MAE3303 Aerodynamics of Compressible Flow

(Incomplete)

Introduction to Aerodynamics

Type of Flows

Incompressible flow

Compressible flow

Incompressible flow
low-speed flow,

where the fluid velocity is much less that its speed of sound.

Density is constant!

Compressible flow
high-speed flow,

where the fluid speed is comparable to its speed of sound.

The density changes in response to changes in pressure and/or temperature

Compressible flows are difficult to obtain in liquids.

Compressibility of a fluid
is the fractional change in volume of the fluid element per unit change in pressure.

Bulk Modulus

In general, the compressibility of gases is several orders of magnitude larger than that of liquid.

V-dv P+dp

Density change versus pressure change

If the fluid is liquid, density changes will be small.

For a low-speed gas flow, pressure changes are small.

If the fluid is a gas, density changes can be large.

Gas flows
can be classified with respect to the flow Mach number
Mach number

Incompressible
Mach No. < 0.3

Compressible
Mach No. > 0.3

Density changes will be more than 5% if M>0.3.

Effects of compressibility
Choking
---wherein the duct flow rate is shapely limited by the sonic condition

Shock waves
---which are nearly discontinuous property changes in a supersonic flow

Flow Regions
Subsonic flow (M<1 everywhere) Transonic flow (mixed regions where M < 1 and M> 1) Supersonic flow (M>1 everywhere) Hypersonic flow (M>5)

Aerodynamic Characteristic of Airfoil and Wings

The following sections develop some of the terminology and basic aerodynamic fundamentals of airfoil and wings.

What is an airfoil?

Airfoil Nomenclature

An airfoil can be defined with mean camber line and thickness distribution Mean camber line: the locus of points halfway between the upper and lower surfaces as measured perpendicular to the mean camber itself. Thickness is the distance between the upper and lower surfaces measured perpendicular to the camber line.

Airfoil Nomenclature

Leading and trailing edges: the most forward and rearward points of the mean camber line. Chord Line: the straight line connecting the leading and trailing edges. Camber (Maximum Camber): the maximum distance between the mean camber line and the chord line, measured perpendicular to the chord line. Cambered vs. symmetric. Geometric Angle of attack (Angle of Attack): angle between the chord and the direction of the undisturbed, free-stream flow.

NACA Airfoils
There are a variety of classifications, including NACA four-digit wing sections, NACA five-digit wing sections, and NACA six-digit wing sections. NACA four-digit wing section: NACA 0012, NACA 4412 The first integer indicates the maximum camber in percent of the chord.

The second integer indicates the distance from the leading edge to the maximum camber in tenths of the chord.
The last two integers indicate the maximum section thickness in percent of the chord. NACA five-digit wing section: NACA 23012 The first integer when multiplied by 3/2 gives the design lift coefficient in tenths. The next two integers when divided by 2 give the location of maximum camber along the chord from LE in percent of the chord. The last two integers indicate the maximum section thickness in percent of the chord.

Airfoil Nomenclature
NACA 6-series wing section: NACA 65-218 The first integer simply identifies the series. The second integer gives the location of the minimum pressure in tenths of the chord from the leading edge (for the basic symmetric thickness distribution at zero lift). The third integer is the design lift coefficient in tenths. The last two integers indicate the maximum section thickness in percent of the chord.

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UIUC) Airfoil Coordinates Database: http://www.ae.illinois.edu/m-selig/ads/coord_database.html

NACA Four Digit Airfoils

First derived by Abbott and von Doenhoff in 1932.

Thickness distribution along the chord

where, t is the maximum thickness as a fraction of the chord c and The leading-edge radius is

The mean camber line is defined by two parabolic arcs tangent at the maximum camber ordinate.

Where m is the maximum camber as a fraction of c, and p is the value of x/c corresponding to this maximum.

Aerodynamic Forces and Moments

No matter how complex the body shape may be, the aerodynamic forces and moments on the body are due entirely to two basic sources:
Pressure distribution over the body surface Shear stress distribution over the body surface

Aerodynamic Forces and Moments

Resultant force and moment

Body-oriented force components: Normal force N and Axial force A. Flight path-oriented force components: Lift L and Drag D.

