Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering http://pid.sagepub.

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The Ford 2.5 Litre Direct Injection Naturally Aspirated Diesel Engine
G L Bird Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering 1985 199: 113 DOI: 10.1243/PIME_PROC_1985_199_148_01 The online version of this article can be found at: http://pid.sagepub.com/content/199/2/113

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The Ford 2.5 litre direct injection naturally aspirated diesel engine
G L Bird, CEng, MIMechE Ford Motor Company Limited, Basildon, Essex
The advantages o f a high-speed direct injection diesel over an indirect injection engine are well established. In the last decade many szudies have been presented which suggest that most of the technical issues preventing operation at high speed have been overcome. The new Ford 2.5 litre engine introduces a first generation o f production high-speed direct injection engines. Based on controlled high swirl air management, combined with high rates o f fuel injection, the engine produces 52 k W at 4000 rlmin. Initial installation o f the 2.5 litre f vehicles where 25 per cent fuel economy improvements over its high-speed direct injection engine is in the Ford Transit range o predecessor, the York 2.36 litre indirect injection engine, have been achieved. Designed to meet the demands o f modern vehicle application, the engine includes many features to improve reliability and durability. f the engine, together with the key aspects o f the performance development This paper describes the engine systems and components o with specijic reference to the actions employed to control noise.
1 INTRODUCTION

The new Ford 2.5 litre high-speed direct injection (HSDI) engine is the result of several years of intensive design and development activity. Based on the concepts of controlled swirl air flow. management and high'pressure short period fuel injection, the engine incorporates an intake port initially developed by AV List (l), of Austria. Designed to meet the demands of the medium van segment of the commercial vehicle market, the engine is fitted to the Ford Transit range of vehicles. It is also available for industrial and marine applications. The new engine replaces the Ford York 2.36 litre indirect injection (IDI) engine first introduced in 1972 and offers increased power and speed, improved fuel economy and major improvements in durability. An all new production facility has been installed at Dagenham with many manufacturing and process improvements to enable production capacity to be increased from 80000 to 113 OOO units p.a. The prime objective of the new engine is to capitalize on the well established fuel efficient direct injection combustion system at a rated power of 52 kW at 4OOO r/min (BSAU 141a). This selection of power and speed enables the transmissions to be optimized to achieve an in-vehicle fuel consumption improvement of up to 25 per cent. After prolonged studies of service data gathered on the York ID1 engine, objectives to increase the durability by 50 per cent and the service periods by 30 per cent were set. Although the new engine retains the same layout as its predecessor, every component has been redesigned to meet the new demands. The decision to proceed with the development of a high-speed direct injection engine was taken after careful examination of the alternative systems available and demonstrated by laboratory engines. The AV List system was selected because it is inherently simple and with the exception of the fuel injection equipment does
This paper was presented at an Ordinary Meeting held in Birmingham on 5 February 1985. The MS was received on 21 February 1984 and was acceptedfor publication on 27 December 1984.
SO/SS (0 IMcchE 1985

not require any new unproven engine components. However, it was still necessary to prove that laboratory theory could become a mass production reality. To prove this and strengthen confidence, three sub studies were undertaken. Each of these studies used York ID1 2.36 litre base engine components with the exception of the pistons, cylinder head and fuel injection equipment, i.e. those components necessary to convert the engine to a direct injection system.
1.1 Study I: casting and machining consistency of inlet ports Being aware that small variations in inlet port dimensions could greatly affect engine performance, it was necessary to define the limits within which the new engine would be manufactured. To establish a measure of this effect, twenty cylinder heads were cast and machined to cover the extremes of production tolerance. Analysis of the results concluded that the variations within practical production tolerancing were small and well within acceptable limits, equating to f2.3 per cent brake specific fuel consumption (b.s.f.c.) and k6.5 Hartridge smoke units (HSU) at 3600 r/min. At 4OOO r/min, the new engine's objective rated speed, the variation was slightly greater and represented a development task of air management to be tackled in the full prototype programme.
1.2 Study 11: factorial analysis By using a factorial grid approach it is possible to analyse the effects that extremes of tolerance of the components, key to the combustion process, may have on overall engine performance. Two cylinder heads from the consistency exercise (Section 1.1) were selected to provide mean (ranked ninth) and worst (ranked eighteenth) air flow properties, but still within the planned design tolerances. These were assessed against the extremes of tolerance of the following:

(a) piston bowl volume; (b) piston bump clearance;

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700

40

/' -

Cylinder head effect 9thranked *---x 18th ranked

300

J
20

225
1 1 I
1

Full load b.s.f.c.

