Media and The Nepali Public 2012

1
MEDIA & THE NEPALI PUBLIC

Survey Assessments of Media Capacity,
Credibility and Media Literacy

2012
Media Foundation- Nepal
With Support from UNDP, Government of Japan & UNESCO

Media Foundation- Nepal 2012
2 Shanti Marga, Bhatbhateni 40,
PO Box: 9824, Kathmandu, Nepal
Phone: 977-1-441-5137
Email: info@media-foundation.org
Web: http://www.media-foundation.org/

Cover: Collage of photos from the field showing respondents answering survey questions as well as pictures of Nepali
newspapers and TV microphones. Design by MFN.

UNDP Nepal. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior
permission of UNDP Nepal.

MEDIA & THE NEPALI PUBLIC
Survey Assessments of Media Capacity,
Credibility and Media Literacy

Media Foundation- Nepal, with support from UNDP Nepal,
Government of Japan, & UNESCO

A field staff explaining the survey questionnaire to a respondent at Narabasti 3 village of Bara, June 2012.

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Photo by Laxmi Kharel

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acronyms vii
Acknowledgements viii

Executive Summary ix

SECTION I: INTRODUCTION 1
1 Introduction 3

SECTION II: THE NEPALI MEDIA LANDSCAPE 5
2.1 Historical context 7
2.2 Current situation 8
2.3 Impact on political and social realms 12
2.4 Media laws and their implications 15
2.5 Media credibility 18
2.6 Capacity development 21
2.6.1 Nepali experience 22
2.6.2 Capacity development opportunities 23
2.6.3 Academic journalism curricula 24
2.6.4 Capacity development by NGOs 28
2.6.5 Overview of other capacity development initiatives 31
2.7 Media Literacy 32
2.8 Surveys on media, journalists and the public 34
2.9 Challenges and opportunities for the media 37
2.10 Summary of key issues 38

SECTION III: METHODS 39
3.1 Background 41
3.2 Research objectives 41
3.3 Research design 41
3.3.1 The desk review 41
3.3.2 Survey of journalists 42
3.3.2.1 Sample selection 39
3.3.3 Survey of the public opinion 44
3.3.3.1 Sample selection 44
3.3.4 SMS survey 45
3.4 Research process 45
3.5 Data scrutiny and analysis 47
3.6 Stakeholder discussions 47
3.7 Limitations 47

SECTION IV: SURVEY OF JOURNALISTS 49
4.1 Demographics 52
4.2 Professionalism 54
4.4 Media capacity 74
4.5 Media literacy 96

SECTION V: PUBLIC OPINION SURVEY 99
5.1 Demographics 102
5.3 Professional issues in media 122

SECTION VI: SMS POLL 139
6.1 Credibility of news organizations & news/analyses 141

SECTION VII: STAKEHOLDER DISCUSSIONS 143
7.1 Profile 145
7.2 Professionalism 146
7.4 Media capacity 149
7.6 Conclusions 152

SECTION VIII: CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS 155
8.1 Key findings and discussions 159
8.2 Recommendations 165

References 169

APPENDICES 173
Appendix 1: Datasheet from survey of journalists
Appendix 2: Datasheet from public opinion survey
Appendix 3: Journalists' survey questionnaire in English
Appendix 4: Journalists' survey questionnaire in Nepali
Appendix 5: Public opinion questionnaire in English
Appendix 6: Public opinion questionnaire in Nepali
Appendix 7: SMS poll questions in English & Nepali
Appendix 8: List of participants in focus group discussions (FGDs) and loose network discussions
Appendix 9: List of focus groups and loose network discussions
Appendix 10: Project team
Appendix 11: Terms of reference (TOR)
Appendix 12: Survey form online
Appendix 13: List of selected professional journalists' associations and groups
Appendix 14: List of tables and figures

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ACRONYMS
AAVAS Academy of Audio-Visual Arts & Science
ABC Audit Bureau of Circulation
ACORAB Association of Community Radio
Broadcasters
AFMD African Forum for Media Development
AJF Asian Journalism Forum
AMIC Asian Media Information and
Communication Center
ANIJ Association of Nepal Indigenous
Journalists
BAN Broadcasting Association Nepal
BBC British Broadcasting Corporation
BMCJ Bachelor in Mass Communication &
Journalism
BMS Bachelor in Media Studies
BMT Bachelor in Media Technology
CRSC Community Radio Support Center
DANIDA Danish International Development
Cooperation
DFID Department for International
Development
DOI Department of Information
EA Nepal Equal Access Nepal
EC European Commission
FGD Focus Group Discussion
FM Frequency Modulation
FNJ Federation of Nepali Journalists
GoJ Government of Japan
GoN Government of Nepal
HS Hatemalo Sanchar
ICFJ International Center for Journalists
ICIMOD The International Center for Integrated
Mountain Development
ICT Information and Communications
Technology
IGNOU Indira Gandhi National Open University
IJA International Journalism Associations
IMMC Indian Institute of Mass Communication
IMS/Denmark International Media Support, Denmark
INSEC Informal Services Sector
IPDC International Program for the
Development of Communication
JICA Japanese International Cooperation
Agency
JMC Jagaran Media Center
KCC Kantipur City College
CIJ Center for Investigative Journalism
KU Kathmandu University
M Phil Master of Philosophy

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MA Master of Arts
MBMC Madan Bhandari Memorial College
MC Martin Chautari
MDC Master in Development Communication
MDI Media Development Indicators
MF-N Media Foundation-Nepal
MMCJ Master in Mass Communication &
Journalism
MMT Master in Media Technology
MoIC Ministry of Information and
Communications
MP Media Point
MSI Media Services International
NBA National Broadcasting Act
NBPS Nepal Batabaran Patrakar Samuha
NEFEJ Nepal Forum of Environmental Journalists
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
NIC National Information Commission
NPC National Planning Commission
NPI Nepal Press Institute
NTA Nepal Telecom Authority
NTV Nepal Television
PCL Proficiency Certificate Level
PCN Press Council Nepal
RMRCs Regional Media Resource Center
PoU Pokhara University
PU Purvanchal University
RSS Rastriya Samachar Samiti (National News
Agency)
RTI Right to Information
SAFMA South Asian Free Media Association
SC Shepherd College
SLC School Leaving Certificate
SMS Short Message System
SNV Netherlands Development Organization in
Nepal
SPCBN Support to Participatory Constitution
Building in Nepal
SS Sancharika Samuha
TMG Tamang Communication Group
ToR Terms of Reference
TU Tribhuvan University
UK United KingdomUNDP- United Nations
Development Program
UNESCO United Nations Education, Scientific and
Cultural Organization
WWJ Working Women's Journalists Group

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Media Foundation- Nepal (MF-N) expresses sincere gratitude to several organizations and people whose role has
been indispensable in making this study possible. First and foremost, we thank UNDP-Nepal, the Government of
Japan and UNESCO for their support in these survey assessments, conducted under a micro-grant from the Support to
Participatory Constitution Building in Nepal (SPCBN)/UNDP.

Our thanks are due also to a number of professional groups and associations, including the Federation of Nepali
Journalists (FNJ), for their input in the development of survey instruments as well as in helping organize focus group
discussions (FGDs) that offer qualitative insights into the theme of this study.

Without a broad stakeholder collaboration and participation this study could not have been completed. Their
feedback on survey instruments proved valuable. We thank several other organizations and professionals, inside the
Kathmandu Valley as well as in the districts for their help in the development of a sample list of respondents and their
support to survey staff and field enumerators.

We are grateful to the UNDP team for their constructive criticism, and their assistance throughout the project period.
We owe special gratitude to our external reviewers from the media industry, academia, and other media
organizations. The input and suggestions by Dr. Jan Sharma, Dr. Rabindra Roy, Professor P. Kharel, and Mr Sudheer
Sharma helped to refine the instruments and improve the substance of this study. Our special thanks to Dr Jyotika
Ramaprasad and Dr Sahira Fahmy for their conceptual input in the development of the survey instruments. Similarly,
we would like to thank Mr. Sarad Chandra Wasti for his assistance in editing and fine-tuning the instruments in Nepali
language (Devanagari script) that were actually administered in the field.

We are indebted to Sancharika Samuha, Martin Chautari, Jagaran Media Center, Women Journalists' Group, and
other organizations and professional groups for their support in conducting focus groups discussions on a number of
topics. They not only managed logistics and facilitated collaboration but also contributed by way of participation and
feedback. Names and affiliations of people who participated in these sessions are included in the appendices at the
end of this study. All participants in the FDG sessions deserve our appreciation. The qualitative segments of this study
draw on the output from these deliberations as well as on stakeholder feedback obtained from some loose network
discussions conducted by SPCBN/UNDP.

Our special thanks are due to our respondents who put aside their valuable time to fill in our questionnaires. Our
database team deserves appreciation for their untiring work in setting up customized online surveys and short
message service (SMS) polling, and making sure that technical problems were resolved promptly and efficiently.

Last but not the least we would like to thank members of our Survey Steering Committee for their continuous
guidance and support during the entire phase of this study. And special mention to our project staff who worked
tirelessly throughout the project period putting in long hours, and overcoming time constrains, and, in particular, the
challenges in the field, such as poor or failing connectivity, the onslaught of monsoon, and recurrent political
disturbances that disrupted air and land transportation in some clusters thus affecting some of our field tasks.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This report primarily showcases findings of survey assessments that Media Foundation undertook in partnership with UNDP,
the government of Japan and UNESCO. The Journalists' Survey (N=838), the Public Opinion Survey (N= 2,252) and the SMS
poll (N=739) as well as focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted between April-July, 2012.

The surveys' overall goal was to assess the media environment of Nepal with the immediate objective to identify priorities
in the area of media capacity development.

This study had the specific objectives a) to identify Nepali journalists' attributes, their professional challenges, their
perceptions of media credibility, and capacity development needs; b) to solicit journalists' suggestions on improving the
overall quality of the profession; c) to explore public views towards media and journalists as credible sources of information;
and level of reliability of media as sources of information on contemporary issues; and d) to find out the level of media
literacy of the public. The summary is organized around these objectives.

Overall, the assessments found that as Nepal's media landscape expands, professional opportunities increase, and the
implications of media impact on political and social realms grow, so do the challenges in mapping media development,
improving professional ethics, media credibility, media capacity and media literacy in the country.

The surveys show that traditional stereotypes associated with Nepali journalists as unqualified, untrained, and
untrustworthy professionals are in the process of being broken. Today, this study shows, the majority of journalists have
higher academic degrees, and have acquired some kind of training. Although perceptions remain that political partisanship
continues to be a major problem of Nepali media, the public considers the media as the most trusted social institution, and
rates journalists as the second most trusted people among vocational groups, after farmers.

The study suggests that journalists today are in need of deepening and strengthening their professional capacities and the
general public in need of acquiring media literacy skills. It shows increased access to resources, new media skills, practical
opportunities, better working conditions, improved training curricula and instruction, and substantive, needs-based
programs in media capacity and literacy, among others, are imperative to the enhancement of overall quality of media, their
contents and their use.

Nepali journalists
Attributes: Respondents were mostly young, educated male, from the Brahimin-Chhetri background, urban, semi-urban,
and still largely print-based. They earned low to moderate income. Most of them worked full-time, a majority of them in the
private sector media.

Professional challenges: Journalists appeared reticent about expressing their perceptions on the types of professional
challenges they face. Respondents often identified social perception of journalists as politically biased, inadequate security
to journalists from the state, political partisanship and institutional bias of media houses, lack of technological resources
and training for individual journalists among the most serious professional challenges today from societal, to organization
and individual- level.

Perceptions of media credibility: Majority of journalists see the media and their content generally trustworthy. However,
many tend to see them as partisan. Poor language and presentation style are acknowledged as partially responsible for
hampering credibility. Journalists appear satisfied with their coverage on contemporary issues like peace, democracy,
constitution-making, governance, national politics, etc.

Journalists agree that Code violation has frequently plagued their profession, and lack of awareness about ethics is the main
reason behind this. Males and females across clusters cited seeking or obtaining political or economic favor for writing
stories, or disclosing identity of subjects at risk (rape victims, people in trauma) without their consent as the most serious
examples of code violations.

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Capacity development needs: Journalists had somewhat mixed views about their satisfaction with what they have achieved
in the profession; the majority (55%) indicated they lack professional satisfaction in their works. Of the 2109 responses on
various capacity opportunities, an overwhelming number of journalists (86%) had participated in some type of capacity
development training or program. They appeared somewhat dissatisfied with the available training, curriculum, instruction
and practical opportunities such as in-house training and internships. The members of the public also suggest that
journalists get more such opportunities.

Journalists across clusters, sexes, education levels, study areas, beats, and media ownership types are seeking capacity
development opportunities beyond training. They stressed on the need for hands-on proficiency and advanced/specialized
training, time management, ICT skills, critical thinking skills, and language skills. More than two-thirds of the public rejected
the view that there was no dearth of skilled journalists in Nepal.

Nepali public
Public views on credibility of media and journalists as sources of information:
The public reported they consider media to be the most trusted social institution, and rated journalists as the second most
trusted vocation group, after farmers. In the SMS poll, the majority of respondents said that their trust in the news and
analyses by journalists, or their trust in media outlets had increased over the past 3-4 years.

In the public survey, respondents viewed journalists privileged with freedom, acknowledged their important role in
democratic transition of the country, in uncovering corruption, and saw them improving in the quality of content. However,
more than half the respondents in the public survey could not accept that journalists are neutral.

The public today use a wide variety of media; even in rural areas they rely on TV, radio and the Internet. The public consider
TV the most trusted medium across clusters, followed by local FM radio or national radio. They trust journalists working
with government media more than those working with the private media, or community media.

Almost one-third of the public surveyed believed that Nepali media presented news on public interest, followed by those
who thought the media encouraged citizen participation. However, the public did not attribute media houses as
encouraging citizen engagement or participation.

Unlike the journalists who see greater media role in generating awareness on development issues, the public emphasized
that journalists play more active role in generating awareness on health, education, economy and the environment.
However, they were not sure about their trust in journalists by the topics they cover.

Level of reliability of media as sources of information on contemporary issues: Most of the public relied on the radio for
information and news, followed by friends and family members, and TV. The public is divided in their channel preferences,
with most opting for local FM stations, the national radio, and newspapers.

Across clusters and sexes, respondents relied on a variety of channels for information, and their preference for particular
channel was not always pronounced. Generally, journalists had a favorable view of their coverage of contemporary topics
such as peace, democracy and constitution-making. In contrast, the public viewed coverage on governance, national
politics, constitution-making as generally reliable, but the coverage on peace and democracy was not considered much
reliable.

The level of media literacy on part of the public:
For the members of the public, radio was the most accessible media, followed by TV, newspapers and the Internet. Self-
reported media use skills of public indicate that the Nepali public is not far from being discerning or media literate. Almost
half of the respondents said they had the skills to use mobile phone, read newspapers, create web page, and play video
games.

However, in terms of analytical abilities, more than two-third reported they only scanned their media and rarely analyzed
the context of information given to them. A majority of the public surveyed had not produced a variety of written or audio-
visual material, and had not written to newspapers or called a TV or radio station, etc.

FGD participants emphasized long-term media education initiatives, informal learning opportunities, and change in attitude
practices with a rigid cultural context. They noted that terms like media credibility or literacy are relative in nature, requiring
an open-ended approach to inquiry.

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SECTION I:
INTRODUCTION

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1. INTRODUCTION
Nepals media landscape, both in terms of the number of media outlets and media practitioners,
has altered enormously in recent years. Citizens access to media is also expanding at a
breathtaking pace. Print outlets and electronic media channels both continue to multiply. FM
radio stations are now broadcasting programs out of remote districts and villages. While this
quantitative growth continues, attention has now shifted to the questions of quality and
credibility of Nepal's media. Today, citizens, who comprise majority of the users of media, have
also become an indispensable component of media policy and research.

However, lacking systematic studies integrating policies, professional practices and audience
attributes or habits, few generalizations can be made about the actual state of Nepali media
today. The field looks cluttered and chaotic. The lack or paucity of empirical data and timely
assessments of the media landscape have burdened the work of identifying priorities and the
needed interventions for the capacity development in this sector. As a result, existing capacity
building efforts such as training programs for journalists remain haphazard, pointing to need for
training materials, toolkits, or standardized manuals.

Most existing assessments of Nepali media are built on historical overviews, document analysis,
baseline surveys, anecdotal observations, reflective/reactive criticism, etc. Systematic surveys
representative of the national sample have rarely been undertaken in the area of media, and a
survey of similar scope and approach incorporating the perceptions and views of the general
public specifically towards the media remains non-existent. The last systematic, comprehensive
survey of the public regarding their views on Nepali media, carried out purely in the interest of
the public, for example, was undertaken way back in 1993 (IIDS, 1996). Other few surveys of
media representative of the national population since then have mostly been propritorial
focused primarily on serving the interests of private companies, institutions, and markets.

Mapping the existing media landscape requires not only a review of past research works but also
integrating contemporary perspectives on the nature and state of Nepali media, from both the
press and the public, two of the key elements of any democracy. Inputs from the stakeholders
and citizens themselves promise a more substantive basis to prioritize media development in the
country.

Against this backdrop, these survey assessments and public opinion polls carried out with
support from UNDP-Nepal, the Government of Japan and UNESCO, sought to assess the media
environment of Nepal in order to identify priorities for future activities, specifically in the area of
capacity development.

The surveys were conducted during the months of June and July, 2012. While survey results can
be generalized to the target population, they typically exclude individual experiences that are
outside of the questionnaire. In consideration of this and related limitations of survey research,
Media Foundation- Nepal (MF-N), going beyond the Terms of Reference (TOR), conducted a
series of focus group discussions with a broad cross-section of stakeholders. The FGDs covered
interrelated themes like media capacity, credibility, literacy, inclusion, and public perceptions.
Altogether six FGDs were held, participated in by professionals and the general public. Besides,
this report also draws on the results from loose network discussions conducted by SPCBN/UNDP.
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Thus, the report integrated both quantitative and qualitative approaches (for details on research
approach, see Section III: Methods).

We believe that this study holds out greater significance and value at this time of enormous
professional renewal and change in the midst of a transforming media landscape and
transitional national politics. No substantive reference work has been built on any quantitative;
disaggregate assessment of a national sample of journalists and general people. Institutionally,
MF-N sees a convergence of interest with the project partners in doing the surveys and in
capacity enhancement of media professionals.

We hope this study serves as a snapshot of the contemporary narrative of media development in
Nepal, offering a sound basis to gauge where we stand today and where we are headed.

This report is organized in eight sections. Section I (Introduction) offers a brief introduction to
the study report. Section II (The Media Landscape) reviews the media environment of Nepal in
historical terms, its current situation, media laws and their implication to media, capacity
development, media credibility and media literacy. Section III (Methods) spells out the
objectives, the research design, process, data collection, analysis and limitations. Section IV
(Journalists' Survey) and Section V (Public Opinion Survey) analyzes data along the variables such
as demographics, professionalism, media credibility, capacity and literacy. Section VI (SMS Poll)
analyzes media credibility data obtained in the form of text messages via respondents' mobile
phones. Section VIII (Stakeholder Discussions) analyzes the qualitative input gleaned from
stakeholders. Finally, Section VIII (Conclusions and Recommendations) highlights the key
findings, compares perspectives of journalists with the perspectives of the public, and makes a
set of recommendations for action.

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SECTION II:
THE NEPALI MEDIA LANDSCAPE

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2. THE NEPALI MEDIA LANDSCAPE

This section is built on desk review of past literature and it attempts to map the media landscape of
Nepal. Media in this document broadly refers to channels and platforms that carry news and public
information. The following pages highlight the country's media environment in historical terms, its
current situation, impact on political and social aspects, media laws and their implications for media,
capacity development, media credibility, and media literacy.

2.1 Historical context
The institutional history of Nepali journalism has largely been defined by the types of political
systems the country adopted over the years. In writing the early history of the Nepali press, the
newspaper historian Grishma Bahadur Devkota (1967) documented many cases of struggle between
the press and the government, citing repressive press laws and painting a gloomy media
environment. The installation of the first printing press in the year 1851, the publication of Sudha
Sagar magazine in 1889, the beginning of the Gorkhapatra newspaper in 1901 or the fall of the
Ranas and the advent of democracy in 1950 hold equal significance in marking the beginning of new
era in print media (Adhikari, 2003, p. 1).

The first electronic mass media, Radio Nepal, was established in 1951. The decade after the fall of
the Ranas represented a transitional democracy, ultimately subverted by the partyless Panchayat
system in 1960 that ruled the nation for 30 years with a repressive press system. The restoration of
democracy in 1990 opened the door, finally, to a liberal environment enabling an upsurge in the
number of independent media outlets.

Before 1990, only a limited dailies, weeklies and fortnightly papers based on mission-journalism
existed. There were also a couple of broadsheet dailies operated by the government, such as
Gorkhapatra and The Rising Nepal. Similarly, the government-controlled Nepal Television,
established in 1985, and the Radio Nepal were the only electronic media in the country. The
publication of Kantipur and The Kathmandu Post broadsheet dailies from the private sector, in 1993,
began, in a sense, a tradition of independent and professional journalism (Humagain et al, 2007, p.
2).

Internet was introduced in the country in 1993, and a newspaper's print edition was first available
online as shovelware in 1995. It started off with The Kathmandu Post in September 1995 when the
newspaper put online its print content (Sharrock, 2007). Other early birds were himalmag.com
(1997) and nepalnews.com (1998). The latter was the first news-only portal launched by Mercantile
Communication, a private IT company (Shah, 2010). Initially, the website served to host digital
versions of several print newspapers. News portals of most "legacy" media houses, such as
kantipuronline.com (2000), thehimalayantimes.com (2001), gorkhapatra.org.np (2002),
newsofnepal.com (2003) began as electronic platforms of their print content (Sharma, 2007). Only
gradually did some of these sites start to publish web exclusive content as well.

However, the history of Nepali new media in terms of electronic communication and news goes
farther than 1995 and beyond the geographic bounds of Nepal. The Nepal Digest, an electronic
newsletter was launched in 1992 in the USA. Newslookmag.com (now nepalmonitor.com) began in
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1999 in North America as Nepals first complete online newsmagazine. The Washington DC-based
Nepalipost.com was created in 2001 (Sharma, 2007).

Throughout the period leading up to the 1990s, Nepali media remained characterized by political
control, repression of press freedom, and official propaganda. Most publications were proprietorial,
functioning under limited freedom, and operated by journalists with political orientation. Even policy
planning was not congruous. The Institute of Integrated Development Studies (IIDS) noted in 1996
that a cursory comparison of three communication plans (1971, 1988, 1992) would reveal certain
features that were common, but more striking were their anomalies; there was little continuity over
time and changes were often introduced abruptly in the successive documents without a single
mention of the reason to do so (IIDS, 1996, p. 79). The official laws and regulations on media were
aimed at curtailing or completely denying the freedoms enjoyed by the press in developed
democracies. During the Panchayat era, there was not only absence of freedom of press and lack of
access to information, the state could also confiscate property of a press because of what it printed
(Onta, 2006, 18).

The political reforms of the 1990s, as well as rising literacy rates, entrepreneurship, and the
adoption of new media technologies, among other factors, finally led the way to the growth of
Nepali media.

2.2 Current situation
2.2.1 Print media
Print media mainly caters to the urban, educated people. There are more than 14 broadsheet dailies,
including two government-owned, most of them concentrated in the capital city, and about two
dozen weekly tabloid newspapers. In addition to Nepali, Nepal has newspapers and magazines
published in languages such as English, Newari, Hindi, Maithili, and Tharu.

The growth in the number of daily newspapers is obvious, especially when compared to the figures
from 1989-1990. The total newspapers registered till mid-July 1990 were 481, of which 62 were
dailies, one bi-weekly, 370 weeklies and 48 fortnightly (PCN, 2006/07). Today, the total number of
dailies, weeklies, and periodicals is 636 (PCN, 2011), among which 20 are printed in regional,
indigenous languages.

From the technological perspective also, there seems to have been a great leap over the years. An
overwhelming majority of newspapers published in the country have adopted modern, offset press
and the use of traditional 'letter press' declining fast. According to Press Council Nepal (PCN, n.d.),
out of 89 daily newspapers nationwide, 81 use offset printing technology, whereas only eight rely on
letter press. Similarly, among 381 weeklies, 313 use offset press, and 68 of them print on letter
press.

Several national publications now reach a wider population. For example, regional simultaneous
editions of Kantipur and The Kathmandu Post are published from Biratnagar, Nepalgunj, and Chitwan
and these cater to the readers in the region. Nagarik now publishes supplemental regional editions,
Nagarik Purbeli and Nagarik Paschimeli. No doubt, today, newspapers reach audiences faster, but
lacking hard data, readership growth rate remains unclear.

Apparently, Nepali print media have made leaps and bounds over the years in their geographic reach
covering larger populations. However, total combined circulation figures for newspapers are not
available.

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2.2.2 Radio
Radio is the most popular form of media in Nepal. In the post-1990 scenario, radio broadcasting has
witnessed remarkable progress. The introduction of National Broadcasting Act in the year 2049 BS
(1993) and the National Broadcasting Regulations in 2052 BS (1995) paved the way for the
establishment of independent radios and televisions. The licensing to Radio Sagarmatha in 1997
marked the beginning of the independent radios in a society where the state-owned Radio Nepal
was the only radio outlet in the country.

The state-owned Radio Nepal's coverage extends to over 85 percent of the population (Republica,
2012). The frequency modulation (FM) community-based broadcasting has a wide coverage across
the country, a pioneer in South Asia. Local broadcasting is becoming very popular because of its
immediacy and the speed of information and news. There are today over 327 local FM radio stations
operating across the country, and according to the latest figures released by Ministry of Information
and Communications (MOIC) on July 17, 2012, a total of 476 FM radio stations had acquired
broadcasting licenses (MOIC, 2012a; 2012b).

Due to ambiguities in definitions, it is not clear how many of these are truly "community radio"
stations. As of July 2012, the Association of Community Radio Broadcasters (ACORAB) had 191 radio
stations as its members. A vast majority of these stations, 77% to be precise, were owned by non-
governmental organizations. The rest were owned by cooperatives (23%), and local government
(1%). The highest concentration of community radio stations was in mid-western development
region (32%), and the least concentration was in the far-western region (6%).

2.2.3 Television
In the post-1990 phase, the number of television stations has gone up. Television is becoming
popular in urban and semi-urban areas. The first private channel began in 2001, some 20 years after
the establishment of government owned Nepal Television. By early 2012, there were 14 stations in
operation, although 39 TV stations had acquired broadcasting license (MOIC, 2012c). Most of the
stations are based in the capital city of Kathmandu. Two are terrestrial and others satellite channels.
A few local channels are being installed in the regional towns.

There were 744 licensed cable operators and 91 foreign channels accessible for downlink (MOIC,
2012d). Of the total cable operators, only 156 had paid their royalty at least once since registration,
which suggests that active cable operators are few.

No authentic figures are available for television coverage, although estimates range between 50 and
60% of households. The signal of Nepal Television covers more than 50 countries of the world and it
reaches 72% of the country's population" (NTV, n.d.). During the past few years, NTV has
significantly increased its accessibility in the length and breadth of the country. It has strengthened
its technological capacity, and is now airing programs through terrestrial, satellite and digital
networking.

With the entry of Direct-to-Home (DTH) TV providers in 2010, access to TV viewing is likely to
increase significantly.

2.2.3 New media
The use of tools, products or services of communication other than traditional media, such as
television and newspapers, has widely increased in the past several years. These new media can be
web-based or applications-based, and may include things such as portable technology (mobile
telephony, Skype, net-books, media tablets, etc), electronic communication (SMS, e-mail, blogs,
10

news sites, podcasts, wikis, social networks, etc), presentation tools or multi-media (PowerPoint,
SlideRocket, PhotoShop, iMovie, Google Docs, etc), online games etc.

Internet was introduced in Nepal in 1993. In 2012, there were 46 ISPs (Internet service providers), 13
rural VSAT and 6 rural internet service providers who were given government licenses in the country
(NTA, 2012; 1.4). In mid-April 2012, the total Internet penetration in the country, in terms of tele-
density, was 17.53% (NTA, May 2012). Limited Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL), Code
Division Multiple Access (CDMA) and wireless technologies were available in rural areas, and the
government offers incentives to ISPs seeking licenses to operate in the rural areas. Across the
country, there were 44 government established telecenters, which also offered Internet services.

Telephony is a rapidly expanding sector. Mobile phone penetration in mid-2012 was 54.46% (NTA,
May 2012) as compared to 8% in 2007. As a result of the reforms in the telecom sector, the state-
owned Nepal Telecom lost its monopoly in 2004. Two other private service providers, United
Telecom Ltd and Spice Nepal (Ncell) Pvt. Ltd entered the market. By October 2010 mobile
penetration in Nepal had reached around 30%, with mobile subscriber numbers having increased
tenfold in just three years. Smart phone use was on the rise. There was little growth in the 3% fixed-
line penetration. The average time to a telephone booth for a rural household was calculated as 2
hours and 13 minutes, and rural mobile population coverage was only 2% (ITU, 2008).

The use of web-based communication platforms like online chats, or Skype is also gradually
increasing among net-savvy populations, especially in urban centers. With increased penetration of
mobile phones, text-messaging or SMS communication is becoming popular. Social media networks
like Facebook and Twitter are also becoming popular among the youth and urban populations. There
were 1.45 million Facebook users by June 2012 (Mahanoy, 2012). Apparently, the number of blogs
and micro-blogs by individuals and professionals has gone up drastically. Among the educated, the
use of presentation tools and multi-media is growing. However, no authentic, updated data is
available on the number or nature of the blogs, or the level of the use of many of these new media
tools and platforms that are in process of constant change.

Online journalism, another facet of new media, has seen a huge surge in recent years. Although
exact figures are not available, most traditional publications or broadcast outlet have an online
presence. There are scores of online news portals, which include those operated from outside the
country by members of the expanding Diaspora community. The interactive features of these sites
have enabled readers and users to directly post their comments and feedback making participation
and engagement a reality. However, critics have pointed out that the Nepali news websites are poor
in their usability features. They are still represented online by rather cumbersome, confusing portals
(Cooper, 2012).

In recent years, social media practices, like blogging have become more common within the realm of
journalism. Blogging involves writing for a blog, an online personal journal with reflections,
comments, and hyperlinks or interactive features. Nearly half (45.3%) of the 192 journalists in a 2011
survey said they maintained a personal blog (CMR Nepal, 2012). The earliest Nepali blogs, such as
blog.com.np, were started by journalists. Following the royal coup in February 2005, when the
regime engaged on systematic clampdown on media, blogs suddenly became popular. They were
able to circumvent censorship and inform the world about events in Nepal (Sharrock, 2007).
Individually-initiated or donor-funded experimental citizen journalism websites have also appeared
in recent times.

Empirical data on blogging, online or social media, their numbers, nature of content and resources
remains sparse. There are no specific legal frameworks or an official agency to oversee new media,
11

and major media houses lack social media policies and some have even banned the use of such
media during office hours. Yet, many news organizations have joined social networking sites, and
often social media initiatives have been spearheaded by individual journalists. The FNJ Social Media
Survey Report 2012 found that almost all of the 1,079 journalists surveyed were familiar with various
social networks; about 69.9% of them used Facebook for personal purpose, with half of them using it
for both personal and professional purpose (FNJ, 2012, p. 7).

Blogs or other forms of social media remain in an adolescent phase, confined to urbanites and
professionals. Nonetheless, despite questions raised about their journalistic merit, of the top ten
visited news sites of Nepal in May 2012, majority were non-legacy, blog-style news portals,
according to Alexa, a portal that crawls and analyzes traffic to individual websites.
1

2.2.4 Journalists across channels
2.2.4.1 Profile in numbers
As Nepal's media landscape has expanded, so has the number of journalists in the country. Although
it is estimated that there are today around 10,000 journalists in Nepal, these figures have not been
verified. Usually, membership records of professional associations and groups of journalists do offer
some insights into their profiles. However, many such organizations do maintain updated lists, and
some shy away from sharing them publicly.

So far, the most comprehensive membership list is available with Federation of Nepali Journalists
(FNJ), the umbrella organizations of news professionals. According to FNJ, its total membership in
2012 stood at 8,013, including 382 institutional members called "associate organizations" (FNJ,
2012). It must be noted that not all journalists working in Nepal have received membership of the
FNJ. Yet, it maintains a list that appears the most representative of journalists in the country.

No authentic figures are available on journalists working for specific media channels. Estimates for
print journalists run into the thousands. The Nepal Photojournalists' Association alone has 184 as
members (NPJA, 2012) and many photojournalists remain unlisted. Likewise, according to
professional groups, there are several thousand radio journalists in the country today. In contrast,
estimates for television or online journalists hover around a few hundreds.
2
Among these, many
journalists work across platforms or in multiple channels.

2.2.4.2 Work base
The Kathmandu Valley continues to hold the largest concentration of journalists nationwide. Almost
all of nationally influential print and electronic media in Nepal are produced in Kathmandu. While
regional newspapers are also published in different cities, the number of journalists working for
these outlets is comparatively low. Region-wise, the FNJ figures show that there were 1,067
members in Eastern Region, 1,285 in Central Region, 1,123 in Western Region, 993 in Midwestern
Region, 496 in Farwestern Region, and 1,168 in the Kathmandu Valley (FNJ, 2012).

Despite concentration in Kathmandu, the rise of regional media has improved the scope for local or
regional media. Journalists can be found today even in the most remote parts of the country largely
due to proliferation of FM radio stations. Region-wise, the distribution remains uneven. According to
data from ACORAB, the highest concentration of community radio stations in 2012 was in mid-

1
Alexa.com ranked the Nepali news websites in this order: ekantipur.com, nagariknews.com,
onlinekhabar.com, mysansar.com, thehimalayantimes.com, myrepublica.com, cybersansar.com,
nepalnews.com, aakarpost.com, unn.com.np (ranking record from May 22, 2012).
2
Personal interviews with members of FNJ, ACORAB, Television Journalists' Association (TJA), and Online
Media Association (ONA), June & July 2012.
12

western development region (32%), and the least concentration was in the far-western region (6%).
Nonetheless, the dominance of the Kathmandu Valley is dwindling. For example, critics have
observed that "some of the most remarkable examples of these new media [that grew in the post-
1990 Nepal] are the community television, radio, and newspapers produced in the town of Tansen,
where they thrive far from the political hub of the state in the Kathmandu Valley" (Wilmore, 2008).
In addition, for many individual journalists with access to new media technologies, barriers like
geography or regions have ceased to exist. This is particularly true in the case of online journalists.

2.2.4.3 Newsroom diversity
Data on newsroom diversity is sketchy. In a 2001 survey of 956 editorial media workers from 73
publishing houses outside the Kathmandu Valley, 17.15% were found to be from the indigenous
nationalities whereas the representation of Dalit was only 1.78%. Within nationalities too, the
Newars had a lead with 5.1%. Females constituted 5.33% (Parajulee and Gautam, 2008). Exact,
updated figures on women journalists in Nepal are not available. Estimates suggest they constitute
between 10 to 15% of around 10,000 journalists in the country (Dhungel, 2012).

In the 2001 survey, of the 693 editorial media persons from a total of 41 publishing houses within
the Kathmandu Valley, 21.5% represented enlisted nationalities whereas the dalit representation
was 1.58%. Within indigenous nationalities, the Newars comprised 13.4% whereas Rai, Limbu and
Tamang shared 5.08%. Similarly, females constituted 4.4% (Parajulee and Gautam, 2008, p. 126-27).
This suggests ethnic representation in media is not quite balanced.

2.2.4.4 Gender
Women work for media houses as journalists, freelance writers/columnists and occasional
contributors. As for the ratio of female participation in media, a survey in 2001 indicated that, of 956
editorial media workers from 73 publishing houses outside the Kathmandu Valley, females
constitute only 5.33%. Likewise, of the 693 editorial media persons from a total of 41 publishing
houses within the Kathmandu Valley, females constitute only 4.4% (Parajulee and Gautam, 2008,
126-27).