Aerodynamic Forces and Moments

Two-dimensional body ---Airfoil pl and pu

and
Sign convention for

Aerodynamic Forces and Moments

Two-dimensional body ---Airfoil

pl, and pu and

Aerodynamic Forces and Moments

The aerodynamic moment (pitching moment), M, depends on the moment center. - Moment about the leading edge

Dimensionless Aerodynamic Forces and Moments

Reference Quantities:
Let and U be the density and velocity, respectively in the free-stream.

Freestream dynamic pressure

Also, define S as a reference area and as a reference length.

Lift coefficient:
Drag coefficient:

Normal force coefficient:

Axial force coefficient: Moment coefficient:

Dimensionless Aerodynamic Forces and Moments

For a two dimensional body, such as an airfoil section, the forces and moments are for unit span section, S = c(1) = c,

Coefficients are denoted by lowercase letters. The dimensionless pressure and shear stress are defined as follows,

Pressure coefficient

Skin friction coefficient

Dimensionless Aerodynamic Forces and Moments

NACA0012, M=0.345, =3.93, Re=3.245x105

Dimensionless Aerodynamic Forces and Moments

Dimensionless Aerodynamic Forces and Moments

Dimensionless Aerodynamic Forces and Moments

Neglecting the shear stress contribution, at small angle of attack

Load distribution

Example Problem: Calculation of aerodynamic coefficients

Consider an airfoil with chord length c and the running distance x measured along the chord. The leading edge is located at x/c = 0 and the trailing edge at x/c =1. The pressure coefficient variation over the upper and lower surfaces are given, respectively, as

Calculate the normal force coefficient.

Numerical Integrations
Given: x, y, and p (or Cp) at nodes Consider pressure only

Numerical Integrations

Numerical Integrations

Example Problem: Calculation of aerodynamic coefficients

For the airfoil section shown, compute the lift, drag and pitching moment about the leading edge coefficients for angle of attack of 100

Pitching Moments
The pitching moment is measured about some definite point on the airfoil chord. For some particular purpose, it may be desirable to know what it is about other point. Known: Ma

To Know: Mx

Taking moment for each case about the leading edge

Then Converting to coefficient form gives

In terms of

, (a = 0)

Center of Pressure
Force-and-Moment Single Force

or

For small ,

Aerodynamic Center
There is one point on the airfoil about which the moment is independent of angle of attack; such a point is defined as the aerodynamic center (AC). It is close to, but not generally on, the chord line, between 23% ~ 25 % of the chord from the L.E. For small ,

(x=xac)

a = c/4

Pitching Moment about AC

For small ,

Let

If

is made zero,

That is, the pitching moment coefficient about an axis at zero lift is equal to the constant pitching moment coefficient about the aerodynamic center.

AC vs CP

Let x = xac and a = xcp. Then

For small ,

cm,ac is almost invariably negative, so the center of pressure is behind the aerodynamic center.

Aerodynamic Forces and Moments

Airfoil Characteristics
During the 1930s and 1940s, the NACA carried out numerous measurements of the lift, drag, and moment coefficients on the standard NACA airfoils. Airfoil data are frequently called infinite wing data.

Cl vs.
At low-to-moderate angle of attack, cl varies linearly with ; the flow moves smoothly and is attached to the surface. As becomes large, the flow tends to separate from the top surface. At a certain angle 15 to 20, the flow is separated completely from the upper surface. The airfoil is said to be stalled: Lift drops off markedly, drag increases markedly, and the airfoil is no longer flyable.

Airfoil Characteristics
The maximum lift coefficient, cl,max occurs just prior to the stall.

The value of when lift equals zero is called the zero-lift angle of attack, L=0. For symmetric airfoils, L=0 = 0. For all airfoils with positive camber, L=0 is a negative value, usually on the order of -2 or -30.

Airfoil Characteristics
Experimental results for lift and moment coefficients for the NACA 2412 airfoil: Viscous Effects:

The lift slope 0 is not affected by Re. cl,max is dependent upon Re. The moment coefficient is also insensitive to Re except at large .

When Re= 3.1x106, L=0 -2.10, cl,max 1.6, and the stall occurs at 160.

Airfoil Characteristics
Drag coefficient for the NACA 2412 airfoil. The physical source of this drag coefficient is both skin friction drag and pressure drag.