I
I

800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600 Engine speed rhin

Fig. 1 Factorial analysis: performance comparison of two cylinder heads

Fig. 2 General arrangement: front v i e w

(c) injector protrusion; (d) injection timing. From the analysis it was possible to conclude that the tolerances chosen for the variables listed above matched the design objectives, but the variation in performance resulting from the cylinder head were more critical, as shown in Fig. 1, a factor which was to prove significant in later development. In recognition of the contribution that the inlet port makes to the overall performance, the decision to check every cylinder head for swirl and flow in production was made.

interesting and clearly demonstrated that the DI engine is less variable than the ID1 when compared in a large production sample. The combined analysis of these three studies provided the confidence and additional knowledge needed and a recommendation to proceed with HSDI engine programme was given approval in October 1980. This paper describes the engine component design and reviews the development of the high-speed combustion system, particularly the feature development of the fuel injection system, to meet the demands of combustion throughout an extended speed range.
2 COMPONENT DESIGN

1.3 Study 1 1 1 : production line consistency Finally it was necessary to assess the consistency of performance of the engine under production conditions. This was achieved by building a production batch of one hundred 2.36 litre DI engines within the tolerance established by the first two studies and comparing their performance with a similar sample of York ID1 engines. The results, which are shown in Table 1, are very

2.1 General arrangement The general arrangement of the engine is shown in Figs. 2 and 3. Although the layout of the engine is similar to the 2.36 litre York IDI, with an inclined bore centre-line and the camshaft located high in the engine block, every component has been redesigned and developed to meet the objectives of the new engine.

Table 1 Production consistency: comparison of DI and ID1 performance factors at 2.36 litre capacity, sample size 100 engines.
Engine Condition
s p e e d Load r/min

Power hast Scatter DI DI DI

Smoke hSt scatter.

Temperature Least scatter

Specific fuel consumption Least Scatter DI DI DI DI DI

Mean gain

DI < ID1 per cent

10 16 17 13 15
(Q IMechE 1985

3600 Full load 2400 Full load 1500Full load 2400 Half load 1500 Half load
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ID1 DI DI Equal Equal Equal Not significant at part load conditions

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retain the basic dimensions of the new cylinder block so that it could be used as a service part for the outgoing York ID1 engine. To this end, the cylinder bore centres, head bolt pattern and the main bearing locations and sizes are retained. The new block has been designed to include noise attenuation features which are described later. Attention has also been paid to other aspects of design to improve oil pump location at the front of the block, the provision for a spin-on oil filter pad and the deepening of the cylinder head bolt thread locations to facilitiate the use of 'torque to yield' hardware. A further feature is the provision of a flywheel pegging location which is accurately set in production and provides a permanent timing point for top dead centre (TDC) and engine timing for service repairs. 2.4 Crankshaft Basic dimensions of the crankshaft are the same as the York ID1 with the exception of the crank throw which is increased by 2.48 mm to 90.54 mm providing the increased stroke of the 2.5 litre engine. A high quality nodular iron, in which the silicon and total carbon are controlled within tight limits, is specified. This enables the main bearings and and crankpins to be induction hardened and all journals are fillet rolled for increased fatigue strength. The rear journal carries the flywheel via eight bolt fixing and the journal also provides a hardened surface for the oil seal. A high frequency induction hardening process is employed for this to prevent cracking through to the flywheel bolt threads. At the front of the crankshaft a hardened steel gear drives the oil pump. The primary drive sprocket, which drives the valve train, is integral with the torsional vibration damper. 2.5 Valve train The valve train is a conventional OHV design with the chilled iron camshaft mounted on the exhaust side of the engine in five bearings. The valve timing has been optimized to suit the combustion process and with an inlet period of 232" and the exhaust 244" the valve overlap is 26". A chilled cast iron tappet is specified to ensure long life and avoid cam/tappet spalling. A short push rod transfers the cam lift to a ball and socket rocker adjuster. Particular attention has been paid to rocker shaft retention to ensure overspeed protection up to 5400 r/min. The rocker arms are bushed, to improve durability, and the valve pad is induction hardened by a medium frequency process after profile grinding. Rotation of the vertically mounted valves is provided by multi-groove collets. The inlet valve stem is phosphate coated and the exhaust is chrome finished and oil control is by a positive polyacrylic seal. A single coil spring, common to both inlet and exhaust valves and designed to specifically meet the overspeed objectives, is seated on a hardened steel washer in the cylinder head to eliminate fretting.