More recent estimates range between 10 to 15% of the approximate 10,000 journalists in the
country (Dhungel, 2012). In late 2012, the FNJ membership list showed there were 1,129 women
journalists in the country (Lama, 2012). And according to the Department of Information (DoI), the
total number of women receiving press accreditation cards by mid-July 2012 was 1,138 (Republica,
2012).

2.2.4.5 Language
While Nepali is the predominant language among newspapers in Nepal, English has also gained
considerable readership among the educated population. Besides, few other languages such as
Newari, Maithili and Bhojpuri have also significant readership. Hindi also enjoys readership among a
section of the public. About 20 indigenous language newspapers are published in the country (PCN,
2011).

In recent times, the growth of media programs or content in mother tongues as well as access to
such programs has improved the options for media users. Analysts have observed that listeners have
developed intimacy with local FM stations that broadcast programs and news in the local languages,
and they have started embracing such radio "as their own" (Gaire, 2008, p. 117).

2.3 Media impact on political and social realms
Traditionally, the role of media in a democracy is broadly seen in light of the medias need to reflect
diversity, serve as a forum of dialogue among various actors of the society, hold the government and
13

rulers accountable, and to inform, educate and entertain the public (Kovach & Rosenstiel, 2007; MDI
UNESCO/IPDC, 2008). Moreover, its the media role to engage the public in the important issues of
their communities and the nation so that their needs are prioritized and their voices are heard by
policy makers and those in the power. In a transitional, post-conflict society like Nepal, media is also
expected to play the role of consensus and peace builder.

In developing countries, writes Chan (2001), the media represent resources that can be mobilized to
demote or promote democracy. Media serve democracy if they can help spread democratic ideals,
reflect the voices of contending parties, provide the public with quality and relevant information,
articulate the social choices, and facilitate public deliberation. Failing all these functions, he further
adds, democracy will be undermined (Chan, 2001, p. 108).

Critics have observed that seminar proceedings, official compilations and secondary source data on
the extent of media access and content have increased (Yadav 2001). Few empirical studies exist
that seek to explain the impact of Nepali media in political or social aspects. Anecdotal observations,
case studies, and commentaries abound. Nonetheless, the assumed impact can be broadly
described in the following way with some key examples:

2.3.1 Political impact
Political rights and freedoms: Historically, Nepali media have played an active role in advocating
for political rights and freedoms. However, lacking empirical data on the causal effect of media
on these issues, the extent of impact remains to be explored systematically. Based on the
historical evidence of media advocating these issues, and championing them, often side by side
with politicians, it is safe to say they have played a catalyst role.

Good governance: It focuses on state accountability toward citizens. Studies around the world
have shown correlation between good governance and media, with some researchers suggesting
strong links between the two, and others less stronger links (Myers, 2012). In the case of Nepal,
Yadav (2001) notes that the crucial information flow through media can promote freedom of
expression and play the watch dog role to remind government of its public accountability and
welfare which eventually leads to good governance. He observes that non-uniform and unequal
access to information of governmental activities and national policy affairs directly concerned to
public has been the main hindrances to good governance.

Democratic transition: Again, the role of Nepali media in democratic transition has been widely
hailed. For example, it has been credited for its catalytic role in the people's movements of 1990
and 2006. Scholars like Sharrock (2007) have analyzed the role of new media in such
movements. Sharma (2001) observed, Nepali media is in a state of transition and continues to
struggle to define its role in multi-party democracy. He credits the media as having played
significant role in the process of political acculturation, enriching the unique Nepali political
culture and values. Yet it remains effectively under the control of either the government or
political parties (Sharma, 2001, p. 47).

Fighting corruption and promoting transparency: Examples of media uncovering cases of
corruption and official malfeasance are not rare in the country. A 2010-2012 survey of six South
Asian countries published by Transparency International (TA), the anti-corruption organization,
found that in Nepal the media is the most trusted institution in the fight against corruption. In
the rest of South Asia, it's either the government leaders or "nobody" (TA, 2012, 16, quoted in
Nepal Monitor). The Nepali media in 2011 resorted to legal tools, such as Right to Information
(RTI) legislation, to disclose a probe-panel's report on forged VAT bills (Kafle, 2012).

14

Consensus and peace building: Media's role has been acknowledged in promoting reconciliation
and reducing tension, restoring confidence and peace, especially in post-conflict situations.
Normatively, the media's emphasis is laid on mediating the peace process truthfully and
objectively, building trust among political parties, restoring dignity of conflict victims and
delivering justice to them, peacefully resolving all outstanding issues, building a society that
abides by the laws and shuns all forms of violence, etc. However, there is paucity of empirical
data on the impact of Nepali media in these themes and studies on the topic have often been
prescriptive (Bhattarai, 2005; Gurung 2004). A study in 2011, which analyzed several Nepali
national dailies (Adhikari et al, 2011) found sketchy coverage of peace, suggesting a limited role
played by media by way of representation.

Consolidating nationalism: In developing countries like Nepal, facing internal crisis, experiencing
rapid social transformation, or facing external threat, media serves to consolidate nationalism by
extolling and emphasizing the importance of the glories of national heroes, unearthing the
values of national icons, stressing national unity through rituals of national anniversaries (Lal,
2010, 108).

2.3.2 Social impact
Media impact on audience: Surveys have consistently shown media impacts audience
perceptions of issues (Ramaprasad and Kelly, 2003, Banjade, 2007), but most studies in the
context of Nepal have focused on evaluating media impact assessments of particular programs
undertaken by public institutions, NGOs, and INGOs (MS Nepal, 2005, BBC WST, 2008; Nileson,
2008, New Era/USAID, 2009; Banjade 2007). In recent years, some researchers have observed
that the rapidly segmenting media environment has nurtured distinct consumer perceptions,
such as of body image and gender identities, among the young middle-class Nepalis (Liechty,
2006).

Plurality and diversity: In the post-1990 era, especially since the country transitioned toward a
federal set-up, media discourse on languages, marginal groups, minorities, ethnicities, etc has
increased considerably.

Awareness on health, education, the economy, development process: Studies taken from the
perspective of social marketing or behavioral change communication identify significant impact
of media on public awareness on contemporary issues like health, education, environment, etc.
For example, for a radio listener in Siktahan, Rupandehi, the local radio broadcasting in the local
language was useful in the way it helped to educate people and raised their awareness. The
radio taught a pregnant woman a lot during her days of pregnancy (Lalwati Chaudhari qtd. in
Gaire, 117-118). However, it is only through targeted, well-executed media campaigns (Noar,
2006) that such impact may be possible. Such campaigns may target specific segments of the
population, such as children, the poor, and the elderly.

Advocacy relating to social ills: Over the years, Nepali media have exposed many cases of
superstition, social discriminations, exclusion, etc. Their actual role in effecting social change and
reform is yet to be empirically examined.

Grassroots awareness: The growth and expansion of community radio stations across the
country and remote districts and villages has raised media's potential to create mass awareness
about social issues and problems, and thus effect change. These radio stations, by serving as
forums of public debate and deliberation, could play important role in shaping public
perspectives on contemporary issues, and their shared agenda of social and economic
development.
15

Specialized journalism: Some form of media impact on social aspects could also be assumed by
the fact that today the country has many media or journalism-related organizations devoted to
social change in sectors ranging from education to health, environment, human rights, and
indigenous issues.

2.4 Media laws and their implications on media
Legal framework and their uniform and neutral enforcement offer an enabling environment for
media development. Nepal has several policies, laws and regulations formulated in view of the
expanding media sector. Legal reforms have ensured freedom of expression and the press, which
has further helped in the growth of the sector. The following are the key legal aspects that have
implications for Nepali media:

Protection of freedom of press and expression: The Constitution of the Kingdom of 1990 and
the Interim Constitution of Nepal 2007 provide for freedom of the press and expression.
Subsequent laws, regulations and policies (such as Press and Publication Act 1991; Press and
Publication Rules 1992; Information & Communication Policy, 1992; Long Term Policy of
Information and Communication Sector, 2003) provide for such rights, although some
provisions restricted publications of certain size or shape, specified qualification of journalists
and prohibited foreign investment. Today, Nepal has a fairly liberal legal environment today in
freedom of expression and press.

Access to information: The Right to Information Act 2007, and the Right to Information Rules
2009 are in effect; however, their application has not been equal to all sectors. Its enforcement
remains a problem. For example, in July 2011, the Freedom Forum filed an RTI application at
the Finance Ministry requesting the release the value-added tax (VAT) evasion study report-
2067 BS. The Ministry released a copy of the report only after three months, following the
verdict of the National Information Commission (NIC). Another example is the controversial
government directive listing the nature of classified information, issued by the Ministry of
Information and Communications in early 2012. The directive sought to bar individuals or
organizations, including the media "from accessing 140 types of information, including that on
big development projects, parliamentary decisions and major decisions of the government".
3

Later, the government agreed to review the directive.

Legal respect for editorial independence: The state has, through the Press and Publication Act,
2048 (1991) generally respected this provision. However, leaders, political actors and other
interest groups occasionally intimidate media on certain issues, forcing media outlets to self-
censor coverage of some topics and issues.

Legal provisions to protect journalists, sources and its enforcement in practice: Legal
provisions exist to project working journalists (Working Journalists Act 1993, Working
Journalists Regulation 1995) but their implementation has been lukewarm. No laws exist
requiring journalists to disclose their sources; however there are cases in which official
institutions, for example the Supreme Court, have sought disclosure of sources on stories
related to Chief Justice. For example, in February 2011, the apex court asked Sagarmatha TV to
reveal sources used in a story about the property disclosure by the Chief Justice (Bhattarai,
2011).

3
"PM pledges to revise information classification", The Kathmandu Post, Jan 31, 2012. Retrieved on August 20, 2012.
http://www.ekantipur.com/the-kathmandu-post/2012/01/31/top-story/pm-pledges-to-revise-information-
classification/231037.html
16

No warranted restrictions by the state on the media: Provisions on the accreditation of media
exist, and journalists are not licensed. However, there are certain restrictions. The Press and
Publications Regulations 2049 (1993 stipulates that a minimum of Bachelor's Degree or at least
ten years of relevant work experience coupled with a high school degree is necessary for
becoming a newspaper editor, whereas minimum SLC or five-year work experience is required
to become a press representative or a temporary press representative. Likewise, to be
accredited as an independent journalist, one ought to have at least ten years' journalism or
column writing experience with a Bachelor's Degree in Journalism, or 15 years similar
experience with Bachelor's Degree in any discipline (see Press and Publication Regulation 2049,
Clause 15).

Broadcast media regulations (National Broadcasting Act 1993 and National Broadcasting
Regulation 1995) govern both radio and televisions, with provisions to promote linguistic
diversity, maintain social harmony, promote freedom of information as well as right to
information, and to make broadcasting sector more reliable, effective and strong. It makes it
mandatory to seek license from the state and restricts certain advertisements. The interim
constitution restricts freedom of expression on the grounds such as sovereignty and integrity of
Nepal, social and ethnic harmony, defamation, contempt of court, incitement to an offense,
and acts contrary to public decency or morality. The Broadcasting Act (1993) fails to classify
broadcasters (public, community, commercial etc.). It lacks a provision for the independence of
the regulator.

Defamation laws: Defamation Act 1959 does not specifically distinguish between civil and
criminal aspects of defamation. The rules on remedies and whether public bodies can bring
defamation cases are vague. The Act has no separate provisions for libel and slander.

Sensitive issues: Provisions exist in various laws or regulations relating to control of information
on sensitive issues, such as national security, foreign affairs/friendly nations, hate speech,
privacy, contempt of court, obscenity, etc. In recent years, official attempts to control
information appear less overt and more subtle. Still, occasionally, the media carries
apprehensive reports suggesting official intention or steps in controlling the Internet, or
supervising or monitoring social media, blogs and micro blogs as well censoring artistic
freedom.
4
In September 2012, the Prime Minister Baburam Bhattarai observed that the
language and content used in social media were not respectable; therefore, monitoring them
was "essential.
5
Earlier, in October 2010, the Nepal Telecommunication Authority banned
some 53 websites that it called "objectionable". Often the lines of control remain unclear; many
of the blocked URLs included pornographic sites, but several among them were sex education
portals, and at least one mainstream US-based news site, huffingonpost.com.
6

No prior censorship: There are legal provisions for no prior censorship. However, self-
censorship remains widespread. There have been attempts on the lives of journalists. Threats
on journalists are widely reported, and intimidation is common. This is in addition to corporate
pressures in the interest of political ideologies, ad revenues or commercial benefits.

4
"Intolerance of tolerance", editorial, Nepali Times, Sept 21, 2012. Retrieved on Oct 3, 2012
http://www.nepalitimes.com/issue/2012/09/27/Editorial/19645
5
"Govt committed to press freedom: PM", Republica, Sept 22, 2012. Retrieved on Oct 3, 2012
http://www.myrepublica.com/portal/index.php?action=news_details&news_id=42255
6
"Crackdown riles ISPs", Nepali Times, Sept 21, 2010. Retrieved on Oct 3, 2012
http://www.nepalitimes.com.np/issue/2010/09/3/Nation/17427
17

Net neutrality: Cyberlaws specifically relating to online news are not available in Nepal.
Occasionally, there are reports of government trying to restrict online content or websites,
especially social networking sites. The Electronic Transaction Act 2008 and its regulations,
generally known as cyber regulations, relate to some aspects of Internet laws, and its provisions
on online news remain vague, and media is defined broadly. The Act does not address the issue
of jurisdiction adequately.

Many of the legal provisions are conducive to media development. However, few are enforced or
implemented uniformly or consistently, and awareness about these laws and their implications for
media is limited to few media houses or professionals. Expansive definitions of "sensitive"
information by "classifying" a vast body of official information as well as the government efforts to
frame legislation on the Internet domain were apparent in the past year. Literature shows gaps in
laws regarding media ownership, contempt of court, privacy, etc.

The laws actual implications depend on specific issues and contexts. Literature shows that media
regulations are formulated with some intentions. One argument is that they make media plural in
terms of content and ownership. Next argument is that they help in enforcing media ethics (Franklin,
Bob et al., 2005). Other literature defines their implications in different ways. It argues they not only
safeguard democracy and protect society, but also promote states interests (Hutchinson, 1999).

2.4.1 Media ethics
Laws serve as formal provisions of the state. They remain incomplete without the consideration of
ethics. Unlike other professionals, journalists in a democracy are not licensed and they are usually
governed under limited legal restrictions. They remain guided by their own informal means of self-
regulatory principles or code of ethics internalized in their professional tasks.

Media ethics is a board term which deals with behaviors and moral dilemma of media practitioners.
It guides journalists in making decisions regarding conflict of interest, and physical or emotional
harms as a result of their work. The Code of Journalistic Ethics 2003 (amended in 2008), jointly
prepared by Press Council Nepal (PCN), the quasi-governmental statutory body, and the Federation
of Nepali Journalists (FNJ) emphasizes that journalists and media institutions shall perform the
following duties:

1. Protection and promotion of press freedom;
2. Respect for humanitarianism, human rights and international relations;
3. Safeguard and enforce the right to information;
4. Imparting true and factual information;
5. Editorial freedom and accountability;
6. Respect for right to privacy;
7. Professionalism of a high order;
8. Decent behavior;
9. Readiness to rectify errors;
10. Social responsibility, and
11. Respect mutual relations

The Code stipulates that journalists and media institutions shall not carry out the following acts:
1. Not undermine national integrity
2. Not adversely affect social justice or goodwill
3. Not disclose confidential sources of new
4. Not use news material for fulfillment of personal interests
5. No discrimination based on social, ethic, cultural grounds
18

6. Do not penalize the victims
7. Non disclosure of the identity of victims
8. Not encourage violence, terrorism and crime
9. Not publish or broadcast scenes of nudity or pictures in a manner that spreads hatred, fear
and provocation
10. Not mention the name of a person not related to the event
11. Not distort facts
12. Not present advertisement as news
13. Not re-use without citing the source
14. No improper relations with news sources

There are few other codes of ethics prepared by other media groups. In 2007 ACORAB developed a
code of conduct for community radio stations. The code recognizes fundamental human rights,
freedom of expression, good governance, plural culture and neutrality and interest of Nepal and
the community. Many of the points echo themes found in the code developed by PCN/FNJ. In
addition, the ACORAB code emphasizes advocating democracy, quality, inclusion, transparency,
social justice, rule of law, promoting local content according to local need and empowering the
community.

The PCN adjudicates complaints filed against the press for violation of professional code of ethics. It
records cases of violation on a regular basis. Journalists are free to choose not to abide by any
specific code of ethics. A systematic media accountability system has not yet evolved in the country.
The debate generally revolves around code of conduct, but without much attention to internal
accountability measures like ombudsperson, letters of editors, etc.

2.5 Media credibility
Accuracy, balance and credibility (ABC) are often cited as journalisms cardinal principles. Media
credibility is usually defined as perceptions of a news channels believability. It involves judgments
made by a perceiver (e.g., a message recipient) concerning the believability of a communicator
(O'Keefe, 1990, 130-131). However, a more inclusive approach is to make distinction between
source credibility, message credibility, medium credibility (Mertzger et al, 2003).

Since the 1950s, many experimental investigation and surveys have been conducted to assess media
credibility. Most scales of media credibility emphasize similar elements and measure more or less
similar items. Scales are developed to meet particular research needs.

19

Table 1: Examples of media credibility measures
Source Credibility Measures/Elements
Infante (1980) Trustworthiness (honest-dishonest, trustworthy-untrustworthy, and sincere-insincere),
expertise (skilled-unskilled, qualified-unqualified, and informed-uninformed), and dynamism
(bold-timid, active-passive, and aggressive-meek)

Rimmer and
Weaver (1987)
Trustworthiness, fairness, bias, completeness, respect for privacy, representation of individual
interests, accuracy, concern for community well-being, separation of fact and opinion, concern
for public interest, factual foundations of information published, and qualifications of reporters
were used among the credibility measures

Meyer (1988)
Credibility index for newspaper believability comprising five dimensions: fairness, bias,
completeness, accuracy, and trustworthiness.
Wanta and Hu
(1994)
Used believability and affiliation indices to evaluate media credibility. The believability index
was built around media manipulation of public opinion, getting facts straight, dealing fairly with
all sides of an issue, and separation of fact from opinion. Affiliation was measured with concern
for community well being, watching out for reader interests, and concern for public welfare.
Johnson and Kaye
(1998, 2000)
Believability, fairness, accuracy, and depth of information.
Sundar (1996): believability, fairness, accuracy, and depth of information, sensationalism
Ognianova (1998) Identified items for online news story credibility: factual/opinionated, unfair/fair,
accurate/inaccurate, untrustworthy/trustworthy, balanced/unbalanced, biased/unbiased,
reliable/unreliable, thorough/not thorough, and informative/not informative.
Flanagin and
Metzger (2000)
Studied credibility of Internet information in terms of five items used in traditional media
research: believability, accuracy, trustworthiness, bias, and completeness.
Johnson and Fahmy
(2009)
Credibility: believability; fairness; accuracy; depth of information; trustworthiness and expertise
Reliance: level of attention paid to medium in the past few days; assessment of the level of
reliance the medium for information.

Some research findings also suggest that credibility of a medium or source of information is strongly
associated with reliance on a medium or source of information (Johnson and Kaye, 2004). Trust in
media is closely related with credibility.

UNESCO/IPDC, (2008), seeks to measure the level of public trust and confidence in media by taking
into consideration the following themes:
perception that the media reports on issues of real concern to people
satisfaction with the balance of local and national news and information
perception that journalists and media organizations have integrity and are not corrupt
perception that news reporting is fair and impartial
a high level of citizen participation in media: the level of participation of audiences in talk-
back programs, space devoted to readers comments in newspapers, etc.

With the advent of new media, and the renewed interest in quality of media content, literature on
media credibility is being synthesized in recent times. The journal American Behavioral Scientist, for
example, devoted one of its entire issues on presenting an up-to-date research on media
credibility. It identified key audience-based variables that may have a bearing on the way audiences
evaluate media credibility: political ideology, trust in government, news consumption, perceived
expertise, branding, media exposure, media reliance, and personal religiosity (Golan, 2010, 3)

With the advent of new media, researchers have recognized new challenges in measuring credibility.
The following categories are suggested by Metzger (2007, p. 2079) for the assessment of Internet-
based information:
accuracy- the degree to which a Web site is fee from errors, whether the information can be
verified offline, and the reliability of the information on the site
authority- site may be assessed by noting who authored the site and whether contact
information is provided for that person or organization, what the authors credentials,
20

qualifications, and affiliations are, and whether the Web site is recommended by a trusted
source
objectivity- involves identifying the purpose of the site and whether the information provided is
fact or opinion, which also includes understanding whether there might be commercial intent or
a conflict of interest on the part of the source, as well as the nature of relationships between
linked information sources (e.g., the meaning of sponsored links on a Google search output
page)
currency-- refers to whether the information is up to date, and
coverage or scope- refers to the comprehensiveness or depth of the information provided on
the site. These recommendations require a range of activities on the part of users, from simple
visual inspection of a Web site to more laborious information verification and triangulation
efforts

Mehrabi, Hassan & Ali (2009) offer an eight-item credibility scale to measure contents carried in
Television and the Internet. The scale sees whether the content is clear, balanced, complete (telling
the whole story), accurate, believable, trustworthy, fair and timely.

In America, most national surveys, for reasons of limitations in the questionnaire and other
constraints, often measure it in terms of believability. For example, the Pew Research Centers
surveys assess credibility simply in terms of audience perceptions of believability of media
channels or programs.

2.5.1 Media credibility in Nepal
In Nepal, media credibility is often cited in popular literature as a major issue in the profession;
however no systematic studies have been undertaken in this area. Existing surveys barely address
topics like media credibility. Some of these surveys assess credibility in terms of "trust" on media
(MS 2005; BBC WST, 2008), or "reliability" (MS Nepal, 2005) of media as a source of information, and
others measure medias potential for social inclusion and political engagement (BBC WST, 2008).

Generally, literature on media credibility in Nepal shows problems related with source and message
credibility. Analysts have lamented that Nepali media suffers in credibility. For example, Kharel (2010
& 2012) has cited several factors such as partisanship, overt commercialization, suspect editorial
independence, "envelope" journalism, unverified information, dubious ownership, anonymous or
unidentified sources, among others, affecting Nepali media credibility.

Cases of miinformation, sensationalism, and plagiarism, which are not uncommon in Nepali media
landscape, may also affect media credibility or reliability. For instance, the highly publicized story
(from April 2011) about Anuja Baniya, a girl who falsely claimed she had returned Rs 9.1 million she
found in a bus to the rightful owner, or the case of Ashish Luitel (early 2012), a Kantipur reporter
who was found by the newspaper's own investigation panel to have plagiarized several of his
columns, serve as classic text-book examples of potentially declining media credibility in Nepal.

However, when it comes to public perceptions of the media overall, people hold Nepali media in
high esteem. The Himalmedia Public Opinion Survey 2012 found that a majority of respondents have
a high perception of their media. This is consistent with past public views. A total of 87% of 3,210
respondents said they trust the media more than the courts, government and other public
institutions.

21

2.6 Capacity development
Capacity development is a broad concept that refers to the ability of people, organizations and
society as a whole to manage their affairs successfully (OECD/DAC, 2006, p. 12). Nelson and
Susman-Pea (2011, 14) describe media capacity development in the following way:

For the media, the enabling environment consists of not only the political will to build an open
society and rigorous independent media institutions, but more specific laws on free speech,
broadcasting regulations, and other such measures. In well-functioning media systems,
supportive behaviors include a strong demand from the public for high-quality information,
commitment by media to providing truthful, transparently verified information, a strong drive
to defend the public interest, and social tolerance for a diversity of views (Nelson and
Susman-Pea (2011, p. 14).

Figure 1: Capacity development model

Nelson and Susman-Pea (2011)

Nelson and Susman-Pea (2011) link capacity development to active local (beneficiary) participation.
They point out that the "effective capacity building efforts require an approach that is country-led
and driven by local people who are determined to make change happen in their local environment,
rather than simply offering supply-driven training programs and technical assistance" (p. 14).

Media capacity development has been explained by various scholars and institutions in various ways.
Yet the gist of them all revolves around similar issues: training, fellowships, awards, exchange
programs, formal education, mentorship, incentives, infrastructure, management, monitoring,
opportunities for collaboration and association, etc.

The African Forum for Media Development (2008, 13) outlines the following five dimensions of
capacity (or lack of capacity):
1. professional capacity related to training, general professionalism, ethics, the practice of
journalism as a profession;
2. lack of capacity within media organizations themselves in terms of financial management,
managerial capacity, lack of capital;
3. lack of capacity in media support organizations with respect to training, capacity to advocate
for the media, monitoring issues;
22

4. weak infrastructure to support development of media infrastructure; and
5. media content - especially in areas of development, specialized reporting, etc.

UNESCOs framework on the concept emphasizes a holistic journalism training and education, as laid
out in its model curricula for journalism education aimed at offering opportunities to acquire
knowledge on specialized topics as well as technical and professional skills. In addition, it emphasizes
infrastructure, working with other professionals and members of the community. According to
UNESCO, the key indicators of media capacities testify that:

Journalists can access training appropriate to their needs
Media managers, including business managers, can access training appropriate to their
needs
Training equips media professionals to understand democracy and development
Academic courses are accessible to a wide variety of students
Academic courses equip students with skills and knowledge related to democratic
development
Media workers have the right to join independent trade unions and exercise this right
Trade unions and professional associations provide advocacy on behalf of the profession
Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) monitor the media systematically
CSOs provide direct advocacy on issues of freedom of expression
CSOs help communities access information and get their voices heard

UNDP (Jennifer Colville, ed. 2008) defines capacity development as the process through which
individuals, organizations and societies obtain, strengthen and maintain the capabilities to set and
achieve their own development objectives over time. It outlines five steps of the capacity
development process, as enumerated below:

1. Engage stakeholders on capacity development;
2. Assess capacity assets and needs;
3. Formulate a capacity development response;
4. Implement a capacity development response; and
5. Evaluate capacity development.
Capacity building, as apparent in the conceptual frameworks earlier involves training, fellowships,
infrastructure and resources, commitment to high professional standards, specialization,
collaboration with others, etc.

2.6.1 Nepali experience
For decades, Nepali media and journalists performed under conditions of meager resources,
restricted professional freedoms; with limited skills, education or training, and scarce opportunities
for professional collaboration or association. Many journalists learnt their craft by trial and error,
and it was only in late 1950s that some pioneers in the profession had the first opportunities to go
abroad for training (Adhikari, 2010). Until the 1980s, Nepali journalists had to travel to India, China,
the former USSR, the UK, Pakistan, Germany, etc. to obtain training. Academically, the introduction
of journalism education in Tribhuvan University in 1976 marked the beginning of a new era in the
capacity development of Nepali media. In professional training, it was the establishment of Nepal
Press Institute (NPI) in 1985 that opened the door for training opportunities at home (Adhikari, 2010,
p. 53).

23

The country witnessed massive growth in the media sector in the post-1990s era, and as a result,
options for journalism training within the country gradually improved.

2.6.2 Capacity development opportunities for journalists in media houses; and awards, fellowships
and trainings
Research materials available in the area of capacity development opportunities for journalists within
the Nepali media houses are sketchy at best. Records are often not maintained and even when they
are, access to these materials is not easy. A reviewer for this study approached several of the leading
media houses for information on the number of trainees, duration of training and the topics
(Adhikari, 2012). He found that few organizations maintain records.

Despite a few private media organizations making huge profit, the concept of in-house training is
almost non-existent. The editors of the major media houses say that the newsroom is itself a place
for training and the cub reporters will get on-the-job training. The media organizations don't seem
keen on imparting training partly due to the ad hoc nature of media and the expenditure involved.
The owners seem reluctant to invest in in-house training because they fear journalists are more
likely to leave the institution for training opens up better job prospects (Adhikari, 2012).

Nonetheless, a few media houses do offer some types of capacity development programs. For
example, Kantipur journalists are occasionally offered awards and incentives, so do some other
broadcast media. The editor of Kantipur says that they have offered regional workshops for district
reporters, and have occasionally provided cash incentives and refresher training to their staff
members. However, he notes that a proper way of training is still necessary. He observes that the
leadership at Kantipur is thinking of establishing a separate training wing within their company
(Schoenhofer, 2012).

Some media houses including Gorkhapatra provide short term refresher training programs to their
journalists occasionally. Regular in-house training does not exist. Mentorship, though not formally
institutionalized in the Nepali culture, manifests in the form of brotherly, elderly or teacherly
counsels and support to journalists by another professional or peer group member.

In terms of infrastructure, most journalists within the major media houses have access to resources,
ICT, libraries and other such informational materials, including personal computers (in some cases;
an increasing trend), Many young journalists increasingly appear new media savvy. In terms of
professional membership and organizing, most news institutions have in-house branches of the
Federation of Nepali Journalists (FNJ) and some are also associated with one of the politically leaning
trade associations.

There are several journalism awards, established in the name of institutions or individuals, and some
by professional associations. For example, FNJ, Press Council Nepal, Sancharika Samuha, Reporters'
Club, as well as NGOs and government agencies have instituted journalism awards on various
themes ranging from education to environment, health, and development. Several such awards
originate in the districts too. However, no updated, integrated literature is available on the range of
awards available today.

A few fellowships on reporting are offered by NPI, Center for Investigative Journalism (CIJ), Nepal
Forum of Environmental Journalists (NEFEJ), etc. Some journalism research fellowships or grants are
offered by Martin Chautari, SNV, Social Science Baha, etc.

24

2.6.3 Academic journalism curricula
2.6.3.1 Overview of journalism training curriculum at Universities
Media/Journalism began as an academic discipline in Nepal nearly four decades ago with the
inclusion of journalism as an optional course by Tribhuvan University at its Proficiency Certificate
(Intermediate; currently known as 10+2) Level in 1976. With opportunities for choices between
professional courses offered by different universities and education boards, the discipline is now one
of the most sought-after fields under Humanities and Social Sciences.

The following are the timelines for the university programs:
Major university programs
- 1976. Proficiency Certificate Level, with Journalism as an optional subject, Tribhuvan
University
- 1986. Bachelor Level (two years), with Journalism as one of the two optional/elective subjects,
Tribhuvan University
- 1997. Higher Secondary (+2), inclusion of Journalism and Mass Communication as one of the
optional subjects
- 2001. Masters in Journalism and Mass Communication, Tribhuvan University
- 2001. Inclusion of Journalism as an optional subject in Grade IX and X
- 2001. Masters in Mass Communication and Journalism, Purvanchal University
- 2002. Bachelor in Media Technology, Purvanchal University
- 2002. Bachelor in Mass Communication and Journalism, Purvanchal University
- 2003. Master in Development Communication, Purvanchal University
- 2006. Bachelor in Media Studies, Kathmandu University
- 2010. Master in Media Technology, Purvanchal University

Distance Education
Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU)
- Postgraduate in Journalism and Mass Communication, starting from 2002 in Nepal, one and
half year.

Allied/Elective courses taught in different universities (Kafle, 2009)
- Journalism Studies, Media Studies, (MA /M Phil in English) Pokhara University
- Development Communication (Masters in Development Studies, Kathmandu University)
- Introductory Journalism and Mass Communication (Bachelor in Fine Arts, Kathmandu
University
- Writing for Mass Media (B.Ed. English, TU)
- Researches on Print Media in MA (Nepali), MA (English)

25

Table 2: Nature of academic programs in universities
SN Inst/Univ. Levels Name of program Duration Remarks
1

TU
Master's MA in Journalism and Mass Comm.

2 years Specialization
2
Bachelor's BA (with Journalism Mass Communication) 3 years Specialization
Optional
3
Intermediate
Levels
IA (with Journalism and Mass
Communication)
2 years Specialization optional
4

Purbanchal
University
Master's Master in Mass Comm. and Journalism 2 years 4
semesters
Specialization
5
Master's Master in Media Technology 2 years 4
semesters
Specialization
6
Master's Master in Development Communication 2 years 4
semesters
Specialization
7
Bachelor's Bachelor in Media Technology 3 years 6
semesters
Specialization
8
Bachelor's Bachelor in Mass Comm. and Journalism 3 yrs. 6
semesters
Specialization
9

KU
Undergraduate Bachelor in Media Studies 4 years 8
semesters
Specialization
10
HSEB Intermediate Mass Communication Journalism (+2) 2 years Optional
11
GoN Board SLC Journalism- Part 1 and 2 Optional
(Adhikary & Pant, 2011; Pant, 2009)

Inter-/Multi-disciplinarity
Today media education has become eclectic with a closer orientation to multiple areas of humanities
and social sciences. The academic programs integrate as many areas as come under the rubrics of
journalism, communication, cultural studies and language proficiency including hands-on exposure
in the existing and emerging media technologies.

The courses seem to have been constructed to encompass a wide range of subjects from such core
vocational areas like computer technology, new media technology, print technology, television
journalism, radio journalism, print journalism, photojournalism, reporting, advertising and public
relations to the foundational/allied fields of studies as language, literature, history, geography,
economics, political science, law, ethics, psychology, philosophy, sociology, anthropology, human
rights, globalization, entrepreneurship, public policy, information management, tourism and sports
among others.

The universities have equally placed emphasis on orientation to researches and project works apart
from a mandatory internship for industrial exposure.

2.6.3.2 Curricular targets and objectives
Master's level curricula
The Master's level curricula of Tribhuvan University (TU) and Purvanchal University (PU) have some
common objectives such as cultivating adequate advanced knowledge and in-depth study, guiding
students on an intellectual level to meet new and broader challenges of the 21
st
Century,
disseminating comprehensive in-depth academic knowledge, and preparing students for
multidimensional aspects.

Thus the foci of the TU curriculum have been four major areas: study of theories and practices,
meeting twenty-first century needs, mastering media tools and technology and intercultural
communication, and media education and thesis writing (TU, 2009). Also the curricular thrust of TU
syllabuses may be summarized in such general terms as to produce academically and professionally
sound manpower which Nepali media landscape is eyeing for, documented as one of its
26

institutional goals by Madan Bhandari Memorial College (MBMC), the only affiliate college in
Kathmandu that runs TUs Master's program in Journalism and Mass Communication.

PUs Master's level curricula can be inferred to have identical emphases as TUs. The official website
of Kantipur City College (KCC), which runs PUs Master's in Mass Communication and Journalism
(MMCJ), declares the program as an offer for students who want to earn a university degree with
professional expertise and academic command in mass communication and journalism. MMCJ
objectives, according to the same site, involve such aspects as clarifying media-related theoretical
concepts, imparting orientation to mass communication research, providing knowledge and
experience for leadership, developing skills in information and communication technologies, building
up formal trainings as a journalist and media executive, and providing foundation for further
education beyond Master's degree.

Master's in Media Technology (MMT) of PU appears slightly more cognizant of the need to equip its
graduates with hard technical skills. It has the objectives to impart students with skills and
knowledge in technical areas of communication specific for organizational issues or challenges, to
train with solutions to media communication related problems and to help adapt and integrate
new skills as technologies change, apart from the thrust for teaching project managements,
research skills, and creativity.

Overall, as the official statement of Shepherd College (SC), Kathmadu, the only center to run the
MMT program under PU, goes, the program vies for a quality mass communication education to
meet the challenges and exploit the opportunities offered in 21
st
century. This statement comes
with the similar promise of meeting new and broader challenges of the 21
st
Century as stated in
the TU curriculum.

PUs Master's in Development Communication (MDC) acknowledges the need of interdisciplinary
orientation to development communication graduates. Apart from the promise to impart adequate
knowledge in traditional media and journalism, it extends to correlate folk media and development
ventures and includes issues concerning South and South-East Asia, discourse on the third world,
and the role of NGOs and civil society among others.

In a nutshell, the curricula of the TU and PU involve claims of intellectual growth, knowhow of
information communication technologies, research orientation, attention to market needs and,
above all, preparation for meeting the twenty first century global challenges. With this, Nepali
journalism and media programs appear to give the impression of being diverse yet inclusive in
nature.

The institutions of higher education in journalism and media appear to have different claims based
on difference in the nature of ownership. The public and community centers like TU and MBMC
focus largely on the strength of curriculum and its wider implications. The private institutions, on the
other hand, present assertions transcending the scope of curricula. These range from the claims of
prominence in merit, national/international recognition, excellence in human resource and physical
infrastructures to their commitment to the service of nation, and upliftment of the underprivileged.