Pressure drag has several distinct contributions: form drag (BL), wave drag (SW), and induced drag (3D Vortex).
The sum of skin friction and form drags yields the profile drag coefficient, cd for the airfoil. cd is sensitive to Re as expected.

cm,ac does not change with and Re.

General Thin Airfoil Theory

The essential assumptions of thin-airfoil theory are,

(1) that the airfoil is operating at a small angle of attack (2) Ratios of camber to chord and maximum thickness to chord are small.
(3) Irrotational incompressible flow.

Circulation and the Generation of Lift

For a lifting airfoil, the pressure on the lower surface of the airfoil is, on the average, greater than the pressure on the upper surface. Thus, the flow around the airfoil can be represented by the combination of a translational flow from left to right and a circulating flow in a clockwise direction,

The rounded leading edge prevents flow separation there, but the sharp trailing edge causes a tangential wake motion that generates the lift.

Kutta-Joukowski Law
For any two-dimensional object of any cross- sectional shape placed in a uniform, inviscid stream, the lift per unit span is

The circulation is determined around any closed curve containing the body,

The direction of the lift is 900 from the stream direction, rotating opposite to the circulation.

The Kutta Condition

Nonuniqueness of the potential flow theory solution. The case (c) best simulates a real airfoil flow.

The Kutta Condition: the circulation around an airfoil is just right value to ensure that the flows from the upper surface and the lower surface join smoothly at the trailing edge.

General Thin Airfoil Theory

In thin-airfoil theory, the airfoil is replaced with its mean camber line.

A vortex sheet is placed along the mean camber line to produce the required velocity jump, and its strength is adjusted so that the camber line becomes a stream line and the Kutta condition is satisfied. The velocity pattern, then, is composed of a uniform stream plus the field induced by the vortex sheet.

Thin, Flat-Plate Airfoil (Symmetric Airfoil)

Circulation:

The lift per unit span (from Kutta-Joukowski Law) is

The section lift coefficient is

Lift slope:

Thin, Flat-Plate Airfoil (Symmetric Airfoil)

The section moment coefficient about the leading edge is given by

The center of pressure , xcp, is the x coordinate, where the resultant lift force could be placed to produce the pitching moment about the leading edge, i.e. or

the quarter-chord The result is independent of the angle of attack and is therefore independent of the section lift coefficient. The quarter-chord point is both the CP and AC.

Thin, Flat-Plate Airfoil (Symmetric Airfoil)

The following important theoretical results for a symmetric airfoil are obtained: 1. The sectional lift coefficient is directly proportional to the geometric angle of attack and is equal to zero when the angle of attack is zero.

2. Lift slope = 2 3. The center of pressure (CP) is at the quarter-chord point for all values of the lift coefficients. The quarter-chord point is both the CP and AC.

Thin, Cambered Airfoil

The method of determining the aerodynamic characteristics for a cambered airfoil is similar to that followed for the symmetric airfoil.

It is a general result from thin airfoil theory that the lift slope is equal to 2 for any shape of airfoil. The values of An depend on the shape of the mean camber line and ,

and

with the coordinate transformation:

Thin, Cambered Airfoil

Setting

, the angle of zero lift is obtained as

The lift coefficient can be rewritten as,

For a symmetric airfoil,

The more highly cambered the airfoil, the larger will be the absolute magnitude of .

Thin, Cambered Airfoil

Following a similar process, the moment coefficient about the leading edge can be obtained as

in terms of the lift coefficient,

The center of pressure position behind the leading edge is found by:

The position of the center of pressure will vary as the lift coefficient varies.

Thin, Cambered Airfoil

The moment coefficient about the quarter chord independent of The quarter chord is the theoretical location of the aerodynamic center for a cambered airfoil.

Experimental Results

Re = 9x106

indicate remarkable agreement with the foregoing formulas based on thin airfoil theory.

Example Problem: Theoretical aerodynamic coefficients for a cambered airfoil

Consider the airfoil NACA 2412. The equation for the mean camber line is defined in terms of the maximum camber and its location. Forward of the maximum camber position, the equation of the mean camber line is

while aft of the maximum camber position,

Calculate the aerodynamic properties of the airfoil section.