Fig. 3 General arrangement : side view

The engine is slightly over-square with a bore of 93.67 mm and stroke of 90.54 mm and has a total capacity of 2496 cm3. The five bearing crankshaft drives the overhead valve train and fuel injection equipment via a toothed timing belt. Detailed system descriptions follow.

2.2 Cylinder bead The cylinder head is a key component of the HSDI engine and is manufactured in cast iron. The inlet and exhaust ports are positioned to give a cross flow arrangement, with particular attention being paid to the accuracy of the port locations during casting and the initial machining stages. The helical intake port is the result of careful development, which is dealt with later in detail. The final design incorporates the improvements of four phases of development and includes critical dimensions for manufacturing control as well as refined contours for optimized air flow and motion. The exhaust port follows conventional practice, with minimal restriction to gas flow. Heat flux in a HSDI engine is less severe than in an ID1 engine, and the detailed design of the casting enables the valve seats to be induction hardened after final machining, thereby avoiding the need for valve seat inserts. The valve seat diameters, together with the profile of the intake tract adjacent to the seat, have been carefully developed to improve air flow at 4000 r/min. The inlet seat angle is set at 30" and the exhaust at 45". The injector is located f the piston. at 23" to the vertical, slightly off-centre o In production every cylinder head is subjected to a swirl and flow check on the intake ports. This ensures that the swirl ratio is held within specification and enables a degree of selection of cylinder heads for performance conformity. 2.3 Cylinder block In setting the objectives of the new engine only one major constraint was applied. This was the need to
(Q IMechE 1985

2.6 Primary drive In 1972 the York ID1 engine was introduced with a primary drive system driven by a fabric faced/glass fibre
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Fig. 4 Primary drive layout: 2.5 litre DI compared to York ID1

To protect the top ring from combustion gas spillage and improve piston stability at TDC, the piston pinis offset 0.5 mm to the anti-thrust side in preference to seeking small noise reduction by offsetting to the thrust side, a benefit hard to substantiate with a close controlled autothermatic piston design. A conventional toroidial combustion bowl is set oflcentre 5.3 mm forward and 1.5 mm toward the exhaust valve. The bowl aspect ratio is 2.74 and dimensioned to give a 19.1 compression ratio. Minimum clearance valve cutouts are included in the piston crown. The forged connecting rod is manufactured in vanadium air hardened steel, which provides additional strength to meet the higher loads of the DI engine, without increasing weight or basic dimensions. It has a secondary use as a service part for the York ID1 engine. Piston crown to head face dimension (bump clearance) is controlled to a maximum 0.9 mm. By using four grades of con-rod lengths and five grades of piston compression heights (pin centre to crown), the pistons and rods are individually selected to suit a measured crankshaft and block assembly. As a further assembly control, four grades of piston skirt diameter enable minimum piston to bore clearances to be achieved.

tension member toothed belt and as such was a forerunner of this type of drive for diesel engines. Previous experience with this system made it first choice for the 2.5 litre DI diesel. The instantaneous torques imposed by the HSDI fuel injection pump are approximately three times that of the ID1 engine which, combined with the speed increase to 4000 r/min, required an improved belt layout; Fig. 4 compares the two arrangements. The number of teeth engaged on the crankshaft gear has been increased by four and the belt wrap angle on the fuel injection pump pulley increased to 180". This rearrangement has resulted in the mean tooth load at the rated engine condition being reduced by 6 per cent when compared to the ID1 engine, and although the maximum instantaneous tooth loading is 85 per cent higher than the IDI, this represents only 7 per cent of the ultimate tooth shear strength. The Pirelli RH belt is retained to provide the drive. Although lightweight press steel pulleys were developed to drive the camshaft and fuel injection pump during the prototype programme, production process problems have delayed their introduction, and cast iron pulleys have been retained for initial production.

2.8 Cooling system To maintain the engine in the best balanced thermal condition and effect fast warm-up for vehicle heater considerations, a controlled flow bypass system has been developed. Situated at the front of the cylinder head a complex housing incorporates a double acting thermostat and also an aperture for the wax element unit which provides, by a cable linkage to the fuel injection pump, a fast idle control when the engine is cold. Balanced thermal distribution within the engine is maintained by optimizing coolant flow between cylinder block and head by graduated coolant holes in the gasket. The system circulation is provided by a conventional impeller and involute housing water pump. A well proven cassette type seal is used in conjunction with a heavy duty ball and roller bearing. Improvements in manufacturing and assembly of the water pump have been introduced to ensure correct location and loadings of the seal and each pump is cycled and air tested prior to assembly to the engine.