Bachelor's Level curricula
TU places Bachelor's Level syllabi in Journalism and Mass Communications as one of the two major
optional subjects. The objectives are naturally indicative of the Universitys goal for a sufficient
tertiary level generalistic orientation to the fields of journalism and mass communication. The
objectives include four major themes such as appreciation and discussion of the importance of
studying journalism and communication, application of mass communication principles in practical
27

fields; acquisition of insights into the history, laws and ethical issues of media; and identifying major
trends in national and global media (TU Syllabus, 2009).

TU naturally has the largest number of students pursuing Bachelor studies with Journalism and Mass
Communication as a major. Combining both constituent and affiliated centers, it has about forty
colleges (Pant, 2009) offering journalism and mass communication. The total number of students
taking up journalism is virtually unrecorded for immediate reference.

Bachelor's in Media Studies
The Bachelor's in Media Studies (BMS) in Kathmandu University (KU) is the only four-year program in
Nepal with an interdisciplinary orientation and also a provision for specialization in the final year.
KUs official website mentions its main objective to be to produce media professionals to fulfill the
increasing demands of skilled and trained human resources in media organizations and media
support services, and also to meet the requirements of educational institutions, development
agencies and other service sectors. Besides gaining knowledge and skills in the areas of journalism,
media and communication, students of BMS will develop a strong base of communication skills,
media literacy and an ability to carry out project works independently. The program also aims to
provide students with extensive exposure on research, production and practice of media in order
to ultimately the reduce prevalent tension of claim for precedence between professors and
professionals by developing in graduates the qualities of both (Kafle, 2009, 16-17).

Bachelor's in Mass Communication and Journalism in Purvanchal University aims to produce
graduates of interdisciplinary orientations. It includes a number of other subjects beyond the core
areas of journalism and mass communication. One important aspect of this program is a substantial
concentration on teaching of core literature in English. Subjects like human rights, conflict and
judicial systems give the program an interdisciplinary form.

PUs Bachelor's in Technology (BMT) places emphasis on information technology next to the core
areas of journalism, media and communication. In addition, the Media program allows substantial
amount of training in English language. Its main objective appears to be the preparation of
technologically sound media professionals with adequate training on creativity and communication
skills.

Thus, a cursory look at the objectives and syllabuses of different university curricula shows that
Nepals overall Bachelor's level education in journalism, media and communication is geared largely
towards preparing graduates with high professional exposure. Since most of these programs and
colleges are based in Kathmandu, students naturally benefit from the proximity to industries,
practitioners and educators of the mainstream.

Admission and graduates
TU receives the highest number of students in the Master's level. The number of intakes in the last
three years in RR Campus is 120 in 2009, 120 in 2010 and 83 in 2011. College authorities believe the
number 83 does not signify the dwindling of admission for any other reasons than the Campuss
policy to limit the number of students (Kafle, 2012). MBMC has received 11 students (7 males and 4
females) in the Masters level in 2011. This makes 93 students as the total admission size in the TU
system alone. CJMC reports the admission of 15 students to MMCJ in 2011. The total number of
females in its total intake is 40% (Kafle, 2012).

Though the status of yearly admission in TUs Bachelor's level remains unclear in lack of collective
records, it can be safely said, it enrolls a large number of students annually. Last three years record
28

in MBMC indicates a consistent admission (36 in 2009, 41 in 2010 and 39 in 2011) with larger
number of females; 67 against 49 males (Kafle, 2012).

When approached, the TU system could not provide the figures on the exact number of media
graduates (Kafle, 2012). The trend of admission in the last three years still indicates its being the
university to produce highest number of Master's degree holders in Journalism and mass
communication. The PU brings out graduates from its three programs. For example, CJMC records a
total of about 198 graduates (155 males, 43 females) through its last eleven batches.

Placements
There is limited account of where the graduates go to work. TU has remained silent (or indifferent)
about where its graduates land. The Principal of MBMC at least states having plenty of instances to
offer about the products of his college demonstrating a high level of quality and strengths in the
field of media research and media practice (Kafle 2012). The KCC has not officially published any
data of the placement of its graduates.

Shepherd College has also not publicized data on its graduates statuses. The CJMC has had a clear
track of the status of more than a hundred of its graduates. Its official website shows that 18 of the
graduates are presently employed in various UN Agencies, INGOs and NGOs; 46 in different TV
stations/channels of Nepal, 33 in print media, 10 in radio, 2 in photography and 1 in online media
(Kafle, 2012).

KU has produced 27 graduates from the first two batches. A number of them have joined national
print outlets including The Nepali Times (4 females), Republica (1), Nagarik (2), and The Himalayan
Times (3) among others. Others are pursuing graduate studies in other disciplines or freelancing in
photography, documentary or film making (Kafle, 2012).

There have been limited attempts at researching and analyzing the structure and efficacy of the
curricula in journalism, communication and media in Nepal. In what is available so far, the practice
has been to outline the trend of education, especially in view of the types and contents of curricula
in different universities, and the limitations in infrastructures in human resources.

2.6.4 Capacity development by NGOs
Training is the key and often the only element in capacity development undertaken by NGOs. Today,
a number of private organizations and NGOs are involved in training journalists. Nepal Press Institute
(NPI), Media Point, Academy of Audio-Visual Arts & Science (AAVAS) and Center for Investigative
Journalism (CIJ) are some of them. Some of the organizations run regular training programs while
others conduct training occasionally.

29

Table 3: Journalism/media training institutions
SN. Name Subject area Target participants Required
academic
qualification
1. AAVAS Camera handling, visual editing, TV
program production, radio technician,
TV/radio presentation
Open to all NA
2. ACORAB Radio management, basic radio
journalism, technician, in house over all
radio training, attachment training
Working journalists & employees with
minimum 2 years experience in radio
NA
3. ANIJ

Indigenous movement and basic
journalism
Indigenous people, preference to
working journalists
Priority to
intermediate
level but not
compulsory
4. Antenna
Foundation
Radio technician, program production,
station management
Radio producer for projects; open to all
for other basic radio training
NA
5. Asmita Gender issues Male and female journalists and activists NA
6. BASC, Nepalgunj Basic journalism/ Anchoring Children and youth NA
7. BBC World Service
Trust
Radio technician, program production Technician, working journalist, station NA
8. Bikalpa the Option Basic radio journalism and anchoring Open to all NA

9. CIJ Investigative jour & feature writing Working journalists 10+2 or IA
10. Communication
Corner
Radio program production, community
broadcasting
Radio producer, community mobilizers NA
11. CRSC, NEFEJ Radio technician, production and
management
Technician, working journalist and
station manager
NA
12. EJG Education reporting Journalists working on education beat NA
13. Equal Access Radio program production Program producers NA
14. FMDC Human rights, peace building and social
justice, conservation and environment
Working journalists in far western region NA
15. FNJ Organizational development and
leadership, professional security
Members of executive committee and
general members of FNJ
NA
16. Freedom Forum Legal issue, media law Journalists working on law beat or
having law background
NA
17. INSEC Human rights Journalists, human rights activists NA
18. Jagaran Media
Center
Dalit issues, basic journalism People from Dalit community, working
Dalit journalists, but some time also
targeted to non Dalits
Generally SLC
but not
mandatory to
have SLC
19. Mahila Sanchar
Samuha, Nepalgunj
Basic journalism and feature writing Fresh women, female journalists SLC
20. Media Foundation Specialized topics in journalism, new
media, media research, methods
Journalists, professionals NA
21. Media Point Basic and advanced Open to all SLC
22. Media's Collection Basic radio journalism and anchoring Open to all NA
23. Naya Sansar, Itahari Basic journalism and radio anchoring Open to all NA
24. NEFEJ Environment reporting, photography Journalists working on environment beat NA
25. NMDC Health and basic journalism Journalists working on the health beat NA
26. NPI and its RMRCs Basic and advanced journalism Training Basic training open to all; specialized and
advanced training for specific others
10+2 or IA for
10-month
basic, SLC for
3-month basic;
NA for
advanced
27. On Air Media Pvt.
Ltd.
Radio/TV journalism, program
production, presentation, radio
technician
Open to all NA
28. Sancharika Samuha
Nepal
Basic journalism and feature writing Female working journalists IA
29. SEJON Economic and business reporting Journalists working on economic beat NA
30. Vision Nepal,
Rupandehi
Basic journalism Terai Dalit NA
31. WWJ Blog, photography, creative writing Working women journalists NA
(Parajulee et al., 2009; with minor adaptation)

With the growth and expansion of radio since the mid-1990s a number of training institutions have
been providing short-term and long-term training programs on reporting, editing, anchoring,
program production for radio. The NPI offers regular 10-month diploma course, and has in the last
27 years produced hundreds of graduates. In Kathmandu alone NPI has produced, on an average, 20
graduates a year, that by mid-2012 came to be some 550 trained journalists. Its regional centers in
Biratnagar, Nepalgunj and Butwal each produce 20 graduates a year. The Media Point, which started
30

a 10-month training course, boasts 215 graduates. National Media Development Center has trained
1,218 in its short-term journalism courses (NMDC, 2012). Other organizations such as Sancharika
Samuha, Education Journalists Group and the Communication Corner are also organizing programs
to train journalists.
Some cause-oriented media development or advocacy organizations or associations like Asmita,
Active Women Journalist Group, Hatemalo Sanchar, Jagaran Media Center, Association of Nepal
Indigenous Journalists, Tamang Communication Group also offer short term training to journalists on
specialty topics like women, children, Dalits, and indigenous causes. Nepal Batabaran Patrakar
Samuha provides training on environmental and community radio issues.
Some NGOs including Martin Chautari, RIMAKE Nepal, INSEC, New Era, and Netherland Development
Organization provide fellowships for journalists and journalism students. Nepal Press Council also
awards certain number of fellowships each year. Press Council Nepal (PCN) and some news
organizations like Kantipur Publications also offer fellowships.
Although Nepal does not have an institutionalized culture of professional apprenticeship, several
media outlets offer internship opportunities to young and aspiring journalists or journalism students.
Despite the emphasis on training by professionals, training remains "a subject which has so far been
neglected by academics and other researchers" (Parajulee et al, 2009, vi). The study by Martin
Chautari examined institutions involved in media training (both in the Kathmandu Valley and in the
districts), training curricula, trainers, trainees, as well as the financial aspects of the training
business. Several of the recommendations made by the study (Parajulee et al, 2009, 42-49) still
remain relevant:

a more rigorous selection process of trainees, maintaining data on them, inclusive
enrolment, training module, practical focus, specialized training, training for trainers, strong
monitoring and evaluation, need-based and decentralized training opportunities, among
others
in-house training, clear policies for selecting news staff for training opportunities, hiring
trained staff
help the media institutions with competent, trained human resources, financially support
institutions involved in regular media training, invest in the capacity enhancement of
journalists involved in the public-sector media to make them competitive with other private
media
commitment on the part of FNJ to training in a long-term basis, professionally, playing an
intermediary role between its members and training providing institutions, and providing of
timely information of training opportunities by district chapters
senior journalists should keep themselves abreast of the new developments that are taking
place and should be competitive, journalists must get involved and try to hone their skills,
conduct research, keep in touch with their trainers even after the completion of the
trainings, choose professional institutions that deliver quality
for the next 2-3 years, conduct basic journalism training in non-academic setting in major
urban or non-urban areas, support to training organizations in curricula development,
equipment, etc; support for television journalism. Also, conduct such training for
underrepresented in Nepali media, as well as advanced training in non-university setting,
advanced subject-specific reporting training, support for infrastructure, curricula
development, and collaboration between journalism training institutions and academic
research institutions

31

2.6.5 Overview of other capacity development initiatives
Diplomatic missions are other sources of support for the training and professional growth of media
workers. American, British, Indian, Norwegian and other embassies have been providing fellowships
to Nepali journalists. They conduct short term training on a range of topics. Some aid agencies have
supported efforts in institutional capacity building of media groups or educational institutions and
well as collaborated with local partners.
7

2.6.5.1 Training: Over the years, Nepali journalists have received training from various countries and
international institutiosns such as the Radio Netherlands, Indian Institute for Mass Communication
(India), Germany, Japan, France, Denmark, USA, Pakistan, and many other countries, although the
details on the types of programs and the number of Nepali participants are not available in one
place. The New Delhi-based IIMC, which began offering courses in 1979, has so far trained about 66
Nepali journalists. Asia Journalism Fellowship and Wee Kim Wee School of Communication and
Information, Singapore, have offered 3-month course to three Nepali journalists.

The World Press Institute (WPI), USA, has been offering 3 months courses and 2 Nepali journalists
have been trained so far. Similarly, Nepal-based INGOs (including ICIMOD, SAP Nepal, SNV, JICA, and
many others have offered training opportunities for Nepali journalists. Under bilateral
arrangements, countries such as USA, UK, Denmark, UK, India, Japan, and others have supported
organizations and events to train Nepali journalists. For example, over the years, the US has offered
Fulbright/Humphrey fellowships to dozens of Nepali journalists.

2.6.5.2 Media development: INGOs are also playing a role in the overall media development,
support for infrastructure, logistics, programming, and funds. The Danish International Development
Agency (DANIDA) of Denmark, the BBC World Trust, and PANOS South Asia, also provide support to
various components of media development.

UN Agencies like UNESCO, UNDP, and OHCHR have done some work in the area of Nepali media
development. UNESCO also offers awards for journalists and funds for capacity development efforts
in the field of media on a regular basis.

2.6.5.3 Fellowship/exchange: Limited journalism or media fellowships are offered in Nepal (ex. NPI,
CIJ, Martin Chautari, Social Science Baha, etc).

Noted among the international fellowships are Alfred Friendly Press Fellowships, USA, which have
trained 7 Nepali journalists since 1983 in their 6 months courses. Dag Hammarskjold Journalism
Fellowship, United Nations, has been around since 1962, offering 2 months of visits and interactions.
Six Nepali journalists have benefited from the fellowship program. International John S. Knight
Fellowship, USA, has been offering the Knight Fellowship since 1966 of 9 months. Nieman
Fellowship, Harvard University has been around since 1951 offering 10 months courses (Adhikari,
2012).

2.6.5.4 Role of Professional Associations: Professional groups such as IFEX, CPJ, RSF, ICFJ, AMARC,
Thompson Foundation, AMIC, IMS, Article19, International Journalism Associations, Asian Journalism
Forum, South Asian Free Media Association (SAFMA), and several others are also involved in capacity
development of journalists by supporting their training and research needs through collaborative
efforts. The International Media Mission to Nepal (IMMN) that has visited the country several times,

7
This overview is based on review of sketchy data, and interviews with stakeholders. Hence, this is not
exhaustive.
32

especially during difficulties faced by the press, serves as another relevant example of collaboration,
partnership and support (Adhikari, 2012).

2.7 Media literacy
Media literacy is broadly defined as access to media, critical understanding of media, and
communicative abilities. The first is considered as personal media competency and the latter social
media competencies. Wilson et al (2011, 18) suggest a unified notion embodying elements of
information literacy and media literacy. Accordingly, information literacy constitutes the abilities to
do the following:

Define and articulate information needs
Locate and access information
Assess information
Organize information
Make ethical use of information
Communicate information
Use ICT skills for information processing

Likewise, media literacy comprises the abilities to:
Understand the role and functions of media in democratic societies
Understand the conditions under which media can fulfill their functions
Critically evaluate media content in the light of media functions
Engage with media for self-expression and democratic participation
Review skills (including ICTs) needed to produce user-generated content

Martens (2010) conducted a thorough meta-analysis of 165 scholarly manuscripts on media
literacy in English. He identifies three key elements that pinpoint on ability to "analyze, evaluate and
produce."

2.7.1 The European Charter definition of media literacy
An expert group from the European Commission defined media literacy as the ability to "access,
analyze and evaluate the power of images, sounds and messages which we are now being
confronted with on a daily basis, and [which] are an important part of our contemporary culture"
(EC, 2011, 19). In addition, it is also an ability "to communicate competently in media available on a
personal basis." Media literacy relates to all media, including television and film, radio and recorded
music, print media, the Internet and other new digital communication technologies.

The expert group observed that media literacy serves to create awareness of varied media
messages, recognize how the media filter their perceptions and beliefs, shape popular culture and
influence personal choices. It helps empower citizens with critical thinking and creative problem-
solving skills.

The European Charter of Media Literacy synthesized extensive literature on media literacy (EC, 2010,
20-21) and it is characterized as consistent with key definitions of media literacy. It concludes that
media literacy is the ability to do the following:

1. Use media technologies effectively to access, store, retrieve and share content to meet their
individual and community needs and interests;
2. Gain access to and make informed choices about a wide range of media forms and content
from different cultural and institutional sources;
33

3. Understand how and why media content is produced;
4. Analyze critically the techniques, languages and conventions used by the media and the
messages they convey;
5. Use media creatively to express and communicate ideas, information and opinions;
6. Identify and avoid or challenge media content and services that may be unsolicited,
offensive or harmful; and
7. Make effective use of media in the exercise of their democratic rights and civil
responsibilities.

Test items in media literacy (EC, 2010, 6-7) could involve three areas, namely, use of skill for
application of media; critical understanding and communicative abilities.

Use skills
Reading books (print or e-book);
Reading newspapers (print or online);
Playing computer or video games;
Going to the cinema;
Using the Internet;
Sending e-mails with attached files;
Using the Internet to make telephone calls;
Using peer-to-peer file sharing;
Creating a web page;

Critical understanding
Trust of information that is presented by different media sources (newspapers, television,
radio, Internet);
Awareness of information that is presented by different media sources (different television
channels, different news programs, different search engines);
Awareness of the influence of advertising;
Knowledge of media regulations;
Ability to identify options for gathering information;
Skills in critically evaluating the credibility of information;
Comparison of information across sources;
Skills in managing privacy and protecting self from unwanted messages.

Communicative abilities
Content creation across a variety of media, including written texts, video, audio, and visual;
Engagement with public debate (commenting on a blog post, writing a letter to a newspaper
editor, posting a blog);
Social networking online (whether privately or professionally);
Collaborating online on a joint project (including contributing to a wiki).

Yet, in general, the measure of media literacy starts with media access, the availability of media
tools or technologies, for these are the basic conditions for people to get familiar with media, gain
the know-hows, understand them critically, and use them in every day life.

2.7.2 Nepal's case
Existing surveys in Nepal have not addressed media literacy, although some of these surveys asked
audience about their access to media, and some inquired about the nature of their reliance on a
particular channel. No doubt, with the growth and expansion of media in the country, access is
34

increasing (for example, an estimated 80% radio penetration, and 54.46% mobile penetration),
suggesting that the basic conditions for media literacy are being set up.

Analysts and critics have emphasized importance of media literacy in Nepal in terms of access,
knowledge of media and their functions, analytical skills (Lohani, Subedi, Rana and Khanal; preface:
1995), active citizenry, awareness of the manipulative, negative powers of media, (Aryal, 2009);
distinguishing between accuracy and inaccuracy (Kharel, 2012), etc. Literature, bulk of it comprised
of analysis, essays and reflective articles, does refer to media literacy, emphasizing its need in
contemporary Nepal.

2.8 Surveys on media, journalists and the public
Although household surveys undertaken on official initiatives in health and other demographic
sectors have been around for many decades, there is generally a paucity of surveys focusing on
professional groups and the general public with regard to specialized topics like media. Some key
examples follow:

Examples of early surveys conducted around the 1980s and 1990s focused exclusively on
broadcast access, radio listenership, audience preferences, attitudes etc.

Given the wider reach of the radio, its immediacy and ubiquity, there has been more interest
in assessing its assumed impact on the audience.
19 Years Ago: public perceptions of Nepali media

One of the earliest systematic and public-focused surveys on media in Nepal was conducted in 1993. In that survey
undertaken by the Institute for Integrated Development Studies (IIDS), 1,321 respondents had participated. The survey,
which asked 29 different questions concerning media and public perceptions about its roles and performance, sought to
generate data on the media use behavior of the Nepali public. The respondents came from 15 districts of the country. The
study also included a mini survey where 34 journalists responded to 10 questions regarding their personal profile and
professional status.

The survey's questions revolved around concepts like professional freedom, work experience, job satisfaction, job
preference, training and exposure, as well as capacity development, among others. It did not, however, concern with the
role and status of media institutions.

The IIDS survey results showed that the number of trained journalists was only around 30% in 1993. Although more than 75
percent of the respondent journalists reported positively to having had some kind of foreign exposure, 38% of respondents
desired to have trainings from the private sector.

Journalism was not a full-time, or the sole profession for all the participating journalists. Figures showed that 21% of them
worked elsewhere, beside their media, for supplementary earning. Ironically, however, while 53% said they were satisfied
with their job, only slightly more than one third considered their job as the "preferred" one.

The larger IIDS survey gauged public opinion on media and the contemporary media problems as well as reform initiatives
including the scope of introducing Right to Information law. On a question regarding the role of public in public opinion
formation, 53% of the respondents answered "yes", although in a discussion output the figure contradicted, with only 38%
asserting such a role.

The survey also overviewed the prevailing libel laws, the Public Offence and Punishment Act 2027, issues on protection of
confidential sources, government's fixing of minimum qualification for a journalist, impartiality of Press Council Nepal and its
jurisdiction to work as newspapers' audit bureau of circulation. Other concerns of the IIDS survey included "Congressization"
of official media, scope for private news agencies, ownership policies, Working Journalist Act, watching the watchdog
(media monitoring), right to privacy, Code of Conduct, taste and decency decisions, foreign investment/ involvement in
media, and public advertising incentives.

Several survey questions concerned status of women in regards to media and its coverage. Regarding gender issues and
the coverage on women, ethnicity and the oppressed, the survey indicated that only little and far-from- satisfactory coverage
was in place. The public Professionalism was lacking even in the state-owned media outlets, according to the 1993 IIDS
survey.

Mass Media and Democratization, Country Study on Nepal. 1996. Kathmandu: IIDS.

35

Proprietorial/in-house surveys have been a regular feature of stations like Radio Nepal, the
countrys premier broadcaster. It has been conducting periodic in-house audience surveys to
find out patterns of listenership and effectiveness of the programs since several decades. This
trend is apparent in some local FM radio stations (MS Nepal, 2005).

Most other surveys are conducted by non-governmental organizations (NGOs). These all focus
on radio audiences, their preferences, tastes, attitudes and beliefs (EA Nepal, 2007-2008; BBC
WST, 2008; New Era/USAID, 2009; Nielsen, 2008). These studies, though they allow for the
analysis of the general media consumption habits and patterns, are carried mainly with the
purpose of evaluating media impact assessments of particular programs undertaken by the
related NGOs. Some are market-oriented and have little focus on professional development of
journalists or media as a whole.

The few available academic surveys concern journalists roles (Ramaprasad and Kelly, 2003),
and local FM radio listenership (Banjade, 2007).

Apart from Ramaprasad and Kelly (2003), there are a few other surveys that focus on
journalists (including those in the print media). These offer some insight into the
demographics and professional practices of the less-privileged media workers living outside
the valley (MSI, 2060) and journalists from the marginalized and the Dalit communities
(Parajulee & Gautam, 2008).

Existing surveys have not addressed topics like journalists capacity development, although
one survey (IIDS, 1996) conducted in 1993 covered some core themes of the topic. Surveys
specifically on media literacy, or media credibility are rare, some of those available measure
credibility in terms of trust or reliability. Some of these surveys assess trust on media (MS
2005; BBC WST, 2008), and reliability (MS Nepal 2005) of media as a source of information,
and others measure medias potential for social inclusion and political engagement (BBC WST,
2008).

A thread of literature focuses on survey methods in the Nepali context. For example, errors in
survey data due to linguistic and conceptual unintelligibility, recall problems, respondents'
reluctance to give correct information (sensitivity and privacy topic, fear for negative
consequences and desire for benefit, contextual bias such as the wish to project desired
public, and respondents motivation), and interviewer error (Campbell & Stone, 2010).

Experts, analysts and commentators appear persistent in their emphasis on the need to
undertake more substantive audience surveys rather than merely focus on content analyses.
Limitations in resources, unresolved methodological issues like low response rates, self-
selection, access, etc are cited as some of the problems in conducting surveys.

Lacking systematic and accurate surveys, most of the literature on Nepali media appeared
speculative and the available data on media outlets, journalists and their perspectives or
needs remain mostly estimates. A truly national survey of Nepali journalists as well as of the
public focusing on their perceptions and perspectives of media is visibly lacking.

36

Table 4: Mapping Literature on credibility, capacity and literacy
Study Demography Affiliation Topic/Issue Key pointer in literature

Survey of
Journalists
Gender
Level of
Education
Academic
background
Level of
income
Experience
Ethnicity
Region
Media outlet
Beat
Political ideology
Culture

Challenges journalists
face
Environmental/societal level (general lack of
enabling environments)
Organizational (constraints)
Individual (limitations, flaws)
Training they
participated in
Inequitable, exclusion Opportunities
gradually growing
Mostly basic courses, workshops, seminars
Few specialized ones
Capacity
development needs
Lopsided
Emphasis mainly on training
Specialization needed
Strengthening the fast diversifying academic
programs and curricula
Too many needs at various levels
Their perception of
media credibility
Mixed- positive and negative
Suggestions to
improve the overall
perceptions of Nepali
journalism/media
Professionalism, ethics, financial
independence, security, etc
Training they
participated in

Data scattered
Limited opportunities for most of the
journalists

Public
survey/Poll
Gender
Age
Level of
education
Education
background
(subject)
Ethnicity
Region
Profession
Political ideology
Culture
View toward Nepali
media
Quality not encouraging
Quantity impressive (radio, new media)
Profit-driven, sensational, partisan
Old stereotypes of journalists persist
Media as a credible
source of information
Anecdotal observations point to their
unreliable attributes; no systematic studies
Empirical literature mostly on lack of
accuracy, distortion, etc
Level of reliability of
Nepali media as a
source of information
(topics such as
constitution making,
national politics,
good governance,
etc)
Some studies, content-focused
Systematic surveys lacking
Citizens media
literacy
Comprehensive programs lacking
No culture, institutions
Their level of media
literacy
Largely unknown,
Anecdotal examples

What media they use Mostly radio
Some surveys relate to audience use,
preferences
Radio most studied
How often do they
use them
Mobile devices (new media) more in use
Increasing local FM radio listenership
No meaningful, disaggregated data
Why do they use
them (info,
knowledge,
understanding,
entertainment, etc)
Usual references to entertainment,
education, information
Perspectives of the audience/public
themselves largely missing
Source: Based on literature and desk review for the present study, 2012.
37

2.9 Challenges and opportunities for the media
The growth of media in Nepal, especially local broadcast media, has been described as impressive
and its implications for a meaningful and relevant communication as well as local participations have
been positive. Increasing new media penetration, media access and technological advancement and
the entry of more educated journalists in the profession are encouraging signs of the development
of media and the professional growth opportunities for journalists. However, there are concerns that
the quantitative gain does not balance well with the overall quality of the media.
Literature suggests the following (both macro and micro-level factors) as the main impediments to
the professional growth of media and the journalists:
Social and environmental factors
Despite media penetration and its increased influence on the society as a whole, there is no
clear articulation or appreciation of the role of media or journalists in a democratic society.
It is not clear how journalists conventional stereotypes of sensationalists, intruders and
charlatans have affected their work and their impact on society. Moreover, lacking a long
history of press freedom, journalists and media houses continue to be physical targets of
violent and disgruntled groups and non-state actors. Popular literature continues to paint
the media sector as a less desirable profession although the achievements gained in the
profession in recent years, some maintain, have helped to foster some measure of
respectability of the sector. With rising literacy rates and expanding media, Nepali society
certainly looks to be headed for better prospects.

Legal factors
The legal reforms in the area of press freedom, Right to Information, minimum wage to
journalists, etc have helped to create conducive environment for plurality and diversity of
media. However, little progress has been achieved in enforcing those laws and in some
respects ambiguities in laws and their enforcement has fostered an environment of self-
censorship. Moreover, substantive legal reforms in the area of public broadcasting,
community media, new media, etc have yet to take place.

Organizational factors
There are many issues at the organizational level. Spatial concentration of media in
Kathmandu (almost all of nationally influential print and electronic media in Nepal is
produced in the capital city), partisan bias, excessive commercial interests, lack of
transparency in ownership, low pay to journalists, inadequate resources, lack of newsroom
and content diversity, poor representation or coverage of women and minorities,
inadequate progress of the language (mother-tongue) press, etc are recurrent themes in
literature.

In terms of technology, media houses have not exploited the full potential of new media yet.
Many websites still do shovelware, and many of these are designed poorly. No social media
policies have been devised by the media houses institutionally. Individual journalists are
spearheading new media adoption and innovation.

Individual factors
Individual journalists attributes, characters, values, interests and motivations also play a
role in their professional standing and their capacities. While a thread of literature does pay
attention to the gradually improving image of journalists as respectable professionals,
majority of the research and analysis continues to focus on portraying journalists as lacking
in proper skills, professional ethics (self-regulation), fairness, impartiality, accountability and
38

quality work. Most journalists still lack advanced academic degrees in the discipline, on-job
training and other professional opportunities like fellowships, and most lack the basic
technical and financial resources to multi-task in a profession that is witnessing rapid change
mainly due to technological breakthroughs and social and political transformation. Many
journalists practice the craft by trial and error, work on multiple beats, even when they dont
posses specialized knowledge and skills to cover emerging topics that are increasingly
complex and that range from climate change to business, to IT to inclusion and elections,
post-conflict situation.

2.10 Summary of key issues
Briefly, the following key points could be emphasized that appear outstanding in this review of
literature:
Systematic surveys of journalists and public perceptions of media specifically focused on
capacity development or credibility remain scarce in Nepal. A few surveys have measured
elements of trust and reliability.
Capacity development should go beyond training to focus more on specialization, and
strengthening academic programs and curricula as well as fostering collaboration and
improving access to resources.
Existing surveys generally have assessed media literacy conditions in terms of access and
use. They indicate radio as the most accessed medium. National survey data on other
elements of media literacy such as critical ability for media evaluation and production are
not available.
While Nepal is witnessing rapid political and social transformation, conventional negative
stereotypes of journalists associated with political partisanship, lack of neutrality, fairness,
and professional competence remain the most dominant challenge.
Comparing journalists own views about their professional needs with public perceptions of
media's role in a democracy could help identify the priorities for media development in
Nepal.
Literature suggests capacity building efforts and debates surrounding it often focus on basic
or proficiency level training programs and, and not much attention has been paid to
standardized training courses or other capacity development initiatives such as technical or
hands-on opportunities, specialization, infrastructure, professional collaboration, etc.
Formal education in journalism or media topics is gradually gaining popularity, and, Nepali
journalism and media programs appear to give the impression of being diverse yet inclusive
in nature. However, there is little information available on the scope and impact of these
programs on the professional growth of their graduates.
Analysts have emphasized the importance of media literacy in Nepal for its power to
educate and empower the public so that they could be discerning media users and
enlightened citizens. However, there is dearth of empirical data on the existing state of
media literacy in the country.

39

SECTION III:
METHODS

40

41

3. METHODS

3.1 Background
As the preceding section showed, it is hard to make any concrete generalizations about the level of
media credibility, media capacity or media literacy in Nepal although these factors have often been
emphasized as necessity in a democratic society. Questions also remain about the current profile of
journalists or audience, their attributes and attitudes, amid a fast-changing media landscape.
Moreover, the paucity of empirical data on the actual perceptions of journalists as well as those of
the public has hampered efforts to identify the priorities for media development in the country.

This chapter lays down the objectives of this study, describes the research design, explicates research
process, and discusses the limitations. Here "media" broadly refer to news outlets, news
organizations, and channels of communication. "Journalists" include news workers, but not excluding
editors, photographers, cartoonists, columnists, etc.

3.2 Research objectives
The overall goal of the survey assessments was to assess the media environment of Nepal in order to
identify priorities for future activities in the area of capacity development. The research was
conducted with the following specific objectives:
1. To identify Nepali journalists' attributes, their professional challenges, perceptions of media
credibility, and capacity development needs;
2. To solicit journalists' suggestions on improving the overall quality of the profession;
3. To explore public views towards media and journalists as credible sources of information; and
level of reliability of media as sources of information on contemporary issues; and
4. To find out the level of media literacy on part of the public.

The focus of the research remained on identifying journalists' capacity development needs and
priorities as well as public perceptions of media.

3.3 Research design
A multi-method approach was used for data collection. The research design comprised of the
following:
- literature and desk review;
- a general survey of journalists;
- a comprehensive public opinion survey;
- an SMS opinion poll to supplement public opinion survey; and
- Focus group /loose network discussions

3.3.1 Literature and desk review
As specified in the terms of reference (TOR) by SPCBN/UNDP, the commissioning party, the first
phase of the work involved reviewing past literature on media development in Nepal, particularly
relating to capacity developing efforts. The researchers reviewed a number of documents that
included books, research reports and journal articles. The research, through reviewing past
42

literature, became familiar with the research topic, and it proved valuable in the development of
instruments and in implementing the survey assessments.

3.3.2 Survey of journalists
The survey was conducted between May 15 and June 5, 2012.

3.3.2.1 Sample selection
A combination of sampling methods was used. Samples from the readily available membership list of
FNJ were obtained for each cluster to reach all the "accessible population" of journalists. Via a multi-
stage stratified selection procedure and quota sampling, target respondents were distributed
proportionally by media channels, sex and ethnicity.

Clusters: Ten clusters were developed to select the sample population of journalists from across the
mountain, hill and terai regions of Nepal. Since journalists population in the districts remains
uneven, clustering improved chances of reaching the required respondents for the survey. The unit
of analysis was an individual journalist.

Geographical coverage distribution: The clusters covered 30 districts (about 40% of total 75
districts), including those from the Kathmandu Valley, the mountains, hills and terai.

Figure 2: Cluster map for journalists' and public opinion surveys, June-July 2012.

43

Sample frame: The list of journalists received from the Federation Nepali Journalists provided the
main basis for developing the overall sample frame and cluster-wise types and sizes of the actual
sample. Local lists and lists from other organizations, such as Sancharika Samuha, were obtained to
select working journalists, often with the help of field workers, who were journalists themselves, and
to decide the mode to deliver the questionnaire. Considering the plan to deliver questionnaire via
print and online forms, preference was given to include journalists whose names, emails and
telephone numbers were available. The actual list contained 1,073 names, which would be 30% of
journalists listed in the selected clusters according to the FNJ membership of 8,000 in 2011.

Table 5: Area-wise breakdown of sample journalists in percentages (N=1,073)
Selected
clusters
8

Place of
residence
9

# journalists
available in selected
clusters
(from FNJ )
# respondents
drawn in the survey
sample from
journalists available
in cluster
sampled
percentage
(%) of journalists
available in
cluster
actual
coverage
target (in
approx.% of
sample)
Baglung R 104 31 30 2
Banke SU 406 122 30 10
Bara SU 265 80 30 8
Dailekh R 252 75 30 7
Dhanusha SU 272 82 30 8
Dolakha R 188 56 30 5
Kathmandu U 1168 350 30 35
Morang U 301 90 30 9
Rupandehi SU 572 172 30 14
Okhaldhunga R 49 15 30 2
Total 3577 1073 30 100

Respondents: The actual target, however, was to reach at least 800 bona-fide respondents in the
sampled clusters, approximately 10% of the total FNJ membership. Minor adjustments in the actual
sample sizes were anticipated in some clusters to make the participation in the survey inclusive as
well as representative in terms of gender, ethnicity, and outlet, etc. The extra 200 members in the
sample frame allowed some leverage for the enumerators to consider inclusive representation, to
try to include at least 10% of women, Dalit, Madhesi and marginalized communities, as a major
criterion in distributing the instruments. The other 73 members of the sample population were not
expected to be available during the actual field work.

Respondent coverage: More than 1000 (30% of journalists from the selected areas according to the
list of FNJ membership, 2011) were selected from the sample clusters. The breakdown for
respondent coverage follows.

Respondent distribution: Efforts were made to make the sample reflect the proportionality of
journalists among print (daily, weekly, magazine) and electronic (radio, television, online) journalists.