Wings of Finite Span

An airfoil is simply a section of a wing. And the flow over an airfoil is 2D. By placing the airfoil sections discussed in the preceding section in span-wise combinations, wings, horizontal tails, vertical tails, canards, and/ or other lifting surfaces are formed. The aerodynamic properties of airfoils are the same as the properties of a wing of infinite span.

However, all airplanes have wings of finite span. And the flow over the finite wing is 3D.

WING GEOMETRY PARAMETERS

The planform of a wing is its shape seen on a plan (top) view of the aircraft. Its area is called Wing Area (S). Wingspan (b): the distance between two wingtips. Average Chord ( ), is determined from the equation that the product of the span and the average chord is the wing area ( ). Mean Aerodynamic Chord (mac) is used together with S to nondimensionalize the pitching moments.

WING GEOMETRY PARAMETERS

Aspect Ratio (AR), is a measure of the narrowness of the wing planform. It is defined as For a rectangular wing,

Typical aspect ratios vary from 35 for a high-performance sailplane to 2 for a supersonic jet fighter.

Root Chord, is the chord at the wing centerline, and the tip chord, measured at the tip.
Taper Ratio, is the ratio of the tip chord to the root chord:

is

A rectangular wing has a taper ratio of 1.0 while the pointed tip delta wing has a taper ratio of 0.0.

WING GEOMETRY PARAMETERS

Sweep Angle, is usually measured as the angle between the line of 25% chord and a perpendicular to the root chord. Dihedral Angle, is the angle between a horizontal plane containing the root chord and a plane midway between the upper and lower surfaces of the wing. If the wing lies below the horizontal plane, it is termed an Anhedral Angle.

Geometric twist defines the situation where the chord lines for the spanwise distribution of airfoil sections do not all lie in the same plane (AOA of all sections is not a constant). Wash-in vs. Wash-out

WING GEOMETRY PARAMETERS

Wing planforms

Wings of Finite Span

Wings of Finite Span

Wings of Finite Span: Downwash and Induced Drag

A trailing vortex is created at each wing tips.

These wing-tip vortices downstream of the wing induce a small downward component of velocity in the neighborhood of the wing itself. This downward component is called downwash. The downwash combines with the free stream velocity to produce a local relative wind which is canted downward in the vicinity of each airfoil section of the wing.

Wings of Finite Span: Downwash and Induced Drag

The presence of downwash over a finite wing reduces the angle of attack by i
and creates a component of drag the induced drag Di

The induced drag coefficient, Total drag coefficient for a wing

- Profile Drag

Wings of Finite Span: Lifting-Line Theory

Superposition of an infinite number of horseshoe vortices coincident along a single line, called the lift line.

The strength of each trailing vortex is equal to the change in circulation along the lifting line

Wings of Finite Span: Lifting-Line Theory

The three main aerodynamic characteristics of a finite wing:
1. The lift distribution is obtained from the Kutta-Joukowski theory: 2. The total lift of the wing

and the lift coefficient

3. The induced drag per unit span is The total induced drag: The coefficient of the total induced drag:

Wings of Finite Span: General Lift Distribution

For all wings in general,

where, e is called span efficiency factor. For elliptical lift plan forms, e=1; for all other planforms, e< 1. Typical values for e are between 0.6 and 0.95. The lift distribution which yields the minimum induced drag is the elliptical lift distribution.

Wings of Finite Span: General Lift Distribution

The induced drag coefficient is directly proportional to the square of the lift coefficient.

Clearly, an airplane cannot generate lift for free. The induced drag is also called the drag due to lift.

The induced drag coefficient is inversely proportional to aspect ratio. Aspect ratio varies from about 6 to 22 for subsonic airplanes and sailplanes.

Wings of Finite Span: General Lift Distribution

The lift slope for an airfoil is defined as

The lift slope for a finite-wing is defined as

Clearly, the effect of a finite wing is to reduce the lift slope.

Wings of Finite Span: General Lift Distribution

Also, note that at zero lift, there are no induced effects; that is,

Thus, when CL = 0,
As a result, L=0 is the same for the finite wing and the infinite wing.

Wings of Finite Span

In summary, a finite wing introduces two major changes to the airfoil data:

1. Induced drag must be added to the finite wing:

2. The slope of the lift curve for a finite wing is less than that for an infinite wing,