2.7 Piston and connecting rod Conventional expansion controlled pistons are specified from two supply sources, Hepworth and Grandage, and Mahle. Although they operate under slightly differing principles both provide the close controlled tolerances sought to minimize noise in the hot and cold modes. A three ring pack, common to both piston types, is located above the gudgeon pin. The top ring, carried in a cast iron insert is a parallel chrome faced SG cast iron specification. The second ring is taper faced, in standard grey iron. The oil control ring is a conventional twin narrow land iron ring, chrome plated and activated by a 1.19 N expansion spring.
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2.8 Covers and sealing Field and service studies of the York ID1 engine indicated that oil leakage is a constant source of concern, therefore the new engine set prime objectives to improve both the rotary and the cover sealing. A significant change to the cylinder headblock sealing is the introduction of torque to yield bolt tightening. In production a multi-spindle machine is employed and a controlled thickness gasket obviates the need for retorquing in service. To improve the rocker cover sealing, the number of fasteners has been increased from six to nine and improvements have been made to the cover gasket rail to give greater rigidity and flatness. A cork-based gasket completes the seal.
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The oil pan sealing faces have been subject to radical change. The pan rail of the cylinder block has been stiffened and the swaged flange of the oil pan has been redesigned to provide a flat gasket face. External reinforcing strips improve clamping and the joint is completed by a controlled swell gasket. In production a multi-spindle tool ensures uniform clamping. Oil filter sealing is improved by the inclusion of a spin-on unit located horizontally on the right hand side of the block. It is in the area of rotary seals that the biggest improvement has been realized where polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) seals, carried in simple steel carriers, are fitted to the crankshaft front and rear and the camshaft cover housings. Test experience with PTFE seals in the early prototype stage of the programme showed them to be vastly superior to conventional lip seals with the result that the new seals were introduced in production on the York ID1 engine in 1982, with exceptional success. To protect the sealing surface and aid assembly, each seal is supplied with a purpose designed plastic mandrel, which is pushed aside during the final assembly operation.

60

65

70

75

80

Airflow ft3/min

Fig. 5 Anemometer air f l o w inlet port comparison

3 PERFORMANCE DEVELOPMENT

The initial studies conducted on 2.36 litre DI engines had established a good base of information to enable the full development of the 2.5 litre engine to proceed. The performance of a HSDI diesel engine is dependent on bringing together the two main components of combustion, air and fuel, in the appropriate quantities and condition, i.e. volume and swirl for the air and volume, pressure and timing for the fuel. Add to this the other demands of hot and cold operation, driveability and noise (both sound level and subjective opinion) and the equation becomes extremely complex. The development of all systems progressed in parallel through three phases and hence the normal practice of cross-check, balance, and recheck prevailed throughout. For ease of presentation the contributing system developments are discussed under the following headings : (a) air management; (b) fuel injection equipment; (c) cold start/cold running; (d) noise; (e) summary of achievements.
4 AIR MANAGEMENT

used are shown in Fig. 5, and although all aspects of engine performance as measured on the dynamometer were considered in great detail at each stage, the decision to change was based on the following synopsis. Type 1 proved to be marginal on smoke at high speed, while Type 2 with less swirl but improved flow gave outside limits smoke at low speed. Type 3 provided an interim improvement leading finally to the development of Type 4. This port provides the finely balanced requirement of optimized performance against legal smoke objectives throughout the speed range. The critical areas of the port design are the profile directly behind the valve seat and the area in the throat just prior the vortex shown in Fig. 6. 4.2 Valve seat size Early engines were built with inlet valve seat diameters of 42 mm. The need to minimize the dead volume in the machined area of the valve seats combined with the flow studies suggested that an increase in valve seat diameter to 43 mm would be beneficial. However, this was not fully supported by engine test and a period of indecision followed when engines with 42 mm and 43 mm valve seat diameters were compared. The development of the intake port (Type 4), part of which was the finalization of the throat detail, showed that the smaller valve gave more consistent smoke performance throughout the speed range than the larger valve which places the air closer to the cylinder wall when the valve is fully open. The closer proximity

The combustion process depends very heavily on the motion and flow of the air into the cylinder throughout an extended speed range, and the conflicting values of flow and swirl have to be balanced against legal smoke limited performances. Many components have an effect on this total air management and each has to be optimized throughout the speed range if the total system is to work satisfactorily. The key components are : 4.1 Intake port In developing the 2.5 litre HSDI engine, the inlet port went through four stages of development. At each stage, air flow and swirl were monitored using a Tippelman (2) flow rig. The envelopes of performance of the port types
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Fig. 6 Helical inlet port general dimensions
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Fig. 7 The intake manifold has been designed as an extension of the inlet port

caused disturbance to the generated swirl in the cylinder. For this reason the smaller valve was finally chosen.