8
Cluster abbreviations: Baglung= Baglung, Manang and Mustang cluster, Banke= Banke, Bardiya and Dang cluster, Bara=
Bara, Prasa, Rautahat cluster, Kathmandu= Kathmandu, Bhaktapur and Lalitpur cluster, Rupandehi= Rupandehi, Kaski,
Palpa cluster, Dailekh= Dailekh, Surkhet, Rukum cluster, Dhanusha= Dhanusa, Mahottari and Saptari cluster, Dolakha=
Dolakha, Ramechhap and Sindhupalchowk cluster, Morang= Morang and Sunsari cluster, and Okhaldhunga= Okhaldhunga
and Solukhumbu cluster
9
Place of residence abbreviations: U= Urban, SU= Semi-urban, R= Rural, categorized on the basis of industrial base,
infrastructure, transportation convenience etc, with their increased levels corresponding to urban residences.
44

Mode of form distribution: This assessment was done in person as well as through web-based
interface (nepalmediasurvey.org), by mobilizing local journalists and journalist networks in rural and
urban locations, as well as from both print and broadcast backgrounds.

Instrument: The survey questions were developed on the basis of the literature review and in
consultation with the project partners, and a wider spectrum of stakeholders, representing media
industry, and the academia. The instrument sought to identify key characteristics, behaviors,
preferences, attitudes, beliefs or opinions, and expectations, etc. of respondents on issues relating
to media or journalism. Questions asked respondents their academic background, professional
experience, beat/specialty, challenges they faced, trainings they participated in, capacity
development need, their perception of media credibility and their suggestions to improve the overall
perception of journalism and media.

3.3.3 Survey of the public opinion
The survey was conducted between June 25 and July 20, 2012.

3.3.3.1 Sample selection
No complete or accurate list of all journalists in Nepal. Interviewing journalists all over Nepal would
be time-consuming and not cost-effective. Simple random sampling was not possible because not
every journalist was listed in FNJ membership list, so a multi-stage selection procedure and quota
sampling, stratified by outlets, ethnicities, sex and education, was used.

Sample frame: A general survey was undertaken to gauge the views of a randomly sampled Nepali
public (N=2,418) from the clusters covering the journalists' survey.

The 2001 census of the Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) provided the main basis to select the
sample frame for the public survey. Cluster-wise types and sizes of the actual sample were
developed to make the participation in the survey proportional to the composition of the population
that actually lived in those clusters. Significant efforts were made to include all types of people in the
survey, by developing guidelines for the enumerators to help those volunteering to fill out the forms,
especially from the marginalized groups and communities. Although online forms were available for
people in the clusters to fill, preference was given to print copies so they could be taken to rural
areas.

Respondents: The administrative target was set to distribute forms to 2418 people drawn
proportionally from the clusters. The actual target, however, was a little lower at 2000.

Respondent coverage and distribution: The main sample frame had two types of numbers, covering
the main ethnicities and others, for all the ten clusters. They were as follows.

45

Table 6: Area-wise breakdown of sample public (N=2,418)
Clusters Place of
residence
10

Inclusive sample
(all major ethnicities)
Other groups
Baglung R 51 12
Banke SU 185 84
Bara SU 152 216
Dailekh R 213 81
Dhanusha SU 123 28
Dolakha R 161 227
Kathmandu U 121 35
Morang U 300 56
Rupandehi SU 124 192
Okhaldhunga R 33 24
Total 1463 955
Grand total 2418

Mode of form distribution: This assessment was done in person as well as through web-based
interfaces, by mobilizing the experienced enumerators and networks in rural and urban locations.
The surveys were conducted in person, via email as well as online.

Instrument: The survey questions were developed on the basis of the literature review and in
consultation with a wider spectrum of stakeholders, including the members of the public.

The survey instrument spoke to key indicators/attributes of media users and their perceptions of
medias credibility and reliability in communicating important contemporary topics such as national
politics, constitution-making, and good governance. It was based on relevant literature in the field
and was framed in a way to help assess citizens media literacy.

3.3.4 SMS survey
To complement the two general surveys, of the journalists and of the public, an SMS poll asking
linkage questions about media and content credibility was designed and administered among a list
of randomly generated mobile numbers, some of them purchased from suppliers and others
generated from the same clusters as in the previous surveys. The target was to seek SMS responses
from individuals by their choice to participate.

Automated systems of registry were developed for all the three surveys. To spread the word out, an
advertisement inviting people to respond via SMS was placed in a leading newspaper, and links were
shared online, and in social media networks.

The SMS poll was conducted during the last week of July, 2012. For the first five days, the SMS
response rate was about 100 responses a day. At total of 739 responses were received.

3.4 Research process
Literature review and instruments: Reviewers were assigned to examine related literature on
capacity building efforts, and contemporary opportunities in this area. Based on reviews, survey

10
Place of residence abbreviations: U= Urban, SU= Semi-urban, R= Rural, categorized on the basis of industrial base,
infrastructure, transportation convenience etc, with their increased levels corresponding to urban residences.
46

instruments were designed to cover demographics, professionalism and other core conceptual
categories. The instruments evolved through a broad-based collaborative process with stakeholder
participation.

Pre- test: Both instruments were pre-tested among potential respondents. The journalists'
questionnaire was distributed to 50 respondents (4.65% of the 1,073 targeted sample). The survey
forms were further refined based on their feedback on the ease of filling them, clarity of the
questions, and the time taken. Similarly, a cross-section of the public filled 100 (4.13% of the 2,418
targeted sample) forms, giving their comments and suggestions for improvement. This helped clarify
the focus of the study and devise a strategy to deploy the survey. The major milestone was to
develop a robust survey instrument.

Survey deployment and field work: Survey protocols were developed in collaboration with the core
survey and research team members and orientation sessions held with the enumerators in
Kathmandu for some clusters. For others, guidelines were shared by emails, phone calls and via field
visits.

The survey of journalists went smoothly whereas there were several issues with the public survey
that needed to be resolved. Unlike the survey of journalists, several hundred more print forms were
distributed among rural households and among the illiterate population across the clusters.

The timing of the survey soliciting public views of the media and journalists coincided with the rice
planting season during the peak of the monsoon. This hampered mobility of field staff, and affected
the planned timeline. Completed paper forms arrived late from two clusters, Banke and
Solukhumbu.

In Banke, the enumerator, who had accomplished his task with ease during the journalist survey,
reported difficulty in getting the members of the public to fill out the forms. Worse still, he had to
accompany a patient to India during the public survey. This delayed the dispatch of the filled out
print forms, which arrived in Kathmandu on July 31.

Field staff in Solukhumbu reported two weeks of disruption in the Internet connectivity, leading to
the delay in his work. Monsoon caused flights cancellations and print forms arrived late from there.
Dhanusha cluster also saw some disruption in the collection of the survey forms owing to a health
emergency issue involving the field staff.

These field conditions were beyond immediate corrections right when the survey was underway.

Survey team leaders visited Pokhara, Dhanusha and Dolakha clusters to address issues and to ensure
greater participation of the sampled population.

Data entry: A custom online database was created specifically for the purpose of this survey. At the
center, data entry personnel were trained to enter the print responses received from the field into a
local server that synched with the online database.

Related staff had the password to a user interface from which they constantly monitored the data.

Data processing: Data processing began as soon as the field surveys were launched. Several user
interfaces were created to keep tab on the quality of the data coming in to the database. As
anticipated, there were several issues to be resolved throughout the process, concerning limitations
of Nepali unicode, the primary language of instruments and database. It turned out to be a rather
47

arduous and time-consuming task. The data were exported to excel worksheets, cleaned up, and
analyzed.

3.5 Data scrutiny and analysis
The data were transferred from the database to Excel sheets for analysis. Invalid responses, such as
too few responses on the web based forms and unreadable answers in the print forms, were sorted
out.

The work on data processing and analysis was carried out in a deliberative manner with the
involvement of research, data and analyst teams. Analysis mostly focused on descriptive statistical
assessment of survey responses. The clean data were stored in tabular forms in percentages. The
major themes of the study guided the interpretation of the data.

Data validation was undertaken by setting up a special desk to call several respondents from the
sample to verify if they had actually filled the forms.

3.6 Stakeholder discussions
Apart from the surveys, the project conducted a series of focus group discussions involving the cross-
sections of stakeholders. Focus group discussions (FGDs), as method of research, involve a small
group of homogenous people who meet to discuss topics and help identify important issues.

The distinguishing feature of focus groups is the "use of interaction as part of the research data"
(Kitzinger, 1994, p. 104). Six FGDs were held throughout the months of April-July, 2012. The FGDs
were helpful to elicit varied contextual information, including inputs from the lived experiences of
different stakeholders.

3.7 Limitations
Surveys, because they are a set of predetermined questions, leave gaps between possible responses.
The study design allowed qualitative inputs from FGDs and helped to complement the quantitative
data.

The ToR had laid down the objectives and procedures to meet them. In implementing the actual
survey assessments, 10 clusters with 31 districts were created. While these clusters fairly cover the
regional and demographic diversity of the country, they may not be fully representative of the
nation as a whole.

In the absence of widely agreed definitions of the core concepts like "credibility", and "capacity", the
research team needed to make choices, in consultation with the stakeholders and partners, which
will undoubtedly examine the categories in rather narrow sense.
However, external validation by way of participatory approach seeking inputs on instruments as well
as FGDs for the refinement of these categories served the rigor of the research process.

Some of the individual questions received fewer responses than others, thereby limiting the
comparative analysis and generalizability of results (for non-response rates, please refer to
Appendices I & II). The data generated from self-reporting by respondents from different
demographic backgrounds could also have added to the risks of data being limited in their value for
generalization. Cross-tabulations for some responses in relevant sections of both the journalists'
survey and public opinion survey are also subject to limitations caused by non-responses.

48

In surveys, researchers cannot completely rule out the possibility of fake or fictional interviews. Data
validation was carried out by way of calling a sample of respondents who had filled the forms.
Several respondents from the sample were called to verify if they had indeed participated in the
survey.

Moreover, the time constraints, imposed by the necessity to plan and implement the deadlines,
were another obvious limitation. Ethical considerations offered freedom to respondents to skip
certain questions, potentially contributing to abrupt termination of the process.

49

SECTION IV:
SURVEY OF JOURNALISTS

50

51

4. JOURNALISTS' SURVEY RESULTS
Male representation was high across rural (81.89%), semi-urban (87.76%) and urban (75.08%)
clusters. Females comprised more in percentage terms in urban (24.91%), rural (18.10%) and semi-
urban (12.23%) clusters in that order.

The urban clusters, which included Kathmandu valley and Morang/Sunsari, had males (75.08%) and
females (24.91%), the semi-urban cluster, which included Banke, Bara, Dhanusa, Rupandehi, had
males (87.76%) and females (12.23%). The rural cluster, which included Baglung, Dailekh, Dolakha
and Okhaldhunga, were represented by males (81.89%) and females (18.10%). Cluster-wise, women
were the most represented in urban Kathmandu (26.72%) and the least represented in rural Baglung
(7.69%).

Journalists working for radio were concentrated in the semi-urban cluster (51.45%), followed equally
(24.27%) in urban and rural clusters. The journalists of national dailies were concentrated in the
urban cluster (51.98%) followed by semi-urban (36.75%) and rural (11.25%). Respondents working
for weeklies and periodicals were similar in percentages for urban (34.24%) and semi-urban (38.35%)
clusters, whereas they were fewer in the rural (27.39%) cluster. More television journalists were
from semi-urban cluster (48.71%), than from urban (39.74%) and rural (11.53%) clusters.

Online media had heavy concentration in the urban (68.18%) cluster, followed by semi-urban
(22.72%) and rural (9.09%) clusters. News agency journalists were mostly from semi-urban (50%)
cluster, with urban and rural clusters having the same size (25%).

Respondents across variables generally agreed the most common and serious cases of code violation
by journalists included seeking or obtaining political or economic favor for writing stories, or
disclosing identity of subjects at risk (rape victims, people in trauma) without their consent.

Across variables, respondents often identified social perception of journalists as politically biased,
inadequate security to journalists from the state, political partisanship and institutional bias of
media houses, lack of technological resources and training for individual journalists among the most
serious professional challenges today.

In terms of training experience, respondents across demographics and professional roles had more
basic training, special topic training, and seminar or workshop exposure, in that order, than
fellowship, exchange or internship experience.

Males and females across urban and semi-urban clusters stressed the need of training on story idea
development whereas a majority of rural males (86.20%) emphasized news writing training. The rest
of the rural males (13.79%) emphasized training on story idea development.
Other areas of training in demand were news gathering, finding sources and editing.

Respondents across all clusters emphasized journalism proficiency and advanced training methods
as necessary for them. Journalists across all clusters emphasized training on time management,
critical thinking and ICT skills. Respondents, except rural females, emphasized hands-on training and
lecture as the preferred modes of instruction.

52

Most journalists, across cluster and sex, stated their preference for advanced level training.
Preliminary (up to 1 month) and proficiency (between 1 and 3 months) and basic (between 1 and 3
months) were also in demand in that order.

A majority of respondents indicated they had capacity development needs. Most of the journalists
with an academic background in Humanities & Arts, and Management (Commerce) than from other
backgrounds said that they needed capacity enhancement opportunities. Similarly, those with
Bachelor's, Master's degree or above, and a 10+2 or PCL degree, in that order, said they needed
more such opportunities. Respondents with lower degrees identified such needs less often. Print,
followed by radio journalists, and those working with private outlets called for capacity development
more often than television or online journalists, or those working with community, and state-owned
media.

Beat-wise, journalists appeared evenly spread in their responses. Respondents emphasized on the
need for incentives, field visits, and in-house training, in that order, more than any other capacity
factors. Media festival as a capacity need received the least priority from respondents.

In terms of level of training preference, respondents across variables said they needed advanced
level training (more than 3 months), with small percentages of respondents within some categories
(education level, major study area, outlet and beat) opting for basic or elementary level training.

The following pages describe the results of the survey of journalists, organized under key themes like
demographics, professionalism, credibility, capacity, and media literacy. Cross tabulation for key
professional and capacity issues such as journalistic ethics (see 4.2.9), challenges to journalists
(4.2.11- 4.2.14), training experience (4.4.2.1), capacity development needs (4.4.6.1), and training
preferences (4.4.11.1) are given in relevant sections.

4.1 Demographics
4.1.1 Sex: Among the respondents, 17.64% were females and 81.97% were males. The large
difference in percentage between the two sexes is reflective of the existing gap in the male-female
ratio in the profession. A very small portion of the respondents, 0.39%, were from the "Other"
category, which included people from the third-gender community.

4.1.2 Age: Among the age groups, a majority of respondents (35.71%) were between the age of 25
and 30 years. The respondents from the age groups 19-24 years, 31-36 years and 37-42 years were
82%
18%
0%
Sex composition
Male
Female
Other
53

22.72%, 21.47% and 12.86% of the respondents, respectively. Among the minorities were journalists
of more advanced age: 43-48 years (2.50%), 49-54 years (2.50%), 55-64 years (1.25%), below 18
years (0.62%), and above 65 years (0.37%).

4.1.3 Ethnicity: In terms of ethnicity, journalists from the Brahmin/Chhetri (hills) background
comprised the majority of respondents (53.81%). Separately, there were 14.59% respondents from
the Brahmin /Chhetri (terai) background. Newar journalists include 7.49% of the respondents,
whereas Terai/Madhes/other group comprised 7.23% of the total respondents.

Respondents from the Janajati (hill) background (6.98%), Dalit (hill) background (3.17%), and Janajati
(terai) background (2.92%) were followed by journalists from the Dalit (terai) background and
Muslim background, each comprising 1.14% of total respondents.

4.1.4 Cluster: Among the ten clusters, most of the respondents (30.92%) were from the Kathmandu
Valley, followed by Nawalparasi (14.47%). There were 8.95% respondents from Biratnagar cluster.
Banke (8.55%), Dhanusha (8.42%), Bara (8.29%) have almost equal number of respondents.

Similarly, Dailekh (6.32%), and Dolakha had the same number (6.32%) of respondents. Okhaldhunga
(1.97%) and Baglung (1.71%) had the least number of respondents.

53.81%
14.59%
7.49%
7.23%
6.98%
3.17%
2.92%
1.52%
1.14%
1.14%
Bahun/Chhetri (hill)
Bahun/Chhetri (terai)
Newar
Tarai/Madhes/Other group
Janajati (hill)
Dalit (hill)
Janajati (terai)
Other
Dalit (terai)
Muslim
Ethnic composition
30.92%
14.47%
8.95%
8.55%
8.42%
8.29%
6.32%
6.32%
4.08%
1.97%
1.71%
Kathmandu
Morang
Dhanusha
Dailekh
Other
Baglung
Survey clusters
54

4.1.5 Education level: A majority of those surveyed had a higher academic degree. Half of the
respondents (49.69%) had Bachelors degree and a little over a quarter (26.47%) of respondents had
Master's degree. Those who had 10+2 or proficiency level education comprised 21.08% of the
respondents. Only 2.01% of the respondents had passed School Leaving Certificate (SLC) exam.
Those who had acquired "self-education", "grade ten" or "other educational level" cumulatively
comprised less than 1% of the respondents.

4.1.6 Major study area: A vast majority, three-fourth of the total respondents (69.20%), came from
the "humanities and social sciences" (arts) academic background whereas the least number (0.46%)
of those surveyed had "medicine" as their major study area. The second largest group of
respondents (19.73%) came from "management" (commerce) discipline. A small segment of
respondents included journalists who had "law" (2.73%), "science and technology" (2.12%), and
"engineering" (1.06%) as their main academic background.

4.1.7 Marital status: Most of the respondents (65.75%) respondents were married, and 32.38%
were unmarried. A very few of the respondents were divorced (0.63%) or single (0.50%). Of the
total, a small number of respondents (0.75%) said they dont want to mention their marital status.

4.2 Professional issues
4.2.1 Media platforms respondents work for: Journalists working for daily newspapers comprised
the majority of respondents (42.47%) followed by those working for the radio (29.27%), television
(10.96%), weekly newspapers or periodicals (10.83%). A small number of respondents (3.24%)
worked for online media, with a smaller number working for "other" various media (1.99%) and
news agencies (1.25%).

4.2.2 Ownership type of media outlets respondents work for: Most respondents worked for private
media. Three-fourth of the respondents (69.30%) said that they work for daily newspapers, while
20% reported that they work for community media (which include radio stations owned by
cooperatives and non-profit organizations). Close to 9% of respondents disclosed that they were
associated with the government-owned media, while 1.52% respondents said that they work for
"other" forms of media.

69%
20%
9%
2%
Ownership of outlets
Private
Community
State owned
Other
55

4.2.3 Nature of employment: A vast majority of respondents (78.39%) said they work full-time while
14.32% respondents said they work as part-time journalist. Among those surveyed, 0.88% of
respondents were columnists, and 5.78% were freelancers/writers and the rest (0.63%) described
the nature of their work as "other".

4.2.4 Work experience: More than half of the respondents had 2 to 10 years of work experience.
Among those surveyed, 32.17% had worked for 6-10 years while 25.69% of total respondents have
working experience of 2-5 years. Similarly, 19.08% had worked for 11-15 years, and 9.10% of
respondents had worked for 11-15 years. About 1.25% of respondents had worked for less than 1
year.

4.2.5 Income from Journalism: The largest group of respondents (33.12%) said they earn between
NRs. 6001 and 10,000 a month, followed by 22.80% of respondents who reported they earn NRs.
12,000-15,000, and 21.54% of respondents who disclosed they earn NRs. 3000 to 6,000. There were
8.31% of respondents who made less than NRs. 3,000 a month. A small percentage of the
respondents (5.67%) reported earning between NRs. 25,001-50,000 and an even smaller percentage
(0.63%) said they earn more than NRs. 50,001 a month. About 7.93% respondents did not want to
mention their income scale.

4.2.6 Journalistic tasks: When the sample respondents were asked whether they do the task of
'editorial supervision', 20.77% of them responded that they do such work almost always while
25.32% said they never get involved in editorial supervision.

Regarding the rewriting/editing type of task, 31.88% were found to be doing almost always while
12.58% never did such work.

a. Reporting
When asked about how often they do 'reporting', more than half the respondents (56.35%) said they
do it almost always while 2.43% said that they never do reporting.

b. Scripting/shooting
Under 'scripting/shooting' category of work, 31.26% responded that they sometimes do such task,
16.70% were found to be usually doing such task while 28.91% said they never do such type of work.
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Editorial supervision
Rewriting/editing
Reporting
Scripting/shooting
Anchoring
Translation
Photojournalism
Cartoon/graphics
Online/blogging
Frequency of journalism tasks
Never Sometimes Usually Almost always Can't say
56

c. Anchoring
Majority of respondents said they do "anchoring". About 32.81% responded they usually do
anchoring while the same number of respondents (32.81%) said they do anchoring task almost
always.

d. Translation
Regarding the 'translation' work, 41% respondents were found to be doing translation only
sometimes while 29.84% responded that they never do translation. Only 11.66% reported doing it
almost always.

e. Photojournalism
When inquired about 'photojournalism', only 18.87% respondents were found to be doing
photojournalism almost always while 20.15% said they never do it.

f. Cartoons or graphics
When asked about their involvement in the creation of cartoons or graphics for editorial content,
77.84% of the respondents said they never do such work while only 2.70% respondents agreed that
they do such work almost always.

g. Blogging or online
When asked whether they blog or do online posting, only 15.84% were found to be doing such task
almost always while 25.51% said they never do blogging or online posting.

4.2.7 Reporting different beats: The priorities over reporting different beats differ among the
journalists surveyed, and only a small percentage of respondents said they never reported any beat.

a. Political
When asked about the 'political' beat, only 23.28% responded that they cover the political beat
almost always while only 5.40% respondent said they never cover political beat. 39.29%
respondents said that they usually cover political beat.

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Politics
Economy
Society & culture
Science & technology
Crime & court
Conflict & disaster
Celebrity
Other beats
Beat reporting
Never Sometimes Usually Almost Always Can't Say
57

b. Economy
Similarly, when they were asked about reporting the 'economy' beat, 23.28% said they almost
always cover that beat and 39.29% said they usually cover that beat while 5.40% respondents
suggested they never reported on that particular beat.

c. Science and technology
Only 16.45% journalists were found to be covering science and technology beat almost always
while 4.91% never reported that. A larger portion of the respondents (35.47%) said that they
usually reports on that particular beat.

d. Court/crime
In 'crime/court' beat too, similar results were found. For instance, only 13.79% respondents
reported that they cover the crime/court beat almost always.

e. Disaster, crises, conflict, and traumatic situations
In terms of reporting disaster, 13.20% journalists were found to be covering it almost always while
8.05% never covered the beat. A larger portion i.e. 31.10% of the respondents said they cover
disaster beat usually.

f. Celebrity, lifestyle, arts and media, sports, etc
Similar, to those reporting crime/court or disaster, 13.48% journalists said that they cover celebrity
beat almost always. About 9.78% respondents said they never cover the beat. Half of the
respondents (50%) were found to be covering celebrity beat sometimes only.

Regarding beats in other category, 6.85% respondents were found to be never covering them while
only 16.89% respondents covered them almost always.

4.2.8 Role of journalists: Almost one third of the journalists agreed that the role of the journalist
should be creating awareness on development issues like health, education, economy, environment,
etc, 23.30% said that a journalist should reflect the country's plurality and diversity in their work,
10.68% agreed that journalist should serve as a forum for dialogue, 15.53% respondents said that
journalists should hold the government and rulers to be accountable and 13.59% journalists said that
the most important role of journalist is to inform, educate and entertain the public.

A very low percentage of the respondents (1.94%) said that journalists should engage the public in
the important issues of the day to bring about positive changes in their lives while 0.97% of said that
journalists should advocate against social ills like superstitions and discrimination.

4.2.9 Code violation: When asked about the most common types of violation of code of conduct by
journalists, respondents varied in their opinion. About 27.63% said that journalists seek or take
economic benefits from writing news while 22.37% respondents that journalists disclose identity of
subjects at risk or victims without their consent. Similarly, 17.11% respondents cited that journalists
investigate private lives of public figure while 11.84% said that journalists violate confidentiality of
news sources.

Also, 5.26% suggested that journalists intrude in the private lives of people, including of children,
1.32% believed that journalist publish materials that undermine national interest while the same
number of respondents i.e. 1.32% said that journalists use anonymous sources in a story even
without special circumstance. Also, 6.58% of the respondents agreed that journalists publish
indecent or gory pictures, 5.26% said that journalists do not disclose their identity as news
58

professionals while reporting, and 1.32% said that journalists use materials from sources without
attribution.

a. Code violation perceptions by cluster
Of the responses received (n=303) on code violation, in the urban clusters, 28.20% considered
seeking or obtaining political or economic favor for writing stories as the most common violation of
code of conduct by journalists, followed by 25.64% who considered investigating personal lives of
public figures. About 15.3% considered disclosing identity of subjects at risk (rape victims, people in
trauma) without their consent as the most common code violation. Disclosing confidential sources of
news (12.82%), publishing gruesome or obscene images (5.13%) and encroaching upon privacy of
ordinary people, including minors (5.13%) were perceived by respondents as the other most
common violations of the code. Other most common code violations cited by respondents included:
using anonymous sources in a story even when they are not warranted (2.56%), media professionals
not identifying themselves as journalists even during times of reporting (2.56%), using materials
from other sources without attribution or citation (2.56%).

A comparable number of responses (n= 302) were received from semi-urban areas relating to the
question on common code violations. A majority (31.81%) considered seeking or obtaining political
or economic favor for writing stories as the most common violation of code of conduct by
journalists, followed equally by respondents who considered disclosing identity of subjects at risk
(rape victims, people in trauma) without their consent (18.18%) and disclosing confidential sources
of news (18.18%). Not identifying themselves as reporters even during times of reporting (13.63%),
investigating personal lives of public figures (9.09%) were considered other common code violations
in the semi-urban clusters. Respondents cited publishing gruesome or obscene images (4.54%), and
encroaching upon privacy of ordinary people (4.54%) as other common code violations.

In rural clusters (n=124), majority (57.14%) respondents considered disclosing identity of subjects at
risk (rape victims, people in trauma) without their consent as the most common code violation,
followed by seeking or obtaining political or economic favor for writing stories (28.57%), and
investigating personal lives of public figures (14.28%).

b. Code violation perceptions by education level
Only a negligible number of responses (n=16) on perceptions of code violations were received from
those who had passed their SLC. A majority (66.66%) considered not indentifying as a journalist
during reporting as the most common code violation, followed by investigating personal lives of
public figures (33.33%).

There were 168 responses from journalists who had completed Ten-Plus-Two level. A majority
(30.77%) identified disclosing identity of subjects at risk (rape victims, people in trauma) without
their consent, equally (23.08%) followed not indentifying yourself as a journalist during reporting,
and seeking or obtaining political or economic favor for writing stories. A small portion (7.69%)
considered publishing gruesome or obscene images, etc. as the most common code violation.

There were 396 responses on perceptions of code violations. Seeking or obtaining political or
economic favor for writing stories (25.92%) were considered as the most common code violations by
respondents who had a Bachelor's level education, followed equally (18.52%) by those who saw
breach of code in disclosing confidential sources of news and investigating personal lives of public
figures. A small percentage of respondents said encroaching upon the privacy of ordinary people,
including minors (7.40%), publishing gruesome or obscene images, etc. (7.40%) were the most
common code violations, and not indentifying yourself as a journalist during reporting (3.70%), and
publishing materials that undermine national interest or integrity (3.70%).
59

The second largest number of responses on perceptions of violations (n=211) were received from
journalists who had a Master's degree or above. Seeking or obtaining political or economic favor for
writing stories, and disclosing identity of subjects at risk (rape victims, people in trauma) without
their consent were equally (21.88%) considered as the most common code violation, followed by
disclosing confidential sources of news (6.25%), or publishing gruesome or obscene images, etc.
(6.25%).

c. Code violation perceptions by education level
Half of the respondents working for television stations (50.00%) considered disclosing identity of
subjects at risk (rape victims, people in trauma) without their consent as the most common code
violation, followed by those who felt investigating personal lives of public figures (33.33%), and
seeking or obtaining political or economic favor for writing stories (16.66%).

Seeking or obtaining political or economic favor for writing stories (30.19%) was considered as the
most common code violation by print journalists. It was followed by disclosing identity of subjects at
risk (rape victims, people in trauma) without their consent (16.98%), investigating personal lives of
public figures (16.98%), disclosing confidential sources of news (13.20%), publishing gruesome or
obscene images, etc. (7.54%), not indentifying as a journalist during reporting (5.66%), and
encroaching upon privacy of ordinary people, including minors (5.66%).

Radio journalists considered seeking or obtaining political or economic favor for writing stories
(23.07%), disclosing identity of subjects at risk (ex. rape victims, people in trauma) without their
consent (23.07%), investigating personal lives of public figures (15.38%), disclosing confidential
sources of news (15.38%) as the most common code violations. An equal percentage of respondents
(7.69%) saw encroaching upon privacy of ordinary people (including minors) , not indentifying as a
journalist during reporting, and publishing gruesome or obscene images, etc. as the most common
examples of code violation.

Respondents working with the online media as well as news agencies chose not to respond to the
question on perceptions of code violation.

d. Code violation perceptions by work experience
Only a few (n=58) responses came from journalists who had 1 to 2 years of work experience in
journalism, particularly on the question on perceptions of code violation. Half of the responses from
those with 1-2 years of experience said investigating personal lives of public figures was the most
common code violation, equally by seeking or obtaining political or economic favor for writing
stories, and using materials from other sources without attribution, citation.

There were more (n=206) responses from those who had 3 to 5 years experience. Disclosing identity
of subjects at risk (rape victims, people in trauma) without their consent (33.33%), not indentifying
as a journalist during reporting (19.05%), seeking or obtaining political or economic favor for writing
stories (14.28%), Investigating personal lives of public figures (14.28%), encroaching upon privacy of
ordinary people, including minors (9.52%), publishing materials that undermine national interest or
integrity (4.76%), publishing gruesome or obscene images, etc. (4.76%) were other common code
violations cited by respondents with 3 to 5 years of work experience.

There were more (n=153) responses received from those who had 11 to 15 years experience.
Seeking or obtaining political or economic favor for writing stories (33.36%), disclosing identity of
subjects at risk (rape victims, people in trauma) without their consent (18.18%), investigating
personal lives of public figures (18.18%), not indentifying as a journalist during reporting (18.18%),
60

disclosing confidential sources of news (9.09%) were the most common code violations cited by
respondents under this category.

Only a small number of responses (n=73) were received from survey participants having 16 to 20
years experience. Respondents considered seeking or obtaining political or economic favor for
writing stories (30.00%), investigating personal lives of public figures (30.00%), disclosing identity of
subjects at risk (rape victims, people in trauma) without their consent (10.00%), not indentifying as a
journalist during reporting (10.00%), encroaching upon privacy of ordinary people, including minors
(10.00%), publishing gruesome or obscene images, etc. (10.00%) as the most common code
violations.

No responses on perception of code violations were received from survey participants with 6 to 10
years of work experience as well as those with more than 20 years of work experience.

e. Code violation perceptions by beats
In terms of beats, journalists identified seeking political and economic favor as the most common
code violation, followed by disclosing subjects at risk, and disclosing confidential sources.

Those who said they covered the beat sometimes or frequently laid varying emphasis on the most
common code violations. Disclosing identity of subjects at risk (rape victims, people in trauma)
without their consent was considered as the as the most common code violation by journalists
working in the science and technology beat (16.41%), followed by journalists covering politics
(14.92%), socio-cultural issues (14.92%), celebrity, lifestyle, arts and media, sports, etc. (13.43%),
disaster and crime (11.94%) each, and economy (10.44%).

Journalists covering socio-cultural issues, science and technology, economy, and arts, sports and
celebrities gave equal emphasis (15.38%) on disclosing confidential sources of news, followed by
those covering politics (13.46%), disaster (11.53%), and crime (9.61%).

Those covering politics comprised the majority (17.02%) in citing that investigating personal lives of
public figures was the most common code violation, followed by those covering celebrity, lifestyle,
arts and media, sports, etc (14.89%), socio-cultural issues (14.89%), economy (12.76%), and crime
(12.76%), science and technology (10.63%), and disaster (10.63%).

Journalists covering the beats science and technology, and socio-cultural issues gave equal (28.57%)
emphasis on not identifying as a journalist during reporting as the most common code violation.
Journalists who covered politics, disaster, and celebrity, lifestyle, arts and media, sports, etc.
identified this as the most common code violation equally (14.28%).

Seeking or obtaining political or economic favor for writing stories was seen as the most common
code violation by journalists covering politics (16.88%), socio-cultural issues (15.58%), celebrity,
lifestyle, arts and media, sports, etc. (14.28%), economy (12.98%), science and technology (11.68%),
crime (11.68%), and disaster (10.38%).

Journalists from the politics and science and technology beat each (17.64%) considered encroaching
upon privacy of ordinary people, including minors as the most common code violation, followed by
those from each of the other beat (11.76%).

Compared to the number of responses (3,228) from journalists who said they covered a particular
beat, responses coming from journalists covering no particular beat were very few (262). The latter
identified disclosing the subjects at risk as the most common code violation.
61

f. Code violation perceptions by media types
Journalists working across media ownership types tended to agree that seeking political or economic
favor was the most common code violation.

Among the journalists working in the private sector, a majority (25.82%) perceived seeking or
obtaining political or economic favor for writing stories as the most common code violation,
followed by investigating personal lives of public figures (20.98%), disclosing identity of subjects at
risk (rape victims, people in trauma) without their consent (16.14%), disclosing confidential sources
of news (14.52%), and publishing gruesome or obscene images, etc. (8.07%).

Majority of journalists working with the state-owned media cited seeking or obtaining political or
economic favor for writing stories (33.32%), disclosing identity of subjects at risk (rape victims,
people in trauma) without their consent (33.32%), and encroaching upon privacy of ordinary people,
including minors (33.32%).

Of the journalists working with the community media outlets, a half (50%) said seeking or obtaining
political or economic favor for writing stories was the most common code violation, followed by
disclosing identity of subjects at risk (rape victims, people in trauma) without their consent (33.00%),
and encroaching upon privacy of ordinary people, including minors (17.00%).

4.2.10 Hurdles to following ethical practice: When asked what might be the key hindrances in
maintaining adherence to Code of Conduct in Nepali journalism, respondents differed in their views.
More than half (52.63%) of the sampled respondents believed that lack of awareness about ethics
was the main reason while 30.26% cited compromising norms and values for personal benefit.

About 9.21% pointed our unhealthy competition for scoop, 1.32% referred to lack of personal
integrity and honesty, and the remaining 1.32% said that 'lack of reaction from the concerned
sectors, institutions or persons against the wrongs done by journalists' as the main hurdle in
following ethical practice.

4.2.11 Social challenges: When asked to choose options on the most serious social challenges for
Nepali journalists, majority of respondents (67.53%) said that the ' the politically partisan image of
journalists' while 16.88% cited the ' image of journalists as being after sensation'. About 5.19% cited
corrupt image of journalists in society and 5.19% referred to threat to press freedom by non state
parties'.

About 3.90% of respondents cited the 'perception that there are too many news outlets or media in
the country' and 1.30% refereed to the 'perception that journalists are not responsible towards
people and society' as the most serious social challenge for journalists.

a. Social challenges by cluster
Cluster-wise, respondents were asked to choose at least three options describing the most serious
social challenges faced by Nepali journalists.

Only a few (n=69) responses were received from journalists in various clusters on the social
challenges option.

Most respondents from the urban clusters said social/public perception that journalists were
politically biased (54.54%) was the most serious social challenge for Nepali journalists. Fewer
respondents from semi-urban (29.55%), rural (15.92%) saw it as the most serious social challenge.
62

More urban respondents (46.15%) than semi-urban (53.85%) saw perceptions that journalists
sensationalize issues as the most serious social challenge. Only respondents from urban area
(100.00%) cited perception that journalists are not responsible towards people and society, threat to
press freedom by individuals and non-state social actors, and perception that there are too many
news outlets or media in the country as the most serious social challenges to Nepali journalists.

