuan melakukan rekonstruksi setelah perang dunia kedua pecah.

Dalam operasionalnya, Bank Dunia di lengkapi dengan beberapa organ, seperti IFC (International Finance Corporation), IDA (International Development Association). Selain lembaga tersebut, world bank di dukung oleh lembaga penyelesaian sengketa internasional di bidang investasi, yakni The International Centre for Investment Dispute (ICSID) serta multirateral Investment Agency (MIGA).

indonesia has joined the participants in the GATT SINCE February 24, 1950 or three years after the sepakatinya general agreement on tariffs and trade (GATT) in 1947.

As a follow-up of the Bretton Wood Conference and after the formation of the United Nations, then in Havana 1948di also formed ITO (International Trade Organization). However, Americans reject this agreement because of American interests in international trade will be limited, sehinnga these institutions have been ineffective.

On 30 October 1947, the GATT has been validated by several countries, namely Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Burma, Canada, Ceylon, Chile, China, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, France, India, Lebanon, Lexamburg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Pakistan, Southern Rhodesia, Syrians, South Africa, England, Northern Ireland, and America.

At the end of this decade, the GATT has consisted of as many as 130 countries, although the GATT was an agreement that involves many countries, but the secretariat GATTtidak never make it as an international organization.

The purpose of the establishment of GATT is to apply the general principles on trade liberalization by treaty multirateraldengan through the reduction of tariffs, eliminate trade barriers, eliminate discrimination practices in international trade between nations.

1. Clause MFN (Most Favoured Nation) This clause is a central issue of the GATT, which states that the parties should be based on the principle of non-discrimination between parties in international trade by requiring all GATT members to give similar concessions, but the GATT provides an exception that is not for commercial transactions that are not a product (physical item), as transportation, transfer patents, licenses, and other things are invisible, including the movement of capital.

In no other exceptions MFN clause, ie in respect of goods or products must be protected from foreign competition, this also justified by GATT provisions, but only through the imposition of tariffs, such as tariffs on foreign products.

This clause progressive tariffs can be reduced through negotiations to the level of understanding and mutual commitment together. It can not be applied in the free trade zones, the state formed custom union or any offer of specificity / privilege against berkembeng country.

In addition to the above, the GATT prohibits use of quantitative restrictions, quotas misalna export and import licenses, controlling payment of transaction protection product as a pretext. Still no exemption (looseness) in the case of balance of payments difficulties, refer to article XIV, developing countries can enjoy preferential treatment (treatment specialization). In addition to the MFN clause, GATT requires its members to respect the principle.

2. NTB (Nontariff Barrier) Non-tariff barriers may include standards, quotas, anti-foreign products as well as campaigns for love domestic products, which can impede interstate commerce members.

3. Clause "Customs figures Bound" Each country agreed to accept the obligations of GATT on a set of numbers / majsimum specific tariff rate that should not be put on without any special justification.

F. WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION (WTO) After seven years of debate and negotiations, the Uruguay round of the GATT can finally complete on the 15th of April, 1994, with 111 countries out of 125 countries signed the final document.

Final approval of the WTO (World Trade Organization) accepted by 104 countries and effect from 1 January 1995 and 81 members showed 90% representation of international trade, including the power triad; Japan, America, and Europe. A legal instrument which plays an important role is DSU (Dispute Setlement Body) or Organization Dispute Settlement between the warring members, as far as international trade.

With through Law Number 7 of 1994 concerning the accession estabilishing Agreement The World Trade Organization (World Trade Organization), the Indonesian bound by all provisions showcased in the Marrakesh Agreement. So what are the basic provisions of the agreement? There are fifteen or agenda items that have been agreed in the agreement.

Tariffs, non-tariff measures, tropical products, natural resource-based products, textiles and clothing, agriculture, GATT articles, multilateral trade agreement negotiation, Subsidies and countervailing measures, dispute settlements, trade related aspects of intellectual property rights conterfeit Including trade in goods, trade related investment measures, functioning of the GATT system, safeguards and service (tariff, non-tariff measures, tropical products, the products derived from natural resources, textiles and apparel, agriculture, GATT provisions, the outcome of regulatory approvals multilateral, subsidies and balancing action, dispute resolution, commercial aspects associated * with the rights of intellectual property, including counterfeit goods trade, investment provisions relating to trade, functionalization GATT system, a safety measure actions, and services).

1. Funngsi and Structure of the WTO

In running its programs, the WTO has a function as beriut. 1) Support the implementation, administration, and implementation of the agreement has been achieved, to realize the goals approvals.