4.3 Intake manifold An important component of the air management is the intake manifold, and several designs were considered before it was finalized. Some consultant agencies recommend ram manifold designs for successful high-speed DI combustion, but these were not an option because of vehicle installation constraints. The early designs concentrated on confirming that some form of independent tracking to the intake port provided a performance benefit. The final manifold is the evolution of three designs and a computer study (Fig. 7) by the Wolfson Unit at Cambridge University whose program was used to optimize tract diameters, minimize dead volumes and reduce surface areas for lower noise emission. Other aspects taken into account in this design are the needs of minimum length high-pressure fuel pipes and the optimum location for the -20C cold start fast flame device and, of course, low material and casting costs.
4.4 Exhaust port and manifold The exhaust port and manifolding are less critical to the HSDI performance and a conventional exhaust port has been designed to provide a 20 per cent increase in area through the port tract above the seat area. Detailed changes to the valve guide boss, the throat and seat angles, further improved flow performance by 15 per cent over the York ID1 port.
5 FUEL INJECI'ION EQUIPMENT

engines and the production viability study engines had used conventional in-line plunger pumps with high rate cams. These met the needs of the early studies but would they meet the demands of an automotive engine in production and service? The in-line multi-element pump has greater potential in terms of pressure and period control, but is far less adaptable in terms of injection timing, fuel delivery and governor control. On the other hand, the capability of the then existing rotary equipment to pump the higher pressures needed for HSDI combustion and remain durable were far from proven. The decision to use rotary was finally based on the greater need for FIE flexibility rather than the possible need for mechanical strength which, in the end, can generally be achieved, albeit with some cost increase. A conscious decision was therefore made to develop in parallel the Bosch VE and the Lucas CAV DPS pump. This decision together with the persistence and dedication of the performance engineers to keep the development of both types of equipment alive, no matter what setbacks occurred, has enabled the HSDI to go into production meeting all of the project objectives. It was important that the initial specification list for the fuel injection system was both comprehensive and definitive to ensure that programme cost estimates and performance objectives could be achieved. In support of this requirement, the following listing was prepared and submitted to the fuel injection vendors.

5.1 Fuel injection pump

The fuel injection pump (FIP) was to be a self-contained fully automatic unit with functions and features uiz:
Feature s p e e d Requirement Full load operation 7004000 r/min
(Q IMcchE 1985

A fundamental decision for the new engine was the selection of fuel injection equipment (FIE). The laboratory
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Feature Overspeed Governing

Stop control Pumping pressure Delivery period Automatic speed advance Light load advance/retard Dynamic timing setting Automatic fuel control Preset fuel setting Automatic excess fuel Cold-fast idle Cold start advance All settings tamper proofed Durability

Requirement
5400 r/min constant

Two-speed: runout 15 per cent maximum at rated speed Automatic solenoid, key o f f Up to 750 bar 24 maximum at 4000 r/min From idle to maximum power For optimum specific fuel consumption and smoke Consistent with peg timing production 50 per cent of maximum fuel requirement To meet developed torque curve At all temperatures with below idle speed cut-out Operated by coolant temperature sensed control Automatic matched to fast idle cut out System to be developed to suit manufacturing facility B10;4OOO hours maximum fuel pressure

injection pressures and shortening the injection periods. As understanding of the combustion process increased the FIE specification developed accordingly. However, it was the need to meet acceptable in-vehicle subjective noise that prompted the deepest research. The base engine sound level noise objective of 98 dBA (SAE) had been met by component design changes, described later in this paper. These enabled vehicle drive by legal noise limits to be achieved with appropriate vehicle package treatments. The outstanding objective was an acceptable vehicle interior subjective noise level for the driver and passengers. In this situation the only way of reducing the offending diesel crackle of the HSDI engine is to reduce the rate of cylinder pressure rise by retarding the injection timing to the borders of smoke limitation, and then resolve the subsequent side-effects of efficiency loss, cold start capability and vehicle driveability. The final design level of the fuel injection pump is the result of extensive development to balance these conflicting demands and although the mechanisms in the two FIP designs are different in concept, by the nature of the basic principle of their operation, the functional requirements are the same. In describing the systems which have been developed specifically for the 2.5 litre DI engine, this is best done by considering the key functions as follows: (a) (b) (c) (d) fuelling; timing: full and part load; governing; cold start and fast idle.