Urban respondents (46.15%) led semi-urban (53.85%) respondents in identifying perception that
journalists sensationalize issues as the most serious social challenge to journalists. Similarly, there
were more urban (66.67%) respondents than semi-urban (33.33%) saying that social/public
perception that journalists are corrupt was the most serious social challenge to journalists. Rural-
based journalists often refrained from selecting the options on social challenges.

b. Social challenges by education-level
Only a few respondents (n=74) with specific educational backgrounds chose to respond to the
options on social challenges. A majority of those with Bachelor's degree or above (85.11%)
considered social/public perception that journalists are politically biased as the most serious social
challenge, followed by those with SCL/+2 (12.77%) and self-education/below Grade 10 (2.31%).
Those with Bachelor's degree or above (69.23%) and SCL/+2 (30.77%) saw perception that journalists
sensationalize issues as the most serious challenge.

Threat to press freedom by individuals and non-state social actors was identified as the most serious
social challenge by those with Bachelors degree and above (75%) and by self-educated/with below
Grade 10 education (25%). Social/public perception that journalists are corrupt, and the perception
that there are too many news outlets or media in the country were each considered as the most
serious challenge by respondents with Bachelors degrees and above (66.66%), followed by those
with SLC/+2 education (33.33%). Respondents with Bachelor's degree and above were the only ones
(100%) who said perception that journalists are not responsible towards people and society was the
most serious social challenge to journalists.

c. Social challenges by outlets
Responses (n=71) on social challenges by outlets related to six out of the fourteen options.
Social/public perception that journalists are politically biased was considered to be the most serious
social challenge by the journalists working in the print sector (79.17%), followed by those working in
the radio (16.67%) and TV (4.17%) sector. Perception that journalists sensationalize issues was
identified as the most serious such challenge by print journalists (76.92%), followed by radio
(23.08%) and TV (7.69%) journalists.

Cent percent of radio journalists (100%) said perception that journalists are not responsible towards
people and society was the most serious social challenge for journalists. All those who identified that
social/public perception that journalists are corrupt were print journalists (100%). Similarly, print
journalists were alone (100%) in considering that threat to press freedom by individuals and non-
state social actors was the most serious social challenge. Print (50%) and radio (50%) journalists
equally believed that the perception that there were too many news outlets or media in the country
was the most serious social challenge to journalists.

d. Social challenges by work experience
Like in most of the options on challenges to journalists, responses (n=72) on social challenge came
solely from print, radio and television journalists. Journalists who had 6 to 10 years work experience
(35.42%) led other journalists in considering social/public perception that journalists are politically
biased as the most serious social challenge to journalists. They were followed by journalists with 2 to
63

5 years (29.17%), 16 to 20 years (12.50%), 11 to 15 years (10.42%), more than 21 years (6.25%), 1-2
years (4.17%) and less than a year (2.08%) of work experience.

Perception that journalists sensationalize issues was considered as the most serious social challenge
by each of the groups with 6-10 years (30.77%) and 11 to 15 years (30.77%) of work experience,
followed by those with 1 to 2 years (15.38%), 2 to 5 years (15.38%) work experience, and those with
21 years and above (7.69%) of experience.

Journalists with 1 to 2 years (33.33%), 2 to 5 years (33.33%) and 11 to 15 years (33.33%) of work
experience were equally divided in considering that social/public perception that journalists are
corrupt is the most serious social challenge to Nepali journalists. Similarly, the perception that there
are too many news outlets or media in the country was identified equally (33.33%) as the most
serious such challenge by those with 2 to 5 years, 6 to 10 years and 11 to 15 years of work
experience.

Half of the responses (50%) identifying threat to press freedom by individuals and non-state social
actors as the most serious social challenge each came from those with 2 to 5 years and 6 to 10 years
of work experience. Journalists with 2 to 5 years work experience were the only ones (100%) who
said perception that journalists are not responsible towards people and society was the most serious
social challenge to Nepali journalists.

4.2.12 State-level challenges: Regarding the most serious challenge to journalists at the level of
state or the law, a whopping 80.72% named "inadequate security to journalists from the state',
13.25% referred to 'little progress in implementing press-friendly laws', 4.82% respondents cited
'inadequate legal reforms. A small percentage (1.20%) of respondents said 'lack of transparency on
the part of stakeholders' as the most serious state-level challenge for journalists.

a. State-level challenges by cluster
Only a few (n=76) responses were received from journalists in the three clusters on challenges at the
level of state or the law. Majority of urban journalists (54.84%) said inadequate security to
journalists from the state was the most serious state-level challenge to journalists, followed by semi-
urban (33.88%) and rural (11.3%) journalists considering it so. A majority (75%) of urban journalists
considered little progress in enforcing press-friendly laws as the most serious challenge compared to
semi-urban (25%) journalists. Journalists from the urban clusters were alone in identifying
inadequate legal reforms (100%) and lack of transparency on part of various stakeholders as the
most serious state-level challenge.

b. State-level challenges by education-level
options on social challenges. Those with Bachelors degrees and above (66.67%) led respondents
with self-education/below Grade 10 (33.33%) in considering inadequate legal reforms as the most
serious state-level challenge. Inadequate security to journalists from the state was considered the
most serious challenge by those with Bachelor's degree and above (82.82%), followed by those with
SLC/+2 education (17.19%).

An overwhelming majority of respondents with Bachelors degrees and above (80%), those with self-
education/with Grade 10 education (10%) and with SLC/+2 (10%) said little progress in enforcing
press-friendly laws was the most serious state-level challenge. Cent percent of those with Bachelor's
degree and above (100%) considered lack of transparency on part of various stakeholders as the
most serious state-level challenge.

64

c. State-level challenges by outlets
The question on state-level challenge generated responses (n=79) that related to four of the ten
choices given. A majority of print journalists (72.31%) said inadequate security to journalists from
the state was the most serious state-level challenge to journalists, followed by radio (21.54%), TV
(4.62%), and online (1.54%).

Those who identified inadequate legal reforms as such challenge were all print journalists (100%). All
those who cited lack of transparency on part of various stakeholders as the most serious state-level
challenges were radio journalists (100%). Little progress in enforcing press-friendly laws was
considered the most serious challenge by print (90%) journalists, followed by radio (10%) journalists.

d. State-level challenges by work experience
The number of responses received (n=79) on this option were comparable with several of the
options on challenges to journalists. Journalists with 2 to 5 years of work experience (24.62%) were
ahead of those with 16-20 years (9.23%), 1 to 2 years (7.69%), more than 21 years (4.62%) and less
than 1 year (1.54%) work experience in considering that inadequate security to them from the state
was the most serious state-level challenge to journalists.

Inadequate legal reforms was considered as the most serious such challenge more often by
journalists who had 2 to 5 years of work experience (66.67%) than by those who had 6 to 10 years
(33.85%), 11 to 15 years (18.46%) and 16 to 20 years (33.33%) of work experience. Half (50%) of
those who said little progress in enforcing press-friendly laws was the most serious state-level
challenge came from journalists who had 6 to 10 years of work experience, followed by those with 2
to 5 years (30%), 11 to 15 years (10%) and 16 to 20 years (10%) years experience. All of the
respondents (100%) who cited lack of transparency on part of various stakeholders as the most
state-level challenge to journalists came from those who had 2 to 5 years of work experience.

4.2.13 Organizational challenges: Among the most serious challenges to journalists at the
organizational level, the most often cited were 'media houses inclining towards a party' (46.05%),
'concentration of media houses in capital' (15.79%), 'unsatisfactory media house management'
(11.84%), 'unsatisfactory pay and perks' to journalists (9.21%).

Similarly, 5.26% respondents pointed out 'management interference in editorial work' as the most
serious challenge, and 3.95% cited 'investors using media as a tool to promote other businesses'.
There were equal number of respondents who referred to 'too much profit orientation of media
houses' (2.63%) and 'illegal or non-transparent sources of investment in media' (2.63%).

About 1.32% pointed out 'little commitment to public interest information' while the same number
of respondents (1.32%) cited 'weak coordination between reporting and news desk' as the most
serious organizational challenge for journalists.

a. Organizational challenges by cluster
Responses from various clusters on options relating to organizational challenges were also few
(n=69). Respondents across clusters--urban (43.75%) semi-urban (40.63%) rural (15.63%)--said
political partisanship and institutional bias of media houses were the most serious organizational
challenge. More urban (77.78%) respondents saw concentration of media houses in the capital as
the most serious organizational challenge than the semi-urban (22.22%) respondents. Similarly,
more urban (37.50%) journalists indentified unfair management practices within the media as the
most serious challenge than semi-urban (62.50%) ones. All of those who considered illegal and non-
65

transparent sources of investment in publishing houses as the most serious challenge were from the
urban (100%) region.

Respondents who said investors using media as a tool to promote other businesses were equally
divided among urban (33.33%), semi-urban (33.33%) and rural (33.33%) areas. More urban
respondents (50%) considered management interference with editorial works as the most serious
challenge than semi-urban (25%) or rural (25%) journalists. Urban respondents were alone (100%) in
considering media houses being profit-motivated; low salaries, wages for journalists and delayed
payments; and weak coordination between reporters and news desk as the most serious
organizational challenges.

b. Organizational-level challenges by education-level
There were a few respondents (n=70) with specific educational backgrounds who chose to respond
to the options on organization-level challenges. Politically partisan and biased media houses was
seen as the most serious organizational-level challenge by those with Bachelors degrees and above
(78.78%), followed by those with SLC/+2 (18.18%) and those with self-education/with Grade 10
education (3.03%).

More respondents with Bachelors degrees and above (83.33%) than those with self-education/with
Grade 10 education (16.67%) considered low salaries, wages for journalists and delayed payments as
the most serious organization-level challenges. Concentration of media houses in the Capital was
considered the most serious challenge by those with Bachelors degrees and above (80%), followed
by those with SLC/+2 education (20%).

Those with higher education, with Bachelors degrees and above (88.89%) were in the majority in
considering unfair management practices within the media as the most serious organization-level
challenge, followed by those with SLC/+2 education (11.11%).

Investors using media as a tool to promote other businesses was considered another most serious
challenge by the respondents with Bachelors degrees and above (66.67%), followed by those with
SLC/+2 education (33.33%). Those with Bachelors degrees and above (75%) led the SLC/+2 educator
(25%) in saying that management interference with editorial works was the most serious such
challenge.

Respondents with Bachelors degrees and above were the only journalists (100%) who identified
illegal and non-transparent sources of investment in publishing houses; media houses being profit-
motivated; and weak coordination between reporters and news desk as the most serious
organization-level challenges.

c. Organization-level challenges by outlets
The responses (n= 52) related to several options. Print journalists (72.73%) considered politically
partisan and biased media houses as the most serious organization-level challenge, followed by
radio (21.21%) and TV (6.06%) journalists.

A majority of print (70%) journalists, followed by radio (20%) and TV (10%) journalists cited
concentration of media houses in the capital city as the most serious such challenge. Low salaries,
wages for journalists and delayed payments was considered as such challenge by print (71.43%) and
radio (28.57%) journalists.

All respondents (100%) working with radio stations said weak coordination between reporters and
news desk was the most serious organization-level challenge. Majority of print (88.89%) and a small
66

number of radio (11.11%) journalists said unfair management practices within the media was the
most serious organization-level challenge.

Only print journalists (100%) cited each of the other options as the most serious organization-level
challenge: illegal and non-transparent sources of investment in publishing houses; investors using
media as a tool to promote other businesses; management interference with editorial works; and
media houses being profit-motivated.

d. Organization-level challenges by work experience
Journalists' responses (n=71) on organization-level challenges by work experience were diverse.
Politically partisan and biased media houses was cited as the most serious such challenge by those
with 2 to 5 years (39.39%), followed by those with 6 to 10 years (24.24%), 11 to 15 years (18.18%),
16 to 20 years (9.09%), more than 21 years (6.06%), and 1-2 years (3.03%) of work experience.

Half of the respondents with 6 to 10 years (50%) of work experience said concentration of media
houses in the capital city was the most serious organization-level problem whereas the rest--11 to 15
years (20%), less than 1 year (10%), 2 to 5 years (10%), and 16 to 20 years (10%)-- said it was such a
problem.

Those who said unfair management practices within the media was the most serious challenge
included respondents with 6 to 10 years (44.44%), and those with 2 to 5 years (22.22%), followed
equally (11.11%) by those with 1 to 2 years, 11 to 15 years, and 16 to 20 years of work experience.
Respondents with 2-5 years and 16-20 years of work experience were equally divided (50%) in their
perception that illegal and non-transparent sources of investment in publishing houses is the most
serious organization-level challenge to Nepali journalists.

Investors using media as a tool to promote other businesses was equally (33.33%) considered as the
most serious organization-level challenge by those with 11 to 15 years, 6-10 years, and 16-20 years
of work experience. Half (50%) of those who said that management interference with editorial works
was the most serious such challenge had more than 21 years of work experience, followed equally
(25%) by those with 11 to 15 years and 6 to 10 years of work experience.

Journalists with 6 to 10 years work experience (57.14%) believed low salaries, wages for journalists
and delayed payments was the most serious organization-level challenge. They were followed
equally (14.29%) by those with 1 to 2 years, 2 to 5 years, and 11 to 15 years. Respondents with 2 to 5
years of work experience were alone (100%) in considering that weak coordination between
reporters and newsroom was the most serious organization-level challenge to Nepali journalists.

4.2.14 Individual Challenges: Respondents have different views regarding the most serious
challenges to journalists at the individual level. 'Lack of technological resources and training'
(42.67%), 'lack of journalism education and training' (16.00%), 'lack of skill to use new media
technology' (13.33%) were among those frequently cited, followed by 'lack of skill to covering special
topics' (9.33%), 'lack of continued and adequate professional commitment' (4%), and 'presence of
political bias (4%).

About 2.67% cited 'journalists tendency to hold themselves above rules and regulations', and an
equal percentage of respondents (2.67%) referred to 'lack of proper institutional guidance or
support to journalists' as serious individual challenges. A small percentage cited Lack of attention
towards Journalists Code of Conduct' (1.33%) and 'lack of respect for factual accuracy, truthfulness,
fairness and balance in reporting' (1.33%) as such challenges.

67

a. Individual-level challenges by cluster
Not unlike the above types of challenges, there were few responses (n=69) from various clusters on
options relating to individual-level challenges. More urban (46.66%) than semi-urban (43.33%) or
rural (9.99%) respondents considered lack of technical resources as the most serious individual-level
challenge. Half the respondents who said lack of technical knowhow and new media skills was the
most serious challenge came from semi-urban (50%) areas while the rest were from semi-urban
(37.50%) and rural (12.50%).

Over three quarters of the respondents (71.43%) who considered lack of skills to cover specialized
topics or issues as the most individual-level challenge came from urban areas, as compared to rural
areas (28.57%). A whooping majority of urban respondents (70%) said lack of journalism
education/training, was the most serious individual-level challenge, followed by rural (20%) and
semi-urban (10%) respondents.

Half of the urban (50%) and another half of semi-urban (50%) respondents considered lack of proper
institutional guidance or support to journalists as the most serious individual-level challenge.
Similarly, urban (50%) and rural (50%) respondents gave equal emphasis on political bias or
partisanship as the most serious challenge of this type.

Only urban-based respondents and all of them (100%) identified lack of commitment to journalism
as a profession; lack of attention towards Journalists Code of Conduct; journalists tendency to hold
themselves above rules and regulations; and lack of respect for factual accuracy, truthfulness,
fairness and balance in reporting.

b. Individual-level challenges by education-level
options on individual-level challenges. Lack of technical knowhow and new media skills was seen as
the most serious such challenge by those with SLC/+2 education (18.75%), followed by those with
self-education/below Grade 10 (12.50%). Lack of proper institutional guidance or support to
journalists was seen to be such a challenge by self-educated/ Grade 10 or below respondents (50%)
and SLC/+2 (42.82%).

Lack of journalism education/training was seen as the most serious challenge by those with
Bachelors degrees and above (90.91%), followed by those with SLC/+2 (9.09%). Those with
Bachelors degrees and above (57.15%) considered lack of skills to cover specialized topics or issues
as the most serious challenge.

Political bias or partisanship was seen as the most serious such challenge by SLC/+2 (50%)
respondents, with half of the 'others" (50%) considering so. Lack of technical resources was seen as
the most serious individual-level challenge by those with Bachelors degrees and above (81.25%),
followed by those with SLC/+2 education (18.75%). Similarly, those with Bachelors degrees and
above (87.50%) were in the majority in considering lack of technical knowhow and new media skills
as the most serious such challenge, followed by self-education/below Grade 10 (12.50%). Those with
Bachelors degrees and above (50%) and with self-education/Grade 10 or below (50%) said lack of
proper institutional guidance or support to journalists was the most serious individual-level
challenge.

Those with Bachelors degrees and above were the only ones (100%) who considered lack of
commitment to journalism as a profession; lack of attention towards Journalists Code of Conduct;
68

and journalists tendency to hold themselves above rules and regulations as the most serious
challenge at the individual-level.

c. Individual-level challenges by outlets
Negligible (n=7) number of responses were received on this question. Print journalists (75%) led
radio journalists (25%) in considering that lack of technical resources was the most serious
individual-level challenge for journalists. Lack of technical knowhow and new media skills was
considered such a challenge by more print (66.67%) than radio (22.22%) or TV (11.11%) journalists.

Lack of skills to cover specialized topics or issues was considered as the most serious challenge by
print (71.43%), followed by radio (14.29%) and TV (14.29%) journalists. Print journalists (81.82%)
also led radio (9.09%) and TV (9.09%) journalists in identifying lack of journalism education/training
as the most serious such challenge.

Print journalists singularly (100%) cited each of the other options as the most serious individual-level
challenge: lack of proper institutional guidance or support to journalists; lack of commitment to
journalism as a profession; lack of attention towards Journalists Code of Conduct; political bias or
partisanship; journalists tendency to hold themselves above rules and regulations; and lack of
respect for factual accuracy, truthfulness, fairness and balance in reporting.

d. Individual-level challenges by work experience
Responses (n=70) from journalists related to all options under individual-level challenge. Lack of
technical resources was cited as the most such challenge by journalists with 6 to 10 years (34.38%), 3
to 5 years (21.88%), 11 to 15 years (15.63), 11 to 15 years (15.63%), 1 to 2 years (6.25%), and more
than 20 years (6.25%) of work experience.

Lack of technical knowhow and new media skills was identified as the most serious individual-level
challenge by those with 11 to 15 years (33.33%), 6 to 10 years (33.33%), 3 to 5 years (22.22%), and
16 to 20 years (11.11%) of work experience. More than half the respondents (57.14%) who said lack
of skills to cover specialized topics or issues was such a challenge had 3 to 5 years of work
experience, followed by those with 6 to 10 years (42.86%) of work experience.

Each (27.27%) of those with 3 to 5 years and 6 to 10 years identified lack of journalism
education/training as the most individual-level challenge, followed equally (9.09%) by those with less
than 1 years, 1 to 2 years, 11 to 15 years, more than 21 years, and 16 to 20 years of work experience.
Half (50%) of those with 1 to 2 years of work experience said lack of commitment to journalism as a
profession was the most serious such challenge, followed by another half (50%) with 11 to 15 years
work experience who said so.

All respondents with 6 to 10 years (100%) of work experience said lack of proper institutional
guidance or support to journalists was the most strongly felt individual-level challenge. Similarly, all
respondents with 11 to 15 years (100%) of work experience cited lack of attention towards
Journalists Code of Conduct as the most serious individual-level challenge. Respondents with 3 to 5
years of work experience were also alone (100%) in considering political bias or partisanship as such
a challenge. Journalists tendency to hold themselves above rules and regulations was considered as
the most individual-level challenge by all (100%) respondents with 6 to 10 years work experience. In
the same way, lack of respect for factual accuracy, truthfulness, fairness and balance in reporting
was considered as such a challenge by all respondents who had 3 to 5 years (100%) of work
experience.

69

4.2.15 Loyalty: Responding to the question which among a set of options should journalists be more
responsible towards, majority of respondents (56.18%) chose 'the public in general'. Another larger
chunk of respondents (34.83%) selected 'the audience/readers'. Those who said 'one's own
conscience' (2.25%), 'the people one covers' (2.25%), 'the influential sources of information' (2.25%)
were among the minority. In addition, very few respondents i.e. 1.12% said journalists should be
loyal to 'media houses', and another 1.12% said they should be loyal to 'editors or colleagues in
media'.

4.3.1 Reliance on media for information
When asked how often respondents relied on various media/communication channels for their daily
news, majority of them said they reply almost always on mobile, followed by those who said they
rely on Internet, television, newspapers, radio, and friends, family members and colleagues, in that
order.

a. Mobile
Journalists were using mobile for their daily news, with 42.78% saying they almost always rely on it,
31.44% frequently did, 22.51% sometimes, 2.58% never and less than 1% were not sure if they did.

b. Internet
About 39.67% of the respondents said they almost always relied on the Internet for daily news,
33.83% said they relied frequently and 22.50% said they sometimes did. About 3.33% said they
never relied on the Internet for their daily news while less than 1% of respondents were not sure if
they did. The survey was conducted online with paper option too for rural areas.

c. TV
About 36.72 of respondents almost always relied on television for their daily news and 27.24%
relied on it never. Only 4.48% relied frequently and 1.21% sometimes. Those who were not sure if
they relied on TV for news were 30.30%.

56.18%
34.83%
2.25%
2.25%
2.25%
1.12%
1.12%
Loyalty of journalists
Common people
Listeners, viewers and
readers
Self & self conscience
The subjects of news
Influential sources of
information
Media houses
70

d. Newspaper or magazine
Most respondents (31.67%) said they sometimes relied on newspapers or magazines for their news.
Some 33.73% relied frequently and 29.43% almost always relied on them. There were 3.96%
respondents who never relied on newspaper and magazine for daily news. Again, 1.20% respondents
were not sure if they relied at all.

e. Radio
About 34.99% respondents relied on radio sometimes, 33.96% frequently, and 25.56% almost
always on the radio for daily news. Those who said they never relied on radio for their news
comprised 3.95% and a small percentage (1.54%) could not say if they relied at all.

f. Friends, family members and colleagues
A majority of respondents (57.86%) said they sometimes relied on friends, family members and
colleagues for their daily news. About 19.41% frequently relied, 12.38% almost always relied, and
9.06% never relied on them. A tiny segment of 1.29% respondents were not sure if they did.

4.3.2 Statement of agreement on the trust factors
Majority of respondents responded favorably on the trust factors regarding that Nepali media or
their content.

a. Credibility of content
Majority of respondents (57.62%) agreed what they read, heard and saw in the Nepali media were
credible, 8.51% strongly agreed and 8.35% were not sure if they did. Some 19.90% disagreed with
the statement and 5.62 said they strongly disagreed that they read, heard or saw credible things in
Nepali media.

b. Impartiality of media
On the question about impartiality of the media, 47.12% disagreed Nepali media were impartial,
with 9.23% showing strong disagreement with the statement. About 26.52% agreed about the media
being impartial and 4.45% showed strong agreement to the statement. Some 13% respondents were
not sure about whether the Nepali media were impartial.
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Credibility of content
Impartiality of media
Factuality of content
Completeness of content
Trustworthiness of media
Expert sourcing & attribution
Perception of trust factors
Strongly disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly agree
Can't say
71

c. Factuality of content
Almost 49% respondents agreed on the media being factual, with 6.06% showing strong agreement.
Those showing disagreement made up 25.93% and strong disagreement 4.55%. Some 15% were not
sure.

d. Completeness of content
Some 39% respondents disagreed that the media gave complete information with 5.16% showing
stronger disagreement. Those who agreed accounted 36.32% and 6.02% showed stronger
disagreement. Again, some 14% were not sure if the media stories were complete.

e. Trustworthiness of media
Respondents generally agreed that the media were trustworthy, with 48.45% agreeing to the
statement about their trust in the media. Some 4.83% showed strong agreement. Those disagreeing
with the statement accounted for 29.31% and showing disagreement 3.79%.

f. Facts and expert sourcing and attribution in content
When asked to what extent the respondent agreed with the statement that 'Nepali media use expert
sources and materials', 48.01% journalists said they agreed, 5.87% said they strongly agreed, 29.19%
said they disagreed and 4.66% said they strongly disagreed with the statement. Some 12.26% were
not sure.

4.3.3 Verification process: To the question "normally, what processes do you follow when preparing
print or broadcast materials", a large majority of the respondents (78.72) said they check facts and
quotes while 15.96% reported they do further background research for context. There were a few
respondents who said they 'get suggestions from seniors to prepare materials' (3.19%), 'my
supervisor or editor copy-edits or rewrites' materials (1.06%) and 'experts review the materials'
(1.06%). None of the respondents mentioned that 'sometimes host-verify the content with the
concerned people who are covered'.

4.3.4 Trust factors. When asked what factors affected the credibility of Nepali media the most, a
large percentage of respondents (42.03%) cited 'mediocre language presentation and style', while
26.09% said the reason was not verifying facts properly. About 14.49% pointed out the use of
materials without historical, economic context. There were 4.35% respondents who said distortion
of facts was affecting Nepali credibility the most while 4.35% saw 'presenting news with personal
prejudices', and 2.90% pointed out 'using unidentified sources too often' as the factors affecting the
credibility of media.

Factors less often cited included indifference towards publishing or broadcasting corrections
(1.45%), lack of research on topics covered (1.45%), sensationalization of events or issues (1.45%),
exaggeration of facts, events or issues (1.45%), and indifference towards readers' or audience
feedback (1.45%).

4.3.5 Responsibility for content produced: To the question "who do you think is most responsible
for the news content you have produced", an overwhelming 85.96% of respondents said they were
themselves responsible for the content they produce.
72

There were a few respondents who said the editor (8.83%), the editorial or news desk (2.84%), the
sources used to write the news (0.79%), the owners of media houses (0.79%), the managers of
media houses (0.47%), advertisers (0.16%), and others (0.16%) as responsible.

4.3.6 Trust in media-specific information and analyses
To the question 'what extent do you trust the information or analyses presented in the following
media in Nepal' respondents generally trusted all media for such information. However, more
respondents trusted information and analyses in newspapers, television, or radio than online news.

a. Information and analyses in newspapers
A whopping 71.36% trusted information and analyses in newspapers, 12.32% trusted them very
much, 13.76% trusted a little, 1.76% did not trust at all and 0.80% were not sure.

85.96%
8.83%
2.84%
0.79%
0.79%
0.47%
0.16%
0.16%
Myself
Editor
Desk
Owners of media houses
Sources specified in the materials
Managers of media houses
Others
Advertisers
Responsibility for the content
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Trust not at all
Trust little
Trust
Trust very much
Cannot say
Journalists' trust in outlets
Trust in newspaper
Trust in radio/FM stations
Trust in TV
Trust in online news
73

b. Information and analyses in radio
About 58.11% respondents trusted such content on the radio, 4.47% trusted them very much,
32.28% trusted them a little, 3.15% did not trust them at all and 1.99% could not trust.

c. Information and analyses in TV
About 65.67% respondents trusted materials on TV, 11.44% trusted them very much, 21.06%
trusted them a little, 1.16% did not trust at all and 0.66% could not trust.

d. Information and analyses in on the Internet
About 48.14% trusted online news, 3.56% trusted it very much, 41.02 trusted little, 2.54% did not
trust at all, and 4.75% could not trust.

4.3.7 Journalists' trust in topics covered
Respondents were asked about their overall perceptions on the reliability of the coverage of Nepali
media on contemporary topics of public interest. Generally, respondents had a favorable view of
coverage on such topics.

a. Peace and democratic process
About 51.08% found the coverage of peace, democracy reliable, 5.66% found it very reliable, 35.11
somewhat not reliable, 4.49% not reliable at all and 3.66% could not say.

b. Constitution-making (state restructuring, form of govt, citizens' rights, social inclusion, etc)
About 48.54% found coverage constitution-making reliable. Some 6.37% found it very reliable. About
33.91% said it was somewhat not reliable. There were 6.54% respondents who said the coverage
was not reliable at all while 4.65% responded with "can't say".

c. Governance
Respondents found coverage on governance reliable (47.99%). About 4.89% found it very reliable
while 34.21% found it somewhat not reliable. A few of them (6.81%) said coverage was not reliable
at all, and 6.11% could not tell.

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Peace, democracy
Constitution making
Governance
National Politics
Socio-economic dev
Sci-tech & environment
Reliability perception on topics
Not reliable at all
Not much reliable
Reliable
Very reliable
Can't say
74

d. National politics
Many respondents (44.46%) found coverage on national politics reliable, 6.06% of them saying it was
very reliable. There were 36.68% who believed it was somewhat not reliable. About 7.96% said it
was not reliable at all and 4.84% could not tell.

e. Social and economic development
Majority of respondents (57.77%) found the coverage of social and economic development reliable,
7.68% very reliable, 25.83% somewhat reliable, 4.54% not reliable at all and 4.19 could not tell.

f. Science, technology and environment
Majority of those surveyed 50.97%) said the coverage of science, technology and environment was
reliable. About 6.70% believed it was very reliable. About 29.81% found the media coverage on the
topic somewhat not reliable while 5.47% said it was not reliable at all. Some 7.05% respondents
could not tell.
4.4 Media Capacity
4.4.1 Education opportunities: Respondents were asked if they had any opportunities to receive
formal education in journalism. About 27.82% said they had studied journalism or mass
communication up to 10+2 level while 27.42% of those surveyed said they had obtained a Bachelor's
degree in journalism.

Respondents who had received Master's degree in journalism or mass communication comprised
19.35% of the respondents. A small percentage of respondents (5.24%) said they had studied the
subject in their high school curriculum. About 20.16% of respondents reported obtaining other
formal journalism degrees.

4.4.2 Past training opportunities
The respondents were asked about the opportunities of learning they had received at least once in
the past. Most respondents reported having had opportunities to participate in several capacity
building programs of various duration. Many reported they had not participated in fellowships or
internships.

75

a. Basic journalism training
About 37.48% respondents reported they had participated in basic journalism training (news
reporting and writing), cumulatively between 1-week to 1-month duration. An almost equal number
of respondents (36.77%) said they had participated in sessions amounting to at least a week while
16.52% reported they had obtained 1 to 6 months of basic journalism training. Similarly, journalists
who spent more than 6 months in their basic training comprised 5.33% of the total respondents.
About 3.91% journalists reported they had not participated in basic journalism training.

b. Special topic training in journalism
Majority i.e. 48.23% had spent less than a week in the special topic training, 29.65% of total
respondents had participated in training period of 1 week to 1 month, and 9.29% respondents had
obtained training of between more than 1 and up to 6 months. About 3.76% said they had more
than 6 months of fellowships while 9.07% had not participated in any such training.

c. Fellowship
About 12.24% respondents shared that they had spent between more than 1 and up to 6 months in
fellowships, 31.82% spent less than a week, 18.53% spent from 1 week to 1 month, 4.55%
respondents said they had participated in more than 6 months of fellowships while 32.87% of the
total respondents reported they had not participated in any fellowship.

d. Exchange
About 8.76% journalists responded that they had spent between more than 1 and up to 6 months in
some type of exchange programs while 47.81% had spent less than a week, and 16.06% had spent
from 1 week to 1 month of exchange programs. About 5.11% reported they had spent more than 6
months while 22.26% said they had not participated in any such exchange program.

e. Internship
About 20.41% reported they had spent between more than 1 and up to 6 months for internships,
20.82% had spent less than a week, and 16.33% respondents had spent from 1 week to 1 month.
About 7.76% respondents had spent more than 6 months while 34.68% had not had internship
opportunities.

f. Seminar
When asked about their participation in seminar, 64.51% said they had less than a week of seminar.
About 19.42% said they had 1 week to 1 month of participation in seminars. About 6.47% had spent
between more than 1 and up to 6 months while 4.38% had more than 6 months of seminar
experience. A small percentage of respondents (5.22%) had not participated in seminars.

4.4.2.1 Learning opportunities by education levels, study areas, beats, outlets, and media
ownership types
The following cross tabulations show learning opportunities received by journalists in terms of their
education levels, major study areas, beats, media outlet types, and media ownership types.
Respondents across demographics and professional roles had more basic training, special topic
training, and seminar or workshop exposure than fellowship, exchange or internship experience.

a. Learning opportunities by journalists' education level
Respondents with lower academic degrees indicated they often had fewer training opportunities
than those with higher degrees. Most respondents had attended less than a week or between 1
week and 1 month of training. Majority of respondents comprised those with Bachelor's or Master's
degrees

76

Table 7: Learning opportunities at least once in the past by journalists' educational levels
Education level
N
o
n
e

L
e
s
s

t
h
a
n

a

w
e
e
k

B
e
t
w
e
e
n

1

w
e
e
k

&

1

m
o
n
t
h

B
e
t
w
e
e
n

m
o
r
e

t
h
a
n

1

m
o
n
t
h

&

6

m
o
n
t
h
s

M
o
r
e

t
h
a
n

6

m
o
n
t
h
s

T
o
t
a
l

BASIC TRAINING (n=514)

Self study (n=2) 0% 0% 50% 50% 0% 100%
Grade 10 or less (n=1) 0% 0% 100% 0% 0% 100%
SLC (n=11) 18.18% 54.55% 18.18% 9.09% 0% 100%
10+2 or PCL (n=109) 1.83% 43.12% 40.37% 12.84% 1.83% 100%
Bachelor's (n=267) 2.25% 35.96% 38.58% 17.23% 5.99% 100%
Master's or above (n=124) 8.06% 31.45% 33.06% 20.16% 7.26% 100%
SPECIAL TRAINING (n=416)

Self study (n=1) 0% 100% 0% 0% 0% 100%
Grade 10 or less (n=1) 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100%
SLC (n=8) 37.50% 50% 12.50% 0% 0% 100%
10+2 or PCL (n=73) 15.07% 52.05% 21.92% 8.22% 2.74% 100%
Bachelor's (n=238) 5.04% 47.48% 34.03% 9.66% 3.78% 100%
FELLOWSHIP (n=259)

Self study (n=0) -- -- -- -- -- --
Grade 10 or less (n=1) 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100%
SLC (n=4) 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100%
10+2 or PCL (n=47) 38.30% 42.55% 14.89% 2.13% 2.13% 100%
Bachelor's (n=147) 29.25% 31.29% 19.05% 15.65% 4.76% 100%
Master's or above (n=60) 35% 23.33% 20% 13.33% 8.33% 100%
EXCHANGE (n=246)

Self study (n=1) 0% 0% 100% 0% 0% 100%
Grade 10 or less (n=1) 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100%
SLC (n=2) 50% 50% 0% 0% 0% 100%
10+2 or PCL (n=38) 28.95% 50% 13.16% 5.26% 2.63% 100%
Bachelor's (n=140) 21.43% 46.43% 15.71% 10.71% 5.71% 100%
INTERNSHIP (n=223)

Self study (n=0) -- -- -- -- -- --
Grade 10 or less (n=1) 0% 0% 0% 0% 100% 100%
SLC (n=2) 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100%
10+2 or PCL (n=35) 45.71% 22.86% 11.43% 11.43% 8.57% 100%
Bachelor's (n=125) 34.40% 22.40% 19.20% 18.40% 5.60% 100%
Master's or above (n=60) 26.67% 15% 13.33% 35% 10% 100%
SEMINAR (n=432)

Self study (n=1) 0% 0% 100% 0% 0% 100%
Grade 10 or less (n=1) 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100%
SLC (n=6) 0% 100% 0% 0% 0% 100%
10+2 or PCL (n=79) 5.06% 74.68% 15.19% 2.53% 2.53% 100%
Bachelor's (n=232) 4.31% 59.91% 21.12% 8.62% 6.03% 100%

b. Learning opportunities by journalists' major study areas
Most respondents across study areas had attended less than a week or between 1 week and 1
month of training. Those who attended training with the duration of more than 6 months almost
always included respondents specifically with degrees in Humanities & Arts, or Management
(commerce). Majority of respondents comprised those with Humanities & Arts, and Management
degrees.