2) It is a forum for members of the bargaining agreements that have been achieved, including decisions on the set later in the meeting materials.

3) Administer pelaksanaaan provisions regarding the settlement of trade disputes.

4) Administer mechanism in the field of trade policy review.

5) Creating a framework of international cooperation with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank and other bodies affiliated.

2. Organizational structure World trade organization is equipped with organs, such as the organizational structure.

1) Ministerial conference (ministerial conferences), which is the highest decision making forum which meets regularly once every two years.

2) General Council (General Council), which served as an executive board, consisting of representatives

of the members. They hold meetings as needed.

3) Council for Trade in Goods (Council for Trade in Goods), which is tasked with monitoring the implementation of agreements reached in the field of trade in goods.

4) Council for Trade in Services (Council for Trade in Services), which is in charge of implementation of the consent mementau achieved in the field of trade in services.

5) Council for Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (Council for Trade-related Aspects of Rights over intellectual property.

6) Body settlementy Dispute (Dispute Settlement Body trade among members.

G.BRETTON WOODS INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC SYSTEM AND ORGANIZATION At the end of the 19th century, the international trade system still uses Emes standard for determining the value of trade between countries (the gold standard and on the convertibility of national currencies). In practice, using erdagangan bilateral agreements in the know with the FCN treaties on friendships, commerce and navigation. This system colapse with the outbreak of the first world war and the onset of instability and the protection of the currency during the period between World War I and World War II (interwar period). Later, British and American memendang Need to be created and grow international economic transactions with free market access basis, with the same requirements to access all markets internationally. In 1944 the Bretton Woods Conference was held, which has the task of creating the concept of the global economy (to create a global economic frame work) and efforts to reduce tariffs and other barriers to international trade. , Ka was born two international economic organisaso bernsms IMF (International Monetary Fund) and IBRD (The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development), which is more popularly known as the World Bank. After that, not long before the birth of GATT in 1947.

In addition, there are several international economic institutions that were born after the founding of the United Nations in 1945, among them the ECOSOC (Economic And Social Council), UNCTAD (United Nations Conference On Trade and Development), FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization), UNDP (United IFAD (International Funds for Agricultural Development). Among the international agencies concerned with economic issues, finance and development, namely the IMF and the IBRD which will be

described further.

1. International Monetary Fund (IMF)

A question arises, what exactly is the difference of principle between dengam IMF World Bank, in addition to both international financial institutions? According to John Matnard Keynes (UK) and Harry Dexter (USA), based on the IMF Agreement Aticle VI, that the essential purpose, namely embentukan International monetary system that would lead to a frame work that can facilitate the exchange of goods, services (services), and capital among member states for the creation of sustainable economic growth (sustainable economic growth).

Furthermore, article 1 asserts that the purpose of the establishment of the Fund are for the following purposes:

(II) To facilitate the expansion and balanced growth of international trade, and there by to Contribute to the promotion and maintenance of high levels of employment and real income and to the developmentof the productive resources of all members as primary objectives of economic policy. (III). ... (IV) To assist in the establishment of a multilateral system of payments in respect of curent transaction of foreign exchange restriction roomates hamper the growth of world trade.

IMF membership in 1975 reached 179 countries, including the countries of the former Soviet Union fractions (comon wealth of independent states). The rights and obligations of members is determined by quotas that reflect the economic and financial ability of such member.

Organ consists of a core of the IMF's board of governors in assisted by a representative nominated by the members at. In addition to the board of governors, there is also an executive board consisting of 20 members, with the provisions of 5 appointed members and 15 members in the select. Country is entitled to appoint 5 5 countries with the largest quotas of the total quota in the IMF ialahh Britain, America, France, Germany and Japan.

2. The World Bank (World Bank) The World Bank has formally name or IBRD (International Bank For Recontruction and Development) is a twin brother of the IMF who was born of the Bretton Wood Conference. As specified in the provisions

of Article 1 ter call, duty world bank are:

a) To assist in the reconstruction and development of the state's territory.

b) For foreign private investment mempromosian with and participate in the loan guarantee as well as everything related to the world of private investment.

c) To promote the loan program and loan term in international trade, selecting projects for urgent help that will affect the international investments. Indeed the World Bank aims to reconstruction after the second world war broke out.

In operation, the World Bank is equipped with multiple organs, such as the IFC (International Finance Corporation), IDA (International Development Association). In addition to these institutions, supported by the World Bank in international dispute resolution institutions in the field of investment, ie, The International Centre for Investment Dispute (ICSID) and the multilateral Investment Agency (MIGA).