Injectors To achieve the best installation condition and provide a cost benefit, a barstock 21/17 mm injector body is specified in preference to 21 mm forging. The advantage this type of injector includes axial top entry for the high-pressure pipes and improvements to the water passage design in the most constricted area of the cylinder head. Nozzle specification was left open pending development. Filtration Single element 5 pm unit with minimum leak paths and improved serviceability. Cold Start Basic system to achieve down to -10C starting in under ten seconds from key on. For temperatures down to -2OC, with the addition of a manifold heater, starting to be completed within twenty seconds from key on. The development of fuel injection equipment to give a balanced performance for all the objectives of a modern automotive engine is difficult when working with known technology. When new boundaries have to be explored it seemed, at times, totally impossible, especially when objectives of power, smoke and cold start directly oppose the requirements of noise which in the direct injection engine is a fundamental problem at all speeds. However the final product vindicates the belief that with a little determination most things are possible. To meet the durability objective both the Bosch VE and the CAV DPS pumps were uprated by design changes to the drive system, but testing found weaknesses which were resolved by improvements in materials and component manufacture. Durability has been finally established by extensive rig, dynamometer and vehicle testing and a total in excess of 200000 hours running has been completed. Early performance work centered on demonstrating that power and smoke objectives could be met with fixed fuelling by raising
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5.2 Fuel control

The original engine performance requirement was for maximum torque to occur at 2200 r/min. To achieve this, the fuel curve shown in Fig. 8 was specified. Retardation of the injection timing in the mid-speed range to reduce subjective noise, resulted in excessive smoke which could not be overcome by air management improvement. Revision to the torque curve and hence the fuel curve was therefore the only alternative and the maximum torque speed of 2700 r/min was agreed. Even so, this still left a task because the fuel delivery could not be controlled to the new shape with the existing fuel setting devices. Consequently new control mechanisms incorporating two and three-stage setting operations have been developed. On the CAV-DPS a dual spring rate torque trimmer is

25i
I
I

I --loo0

Original objective max. torque 2200 r/min R&CXXI noise specification- max. torque 2700 r/min
I
I

2000

3000

4ooo

Engine speed
r/min

Fig. 8 Comparison of pre and low noise fuel curves

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employed, while on the Bosch VE the hydraulic torque control employs an adjustable piston with compound angle. These devices enable the fuel curves to be preset by the FIE vendors to tight limits necessary for statistical control of fuelling throughout the speed range and hence the engine performance as measured on production test beds.
5.3 Fuel injection timing: full and part load The initial specification included automatic advance systems which provided a linear advance through the operating speed range. In order to reduce the subjective noise in the acceleration mode, while retaining the objective rated power and also ensuring optimum cold starting times, a three-stage full load timing advance schedule has been developed. Figure 9 shows the full load advance curves before and after low noise development. In production when all tolerances of pump and engine are taken into account, the timing schedules are within & 2" crank at 3 sigma limits. To ensure that the change from part load to full load during acceleration does not induce a pronounced change in combustion crackle, constant beginning of injection (CBI) through the load spectrum is desirable. However, under cold conditions and light load the retarded timing does not support complete combustion and some light load advance has been included. The final injection timing schedule gives a satisfactory subjective interior noise in all driving modes while still achieving power, smoke and fuel consumption targets. Having established satisfactory hot running conditions, it was necessary to re-establish the cold start and cold running operation which had deteriorated as a result of the retardation.

At coolant temperatures below +3O"C the timing advance schedules are automatically switched to cold operation. This advances the timing by up to 10" crank angle and holds it in this mode until the engine reaches normal operating temperatures. This cold mode advance schedule (Fig. 9) overcomes poor driveability, prevents the production of white smoke and increases the capability to accelerate the engine under extreme cold temperature conditions. The time-scale involved depends upon the prevailing ambient but should not be more than ten minutes, the time taken to raise the coolant temperature from -20C to +4O"C under town driving conditions. Known as the CIA (cold idle advance) on the Lucas CAV DPS pump the function is mechanical/hydraulic and controlled via the same wax element feature which activates the fast idle device. The KSB (cold start advance) on the Bosch VE is a hydraulic device controlled by an independent electrically heated wax element fitted directly to the advance switch regulating valve. An electric circuit provides a signal indicating block temperature. Even with a cold advance system it is necessary, when operating in very cold temperature on low load drive cycles, to supplement the combustion with heated air and a thermostatically controlled air heating system has been added to the engine, with the Bosch fuel injection equipment. Taking air from a collector box mounted on the exhaust manifold a temperature rise of 20C is achievable at ambients down to - 15C.
5.4 Speed governing