77

Table 8: Learning opportunities at least once in the past by journalists' major study areas

Major study area
N
o
n
e

L
e
s
s

t
h
a
n

a

w
e
e
k

B
e
t
w
e
e
n

1

w
e
e
k

&

1

m
o
n
t
h

B
e
t
w
e
e
n

m
o
r
e

t
h
a
n

1

m
o
n
t
h

&

6

m
o
n
t
h
s

M
o
r
e

t
h
a
n

6

m
o
n
t
h
s

T
o
t
a
l


Engineering (n=6) 0% 50% 33.33% 16.67% 0% 100%
Law (n=11) 9.09% 36.36% 45.45% 9.09% 0.00% 100%
Humanities & arts (n=295) 4.41% 38.31% 34.24% 17.97% 5.08% 100%
Science & technology (n=6) 16.67% 33.33% 33.33% 0% 16.67% 100%
Management (commerce) (n=84) 1.19% 35.71% 40.48% 15.48% 7.14% 100%
SPECIAL TRAINING (n=329)

Engineering (n=3) 0% 100% 0% 0% 0% 100%
Law (n=10) 10% 50% 30% 10% 0% 100%
Science & technology (n=5) 40% 20% 40% 0% 0% 100%
FELLOWSHIP (n=210)

Engineering (n=1) 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100%
Law (n=5) 20% 20% 40% 20% 0% 100%
EXCHANGE (n=197)

Engineering (n=2) 50% 50% 0% 0% 0% 100%
Law (n=5) 20% 40% 40% 0% 0% 100%
INTERNSHIP (n=179)

Engineering (n=1) 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100%
Law (n=3) 66.67% 33.33% 0% 0% 0% 100%
Humanities & arts (n=136) 32.35% 17.65% 16.18% 25% 8.82% 100%
SEMINAR/WORKSHOP/CONF. (n=
346)

Engineering (n=4) 0% 75% 25% 0% 0% 100%
Law (n=11) 0% 90.91% 9.09% 0% 0% 100%
Science & technology (n=6) 16.67% 66.67% 0% 16.67% 0% 100%

c. Learning opportunities by beats
Across beats, generally respondents were spread evenly in their length of training experiences. The
most commonly experienced training opportunities were those with the duration of less than a week
or between 1 week and 1 month of training. Most respondents came from politics, economy,
society/culture, science/technology beats.

78

Table 9: Learning opportunities at least once in the past by beats

Beats
None Less than
a week
Between 1 week
& 1 month
Between more than
1 month & 6 months
More than
6 months
Total

Politics (n=347) 15% 38% 39% 5% 3% 100%
Economy (n=307) 17% 37% 39% 5% 2% 100%
Society, culture (n=340) 16% 16% 16% 16% 16% 100%
Science-technology (n=317) 15% 38% 39% 5% 2% 100%
Crime (n=282) 13% 39% 41% 5% 3% 100%
Disaster (n=293) 17% 37% 40% 4% 2% 100%
Celebrities (n=286) 15% 35% 41% 5% 3% 100%
Others (n=120) 14% 35% 48% 3% 0% 100%
SPECIAL TOPIC TRAINING (n=2003)

Politics (n=297) 11% 49% 29% 3% 8% 100%
Economy (n= 270) 11% 50% 29% 4% 6% 100%
Crime (n=248) 9% 51% 29% 3% 7% 100%
Disaster (n=259) 10% 51% 29% 3% 8% 100%
Celebrities (n=253) 11% 50% 27% 3% 8% 100%
Others (n=108) 10% 54% 29% 1% 6% 100%
FELLOWSHIP (n=1326)

Politics (n=196) 14% 34% 16% 4% 32% 100%
Economy (n=174) 13% 35% 15% 5% 32% 100%
Crime (n=162) 13% 34% 15% 4% 33% 100%
Disaster (n=174) 13% 35% 16% 3% 33% 100%
Celebrities (n=171) 13% 36% 18% 4% 29% 100%
Others (n=79) 11% 37% 16% 4% 32% 100%
EXCHANGE (n=1179)

Politics (n=177) 7% 51% 15% 5% 22% 100%
Economy (n=157) 8% 50% 15% 5% 21% 100%
Crime (n=146) 8% 53% 12% 4% 23% 100%
Disaster (n=155) 9% 52% 12% 5% 22% 100%
Celebrities (n=124) 10% 65% 19% 6% 0% 100%
Others (n=71) 13% 51% 8% 6% 23% 100%
INTERNSHIP (n=1100)

Politics (n=156 ) 19% 20% 17% 6% 38% 100%
Economy (n=143) 19% 22% 16% 6% 36% 100%
Crime (n=136) 19% 21% 18% 4% 38% 100%
Disaster (n=139) 18% 20% 17% 6% 39% 100%
Celebrities (n=140) 20% 23% 17% 5% 35% 100%
Others (n=70) 19% 16% 26% 6% 34% 100%
SEMINAR/ WORKSHOP/ CONF. (n=2011)

Politics (n=301) 6% 66% 20% 4% 5% 100%
Economy (n=261) 6% 65% 22% 4% 3% 100%
Society, culture (n= 292) 6% 66% 20% 3% 5% 100%
Science-technology (n= 281) 6% 65% 21% 3% 5% 100%
Crime (n=245) 6% 67% 18% 4% 4% 100%
Disaster (n=260) 7% 64% 21% 3% 5% 100%
Celebrities (n=253) 6% 65% 21% 4% 5% 100%
Others (n=118) 8% 64% 19% 3% 7% 100%
79

d. Learning opportunities by journalists' media outlet types
Similar to the education levels, study areas and beats, respondents across media outlet types,
generally had learning opportunities with the duration of less than a week or between 1 week and 1
month of training. Respondents were generally lacking in fellowships, exchange and internships. The
majority of respondents worked for print and radio outlets.

Table 10: Learning opportunities at least once in the past by journalists' media outlet types

e. Learning opportunities by journalists' media ownership types
Respondents across media ownership types, generally commonly had learning opportunities with
the duration of less than a week or between 1 week and 1 month of training. However, compared to
journalists with specific education levels, study areas, beats, and outlet types, more percentage of

Media outlet
N
o
n
e

L
e
s
s

t
h
a
n

a

w
e
e
k

B
e
t
w
e
e
n

1

w
e
e
k

&

1

m
o
n
t
h

B
e
t
w
e
e
n

m
o
r
e

t
h
a
n

1

m
o
n
t
h

&

6

m
o
n
t
h
s

M
o
r
e

t
h
a
n

6

m
o
n
t
h
s

T
o
t
a
l

Print (n=259) 5% 39% 33% 17% 6% 100%
Radio (n=166) 2% 36% 44% 16% 2% 100%
TV (n=54) 0% 31% 41% 22% 6% 100%
Online (n=15) 7% 27% 13% 33% 20% 100%
News agency (n=7) 0% 43% 29% 29% 0% 100%
Print (n=217) 8% 48% 29% 10% 5% 100%
Radio (n=128) 11% 52% 31% 4% 2% 100%
TV (n=45) 2% 58% 18% 22% 0% 100%
Online (n=10) 10% 10% 50% 20% 10% 100%
News agency (n=6) 0% 33% 50% 17% 0% 100%
FELLOWSHIP (n=254)
Print (n=146) 32% 27% 18% 15% 7% 100%
Radio (n=79) 37% 37% 18% 6% 3% 100%
TV (n=23) 30% 39% 13% 17% 0% 100%
Online (n=4) 0% 50% 25% 25% 0% 100%
News agency (n=0) -- -- -- -- -- --
EXCHANGE (n= 241)
Print (n=137) 23% 45% 18% 7% 7% 100%
Radio (n=78) 23% 49% 17% 8% 4% 100%
TV (n=21) 14% 67% 5% 14% 0% 100%
Online (n=4) 0% 0% 25% 50% 25% 100%
News agency (n=0) -- -- -- -- -- --
INTERNSHIP (n= 220)
Print (n=119) 34% 14% 18% 25% 8% 100%
Radio (n=68) 41% 26% 10% 16% 6% 100%
TV (n=24) 25% 38% 25% 13% 0% 100%
Online (n=9) 0% 11% 11% 56% 22% 100%
News agency (n=0) -- -- -- -- -- --
SEMINAR/ WORKSHOP/ CONF. (n= 420)
Print (n=232) 6% 67% 18% 4% 6% 100%
Radio (n=129) 5% 61% 21% 9% 4% 100%
TV (n=45) 0% 64% 24% 11% 0% 100%
Online (n=8) 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100%
News agency (n=6) 0% 83% 0% 17% 0% 100%
80

respondents working across private, government-owned and community media had between more
than 1 month and 6 months of learning opportunities. Respondents were had fewer opportunities in
fellowships, exchange and internships. The majority of respondents came from private and
community media outlets.

Table 11: Learning opportunities at least once in the past by journalists' media ownership types

4.4.3 Locations journalists received training from: To the question "if you are trained in journalism,
where did you receive your training from", more than half or 58.25% of total respondents said they
obtained their journalism training from 'local and regional level', 21.75% said they received it from
'national level', 10.88% from 'in-house training program', 7.37% from 'international level' and
remaining 1.75% from other locations.

4.4.4 Overall training satisfaction
Respondents were asked about their satisfaction with various aspects of journalism training
currently in the country. Most of them appeared somewhat dissatisfied with training, curriculum,
instruction and practical opportunities such as in-house training and internships.

Media ownership type
N
o
n
e

L
e
s
s

t
h
a
n

a

w
e
e
k

B
e
t
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n

1

w
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k

&

1

m
o
n
t
h

B
e
t
w
e
e
n

m
o
r
e

t
h
a
n

1

m
o
n
t
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&

6

m
o
n
t
h
s

M
o
r
e

t
h
a
n

6

m
o
n
t
h
s

T
o
t
a
l

Private (n=327) 5% 39% 33% 18% 5% 100%
State owned (n=43) 5% 26% 42% 23% 5% 100%
Community (n=125) 1% 33% 48% 13% 6% 100%

Private (n=270) 9% 47% 30% 10% 4% 100%
State owned (n=31) 0% 45% 29% 19% 6% 100%
Community (n=103) 11% 53% 28% 5% 3% 100%
FELLOWSHIP (n= 252)

Private (n=166) 33% 30% 18% 14% 6% 100%
State owned (n=21) 33% 24% 29% 14% 0% 100%
Community (n= 65) 35% 37% 15% 9% 3% 100%
EXCHANGE (n=237)

Private (n=160) 23% 46% 19% 8% 4% 100%
State owned (n=19) 11% 47% 11% 11% 21% 100%
Community (n=58) 22% 52% 12% 9% 5% 100%
INTERNSHIP (n=217)

Private (n=149) 31% 18% 19% 22% 10% 100%
State owned (n=12) 42% 17% 17% 25% 0% 100%
Community (n=56) 41% 29% 9% 20% 2% 100%
SEMINAR/ WORKSHOP/ CONF. (n=415)

Private (n=278) 6% 65% 19% 6% 4% 100%
State owned (n=37) 0% 59% 27% 8% 5% 100%
Community (n=100) 2% 64% 21% 7% 6% 100%
81

a. Satisfaction from training
When asked about their satisfaction in the overall quality of existing journalism training programs,
46.68% respondents were somewhat dissatisfied, 12.90% respondents were very dissatisfied while
just 1.71% were very satisfied. About 2.28% respondents responded with "can't say" and 36.43%
said they were satisfied.

b. Curriculum satisfaction
Of the total respondents, 42.60% reported they were somewhat dissatisfied with the quality of
training curricula while 37.44% were satisfied, 13.00% were very dissatisfied, and only 2.02% were
very satisfied. There were 4.93% respondents who could not tell about their satisfaction.

c. Instruction material satisfaction
Regarding their satisfaction in the availability of instructional and other resource materials, 44.90%
reported they were somewhat dissatisfied, while 20.18% said they were very dissatisfied with the
materials. Less than 2% were very satisfied. About 30.16% replied they were satisfied. Some 2.95%
could not tell.

d. Satisfaction with instructors
About 42.57% respondents were somewhat dissatisfied with the quality of trainers while 43.69%
were satisfied. Of the respondents, 7.88% were very dissatisfied, and 3.06% were very satisfied. A
small percentage of respondents (2.25%) responded with cant say.

e. Practical opportunities (scope for in-house training/internship)
Regarding practical aspects, and scope for in-house training/internship, 34.95% respondents were
somewhat dissatisfied, 26.39% were satisfied, 27.78% were very dissatisfied while 3.24% very
satisfied. Some 7.64% could not tell about their satisfaction.

f. Quality of trainees' satisfaction
Regarding the quality of trainees produced by training institutions, 50.82% were somewhat
dissatisfied, 27.27% were satisfied, 10.72% were very dissatisfied while just 3.69% were very
satisfied. The remaining 7.23% respondents replied they cant say.

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Training overall
Curriculum
Instruction materials
Instructors
Practical opportunities
Quality of trainees
Overall training satisfaction
Very dissatisfied
Somewhat dissatisfied
Satisfied
Very satisfied
Can't Say
82

4.4.5 Professional development
Journalists were asked about how their training or education in journalism had helped in their
professional development. Of the respondents, 38.52% agreed that it had helped, 29.15% believed
that it had helped a lot, 28.80% respondents said it had helped somewhat only. Just 2.83% said that
it had not helped. The remaining 0.71% replied with can't say.

4.4.6 Need for capacity opportunities
Respondents thought Nepali journalists needed various professional opportunities, with most
emphasizing incentives, followed by reporting field trips, mentorship, seminars, among others.

a. Fellowship need
Journalists were asked how much they need fellowship opportunities to perform their job better. Of
the respondents, 47.60% agreed that it was necessary, 29.45% said that it was very necessary,
19.01% said that it was necessary to some extent while only 2.74% said that it was not necessary.
The remaining 1.20% respondents replied with cant say.

b. Exchange need
Of the respondents, 54.73% said that it was necessary, 25.82% said that it was very necessary,
14.80% replied that it was necessary to some extent only while just 3.96% said that it was not
necessary. Some 0.69% respondents could not tell if it was necessary.

c. Awards need
When asked how much they needed awards to perform better in their jobs, 45.52% respondents
replied that it was necessary, 28.79% said that such awards were very necessary, 21.38%
respondents said they were necessary to some extent while just 3.10% respondents replied that it
was not necessary. Those who could not tell comprised 1.21% the respondents.

d. Incentive need
Journalists were asked how much they needed good remuneration/cash incentives to perform
better in their jobs. About 62.48% respondents said it was very necessary, 30.91% replied that it was
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Fellowship
Exchange
Award
Incentive
Mentorship
In-house training
Seminar
Festival
Field visits
Need for capacity opportunities
Not necessary
Necessary to some extent
Necessary
Very necessary
Can't say
83

necessary, 5.29% reported it was necessary to some extent only while just 0.99% respondents said it
was not necessary. The remaining 0.33% respondents could not tell if it was necessary.

e. Mentorship need
About 48.34% respondents said that it mentorship (professional counseling, guidance) was
necessary, 40.49% said that it was very necessary, 9.77% respondents reported that it was necessary
to some extent while just 1.05% respondents believed that it was not necessary. Some 0.35%
respondents could not tell if it was necessary.

f. In-house training need
Regarding the need of in-house refresher training, 50.43% respondents replied that it was necessary,
36.92% respondents said that it was very necessary, 11.11% respondents believed that it was
necessary to some extent while just 1.37% respondents said that it was not necessary. The
remaining 0.17% respondents replied with cant say.

g. Seminar need
Respondents were asked how much they needed professional workshops, seminars, conventions,
etc. About 51.65% respondents replied that it was necessary, 31.37% respondents said that it was
very necessary, 14.21% respondents said that it was necessary to some extent only while just 1.91%
respondents replied that it was not necessary. The remaining 0.87% respondents said they could not
tell.

h. Festival need
When journalists were asked how much they needed journalistic events like media festivals, 42.7%
respondents replied that they were necessary, 24.73% respondents said that they were necessary to
some extent only, 24.56% respondents believed that they were very necessary while 7.12%
respondents said that they were not necessary. Some 0.89% respondents replied that they could not
tell.

i. Field visits need
Journalists were asked how much they needed paid reporting trips such as field visits offered by
employers, 44.43% respondents said they were necessary, 42.57% said that they were very
necessary, 11.32% respondents believed they were necessary to some extent while 1.35%
respondents replied that they were not necessary.

4.4.6.1 Capacity development needs by education levels, study areas, beats, outlets, and media
ownership types
The following cross tabulations show capacity development needs of journalists in terms of their
education levels, major study areas, beats, media outlet types, and media ownership types. A
majority of respondents across those variables indicated they have capacity development needs.

a. Capacity development needs by major study areas
Most of the journalists who said they needed capacity enhancement opportunities had an academic
background in Humanities & Arts, and Management (Commerce) than other backgrounds.
Respondents were somewhat evenly distributed across capacity factors.

84

Table 12: Capacity development needs by major study areas of journalists
Capacity factors
E
n
g
i
n
e
e
r
i
n
g

L
a
w

M
e
d
i
c
i
n
e

H
u
m
a
n
i
t
i
e
s

&

a
r
t
s

S
c
i
-
T
e
c
h

M
a
n
a
g
e
m
e
n
t

(
c
o
m
m
e
r
c
e
)

O
t
h
e
r

T
o
t
a
l

FELLOWSHIP (n=452)

Needed (n=435) 1% 2% 0% 71% 2% 18% 6% 100%
Not needed/can't say (n=17) 0% 6% 0% 65% 0% 24% 6% 100%
EXCHANGE (n=447)

Needed (n=428) 1% 2% 0% 71% 2% 18% 6% 100%
AWARD (n=450)

Needed (n=430) 1% 2% 0% 71% 3% 18% 5% 100%
INCENTIVE (n=452)

Needed (n=457) 1% 2% 0% 71% 2% 18% 5% 100%
MENTORSHIP (n=441)

Needed (n=436) 2% 2% 0% 70% 3% 19% 6% 100%
IN-HOUSE TRAINING
(n=442)

Needed (n=446) 2% 2% 0% 70% 2% 18% 6% 100%
SEMINAR/WORKSHOP
(n=441)

Needed (n=431) 1% 3% 0% 70% 2% 18% 6% 100%
FESTIVAL (n=435)

Needed (n=399) 2% 3% 0% 68% 2% 19% 6% 100%
FIELD VISIT (n=455)

Needed (n=448) 2% 2% 0% 70% 2% 18% 5% 100%

85

b. Capacity development needs by education level
In terms of education level, most of the journalists who said they needed capacity enhancement
opportunities had Bachelor's degrees, followed by Master's and Plus-2 degrees, in that order.
Respondents were generally evenly distributed across capacity factors, with virtually no response
from those who were self-educated or had Grade 10 degrees or less.

Table 13: Capacity development needs by education level of journalists
Capacity factors
S
e
l
f

s
t
u
d
y

G
r
a
d
e

1
0

o
r

l
e
s
s

S
L
C

1
0
+
2

o
r

P
C
L

B
a
c
h
e
l
o
r
'
s

M
a
s
t
e
r
'
s

o
r

a
b
o
v
e

T
o
t
a
l

FELLOWSHIP (n=544)

Needed (n=520) 0% 0% 1% 21% 53% 25% 100%
Not needed/can't say (n=22) 0% 0% 14% 21% 24% 41% 100%
EXCHANGE (n=537)

Needed (n=515) 0% 0% 3% 22% 48% 27% 100%
AWARD (n=536)

Needed (n=513) 0% 0% 1% 22% 50% 26% 100%
INCENTIVE (n=562)

Needed (n=556) 0% 0% 3% 24% 48% 25% 100%
MENTORSHIP (n=533)

Needed (n=527) 0% 0% 1% 24% 49% 25% 100%
IN-HOUSE TRAINING (n=542)

Needed (n=535) 1% 0% 2% 23% 49% 25% 100%
SEMINAR/WORKSHOP/CONF.
(n=529)

Needed (n=528) 0% 0% 2% 24% 47% 27% 100%
FESTIVAL (n=520)

Needed (n=481) 0% 0% 2% 20% 52% 26% 100%
FIELD VISIT (n=548)

Needed (n=540) 0% 0% 0% 2% 22% 53% 100%

86

c. Capacity development needs of journalists by outlet
Print, followed by radio journalists, and those working with private outlets called for capacity
development more often than television or online journalists, or those working with community, and
state-owned media. Survey responses were distributed generally evenly across capacity factors.

Table 14: Capacity development needs by major outlets journalists work for
Capacity factors
P
r
i
n
t

R
a
d
i
o

T
V

O
n
l
i
n
e

N
e
w
s

a
g
e
n
c
y

T
o
t
a
l

FELLOWSHIP (n=523)

Needed (n=501) 57% 29% 10% 3% 1%
100%
Not needed/can't say (n= 22) 59% 27% 9% 5% 0%
100%
EXCHANGE (n=518)

Needed (n=496 ) 55% 32% 9% 3% 1%
100%
Not needed/can't say (n=22 ) 73% 18% 9% 0% 0%
100%
AWARD (n=519)

Needed (n=497 ) 57% 30% 10% 2% 1%
100%
100%
INCENTIVE (n=540)

Needed (n=535 ) 56% 30% 10% 2% 1%
100%
100%
MENTORSHIP (n=514)

Needed (n=509 ) 56% 30% 10% 2% 1%
100%
100%

Needed (n=516 ) 56% 30% 10% 3% 1%
100%
Not needed/can't say (n=6) 0% 50% 50% 0% 0%
100%
SEMINAR/WORKSHOP/CONF. (n=515)

Needed (n=501 ) 57% 30% 10% 3% 1%
100%
100%
FESTIVAL (n=499)

Needed (n=462 ) 55% 31% 10% 3% 1%
100%
100%
FIELD VISIT (n=529)

Needed (n=522 ) 56% 31% 10% 3% 1%
100%
Not needed/can't say (n=7) 1% 0% 0% 0% 0%
100%

87

d. Capacity development needs of journalists by media ownership types
Journalists working with private media, followed by those working with community media called for
capacity development more often than those working with state-owned media. Survey responses
were somewhat evenly distributed across capacity factors.

Table 15: Capacity development needs by media ownership types
Capacity factors
P
r
i
v
a
t
e

S
t
a
t
e
-

o
w
n
e
d

C
o
m
m
u
n
i
t
y

T
o
t
a
l

FELLOWSHIP (n=518)

Needed (n=496) 69% 9% 22%
100%
Not needed/can't say (n=22) 77% 0% 23%
100%
EXCHANGE (n=514)

Needed (n=492) 68% 8% 23%
100%
100%
AWARD (n=515)

Needed (n=493) 69% 8% 22%
100%
100%
INCENTIVE (n=537)

Needed (n=531) 69% 8% 22%
100%
100%
MENTORSHIP (n=510)

Needed (n=504) 70% 8% 22%
100%
100%

Needed (n=510) 70% 8% 23%
100%
100%
(n=511)

Needed (n=497) 70% 8% 22%
100%
100%
FESTIVAL (n= 504)

Needed (n=458) 68% 8.29% 22.92
100%
Not needed/can't say (n=37) 89.18% 2.7% 8.1%
100%
FIELD VISIT (n=526)

Needed (n=518) 70% 8% 22%
100%

100%

88

e. Capacity development needs of journalists by media ownership types
Beat-wise, journalists were rather evenly distributed across in their responses. Respondents
emphasized on the need for incentives, field visits, and in-house training, in that order, more than
any other capacity factors. Media festival as a capacity need received the least priority from
respondents.

Table 16: Capacity development needs by journalists' beats
Capacity factors
By beat (total = 18, 542
responses)
P
o
l
i
t
i
c
s

E
c
o
n
o
m
y

S
o
c
i
e
t
y

&

c
u
l
t
u
r
e

S
c
i
e
n
c
e

&

t
e
c
h
n
o
l
o
g
y

C
r
i
m
e

D
i
s
a
s
t
e
r

C
e
l
e
b
r
i
t
i
e
s

O
t
h
e
r
s

T
o
t
a
l

FELLOWSHIP (n=2311)

Needed (n=2227) 15% 13% 15% 14% 12% 13% 13% 5% 100%
Not needed/can't say (n=84) 15% 11% 14% 14% 13% 12% 12% 8% 100%
EXCHANGE (n=2248)

Needed (n=2187) 15% 13% 15% 14% 12% 13% 12% 5% 100%
AWARD (n=2296)

Needed (n=2239) 15% 13% 15% 14% 12% 12% 13% 5% 100%
INCENTIVE (n=2346)

Needed (n=2334) 15% 13% 15% 14% 12% 13% 13% 6% 100%
MENTORSHIP (n=2292)

Needed (n=2281) 15% 13% 15% 14% 12% 13% 13% 6% 100%

Needed (n=2294) 15% 13% 15% 14% 12% 13% 13% 5% 100%
(n=2261)

Needed (n=2205) 15% 13% 15% 14% 12% 13% 13% 5% 100%
FESTIVAL (n=148)

Needed (n=148) 16% 14% 13% 16% 12% 11% 14% 4% 100%
Not needed/can't say (n=0) -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
FIELD VISIT (n=2331)

Needed (n=2321) 15% 13% 15% 14% 12% 13% 13% 6% 100%

4.4.7 Reporting training needs: Journalists were asked about immediate training needs in terms of
gathering and writing news stories. Among those surveyed, 42% respondents said they needed such
training in story idea development, 22% respondents said they needed training in information
gathering/recording, and 20% needed the training for locating sources (people, document, field visit,
etc.).
89

Of the respondents, 10% reported its need in editing texts, graphics, and audiovisuals and just 1%
respondents said they needed training in production (proof reading/sound/light, live-broadcasting,
streaming, webcasting, etc). Some 3% respondents needed training in drafting, writing, rewriting the
story. The remaining 2% had other training needs, such as after-training evaluations, reinforcement
of training needs, refreshers, practical demonstrations, encouragement, local focus outside of the
Kathmandu Valley, new media access, etc.

4.4.8 Training in methods: Journalists asked about the methods and techniques most needed for
them in their training. Of the respondents, 33.75% said they needed advanced-level journalistic
techniques (research, investigative/interpretive methods, social science as well as math in
journalism, etc), 18.75% needed basic-level techniques of journalism (news gathering, attribution,
interviewing, writing, editing, etc) while 25.00% needed proficiency-level techniques (research, news
collection, writing, editing, production, etc).

Similarly, 1.25% of respondents felt the need for honing their language and presentation skills,
3.75% felt the need of special story writing techniques. Some 7.5% respondents sought special
media editing skills, 5% needed special topic/beat skills training, 2.5% respondents needed training
42.00%
22.00%
20.00%
10.00%
3.00%
2.00%
1.00%
Developing news story concepts
Information gathering/recording
Finding sources (documents, people)
Editing texts, graphics, audiovisuals
Preparing draft, writing, rewriting
Other
Production (Proof, sound etc)
Immediate training needs
33.75%
25.00%
18.75%
7.50%
5.00%
3.75%
2.50%
1.25%
1.25%
1.25%
Advanced techniques (research,
Proficiency level techniques (research
Basic techniques of journalism
Special media editing skills
Special topic/beat
Special story techniques
Special techniques of interviewing
Others
Language and presentation
Familiarity with the big picture
Need for training in methods
90

in special interviewing techniques while remaining 1.25% respondents said they needed familiarity
with the big picture.

4.4.9 Resourcefulness need: When asked about the immediate training needs in terms of journalism
resourcefulness, 29.49% respondents pointed out time management, 24.36% cited ICT skills, 17.95%
respondents suggested critical thinking skills, and 10.26% respondents sought special language skills.

About 8.97% respondents said they needed to learn about convergence, multi-media platform skills.
Some 3.85% respondents pointed out their need for sensitivity to values and ethics of journalism,
3.85% respondents cited sensitivity inclusion and diversity, and 1.28% respondents believed they
needed to learn how to handle emotions in situations of conflict disasters, trauma etc.

4.4.10 Mode of instruction in training: Regarding the mode of instruction in the training, a majority
of respondents (71.95%) preferred practical, hands-on mode of instruction or opportunities, and
14.63% respondents preferred lecture or trainer-centric mode of instruction.

29.49%
24.36%
17.95%
10.26%
8.97%
3.85%
3.85%
1.28%
Time management
ICT skills
Critical thinking skills
Special language skills
Convergence, multi-media platform skills
Sensitivity to values and ethics of journalism
Sensitivity to inclusion and diversity
Handling emotions in disasters, trauma etc
Need for resourcefulness
91

About 7.32% respondents preferred deliberative modes of instruction, and 3.66% preferred distance
learning. Some 2.44% respondents said they needed opportunities for professional networking,
collaboration etc.

4.4.11 Level of training preferences: Regarding which level of training journalists needed, majority
of them (72.10%) said they needed advanced level training (more than 3 months), 10.87% needed
basic-level training (1-3 months), while another 10.87% pointed out that they needed proficiency-
level training (1-3 months). Some 5.07% sought elementary (1 month) level training.

4.4.11.1 Level of training preferences cross-tabulation
In terms of level of training preference, respondents across variables said they needed advanced
level training (more than 3 months), with small percentages of respondents within some categories
(education level, major study area, outlet and beat) opting for basic or elementary level training.

72%
15%
7%
4%
2%
Mode of instruction preference
Practical, hands-on
Lecture or explanation
Discussions, deliberations
Distance learning
Professional network,
collaboration
92

Table 17: Level of training preferences by education level, major study area, major outlet and beat
Factors
E
l
e
m
e
n
t
a
r
y

(
1

m
o
n
t
h
)

B
a
s
i
c

(
1
-
3

m
o
n
t
h
s
)

P
r
o
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

(
1
-
3

m
o
n
t
h
s
)

A
d
v
a
n
c
e
d

(

M
o
r
e

t
h
a
n

3

m
o
n
t
h
s
)

T
o
t
a
l

EDUCATION LEVEL (n=252)

SLC (n=4) 25% 25% 50% 0% 100%

Grade 10 or less (n=1) 0% 0% 0% 100% 100%

10+2 or PCL (n=37) 5% 19% 27% 49% 100%

Bachelor's (n=123) 7% 10% 9% 75% 100%

Master's or above (n=86) 3% 9% 6% 81% 100%

Self study (n=1) 0% 0% 0% 100% 100%
MAJOR STUDY AREA (n=229)

Engineering (n=1) 0% 100% 0% 0% 100%

Law (n=5) 0% 0% 0% 100% 100%

Medicine (n=0) -- -- -- -- --

Humanities and arts
(n=164)
5% 12% 10% 73% 100%

Science and technology
(n=5)
0% 20% 0% 80% 100%

Management (commerce)
(n=39)
8% 8% 15% 69% 100%
MAJOR OUTLET (n=246)

Online (n=9) 0% 0% 0% 100% 100%

TV (n=18) 6% 6% 17% 72% 100%

Daily newspaper (n=138) 4% 12% 9% 75% 100%

Radio (n=59) 8% 12% 12% 68% 100%

News agency (n=3) 0% 33% 0% 67% 100%

Weeklies & periodicals
(n=19)
5% 16% 16% 63% 100%
BEAT (n=996)

Politics (n=151) 5% 11% 11% 74% 100%

Economy (n=129) 6% 9% 13% 71% 100%

Society & culture (n=149) 7% 11% 11% 70% 100%

Science & technology
(n=135)
7% 11% 10% 72% 100%

Crime (n=121) 4% 11% 12% 73% 100%

Disaster (n=130) 5% 12% 11% 72% 100%

Celebrities (n=131) 5% 12% 11% 72% 100%

Other (n=50) 4% 14% 16% 66% 100%

4.4.12 Suitability of location for current training needs: Journalists were asked about the suitability
of training location for them. The survey found that 29.46% respondents preferred the capital city,
20.54% said it was district headquarter, 17.86% respondents preferred in-house (within their own
media house), 14.29% respondents preferred foreign country for the training. Some 9.38%
respondents preferred their own village or city, and the remaining 8.04% respondents said regional
centers would best suit their current research needs.

4.4.13 Suitability of instructor: When asked about the kind of trainers that may serve their training
interest best, 33.87% respondents preferred topic/subject specialists, 18.55% respondents preferred
international media instructors, 16.13% respondents preferred senior colleagues in media houses,
16.94% respondents preferred working media professionals outside their media house, 6.45%
respondents sought instructors with a background in journalism education. About 6.45%
93

respondents were for instructors who had undergone training for trainers (TOT), and the remaining
1.61% respondents said trainers conversant in native tongue would best serve their training needs.

4.4.14 Training support options: When asked about who would cover the cost of the training if the
respondents were to participate in a training program in the near future, 75% respondents said they
will need media house/external support to pay for training, 16.46% respondents pointed out that
they will need other non-financial support such as paid leave, and remaining 7.75% respondents
reported that they will pay for the training.

4.4.15 Access to resources: Journalists differed in their access to resources. The survey found out
56.25% respondents had access to personal computer (laptop etc), 25% respondents had access to
office computer, 11.25% respondents had access to mobile phone, 1.25% respondents had access to
audio-video recorder, and only 1.25% respondents had access to online resources.

Some 3.75% respondents had access to internet, and the remaining 1.25% respondents had access
to library and reference materials.
56.25%
25.00%
11.25%
3.75%
1.25%
1.25%
1.25%
PC/laptop etc
Office computer
Mobile phone
Access to Internet
Audio-video recorder
Online resources
Library & references
Access to resources
94

4.4.16 Gains from new media: Respondents were asked if they used new media (internet, mobile,
social media, etc), how it had supported their professional capabilities. The survey found that new
media had helped them by enhancing access to subject matter (48.48%), by helping contact the
sources and to interact with them (17.17%), by increasing access to sources (13.13%), and by
enhancing their work speed and efficiency (6.06%).

About 7.07% respondents felt that new media had helped them by enabling them to work from any
location. Some respondents said that new media had helped them in sharing or promoting their
stories (5.05%), and in creating professional contacts (3.03%).

4.4.17 Reasons for not using new media: The survey found that there were many journalists who
did not use new media. Of the respondents, 53.2% said they did not have access to new media,
14.78% said they did not have the time to use new media, and 10.34% said they did not want to lose
their privacy by using new media. Some 8.87% respondents cited their lack of skill to use the new
media and 9.36% said they did not find the new technology easy to use.

4.4.18 Affiliation with organizations within the country and abroad: The survey found that
journalists had affiliations with different types of media organizations or associations within the
country and abroad. Of the respondents, 82.58% said they were affiliated with organizations within
the country. Some 6.84% respondents reported that they had affiliations with organizations both
within the country and in foreign countries. Those saying they had no such affiliation at home or
abroad accounted for 8.24%. Journalists reporting their affiliation with organizations abroad
comprised 2.33%.

4.4.19 Gains from affiliation: Regarding if journalists' affiliation or membership helped in
professional growth, respondents said their affiliation or membership to different media
organizations or associations had helped them in their professional development in several ways.
The survey found that 52.20% respondents saw the opportunity to expand their networking through
such affiliation, 11.95% said their affiliation brought honor to their work, and 23.27% said it helped
them develop their professional identity. Some 4.4% respondents said their affiliation with these
48.48%
17.17%
13.13%
7.07%
6.06%
5.05%
3.03%
Enhanced access to subject matter
Improved contact, interaction with sources
Increased access to sources
Ability to work from any location
Enhanced speed, efficiency of work
Ease of sharing articles
Creation of professional contacts
Gains from new media
95

organizations enhanced their training opportunities. For 6.29% respondents, such an affiliation
increased their access to resources.

4.4.20 Gains from political affiliation: To the question, if political orientation or affiliation helped in
the professional capabilities of Nepali journalists, 64.16% responded believed it did not do so. While
17.44% believed that such affiliation benefitted media, 18.40% replied with can't say.

4.4.21 Why political affiliation: Journalists said there were different reasons for their political
affiliation, with 60% respondents citing personal beliefs or principles. Some 20% said their political
affiliation increased access to political information and sources. While 4% cited individual faith or
ideological affinity, 6% saw political protection (and gain) as well as patronage to be the reason for
their affiliation. Some 3% said affiliation gave them the means to be in the sphere of power and
influence, and 6% could not tell the reason. The remaining 1% believed that such affiliation resulted
in special connections with particular leaders.

4.4.22 Other Income: On whether they earned from sources other than journalism, 63.24% said they
didnt, while 31.16% said they did. The remaining 5.60% did not want to tell.

4.4.23 Other work sectors: Regarding whether they worked in areas other than journalism, 73.30%
said they were in the private sector. Some 11.65% were with the civil society, 11.65% in
public/government sector and 3.40% said they worked in 'other' areas.

4.4.24 Gains from other work: Journalists were asked how much their involvement in other work
helped in their journalistic pursuit. Respondents saying such involvement had helped them a lot
comprised the maximum percentage (45.52%), followed by those saying it had helped somewhat
(37.24%), and those saying it had not helped (9.66%). Respondents replying with can't say
comprised 7.59%.