Both fuel injection specifications employ two-speed governingswhich provide a very flexible control in the vehicle. The full load run-out is set between 8 and 12 per cent which gives a good driving feel in the vehicle. Some difficulty was experienced with driveability at low engine speeds at very light load; this was due to the small amounts of fuel needed by the engine at low load/ low speed, causing pressure reflections in the pump resulting in governor instability. This was overcome by equalizing the pressure fluctuations and corresponding matching governor control in the idle and low-speed regions.
6 COLD START

/
\
\

' . /
I

Full load advanceho cold advance J--Full load advance, low noise 0 -.-.Cold running advance

I 1000

1500 2000 2500 3000 Engine speed rhin

3500 4OOO

Fig. 9 Nominal fuel load 'start of injection' timing curves

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The early demonstration engines gave encouraging performance when assessed for cold starting at - 10C and -20C. At - 10C starting was easily achieved with the addition of excess fuel. The use of a single fast flame unit placed strategically in the inlet manifold demonstrated that this additional heat source provided sufficient temperature rise to effect good starting at -20C and below, thereby obviating the need to specify incylinder glowplugs. This, of course, simplifies the cylinder head and the combustion chamber and contributes a significant cost saving over conventional ID1 systems. Early development centred on establishing optimum levels of excess fuel and when start of injection timing was retarded to improve the subject noise quality, the mechanics of the systems were modified to retain these optimum settings and the start advance systems were added to ensure complete combustion and avoid the production of white smoke during the warm-up period.
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A major objective for the lower -20C specification was to reduce the delay period associated with manifold flame heaters. This was achieved by developing a new heater unit which incorporates a solenoid valve in place of the traditionally used bi-metal strip. The new unit has been developed in conjunction with Beru and is known as 'fast flame start'. The unit is controlled by a temperature sender unit and operates at temperatures below -1o"C, with a warning light for the driver to indicate flame assistance is needed. A rapid flame is achieved by subjecting the heating coil to a surge voltage for five seconds then the fuel is released to provide the flame. Engine cranking is commenced when the indicator light goes out, which is approximately five seconds after key-on. Starting is achieved within fifteen seconds depending on prevailing ambient temperatures.
7 ENGINE NOISE

ancillary pulleys has been designed. A further reduction f f the fixing bolt aperture was achieved by blanking o with a simple neoprene plug which creates a flat surface at the front of the pulley. The overall effect is to reduce total engine noise by 1-13 dBA while at the front of the engine the noise is reduced by 34 dBA.

7.1 Base engine noise One major disadvantage of the DI engine versus ID1 engine is the base engine noise. In broad terms, engine for engine of equivalent capacity, power and speed, the DI engine will be 1.5 dBA noisier than the IDI. Add to this a 1.5 dBA increase for a 400 r/min speed increase and it is apparent that the new engine set an immediate . 0 dBA reduction if existing York ID1 base task of 3 engine noise levels are to be realized. Using experience gained from the York engine it was possible to identify three major sources of noise which required attention. The first task was to redesign the cylinder block structure to minimize noise transmission and since the design of the new block was basically to the same dimensions as the established production unit there existed a bank of information from which to feed. Using this, and undertaking a programme of vibration studies in the 500-3000 Hz frequency range on a block and head assembly, enabled comparison with results obtained from finite element studies (3). After modal correction and allowing for material thickness variations results correlated to within 10 per cent. With this platform established it was possible to rearrange the structure in the computer model to increase the structural stiffness in the areas of maximum noise transmission. As a result the oil pan rail was stiffened and two longitudinal webs were placed strategically on the left hand side of the outer surface. In all 23 kg of material were repositioned from non-critical to more beneficial areas. The effect of these changes is a reduction of 1 dBA of noise emanating from the block. Specifying an expansion controlled piston is also a main contributor to the base engine noise reduction and considerable development work was directed to achieve minimum running clearance of the profile turned piston skirt and minimum clearances down to 15 pm are achieved. In base engine noise terms it is assessed that 0.75 dBA reduction can be attributed to the piston designs adopted. Finally attention turned to the front of the engine which was identified as a major source of noise emission. Test work identified that noise was being radiated from the crankshaft and the ancillary drive pulley. In consequence a new integral torsional vibration damper which includes both the primary drive sprocket and the
Q IMechE 1985