0.00%
5.00%
10.00%
15.00%
20.00%
25.00%
30.00%
35.00%
40.00%
45.00%
Somewhat
dissatisfied
Satisfied Not satisfied Very satisfied Can't say
Professional satisfaction
96

4.4.25 Professional satisfaction: Regarding their satisfaction about their achievement in the
profession, a majority (54.93%) indicated they were lacking professional satisfaction in their work.
About 41% said they were somewhat dissatisfied, whereas 13.93% reported they were not satisfied.
About 38.65% said they were satisfied. Only a small percentage (4.38%) of journalists said they were
very satisfied. Some 2.03% of respondents were not sure about their professional satisfaction.

4.5 New media literacy
4.5.1 New media skills. Responding to a question about their efficiency with handling new media
tools, a majority (79.73%) said they could use them for professional work, 6.76% each said they
could use social media such as Facebook, and could search for quality information in the Internet.

A very small percentage of respondents said they could develop the database for writing the news
(1.35%), create personal blogs (1.35%), send emails with attachments (1.35%), and do video-
conferencing (1.35%), and create a database for making news (1.35%).

4.5.2 New media learning interest. On the question about their desire to learn new media for
professional advancement, 21.05% said they wanted to learn how to use new media tools needed
for their work. About 19.74% said they wanted to learn how to search quality information in the
Internet, followed by those who wanted to develop the skill to use software needed for work
(2.63%) and use the Internet for researching stories (2.63%). A small percentage (1.32%) of
respondents were interested to podcast, while the same percentage of respondents wanted to learn
video-streaming, sending emails with attachments, collaborating with others online, and using social
media like Facebook. About 3.95% wanted to create their own database for news stories. Of the
respondents, 13.16% had the desire to learn how to develop web pages and 10.53% sought to learn
how to create personal blogs.

4.5.3 Suggestions on professional development of Nepali media: Mostly, in response to the open-
ended question, participants in the survey suggested the need for journalists and the media to
remain independent, non-partition, and professional. Pointing out the lack of security, both physical
21.05%
19.74%
15.79%
13.16%
10.53%
3.95%
3.95%
2.63%
2.63%
1.32%
1.32%
1.32%
1.32%
1.32%
Use new media tools
Online search
Video-conference
Create web pages
Create personal blogs
Other
Create own database
Use software for work
Use Internet to research stories
Podcast via the Internet
Video-stream in the Internet
Send emails with attachments
Collaborate with friends online
Use social media like Facebook
New media learning interest
97

and financial, they emphasized on long term vision for the improvement of the profession. They
called for various measures in capacity development, such as training and education.

4.5.4 Previous survey experience: Whether the respondents had ever taken part in a survey of
journalists, 65% of them said they had not participated in a journalists' survey.

98

99

SECTION V:
PUBLIC OPINION SURVEY

100

101

5. PUBLIC OPINION SURVEY ON MEDIA
This chapter attempts to assess the views of the public on Nepali media and journalists in terms of
demographics, perceptions of media professionalism, credibility and media literacy, focusing on
public expectations of them.
A total of 2,252 respondents, representing various professional, cultural, ethnic, gender backgrounds
and geographic regions participated in the survey. Male respondents were in majority across all
clusters, urban (65.84%), semi-urban (73.67%) and rural (61.41%). Rural females (38.58%) were
followed by urban females (34.15%) and semi-urban females (26.32%) in percentile terms.
Across clusters and sexes, respondents relied on a variety of channels, and their preference for
particular channel was not always pronounced. In rural areas, both males and females relied on TV,
radio and the Internet equally. In semi-urban clusters, males tended to rely more on radio than on
other channels whereas women there relied more on friends and family members. Urban males
tended to rely on Internet, TV, and newspapers somewhat equally and females there preferred TV,
followed by radio and the Internet.

In terms of credibility, TV was the most trusted medium across clusters. Both urban and semi-urban
males and females trusted TV the most, followed by national radio. In semi-urban areas, both
trusted local FM the most, after TV. Also after TV, rural males trusted national radio and rural
females trusted local FM radio.

Respondents' preference for topics coverage also varied across clusters and sexes. Rural males and
females both said they would like to see coverage of society/culture the most. Urban and semi-
urban males as well as semi-urban females indicated preference for the coverage of politics and
government whereas urban females chose a combination of topics, including society/culture,
court/crime, and science/environment/health, etc.

Respondents across clusters and sexes did not vary a lot in their media use habits. Majority of them
said they just make a cursory scan of the media content, followed nominally by other categories of
media use habits, such as fact checking, looking at the bigger context, trying to figure out the
persuasive strategy of the media, looking at owners interest, subtext of advertisements, and the
motive of personal benefits in the messages.

Across clusters and sexes, at least one-third of the respondents said they generally had skills to use
print, broadcast, online and other forms of new media technologies at various levels of competency.
One in seven respondents had no media use skills generally.

Respondents from the semi-urban clusters stood out in their skills. Respondents from semi-urban
clusters reported the highest level of competency among all clusters in newspaper reading (males)
and lowest level of competency in presentation skills (females). The largest number of people who
said they could not use a particular media also came from semi-urban males without the skill to use
the Internet to make calls, and the lowest such response came from females (2%) without the skill to
use mobile phone.
102

The following pages present the results of the public opinion survey, organized under key themes
like demographics, professionalism, media credibility, and media literacy. Cross-tabulation for key
themes like channel reliance (see 5.2.1.1), trust on channels (5.2.30), preference for topics coverage
(5.3.3), media skills (5.4.3), and media use habits (5.4.4.1) across clusters and sexes are given in
relevant sections.

5.1 Demographics

5.1.1 Sex: The respondents comprised 69.38% males and 29.63% females. A very small portion of
the respondents (0.98%) reported themselves to be in the other category.

5.1.2 Age: Among the age groups, a majority of respondents (23.75%) were between 19 and 24
years. The respondents from the age groups 25-30 yrs, 31-36 yrs and 37-42 yrs comprised 21.05%,
15.45% and 12.37% of the respondents, respectively. Respondents from more advanced age were
fewer in number : 43-48 years (8.12%), 49-54 years (4.57%), 55-64 years (3.83%), and above 65 years
(1.12%). Some were below 18 years (9.75%).

69%
30%
1%
Sex composition
Male
Female
Other
103

5.1.3 Ethnicity: In terms of ethnicity, respondents from the Brahmin/Chhetri (hill) background
comprised the majority of respondents (29.06%). There were 18.57% respondents from the
Brahmin/Chhetri (terai) background. Newars included 9.64% of the respondents, whereas
Terai/Madhes/Other group comprised 11.53% of the total respondents. Janajati (terai) and Janajati
(hill) were almost equally represented in the survey, accounting for 9.64% and 9.78% of total
respondents respectively. Respondents from the Dalit (terai) background and Muslim background
included 4.44% and 4.37% of the total respondents respectively, followed by those from the Dalit
(hill) background (2.03%).

5.1.4 Cluster: Among the ten clusters, most of the respondents (16.92%) were from Kathmandu,
followed by Bara (16.78%) and Morang (14.45%). Two clusters Banke (13.40%) and Dhanusha
(13.07%) had similar share in the total. Nawalparasi and Dolakha clusters had 11.17% and 6.70%
respondents respectively. Okhaldhunga and Baglung had 2.28% of the total respondents each. Also,
Dailekh (1.19%) and other category (1.76%) were represented the least among clusters.

30.24%
18.67%
10.75%
10.36%
9.75%
9.18%
4.44%
4.13%
1.87%
0.61%
Brahmin/Chhetri (hill)
Brahmin/Chhetri (terai)
Terai/Madhesh/Other group
Newar
Janajati (hill)
Janajati (terai)
Muslim
Dalit (terai)
Dalit (hill)
Other
Respondents by ethnicity
16.92%
16.78%
14.45%
13.40%
13.07%
11.17%
6.70%
2.28%
2.28%
1.76%
1.19%
Kathmandu Valley
Bara
Morang
Banke
Dhanusha
Rupandehi
Dolakha
Okhaldhunga
Baglung
Other
Dailekh
Survey clusters
104

5.1.5 Marital status: Most of the respondents (58.78%) reported they were married, and 37.29%
said they were unmarried. Very few of the respondents were divorced (1.14%) or single (2.23%). Of
the total, a small number of respondents (0.57%) said they didnt want to mention their marital
status.

5.1.6 Education level: A majority of those surveyed had a higher academic degree. More than a
quarter of the respondents (29.33%) had the Bachelors degree and a little over one fifth (22.86%) of
the respondents had completed the 10+2 or the Proficiency level. Those completing grade ten, test
or less and the SLC level comprised 15.33% and 15.17% of the respondents respectively. Only
13.19% of the respondents had the Masters degree or beyond. Those who had acquired "self-
education" or "other educational level" were 2.29% and 1.83% of the respondents respectively.

5.1.7 Occupation: Most of the respondents had their occupation in the field of Education (26.46%)
followed by Business/Industry (20.87%) and Agriculture (19.72%). Respondents from the
communication sector (9.99%) and other category (10.83%) had similar share in the total. Those
59%
37%
2%
1%
1%
Marital status
Married
Unmarried
Single Woman or Man
Divorced
Don't Want To Mention
26.46%
20.87%
19.72%
10.83%
9.99%
4.08%
3.24%
2.77%
2.04%
Education
Business/Industry
Agriculture
Other
Communication
Accounts
Health
Engineering
Law
Occupation
105

who were in the field of Law (2.04%), Engineering (2.77%) and Account (4.08%) sectors were the
least in number.


5.2.1 Channel reliance for information: Most of the respondents relied on Radio (26.98%) for
information followed by friends and family members (22.89%) and TV (18.26%). Also 14.99%
respondents said they found the Internet as a reliable channel, while respondents relying on mobile
phones (4.90%) and other category (0.27%) were among those with the least numbers contributing
to the total.

5.2.1.1 Channel reliance for information by clusters and sex
Respondents' reliance on channels varied across clusters and sex. However, because of low response
rate, these results cannot be generalized. In terms of channel reliance for information, in the urban
clusters, of the total 117 responses, males relied on the Internet (16%), TV (15%), newspapers (15%),
friends and family (13%), radio (9%) and mobile (3%) for information in that order. The order for
urban females was TV (9%), radio (8%), Internet (4%), newspapers (3%), friends and family (3%) and
mobiles (3%).

In the semi-urban clusters, of the 162 responses received, males relied on the radio (25%), friends
and family (12%), TV (9%), newspapers (5%), the Internet (7%) and the mobile phone (3%) . The
order for semi-urban females was friends and family (11%), radio (9%), newspapers (9%), TV (4%),
mobile phones (2%) and the Internet (2%).

In the rural clusters, for 56 responses, males relied on TV, radio and the Internet equally (13%),
followed by friends and family (11%), the Internet (5%) and mobile phone (2%). The rural females
relied on TV, radio, newspapers and the Internet equally (11%), followed by the mobile phones (2%).

26.98%
22.89%
18.26%
14.99%
11.72%
4.90%
0.27%
Radio
Friends, family members
TV
Internet
Newspapers
Mobile Phone
Other
Channel for information
106

5.2.2 Listening to radio: To the general, opening question if the respondent (ever) listened to radio,
of the 2,031 respondents, almost three quarters (74.15%) said they do listen to the radio.

5.2.3 Radio listening frequency: Almost half of the respondents (46.74%) listened to the radio daily
while more than one-fifth of the respondents (22.33%) listened to the radio three or four times a
week. Some 14.22% respondents listen to the radio once or twice a week while 9.30% respondents
were listening to the radio twice a month. Of the respondents, 7.41% replied with a cant say about
their radio listening frequency.

26%
74%
Do you listen to radio?
No, I don't
Yes, I do
46.74%
22.33%
14.22%
9.30%
7.41%
Daily
Three or four times a week
Once or twice a week
Twice a month
Can't say
Radio listening frequency
107

5.2.4 Trust in information on radio: Most of the respondents (44.50%) said they trust the
information on radio to some extent, while 26.28% respondents trusted almost all or most of the
information on radio. About 17.93% respondents said that they had only a little bit of trust in them.
Also, 4.70% respondents had the least trust and 6.58% replied with a cant say.

5.2.5 Reason for trust in radio
Majority of respondents (32.96%) said they had trust in radio because they presented believable
programs. About 19.61% said the radio was factual, and 13.16% reported it was trustworthy. Some
13.03% believed the radio was impartial while 9.06% thought it gave them relevant content.
Respondents who said radio used expert sources and materials comprised 5.93% while those it gave
complete information totaled 4.36%. The remaining 1.89% placed their trust on radio for other
reasons.

5.2.6 Listening to local FM radio: A huge majority of respondents (89.99%) listened to the local FM
stations while only a fraction (10.01%) said that they didnt listen to the local FM stations.

44.50%
26.28%
17.93%
6.58%
4.70%
Trust to some extent
Trust all or mostly
Trust little
Can't say
Usually no
Level of trust in information on radio
10%
90%
Do you listen to the local FM?
No, I don't
Yes, I do
108

5.2.7 Local FM listening frequency
More than half of the respondents (61.99%) listened to radio daily while almost one-fifth of
respondents (19.68%) listened to radio three or four times a week. About 9.61% respondents
listened to the radio once or twice a week, while the numbers of respondents listening twice a
month (4.31%) or responding with a cant say (4.41%) were almost the same.

5.2.8 Level of trust in FM information: Most of the respondents (46.88%) had only some trust in
information provided by the FM and only 23.65% respondents had the trust in all or most of the
radio information. About 18% respondents said that they had trust in only a little bit of the
information received from radio. Some 5.05% respondents said that they usually didnt trust radio
information and the remaining 6.58% answered with a cant say regarding their level of trust in
radio information.

5.2.9 Reason for FM trust level: Almost one-third (32.30%) respondents trusted radio information
because they found them believable, while 19.59% respondents said FM stations were factual. Only
14.15% respondents trusted on FM stations due to their impartiality. About 12.94% respondents
found radio information relevant to them, while 11.57% respondents trusted on radio because,
according to them, they were trustworthy. Some 4.47% respondents trusted FM because they gave
61.99%
19.68%
9.61%
4.41%
4.31%
Daily
Three or four times a week
Once or twice a week
Can't say
Twice a month
Local FM listening frequency
46.88%
23.65%
18.80%
5.63%
5.05%
Trust all or mostly
Trust little
Can't say
Usually no
Level of trust in infomation on FM radio
109

complete information, while 3.44% said that FM stations were trustworthy because they used expert
sources and materials. Only 1.55% respondents cited other reason for their trust level on FM.

5.2.10 Watching TV: To the general opening question, if the respondent watched television, most
(91.69%) said that they watch television. The remaining 8.31% said No, I dont.

5.2.11 TV viewing frequency: The survey found almost two-thirds respondents (63.73%) watched
television daily while more than one-fifth respondents (21.50%) watched television three or four
times a week. About 9.38% respondents watched television once or twice a week while only 3.32%
respondents said they were watching television about twice a month. The remaining 2.07%
respondents responded with a cant say regarding the frequency of their TV viewing.

5.2.12 Trust in TV: Most of the respondents (39.35%) had only some trust in TV which is similar to
37.46% respondents who had trust in all or most of the TV. About 15.64% respondents said that they
had a little bit of trust in TV. Also, 15.64% respondents had some trust in TV while the number of
respondents saying usually no (3.88%) and cant say (3.68%) were in the lower side of the scale of
TV viewing.

8%
92%
Do you watch TV?
No, I don't
Yes, I do
39.35%
37.46%
15.64%
3.88%
3.68%
Trust all or mostly
Trust little
Usually no
Can't say
Level of trust in information on TV
110

5.2.13 Reason for trust in TV: Most of the respondents (23.36%) had the trust in TV because, they
said, they found television believable, while 23.14% respondents said that TV gave factual
information. Some 17.04% respondents trusted on TV stations due to their impartiality while
13.08% respondents believed TV information was trustworthy. About 9.84% respondents said the
information given by TV was relevant to them, the reason they cited for their trust in TV.
Respondents saying TV gave complete information (6.10%) and used expert sources and materials
(6.10%) were about equal in number. The remaining 1.32% respondents cited other reasons for
their trust in TV.

5.2.14 Reading national newspaper: To the basic, opening question, if the respondent read national
newspaper, most (81.67%) said that they did while the remaining 18.33% said they did not.

5.2.15 Newspaper reading frequency: More than half of the respondents (59.65%) read the
newspapers daily, while more than one-fifth (21.80%) of respondents read the newspapers three or
four times a week. Also, 11.30% respondents read the newspapers once or twice a week, while the
number of respondents who read only twice a month totaled 4.39%. The remaining 2.85%
respondents selected the cant say response.

18%
82%
Do you read the national newspaper?
No, I don't
Yes, I do
111

5.2.16 Trust in newspaper: Majority of the respondents (44.83%) had some trust in the newspapers,
while 30.13% respondents trusted all or most of their information. About 16.07% had a little bit of
trust in the newspapers. Respondents having usually no trust were 4.69%, while the remaining
4.29% respondents didnt say anything about their trust in newspapers.

5.2.17 Reason for trust in newspaper: Majority of the respondents (28.61%) trusted the newspapers
because they found them believable while 21.66% respondents shared their belief that newspapers
were factual. Only 14.52% respondents relied on newspapers due to their trustworthiness. About
12.94% respondents said they found the information relevant to them, while 11.57% respondents
trusted because, according to them, they were trustworthy. About 4.47% respondents believed in
them for the complete information, while 3.44% said they were merited trust by using expert
sources and materials. Only 1.55% respondents cited other reason for their trust level.

5.2.18 Reading local newspaper: To the basic, opening question, if the respondent read local
newspaper, a majority of the respondents (76.32%) said they did, while the remaining 23.68% said
they didnt.

44.83%
30.13%
16.07%
4.69%
4.29%
Trust all or mostly
Trust little
Usually no
Can't say
Level of trust in newspaper information
24%
76%
Do you read the local newspaper?
No, I don't
Yes, I do
112

5.2.19 Local newspaper reading frequency: More than half of the respondents (52.98%) read the
local newspapers daily while almost one-fifth (19.96%) respondents read the newspapers three or
four times a week. About 12.57% respondents read the local newspapers once or twice a week while
there were some respondents who read them only twice a month (9.26%). The remaining 5.23%
respondents responded with a cant say.

5.2.20 Level of trust in local newspaper: Majority of the respondents (44.83%) had some trust in
local newspapers while more than one-fifth (22.85%) had a little bit of trust in them. About 20.12%
respondents had the trust in all or most of them while respondents with usually no trust were
5.57%. The remaining 6.01% respondents didnt say anything about their trust in local newspapers.

5.2.21 Reason for trust in local newspaper: Majority of the respondents (32.87%) trusted local
newspapers because they said they found them believable, while 19.44% respondents said local
newspapers were factual. Only 14.95% respondents trusted in local newspapers due to their
trustworthiness. Some 11.90% respondents said they found the information relevant to them while
6.02% respondents shared their views that local newspapers were believable. About 2.25% believed
that local newspapers merited trust by using expert sources and materials. The remaining 2.05%
respondents cited other reasons for their trust level on FM.

45.45%
22.85%
20.12%
6.01%
5.57%
Trust little
Trust all or mostly
Can't say
Usually no
Level of trust in information in local newspapers
28%
72%
Do you read the weeklies?
No, I don't
Yes, I do
113

5.2.22 Reading weekly newspaper: To the basic, opening question, if the respondent read weekly
newspaper, a majority of the respondents (71.74%) said they did, while the remaining 28.26%
respondents said that they didnt.

5.2.23 Weekly paper reading frequency: More than half the respondents (53.06%) read the weekly
paper sometimes while almost one-third (32.85%) respondents usually read the weekly paper. Also,
10.34% respondents rarely read the weekly paper. The remaining 3.75% respondents replied a cant
say.

5.2.24 Level of trust in weekly papers
Majority of the respondents (45.20%) had some trust in the weekly paper while more than one-fifth
(28.23%) had a little bit of trust in it. Similarly 20.86% respondents had the trust in all or most of the
information in it while 8.55% respondents said they had usually no trust. The remaining 5.37%
respondents could not tell about their trust in the weekly paper.

5.2.25 Reason for trust in weekly papers
The study shows that a majority of the respondents (30.46%) trusted the weekly papers because
they said they found them believable, while 16.09% respondents said they were factual. Some
13.86% respondents found the weekly papers relevant to them while 12% respondents trusted in
them owing to their trustworthiness. About 6.25% respondents said weekly papers deserved trust
because they used expert sources and materials. The remaining 2.51% respondents cited other
reason for their trust level on weekly paper.

45.20%
28.03%
12.86%
8.55%
5.37%
Trust little
Trust all or mostly
Usually no
Can't say
Level of trust in information in weeklies
114

5.2.26 Visiting websites: To the basic, opening question, if the respondent visited websites, a
majority of the respondents (60.15%) they did, while the remaining 39.85% respondents said that
they didnt.

5.2.27 Websites visiting frequency
More than half the respondents (39.70%) visited websites on a daily basis, while 22.04%
respondents visited the websites three or four times a week. Some 15.92% respondents visited
websites once or twice a week and 12.68% respondents visited websites once or twice a month
while 9.66% respondents could not tell.

5.2.28 Level of trust in websites
Almost half (45.21%) had some trust in websites while 17.48% respondents had a little bit of trust in
them. About 22.49% respondents had the trust in all or most of them, while 5.62% respondents had
usually no trust in websites. The remaining 9.19% respondents responded with a cant say
regarding their trust in websites.

40%
60%
Do you visit websites?
No, I don't
Yes, I do
45.21%
22.49%
17.48%
9.19%
5.62%
Trust all or mostly
Trust little
Can't say
Usually no
Level of trust in information in website
115

5.2.29 Reason for trust in websites
Majority of the respondents (29.06%) trusted in websites because they found them believable while
16.56% respondents said websites were factual. About 13.91% respondents said they found
websites relevant to them while 13.82% respondents trusted in websites due to their
trustworthiness. Some 10.84% respondents said that they trusted websites because they were
impartial. Some 5.63% respondents trusted websites for their use of expert sources and materials
while 6.62% respondents perceived they were complete. The remaining 3.56% respondents cited the
other reason for their trust in websites.

5.2.30 Trust on channels by clusters and sex
Across clusters, TV was the most trusted medium. In the urban clusters, both males (33%) and
females (18%) trusted TV the most. Urban males next trusted the national radio (11%), national
dailies (9%) and the Internet (8%), followed by local FM (4%) and local dailies (1%) at the bottom of
their trust rating. Urban females next trusted the national radio (3%) and the Internet (2%), followed
by local FM, national dailies, and local dailies equally (1%) in that order.

In the semi-urban cluster, with 171 responses, males trusted TV the most (23%), followed by local
FM (19%), national radio (11%), national dailies (8%), the Internet (4%), local dailies (2%) and
weeklies/periodicals (2%). The channel trust rating by semi-urban females showed that females
trusted TV (10%) the most, followed by local FM (7%), national radio (3%), and national dailies (2%).
The semi-urban females trusted the Internet the least (1%).

In the rural clusters, both males and females trusted TV the most by placing equal emphasis on the
medium (12%). Rural males next trusted national radio and national dailies equally (10%), followed
by local dailies (4%). Below this tier, local FM, weeklies and the Internet received their equal trust
rating (1%). Next to their trust in TV, rural females placed local FM (7%), followed by national dailies
(6%), weeklies/periodicals (4%), national radio (3%), the Internet (3%), and local dailies (1%).

Females (12%) and rural males (9%) said they did not trust any media. In the same way, semi urban
males (5%) and females (4%) and urban males (5%) and females (3%) trusted none of the media.

10.30%
37.00%
14.52%
13.11%
11.94%
7.96%
2.81%
2.34%
None
TV
Local FM radio
National radio
National dailies
Website
Local daily newspaper
Weekly, fortnightly and other periodicals
Channel preference
116

5.2.31 Trust on channels for information and analyses
Moe than one-third respondents (37%) preferred TV for information while the least number of
respondents (2.34%) relied on weekly, fortnightly and other periodicals. Respondents relying on the
local FM radio (14.52%) and the national radio (13.11%) were in similar in the preference measure.
National dailies were preferred by 11.94% whereas none of the channels were preferred by 10.30%.
About 7.96% respondents relied on websites for information while the remaining 2.81% respondents
preferred the local daily newspapers for information.

5.2.32 Agree most on statements
Almost one-third respondents (31.34%) agreed that Nepali media presented news on public interest.
Almost one-fifth of the respondents (19.40%) agreed that Nepali media encouraged citizen
participation through letter to the editor column and other means, while 1.99% agreed that Nepali
media used expert sources and materials. There were some respondents (10.95%) who agreed that
the national media gave as much priority to local news as they gave to the national news while
5.97% respondents agreed that journalists were honest and were not corrupt. Respondents who
agreed with the factuality of news were at a low (4.48%). Those who agreed with the view that
media houses were honest and were not corrupt (3.38%) and trustworthy (3.48%) were similar in
number. Respondents agreeing with the statements news material are unbiased and news
material are just were equal in percentages (2.49%).

5.2.33 Agreement statements on media houses
Almost half the respondents (49.50%) agreed with none of the statements. About 15.17%
respondents agreed with the view that media houses adopted ways to involve audiences through
direct phone calls, followed by another 14.68% respondents who agreed with the view that media
houses tried to learn more about the audiences through the surveys etc. About 6.72% respondents
agreed with the statement that media houses tried to understand the feedback on the quality of
news while another 5.47% respondents agreed with the view that media houses tried to understand
the audience feedback on cultural diversity. The number of respondents who agreed with the
31.34%
19.40%
13.93%
10.95%
5.97%
4.48%
3.48%
3.48%
2.49%
2.49%
1.99%
Media give news in public interest
Media encourage citizen participation
Local media priorities national news as much
National media prioritise local news as much
Journalists are honest and are not corrupt
News materials are factual
Media houses are honest and are not corrupt
News materials are trustworthy
News materials are unbiased
News materials are just
Media use expert source and materials
'Agree most' statements
117

statement media houses try to be responsible (3.98%) and media houses try to be transparent
(3.73%) were similar in number. The remaining 0.75% agreed with the view that media monitors and
community organizations regularly evaluated/monitored the media.

5.2.34 Trust in journalists by channel
Of the respondents, 23.78% trusted TV journalists, followed by journalists of the daily newspapers
(16.89%) and radio (16.89%) in that order. Respondents saying they trusted journalists working for
the online news sites comprised 7.56%. Responses received for journalists of weeklies, fortnightlies
and other periodicals accounted for 2.89% and for journalists of other category 1.56%. Almost one-
third (30.44%) of respondents could not tell about their trust in journalists by channel.

5.2.35 Trust in journalists by base
Almost half the respondents (45.16%) could not tell about their trust on journalists by their location
or base. Almost one-fifth of the respondents (20.97%) trusted the Nepali journalists stationed in the
local area, while 16.13% respondents trusted the Nepali journalists stationed in district, zone and
region. Some 9.86% respondents trusted Nepali journalists working from the capital followed by
Nepali journalists working from foreign countries (7.17%). The remaining 0.72% respondents trusted
journalists of other category.
30.44%
23.78%
16.89%
16.89%
7.56%
2.89%
1.56%
Can't say
TV
Daily newspapers
Radio
Online media (Internet)
Weeky, fortnightly and other periodicals
Other
Trust in journalists by channel
118

5.2.36 Trust in journalists by topic
Most of the respondents (44.26%) answered with a cant say regarding their trust in journalists by
topic. Respondents (13.93%) trusted in journalists covering politics, current affairs etc followed by
social and cultural issues (9.84%), court and crime (6.56%), economy and business (7.38%) and
conflict and disaster (4.37%). A few respondents trusted journalists covering celebrity (3.01%) and
other topics (1.64%).

5.2.37 Trust in journalists by media ownership
More than one-third respondents (39.35%) trusted journalists working in the government media
with private media (28.92%), community media (26.59%) and other (0.64%) behind them in that
order. Respondents who trusted none of them comprised 4.50%.

44.26%
13.93%
9.84%
9.02%
7.38%
6.56%
4.37%
3.01%
1.64%
Can't say
Politics, current affairs
Social and cultural issues
Science, technology, etc
Economy, business
Court, crime
Conflict, disasters
Celebrity
Other
Trust in journalists by topic
39%
29%
27%
4%
1%
Trust in journalist by nature of outlet
Government Media
Private Media
Community Media
None
Other
119

5.2.38 Level of trust by topics
The public viewed coverage on governance, national politics, constitution-making as generally
reliable, but the coverage on peace and democracy as something not much reliable.

a. Peace and democracy
Almost half the respondents (45.75%) said they found the peace and democracy topic reporting not
much reliable, while almost one-third (30.07%) said they found the coverage not reliable at all.
Respondents had different levels of trust in the coverage of peace and democracy with cant say
accounting for 10.73%, followed by 'very reliable' (7.58%) and 'reliable' (5.88%).

b. Constitution-making
More than one third (36.25%) said they found the coverage on constitution-making coverage very
reliable, while less than one third respondents (30.74%) said it was not much reliable. There were
11.94% respondents who said they found the coverage reliable while 11.02% respondents were not
sure.

c. Governance
More than one-third respondents (36.85%) said they found the coverage on governance very reliable
while less than one third respondents (31.26%) said they found the reporting not much reliable.
There were 14.45% respondents who found the coverage reliable while 10.84% respondents found
the coverage not reliable at all. The remaining 6.60% respondents could not tell.

d. National politics
More than one-third respondents (37.37%) said they found reporting of national politics very reliable
while less than one third respondents (30.36%) said they found the coverage not much reliable.
There were 12.10% respondents who found the coverage reliable while 6.33% respondents found
the coverage not reliable at all. The remaining 13.84% respondents were not sure.

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Not reliable at all
Not much reliable
Reliable
Very reliable
Can't say
Level of trust by beat coverage
Peace & democracy
Constitution
Governance
National politics
120

5.2.39 Trust by institutions
The media topped the tally of trust rating by respondents with almost one-fifth of them (19.16%)
saying they were the most trustworthy among several institutions. The court received 18.22%
respondents as trusting it, followed by CIAA (13.08%), government service (13.08%), NHRC (8.41%)
and Nepal Army (8.41%). Fewer respondents trusted EC (4.67%), National Treasury, that is, NRB,
(3.74%), Nepal Police (2.34%) and Nepal government (0.93%). The remaining 7.94% respondents
placed their trusted in the other category.

13.08%
19.16%
18.22%
13.08%
8.41%
8.41%
7.94%
4.67%
3.74%
2.34%
0.93%
CIAA
Media
Court
Government service
Nepal Army
NHRC
Other
EC
National treasury (NRB)
Nepal Police
Nepal government
Public trust by institution
121

5.2.40 Trust by occupation
Farmers were the most trusted among the people in different occupational groups with one-fifth of
the respondents (23.08%) favoring them, journalists were ranked in the second position with 14.90%
respondents behind them. The third and the fourth most trusted were the government officer
(6.25%) and doctor (6.73%) followed by army personnel (5.77%) and school teacher (4.81%). Nurse
(4.33%) and NGO worker (4.33%) were equally trusted. The same was the case with astrologer
(2.88%) and lawyer (2.88%). Fewer respondents trusted the college university teacher (1.92%) and
researcher (1.92%). They were followed businessmen (1.44%), shaman (1.44%), stock broker
(1.44%), parliament member (1.44%), banker (1.44%), and (1.44%). IT professional (0.96%), tourism
professional (0.96%), political Leader (0.96%), contractor (0.96%), police (0.96%), and accountant
23.08%
14.90%
6.73%
6.25%
6.25%
5.77%
4.81%
4.33%
4.33%
2.88%
2.88%
1.92%
1.92%
1.44%
1.44%
1.44%
1.44%
1.44%
1.44%
0.96%
0.96%
0.96%
0.96%
0.96%
0.48%
Farmer
Journalist
Doctor
Other
Government Officer
Army Personnel
School Teacher
NGO worker
Nurse
Astrologer
Lawyer
College, university teacher
Researcher
Engineer
Shaman (Jhankri)
Banker
Businessmen
Stock Broker
Parliament Member
Contractor
Tourism Professional
Police
Political Leader
IT Professional
Accountant
Trust by occupation
122

(0.48%) were in the lower rung of the tally. The remaining 6.25% trusted the people in the other
occupation category.

5.3 Professional issues in media

5.3.1 Frequently covered topics
More than one-third respondents (40.29%) could not tell their views about the frequently covered
topics. More than one-third respondents (36.69%) said politics and current affairs were the most
frequently covered topics, followed by science and technology (7.55%) and economy and business
(5.04%). Fewer respondents chose court & crime (2.88%) and celebrity (2.52%) as the most
frequently covered topics. Two topics, conflicts and disasters (2.16%) and social and cultural issues
(2.16%) were place below this rung. The remaining 0.72% respondents cited the other as the
frequently covered topic.

5.3.2 Topics journalists should report or write about most frequently
More than one third respondents (34.76%) were not sure about their view on the most needed
topics to be covered in the media. Nearly one-fifth respondents (18.57%) reported politics and
current affairs as topics needing more coverage, followed by social and cultural issues (13.33%),
science and technology (10.48%) and economy and business (9.05%). Fewer respondents chose
court and crime (4.76%) and conflict and disasters (3.33%) as other topics the media needed to
cover. The least chosen as a topic needing coverage was celebrity (2.86%), while the remaining
2.86% respondents chose other category to be the most needed topics in media.

5.3.3 Preference for topics coverage by clusters and sex
In regards to preference for topics coverage, urban males preferred politics and government (21%)
for media coverage, followed by society and culture (7%) and court and crime (5%). Preference for
Court, crime
Other
Economy, business
Can't say
Politics, current affairs
Science, technology, etc
Conflict, disasters
Celebrity
What public wants & gets
Public wants
Public gets
123

business/economy (3%) and science, environment and health (3%), etc, were followed by
conflict/disaster (2%) and celebs, sports (2%) preference.

Urban females stated their equal preference to society/culture, court/crime,
science/environment/health (3%), followed by preference to coverage of celebs and sports (2%). A
whopping percentage of urban females, however, were undecided (26%) about their topic
preference.

Semi-urban males preferred politics and government (14%), followed by business/economy (8%),
society/culture (8%), science/environment/health (5%), etc, celebs/sports (3%). Semi-urban females
also chose politics/government (8%) as their topic preference, followed, however, by
science/environment/health, etc. (5%), conflict/disaster (4%) court/crime (1%) and society/culture
(1%).

Rural males stated their preference to society/culture (17%), followed by business/economy (9%)
coverage. They placed politics/government and science/environment/health, etc, equally (2%) at the
lower rung. Rural females gave equal preference for society/culture and
science/environment/health, etc, (9%) followed by court/crime (4%), business/economy (2%) and
celebrity/sports (2%) coverage.

Most male respondents across semi-urban (23%), urban (12%) and rural (11%) clusters were
undecided (cant say) on the topic of preference for media coverage. More female respondents
urban (26%) or semi-urban (13%) than in rural (11%) clusters were undecided on such preference.

5.3.4 Professional roles
Respondents (16.26%) said journalists should generate awareness on health, education, economy
and environment. About 14.63% respondents said that they should inform, educate and entertain
the common people. Fewer respondents (13.82%) voted that the media should press the
government and rulers to be responsible, while 11.38% respondents opined that the media should
reflect plurality and diversity of the nation in work. The same number of respondents (11.38%)
reported that the media should advocate against social evils such as discrimination, while 12.20%
respondents believed that the media should involve the common people in the important
contemporary topics. Fewer respondents (7.32%) preferred medias professional role as helping
foster dialogue among various actors of the society. The remaining 13.01% respondents saw the
role of the media in the other category.

124

5.3.5 Loyalty
Almost half the respondents (43.31%) said that the media should be loyal to the common people.
Fewer respondents (12.10%) reported self and self-conscience. Loyalty of 10.83% was with other
journalists or friends and of 7.64% was with the listeners, viewers and readers. Of the respondents,
6.37% said journalists were loyal to those about whom the news is written or those who were made
the topic of news. Fewer respondents saw loyalty with media houses (4.46%), advertisers (4.46%)
and other category (4.46%). Very few (2.55%) of them said that the media should be responsible
towards political parties while managers of media houses (1.91%) and influential sources of
information (1.91%) deserved the same level of media loyalty according to the respondents.