7.2 Subjective noise It was always known that the noise characteristic of the HSDI engine would be different to the ID1 engine it was replacing. At programme approval this was recognized as a concern but considered acceptable. However, after several full prototype appraisals at the mid-programme point, it was established that improvements to invehicle noise would be required before the engine would be acceptable in a competitive market. The condition could not be overcome by mechanical changes or cost effective palliative treatments to the vehicle installation. The problem had to be tackled by attention to the combustion process, and in particular the development of a more retarded fuel injection. This was not possible immediately since the engine was smoke limited in the upper speed range. The first requirement therefore, was to get more air available above 3500 r/min without loss of swirl; this was achieved by the intake port modification described earlier. The new port gave the flexibility of manoeuvre required and by moving the maximum torque speed slightly up the speed range, fuel at the bottom was controlled to ensure that smoke would not be a problem. It was possible to adjust the injection timing curve to the most retarded smoke limited condition for each point of the speed range. This resulted in the development of the full and light load advance curves discussed earlier. The resulting specifications give a very acceptable in-vehicle subjective noise level.
8 PROGRAMME AND PERFORMANCE SUMMARY

Excluding the pre-programme viability studies the development programme was completed in two major stages of engine builds covering 128 units. All individual engine systems were developed by specific work programmes designed to over-test and expose design weaknesses; once these had been satisfied complete engine sets were built for final durability prove-out. In all, over 110000 hours of dynamometer test and 700OOO km of vehicle operation were accumulated on prototype engines. Further extensive testing was carried out by the manufacturers of the proprietary parts specified both during prototype and early production stages to ensure that the individual components met the engineering specification. Two lengthy periods of cold climate vehicle testing in Finland were used to verify cold start, cold running and heater performance. The Scandanavian climate is also very good for assessing subjective interior noise, and teams of engineers took part in drive appraisals, to verify the final level of engine performance. Production of the 2.5 litre HSDI commenced at the Dagenham engine plant, in February 1984, after a sixmonth period of extensive pre-production validation
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G L BIRD

50-

40-

20

In-vehicle fuel economy has been optimized by selecting new ratios for the four-speed transmission and the introduction of an overdrive option. Using these, with a new 3.9 : 1 rear axle ratio in a Transit 120 van, gave fuel consumptions of 7.8 and 7.6 1/100 km (36.2 and 37.2 mile/gal) when driven through the ECE 15 urban cycle and 90 km/h steady speed test. Engine starting is good at all temperatures and can be executed by just turning the ignition key. At - 10C starting is achieved within ten seconds, while at - 20"C, with the time controlled fast flame aid, is extended slightly to twenty seconds, an improvement of 15-20 seconds over ID1 engines with inchamber glowplugs. Finally, a word about gaseous emissions. The engine meets the current European legal requirement as specified by EEC 15/04 with typical results as tabled below.
290

310 12 270 50 230 1000

10-

21% +

Inertia GlaSS

1810 kg Legal limit

RAR 3.91
-

CO(g/m)
9.4 93.0

HC + NO, (g/m)
15.6 25.0

2000 r/min

3000

4OOO

Fig. 10 BSAU 141a full load power curve

testing involving over 200 engines. The validation programme, which covered every aspect of performance and reliability testing, provided the statistical prove-out of the engineering designs. The engine is certified at 52 kW at 4OOO r/min and Fig. 10 gives the BS AU14la performance curves. The best specific output of 237 gm kWh occurs at 2000 r/min, but a better indication of the fuel economy is shown in Fig. 11 which gives the total fuel consumption data in map form.

If more stringent requirements are specified in future years, the HSDI engine is capable of meeting the challenge especially in the higher inertia weight categories where exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) will be a requirement for all diesels to meet the stringent NO, levels. Recognizing that EGR tends to increase particulates, this is generally more problematical in indirect injection engines.
9 CONCLUSION

As the world's first volume production high-speed direct injection engine, the Ford 2.5 litre engine has demonstrated that the fuel efficient diesel still has great potential as an automotive power unit.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author acknowledges the contributions made by all the engineering groups within Ford Motor Company who made this project possible, and in particular the dedication and support of Messrs W. Bedwell and D. Neil. Acknowledgement is also due to consultants A. V. List and the fuel injection equipment manufacturers Lucas CAV and Robert Bosch, and the engineering staffs involved throughout the programme, for their support and perseverance.
REFERENCES
Cartellien, W. and Scbukoff, H. Direct injection as a combustion
I

I500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4OOO

4500

Engine speed
r/min

Fig. 11 Fuel consumption map

system for light duty diesel. FISITA Congress, 1978. Tippelmaan, G. A new method of investigation of swirl ports. SAE Paper No. 770404, 1977. Johnsoa, R. W. A computer-aided engineering approach to the reduction of light duty diesel engine noise. Diesel enginesfor passenger cars a d light duty vehicles, IMechE Conference, 1982, C123/ 82, pp 119-124.

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