43.31%
12.10%
10.83%
7.64%
6.37%
4.46%
4.46%
4.46%
2.55%
1.91%
1.91%
Common people
Self and self-conscience
Other journalists or friends
Listeners, viewers and readers
About whom the news is written
Other
Advertisers
Media houses
Political parties
Managers of media houses
Influential sources of information
Loyalty of journalists
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
No dearth of skilled journalists
Role in transition
Decline in political affiliation now
Journalism content getting better
Anti-corruption role
More freedom
FM expansion
Increasingly desirable as profession
Inclusive media
How true statements
False
Somewhat true
True
Very true
Can't say
125

5.3.6 How true statements on societal context
a. No dearth of skilled journalists
Regarding the public views on the availability of skilled journalists in Nepal, more than two-thirds
(67.99%) believed that there was no lack of skilled and capable journalists in Nepal, whereas 11.49%
said that was only somewhat true. Of the respondents, 4.65% said the statement was very true, but
4.86% were unsure. Almost one in ten respondents (11.01%) said it was true that there was no lack
of skilled journalists in Nepal.

b. Role in transition
Regarding the role of Nepali journalism in the country's transition to federalism, more than one-
thirds (33.88%) said it was somewhat true that it had a role and nearly the same number 32.95%
said that it was true. Fewer respondents believed the statement as very true (7.04%), while almost
one-tenth (9.60%) were unsure about the Nepali medias role in transition. Also, 16.53%
respondents reported such a role of journalism to be false.

c. Less political affiliation now
On the statement if journalists did not have as much of political affiliation now as in the past, more
than one quarter (28.14%) said that was somewhat true. More than one-fifth (22.25%) said the
statement was true. Fewer respondents (4.55%) reported the statement to be very true while
11.60% were not sure. More than one-thirds (33.46%) said the statement was false.

d. Journalism content getting better
On the statement that journalism content was getting better, more than one-third (37.82%) said that
was true. Almost the same percentage of respondents (34.12%) reported the statement to be
somewhat true. Those who found the statement very true comprised 8.12%. More than one-tenth
(12.10%) respondents said it was false, while the remaining 7.84% respondents were unsure about
it.

e. Role in exposing corruption
Respondents were asked about their views on the role of journalists in exposing corruption in their
content. More than one-third (36.49%) said the role was somewhat true. Those saying the statement
was true comprised 30.05% and those who said very true made up 8.84%. Almost one-tenth
respondents (8.34%) were not sure, while 16.28% respondents rejected the role as false.

f. There is more freedom today
Respondents were asked for their views on media freedom as gaining a better hold in the recent
days. More than one-third (35.12%) perceived this as false while almost one-quarter (25.74%) said
this was somewhat true. Almost one-quarter (24.32%) of respondents said it was true that the media
were freer nowadays while 6.05% respondents said that was very true. The remaining 8.77%
respondents were unsure about the statement.

g. FM expansion as the significant achievement
Respondents were asked for their views on the statement that expansion of FM stations across the
country was the most significant achievement of the recent times. Almost half the respondents
(43.84%) took the statement to be true while more than one-fifth (21.69%) said that was only
somewhat true. Fewer respondents (15.53%) reported the statement to be very true, while one-fifth
(10.39%) took it as false. The remaining 8.56% respondents were unsure.

h. Desirable profession
Respondents were asked if journalism had emerged as the most desirable profession in the country.
Almost one-third respondents (30.38%) took the statement to be true while more than one-quarter
126

(29.23%) respondents took the statement to be somewhat true. Fewer respondents (6.69%)
reported the statement to be very true while one-fifth (20.19%) took it as false. The remaining
13.50% respondents could not say if that was the case.

i. Inclusive media
Respondents were asked if Nepali journalism was becoming more inclusive on raising the voices of
women and the marginalized groups. About one-third (35.65%) took the statement to be true while
a little less (30.75%) respondents took the statement to be somewhat true. Fewer respondents
(13.63%) reported the statement to be very true while more than one-fifth (11.64%) took it as false.
The remaining 8.33% respondents were not sure.

5.3.7 'How true' statements on profession and ethics

a. Journalists are politically neutral
Respondents were asked for their views if they perceived journalists as politically neutral. More than
half the respondents (53.39) reported the statement to be false while one-quarter (25.01%) took it
to be somewhat true. Fewer respondents (9.82%) believed the statement to be true while a similar
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Politically neutral
Pay attention to ABC
Do not circulate rumours
Present impartial news
Work in the public interest
Aren't afraid of being vocal critic of
government
Helping social (ethnic, religious) harmony
Helping country's development
'How true' statements about journalists
False
Somewhat true
True
Very true
Can't say
127

percentage of them (9.55%) were unsure. Of the respondents, 2.22% took the statement to be very
true.

b. Journalists pay attention to ABC
Respondents were asked for their views on whether journalists pay attention to their professional
values of accuracy, balance and credibility (ABC). Almost half the respondents (44.47%) took the
statement to be somewhat true while a little less than one-quarter of the respondents (23.58%) took
the statement to be true. Fewer respondents (4.21%) took the statements to be very true. Almost
one fifth (17.86%) perceived the statement to be false while a little less than one-fifth (9.88%) were
unsure.

c . Journalist dont circulate rumor
Respondents were asked for their views on the statement: Journalists dont circulate rumors. More
than one third of the respondents (35.96%) took the statement to be somewhat true while a little
more than one-quarter (26.18%) took it to be true. Less than one quarter (23.37%) reported the
statement to be false while fewer respondents (5.06%) took it to be very true.
Almost one tenth respondents (9.44%) remained undecided on the statement.

d. Journalists present impartial news
Respondents were asked whether they perceived journalists presented impartial news. More than
one third respondents (37.34%) took the statement to be somewhat true, while a little less than that
(32.21%) took the statement to be true. Some 14.66% reported the statement to be false while
fewer respondents (7.22%) took the statements to be very true. Almost one tenth respondents
(8.57%) were unsure.

e. Journalists work in the public interest
Respondents were asked for their views on the statement Journalists work in the public interest.
More than one third respondents (36.01%) took the statement to be somewhat true while similar
number of respondents (35.78%) took the statement to be true. More than one-fifth (10.61%)
reported the statement to be false, while fewer respondents (9.00%) took the statement to be very
true. Some respondents (8.60%) could not tell.

f. They are vocal critics of the government
Respondents were asked for their views on the statement Nepali journalists are vocal critics of the
government. More than one third respondents (37.71%) took the statement to be true while a little
more than one quarter (28.46%) took the statement to be somewhat true. Some 14.69%
respondents reported the statement to be very true while fewer respondents (11.57%) took the
statements to be very false. Fewer respondents (7.58%) were unsure.

g. Journalists help social (ethnic, religious) harmony
Respondents were asked for their views on the statement Nepali Journalists help maintain social
(ethnic, religious) harmony. More than one-third reported the statement to be true while a similar
percentage of (32.44%) took the statement to be somewhat true. Almost one in ten respondents
(11.40%) took the statement to be very true. Fewer respondents (10.49%) took the statement to be
false. Still fewer respondents (7.97%) were unsure.

h. They are contributing to the country's development
Respondents were asked for their views on the statement Nepali journalists are contributing to
the country's development. More than one-third respondents (37.79%) reported the statement to
be true while more than one quarter respondents (29.48%) took the statement to be somewhat
128

true. Some respondents (13.03%) took the statement to be very true. Fewer respondents (10.07%)
believed the statement was false. Those not sure about it made up 9.62%.

5.3.8 Hurdles to journalists in following code of conduct
Respondents were asked about their views on the various hurdles faced by Nepali journalists in
following the code of conduct. Some respondents (15.57%) reported the lack of respect to moral
norms and values as the major hurdle, followed by lack of awareness on the code of conduct
(13.11%), disrespect for norms and values for personal benefits (12.30%), poor work conditions, such
as the lack of security (8.20%) and the lack of personal honesty and integrity (8.20%). Fewer
respondents reported other reasons as the main hurdle. Media houses not giving attention to moral
concerns (7.38%), lack of incentives to doing good work (5.74%), unhealthy competition for
presentation of scoops (5.74%) and editor, publisher being involved in activities against the code of
conduct (5.74%), were among the reasons. The remaining 4.92% respondents took the apathy by
concerned agencies towards objecting to the wrong deeds by journalists as the main hurdle in
obliging journalists to follow the code of conduct.

5.4 Media literacy
5.4.1 Access to media resources
Respondents were asked which resources they had regular access to. Radio ranked the first
(32.82%), followed by TV (21.67%), newspapers (13.62%), the DSL/broadband or WiFi Internet
service (8.98%), and mobile phone (8.36%). Fewer respondents (1.24%) had a regular access to
other category of resources followed by camera (1.86%). The number of respondents who had
regular access to video recorder, computer, audio recorder, CD, VCD and DVD cumulatively
accounted for almost 3% of the respondents. Some 8.36% respondents had the regular access to
none of these.

5.4.2 Media skills

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Read newspapers (print)
Read newspapers online
Use mobile phone
Take pictures with a camera
Record video
Use the Internet
Type words on computer
Use email
Send email with attachment
Chat online
Make Internet (such as
Play computer/video games
Effectively use apps
Create webpages and
Link private blogs with social
How much can the public do these?
Can't do
Can do a little bit
Can do
Can do very well
Can't say
129

When asked to rate their various skills related to media, respondents gave mixed reponses.

a. Reading newspapers (print)
When they were asked about their newspaper (print) reading skill, most of the respondents (41.68%)
reported that they had it. More than one quarter of respondents (29.76%) said that they could do it
very well. Other responses were can't do (14.77%) and can do a little bit (12.69%). The remaining
1.10% respondents were not sure.

b. Reading newspapers online
When they were asked about their online skills to read the newspapers, 30.71% respondents each
replied either they could do or they could not do it. About one-fifth of the respondents (22.43%)
reported that they could do it very well while more than one tenth of respondents (13.24%) said that
they could do it a little bit. The remaining 2.91% respondents were not sure.

c. Using mobile phone
When they were asked about their skills to use the mobile phone, almost half the respondents
(46.91%) reported that they could do it while almost one-third respondents (33.09%) reported that
they could use the mobile phone very well. One-tenth respondents (10.96%) replied that they could
do a little bit of it while 8.31% respondents reported that they could not do so. The remaining 0.73%
respondents remained undecided on their skills.

d. Taking picture with a camera
When they were asked about their skills to take the picture with a camera, most of the respondents
(43.48%) reported that they could do it while almost one quarter respondents (24.31%) said that
they could use the camera well. Other responses were could not do (17.45%) and could do a little bit
(12.69%). The remaining 1.83% respondents could not tell.

e. Recording video
When they were asked about their skills to record videos, more than one-third of the respondents
(36.59%) reported that they could do it while more than one quarter respondents (26.07%) said that
they could not do it. A little less than one-fifth of the respondents (18.15%) reported that they could
record videos very well while a little less than this number (16.47%) said that they could do a little bit
of it. The remaining 2.72% respondents were not sure about this skill.

f. Using the Internet
When they were asked about their skills to use the Internet, less than one-third of the respondents
(30.59%) reported that they could do it while more than 31.74% respondents said that they could
not use the internet. Almost one-fifth respondents (21.31%) said that they could use the internet
very well, while 13.65% reported that they could use the internet a little bit. The remaining 2.71%
respondents remained unsure.

g. Typing words on computer
When asked about their computer typing skills, almost one-third respondents (32.37%) reported
that they could not type, while a little less than one-third (31.79%) said that they could type words
on computer. Almost one-fifth (19.73%) said they could type very well, while some 19.73% reported
that they could type a little bit on the computer. The remaining 2.14% respondents remained
undecided on their skills.

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h. Using email
When they were asked about their skill to use the email, almost one-third respondents (35.57%)
reported that they couldnt use the email while a little more than one-quarter respondents (28.56%)
said that they could type words on computer. Almost one-fifth (20.34%) respondents were found to
using email very well while little more than one-tenth respondents (12.80%) reported that they can
use a little bit of email. The remaining 2.72% respondents responded with a cant say.

i. Sending email with attachment
When they were asked about their skill to send emails with attachments, more than one-third
respondents (39.22%) reported that they could not send email with attachment, while a little less
than one-quarter respondents (24.88%) said that they could do it while one-fifth of the respondents
(20.05%) reported that they could do it very well. A little more than one-tenth (12.47%) of
respondents were found to be doing a little of it, while the remaining 3.38% respondents were not
sure.

j. Chatting online
When they were asked about their online skills, more than one-third respondents (35.36%) reported
that they could not chat online while a little more than one-quarter respondents (27.57%) said that
they could chat online. A little more than one-fifth (21.78%) of the respondents said they had the
chatting skills very well while a little more than one-tenth respondents (12.34%) reported that they
could chat online a little bit. The remaining 2.95% respondents were unsure.

k. Making phone calls using the Internet
When they were asked about the skill to make the phone call using the Internet, more than one-
third respondents (35.11%) reported that they could not do it while a little less than one-quarter
respondents (24.46%) said that they could chat online. Some 15.97% respondents said they had the
internet phone call skills a little bit, while a little more than one-tenth of respondents (12.93%)
reported that they could make calls through the internet very well. More than one-tenth
respondents (11.53) remained undecided on their skills.

l. Playing computer/video games
When they were asked about their skills to play computer/video games, a little less than one-third
respondents (32.03%) reported that they could do a little bit of it while more than one-quarter
respondents (25.65%) said that they could play computer/video games very well. Almost one-fifth
(20.15%) respondents reported that they could do it while more than one-tenth respondents
(10.52%) reported that they could not do it. The remaining 11.64% respondents were not sure.

m. Using presentation tools
When they were asked about their presentation skills, more than one-third respondents (41.43%)
reported that they could do a little bit of it while less than one-fifth respondents (17.61%) said that
they could do it. Less than one-fifth (16.54%) respondents reported they could do it very well while
an equal percentage of the respondents (15.58%) reported that they could not do it. The remaining
8.84% were unsure.

n. Creating web pages
When they were asked about their skills to create web pages, almost half the respondents (48.90%)
reported that they could do a little of it while less than one-fifth respondents (17.77%) said that they
could create Web pages. Some 17.77% respondents reported that they could not do it, while one-
fifth respondents (10.85%) said they had the skill to create web pages very well. Fewer respondents
(4.71%) said they could not tell.
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o. Linking blog with web page, twitter
When they were asked about their skills to link blog with webpage and Twitter, nearly half of the
respondents (45.72%) reported that they could do it a little bit of it while less than one-fifth
respondents (16.43%) said that they could not do it. More than one-tenth (15.40%) respondents said
they had the blog linking skills, while 14.61% respondents reported that they could do it very well.
The remaining 7.82% respondents were not sure.

5.4.3 Media skills by clusters and sex
When it came to media skills across clusters and sexes, at least one-third of the respondents (36%)
reported they generally had skills to use print, broadcast, online and other forms of new media
technologies at various levels of competence. One in seven respondents had no media use skills
generally. Respondents from the semi-urban clusters stood out in their skills.

Of all the skills chosen across clusters and sexes, the highest percentage of respondents (64%) with a
particular media competency came from semi-urban males who reported they could read
newspapers, and the lowest such percentage of respondents (10) were from semi-urban females
who said they had new media presentation skills (10%). Similarly, of all the skill sets, semi-urban
clusters also appeared the most deficient, with males (38%) reporting they could not use the
Internet to make calls, and females (2%) saying they could not use mobile phone.

a. Reading newspapers (print)
In terms of media skills, respondents who said they can do newspaper reading, can do it a little bit
or do it very well made up the majority urban males (57%) and females (23%) against urban males
(7%) and urban females (13%) who stated they could not do such things.

Far more semi urban males (64%) and females (23%) reported being able to read the newspaper
than males (8%) and females (4%) in the cluster who said they could not do so.

In the rural cluster, half (53%) of all statements about the ability to read newspaper were from
males, and about one third (30%) were from females. One in 11 rural males (9%) and one in 15 rural
females (7%) said they could read the newspaper.

b. Reading newspapers online
Respondents who said they could do online newspaper reading, could do it a little bit or do it very
well made up the majority urban males (52%) against other males (12%) in the cant do or cant
say categories. Urban females comprised those who said they had the skill to read online
newspaper (18%) and those who chose other media use habit options (18%).

More semi-urban males said they could read online newspaper (45%), followed by those who
reported they could not read them (27%). Females were divided between those who could (17%)
and those who could not (10%).

Among rural males, those who said they could read online newspapers (49%) led those who said
they could not do so (15%). More females in rural areas said they could read online newspapers
(22%), followed by those who said they could not do so (13%).

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c. Using mobile phone
Respondents across sexes and all clusters reported they had the skill to use the mobile phone. A
small percentage among urban males (4%) and semi-urban females (2%) said they could not use the
mobile phone.

Of the total responses in the urban cluster (n=505), the majority (59%) of urban males said they
could use mobile phone. Only a small percentage (4%) of urban males reported they were undecided
or they could not use the mobile phone.

In the semi-urban cluster, more males (53%) than females (37%) said they can use mobile phone,
compared to males (7%) and females (2%) who said they could not.

Rural males (56%) and rural females (30%) had the skill to use the mobile phone. More among the
rural females (8%) than among males (6%) said they did not have the skills or they could not say if
they had the skills to use the mobile phone.

d. Taking picture with a camera
More urban males said they could use camera to take pictures (55%) against those urban males who
said they could not use it (9%). More urban females reported they could use it (22%) compared to
those urban females who said they could not use it (13%).

In the semi-urban areas, more males said they could take pictures with a camera (61%) as against
those who said they could not do it (13%). For females in the semi-urban cluster, the corresponding
figures were: could do (22%) and could not do (5%).

Rural males who said they could not do so (52%) far outnumbered those who said they could not
(11%). Similarly there were more rural females who said they could do so (28%) than those who said
they could not (9%).

e. Recording video
Generally, respondents could record videos; with urban males (52%), urban females (22%) being
able to do it. More semi-urban males (58%) than semi-urban females (21%) said they could record
videos. Among semi-urban respondents, more males (15%) males than females (5%) said they could
not do so.

Among the rural respondents, a majority of those who said they could record videos (45%) were
rural males. Almost one-fifth (18%) of the rural males said they could not do so. The difference in
percentage between rural females who said they do it (19%) and who said they could not do (13%) it
was narrower.

f. Using the Internet
The percentage of respondents who could use the Internet was almost on the same level among
males and females across clusters. More urban male (52%) could use the Internet than those who
could not (12%). More urban females could do it (17%) compared to those who could not do it
(19%). In the semi-urban areas, more semi-urban male could do it (47%) than those who could not
(26%). More semi-urban females could do (14%), followed by those who could not do (12%). In the
rural clusters, there were more males who could do (47%) than the males who could not do (16%).
Almost a quarter of the rural female (23%) could use the Internet compared to rural females who
could not (14%).

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g. Typing words on computer
In general, the percentage of respondents who could type on the computer was similar across the
urban-rural groupings. More urban males said they could type on computer (52%) as compared to
those who said they could not do so (13%). Corresponding figures for urban females: can do (17%),
and cannot do (18%).

Almost half (47%) semi-urban males said they could type on computer, whereas the rest of the
males in semi-urban cluster (27%) reported they could not do so. Almost an equal percentage of
semi-urban females said they could (14%) and could not (13%) do it.

Almost half of the rural males said they could type on computer (48%), with some reporting that
they could not do it (15%). A little over a quarter of rural females said they could do so (26%). Part of
the rural females (11%) comprised those who said they could not type.

h. Using email
Urban males comprised a significant portion (52%) among those who could send and receive email in
their skill range between a little bit and very well. Urban males who could not do so (12%)
comprised (12%). Percentages for other clusters: Urban females who could do (17%) and who could
not do (19%); semi-urban males who could do (44%) and who could not do (30%); semi-urban
females who could do (12%) and who could not do (14%); rural males who could do (45%) and who
could not do (18%); rural females who could do (21%), and who could not do (15%).

i. Sending email with attachment
On the option if they could send emails with attached files, almost half of urban respondents (49%)
comprised males who said they could do so as against those who said they could not (15%). Among
urban females those who could not do (21%) outnumbered those who could do (15%).

In the semi-urban clusters, more males could send emails with attached files (41%) than those who
could not (33%). Semi-urban females who could not do (15%) comprised more than those females
who could do it (11%).

A majority of males from the rural clusters said they could send emails with attached files (56%) as
against those who could not do it (15%). Almost similar percentages of females from rural clusters
could send emails with attached files (15%) or could not do so (13%).

j. Chatting online
On the option if they could chat online, urban males who said they could do so (51%) far
outnumbered females with that skill (16%). However, females who reported they could not chat
online (20%) comprised a bigger share (20%) in the cluster over males (13%).

Among semi-urban males, those who could chat online (43%) made up somewhat bigger share over
those who could not do so (31%). Among the females those who said they could chat online (13%)
and those said they could not chat online (13%) were equally split.

In the rural clusters, almost half the responses were from males who could chat online (49%)
compared to those who could not (15%). The corresponding figures for females were: could do
(20%); could not do (16%).

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k. Making phone calls using the Internet
Almost half of the urban males (47%) said they could make phone calls using the Internet whereas a
minority (16%) said they could not do so. Urban females who could not do that (23%) outnumbered
those who said who could do so (13%).

The figures for semi-urban males: could do (35%) and could not do (38%). The figures for smi-urban
females: could not do (15%) and could do (12%).

Among the rural males, those who could (42%) were almost twice bigger than those who could not
(22%). Rural females who said they could not make phone calls using the Internet (20%) were slightly
more than those who said they could (17%).

l. Playing computer/video games
The figures for urban males' skills in playing computer/video games were almost identical for making
phone call using the Internet Males who could (46%) made up the majority, with males who could
not (17%) comprising a smaller share. More urban females could (28%) play computer/video games
than urban females who could not (9%).

The share of semi-urban males who could do so was comparatively larger (57%), with a smaller
chunk of urban males reporting that they could not play computer/video games (16%). For semi-
urban females, the corresponding figures were: could do (21%) and could not do (6%).

A larger portion of the rural males said they could (53%) play computer/video games whereas a
smaller portion said they could not (11%). Females who said they could do so (31%) far
outnumbered those who said they could not do so (5%).

m. Using presentation tools
Males across clusters were more adept at using new media presentation tools like PowerPoint or
SlideRocket. A larger segment of both sexes were skilled in using such tools. There were more urban
males who said they could use such tools (45%) than who said they could not (19%). The figures for
urban female comprised those who reported they could do so (26%) and those who said they could
not (10%).

Among the urban males, those who said they could use presentation skills (63%) comprised the
largest portion of respondents among all the media use skills options. Semi-urban males who said
they could not use such tools (20%) was another segment of the respondents under this category.
Semi-urban females comprised those who said they could (10%) and those who said they could not
(7%).

Majority of rural males (50%) and females (31%) said they could use presentation tools. A small
portion of rural males reported they cannot (12%) do such things and a further smaller segment of
rural males said (6%) they could do such things.

n. Creating web pages
Half the urban males (50%) said they could create web pages, while a small portion (14%) reported
they could do so. A quarter of urban females (25%) said they could create web pages, with a smaller
share of urban females saying they could not do it (11%).

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In the semi-urban clusters, more males could send emails with attached files (41%) than those who
could not (33%). Semi-urban females who could not do (15%) comprised more than those females
who could do it (11%).

In the semi-urban clusters, more males could create web pages (59%) than those who could not
(16%). Semi-urban females who could do so (18%) comprised more than those who could not (6%).

A majority of males from the rural clusters said they could create web pages (53%) as against those
who could not do it (11%). Also more females from rural clusters could create web pages (30%) than
those who could not do so (6%).

o. Linking a blog with web page, Twitter
Generally, respondents could link a blog with web page or social media like Twitter; with urban
males (47%), urban females (24%) being able to do it. Among urban respondents more males (17%)
than females (12%) reported they could not do so.

More semi-urban males (57%) than semi-urban females (20%) said they could link blogs with web
pages or Twitter. Among semi-urban respondents, more males (17%) males than females (6%) said
they could not do so.

Among the rural respondents, a majority of those who said they could do so (53%) were rural males.
Similarly, among the rural females, a majority (31%) said they could do so. There was only a slight
difference in the percentage between rural males (11%) and females (7%) who said they could not
do it.

5.4.4 Media use habits
Respondents were asked how they read the newspapers, watched television, listened to the radio or
browsed the internet. A majority of the respondents (63.98%) said they just scanned them, 6.16%
respondents said they analyzed the context of information provided by the media, 4.27%
respondents said they tried to look at what political and social messages the materials contained
while a few respondents (2.84%) said they tried to understand if the media presentation was an
advertisement. An equal number of respondents (2.37%) tried to understand what kind of materials
were there in them to lure or distinguish between factual and fictitious materials or looked for and
considered whether the media were exaggerating and distorting facts or tried to find if there was
the interest of the media houses in the content of the media or did not care who produced the news
materials or seriously consider whether the content was good or not. Fewer respondents (1.42%)
considered whether the information had more than one interpretation while the remaining less than
2% respondents tried to find out who the information was aimed at. There were no respondents
who would question the information material if they found it deficient or archived and preserved
materials for further review later. The remaining 8.06% respondents chose the other category for
their responses.

5.4.4.1 Media use habits by clusters and sex
On media use habits, urban females (58%) and males (33%) made up the majority of responses
stating that they just make a cursory scan of the media content. The responses to other categories,
such as fact checking, looking at the bigger context, trying to figure out the persuasive strategy of
the media, looking at owners interest, ads and personal benefits in the messages were very low
across the urban-rural, male female dimensions.

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A majority of respondents from rural males (30%) and females (30%) also said they just make a
cursory scan of the media content, followed nominally by other categories of media use habits.

Semi-urban males (32%) and females (13%) also mostly said they scanned the media content, with
other semi-urban males (29%) and females (26%) reporting they opt for other media use habits.

5.4.5 Communicative practices
a. Produced a variety of written content
Respondents were asked how often they produced a variety of written content. Less than half the
respondents (44.26%) reported that they never did it while a similar number of respondents was
found to be doing it sometimes. Fewer respondents (3.91%) frequently did it while 6.76%
respondents usually did it. The remaining 3.73% were not sure.

b. Produced audio, video content
Respondents were asked how often they produced audio and video contents. Less than half the
respondents (45.23%) reported that they never did it while more than one-third respondents
(35.39%) said they were doing it sometimes. Fewer respondents (6.66%) frequently did it while
8.07% respondents usually did it. The remaining 4.65% respondents were not sure.

c. I have written letters to newspapers or magazines in reaction to their articles
Respondents were asked how often they had written letters to newspapers or magazines in reaction
to their articles. Almost half the respondents (49.57%) reported that they never did it while more
than one-third respondents (36.59%) said they were found to be doing it sometimes. Fewer
respondents (5.85%) frequently did it while 5.91% respondents usually did it. The remaining 2.07%
respondents could not tell.

d. I have called radio or TV stations to comment on their news
Respondents were asked how often they called radio or TV stations to comment on their news.
Almost half the respondents (51.45%) reported that they never did it while almost one-third
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Prepared written texts
Prepared audiovisuals
Commented on newspapers
Sent feedback to radio & TV
Posted on blogs
Used social media
Collaborated online
Communicative practices
Never
Sometimes
Usually
Almost always
Can't say
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respondents (32.88%) said they called them sometimes. Fewer respondents (6.48%) frequently did it
while 5.37% respondents usually did it. The remaining 3.82% respondents could not tell.

e. I have commented on blogs or posted updates on my blog
Respondents were asked how often they commented on blogs or posted updates on their own
blogs. More than half the respondents (55.73%) reported that they had never done it while almost
one-quarter respondents (24.91%) said they had done this sometimes. Fewer respondents (6.85%)
frequently did it while 7.72% respondents usually did it. The remaining 4.79% respondents chose the
cant say option.

f. I use social media network(s) like Facebook or Twitter and have posted updates
Respondents were asked how often they used social media network(s) like Facebook or Twitter and
have posted updates. Almost half the respondents (45.62%) reported that they had never done it
while almost one-quarter respondents (26.15%) said they were doing this sometimes. Fewer
respondents (5.57%) frequently did it while 11.57% respondents usually did it. The remaining 11.08%
respondents said nothing about it.

g. I collaborate online with others, like posting on wiki
Respondents were asked how often they collaborated online with others, like posting on wiki. More
than half the respondents (59.07%) reported that they had never done this while less than one-
quarter respondents (22.54%) said they had done this sometimes. Fewer respondents (7.79%)
frequently did it while 6.83% respondents usually did it. The remaining 3.77% respondents chose the
'cant say' option.

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139

SECTION VI:
SMS POLL

140

141

6. SMS POLL

The SMS poll was part of the two national surveys on Nepali media- one on journalists' perspectives
and another on public perceptions. It was designed to complement the survey data. In particular, the
objective was also to access the perspectives of the segment of population with increasing access to
mobile telephony. In addition, SMS responses were expected to help cap the two surveys, making it
possible to compare views of journalists and the public on a broad scale.

6.1 Credibility of news organizations & news/ analyses
Both the journalists' survey and the public opinion survey discussed in the previous two chapters
sought to assess respondents trust in media as well as information and analyses by journalists.
Although a majority (57.62%) of respondents in the journalists' survey had said Nepali media and
their content were generally trustworthy, almost half the respondents (47.12%) said Nepali media
were not impartial. The public (19.16%) had rated the Nepali media top among the institutions in
society it trusted the most. The SMS poll appeared to confirm the results from both the surveys,
suggesting an increase in public trust toward media and journalistic reports.

40.70%
59.29%
42.06%
57.93%
Unfavourable Favourable
Change over time in public trust in media (N=739)
Media outlets
Journalists's reports
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Most respondents in the SMS poll had a favorable view of media or their content. Majority of
respondents (57.97%) said their trust in Nepali media organizations had increased over the past 3-4
years, while the rest reported their trust in those organizations had not increased. Similarly, majority
of participants (59.29%) in the SMS poll reported that their trust in news and analyses by Nepali
journalists had increased over the past 3-4 years.

In the SMS poll, respondents were asked two questions, with the option to answer one or both: "Has
your trust in Nepali news organizations increased over the past 3-4 years?" "Do you agree that your
trust in news/analysis by Nepali journalists has increased over the past 3-4 years?" (See appendix 7
for details). The 3-4 years cited in the questions called attention to a period of enormous political
transition in the country.

Both questions were based on the overall thrust of the survey assessments reported in this study.
The questions were subject to some limitations in mobile phone technology today, such as
characters limit, and language barriers (only English could be used for end-to-end SMS service).

The SMS poll was conducted during the last week of July, 2012. A sample of randomly generated
mobile phone numbers was targeted. In total, 739 responses were received. Newspaper
announcements, social media networks, word of mouth, etc were utilized to encourage people to
participate in the poll.

143

SECTION VII:
STAKEHOLDER DISCUSSIONS

144

145

7. STAKEHOLDER DISCUSSIONS
The surveys in the previous chapters sought responses from a large number of respondents, and
each of them, including the SMS poll, showed that despite many flaws, Nepali media and journalists
are generally regarded as trustworthy. The pre-determined survey questions were limited in their
analytical powers to explain the gaps in the quantitative responses.

Stakeholder discussions helped to directly interact with key stakeholders on a more substantive
level. Together the participants introspected and shared critical insights on capacity building in
media and inter-related topics. Often they advanced unique, perspectives based on personal
experiences, emphasizing long-term views and change in attitudes and practices within a rigid
cultural context. FGD participants noted that terms like media credibility or literacy are relative in
nature, requiring an open-ended approach to inquiry.

Focus group discussions (FGDs), as method of research, involve a small group of homogenous
people, usually 8 to 10 in numbers, who meet to discuss topics and help identify important issues.
The distinguishing feature of focus groups is the "use of interaction as part of the research data"
(Kitzinger, 1994, p. 104). FGDs help complement quantitative studies, for example, filling in the gaps
in surveys and rationalizing quantitative information. They can help compensate survey errors in
self-reporting or poor response rates.

Side by side with the survey assessments, in all, six FGDs involving the cross-sections of stakeholders
were held throughout the months of April-July, 2012. In addition, this section also draws on the
notes from loose network discussions with varied stakeholders carried out by SPCBN/UNDP.

The notes from the FGDs were first transcribed and then organized thematically keeping the names
of participants anonymous. The material here is presented in a narrative format. The material here is
organized along these themes: Profile of participants, professionalism, media credibility, media
capacity building, and media literacy. Each of these themes except profile of participants is further
discussed in terms of stakeholders' conceptual understanding of the particular theme, the challenges
and opportunities they perceive about it, and finally, their suggestion about what to do next to
further improve the existing situation.

The FGDs were helpful to elicit varied contextual information, including inputs from the lived
experiences of different stakeholders of the media sector.

7.1 Profile of participants
Participants in those FGDs included working journalists, photographers, media trainers, researchers,
educators, media advocates, students as well as housewives, teachers and other users of media.
They included journalists' groups (actively working news professionals, Dalit journalists, women
journalists) as well as in collaboration with institutions (Federation of Nepali Journalists, Sancharika
Samuha, Martin Chautari, Jagaran Media Center, etc.), and the general public. Collaborative
discussions with FNJ involved members of FNJ central executive committee and the research
coordinators from Media Foundation- Nepal (MF-N). Media literacy discussion with Public focus
group included teachers, students and housewives who were all users of cellular mobile phones and
146

mass media, including radio, television and the Internet. They shared their views on a range of issues
relating to media.

7.2 Professionalism
7.2.1 Conceptual understanding: Accuracy, Balance and Credibility (ABC) is said to be the
cornerstone of media professionalism. Responsible and a professional media can grow satisfactorily
under democratic norms and values. However, professionalism greatly lacks in the Nepali media.
There is no environment for journalists to depend on his honesty and integrity. An undergraduate
journalism student, a participant in one of the FGDs on media education, observed that scribes
misuse journalism to serve their own vested interests and this brings about problems. It is very hard
for newcomers to make career in journalism. Media professionalism also incorporates diverse
ethnic, religious, regional and language regimes into the media content, management as well as
audience.

7.2.2 Challenges: As corporate journalism is yet to develop in Nepal, economic base of media houses
is fragile; hence the status of editorial freedom is also fragile. Both financial and editorial aspects
ought to be consolidated to promote media professionalism.

The state has shown frequent tendencies to highlight journalists' responsibility in the name of media
policy. Censorship or stagnation of freedom of expression may poke their faces in future as well,
particularly if political uncertainty persists.

Professional security is a key concern in times of political uncertainty and crises. When newspapers
close due to sustained strikes, conflict or threat, it is not the media owners who suffer but the
journalists. These were the views of some journalists during FGD with FNJ.

As stakeholders pointed out, Nepal's media sector is characterized by low salaries, irregular
payments, ownership control, non-transparency regarding the investment in the media sector, and
insecurity. What's more, the media sector is largely controlled, and operates in a way as wished by
the ownership and is insecure in many ways (Loose Network Discussion, SPCBN/UNDP, June 29,
2012).

Dedication to profession and building the level of motivation seem to be a big challenge. At another
session, a Kathmandu-based middle-aged media trainer shared this observation about students' lack
of motivation in the media profession (FGD, June 24, 2012). He said he once asked his students as to
how many of them actually wanted to be a journalist? Surprisingly, only 6 out of 36 students raised
their hands in affirmation.

Projecting a good public image also is a challenge to journalists. A young journalist working at the
International Desk of a leading private-sector daily said he would better be known as the owner of a
blog he owns. His said he had reservations about identifying himself as a newspaper journalist
because journalists' image was dwindling and their professional integrity was questioned, mostly in
districts outside the Kathmandu Valley. (FGD, June 24, 2012).

Newsroom is not female friendly. Sometimes, female members of the staff find their workplace
atmosphere de-motivating, as male colleagues walk into the working desk with bottles or cans of
beer (FGD, May 6, 2012).

Similarly, inclusion is another area of concern for professional growth. In this regard, while some
think that the Dalits are better covered by Dalit journalists, others say it was an issue of fairness and
objectivity no matter who covered them. Some maintained that ethnicity may positively relate to
147

access to sources/story subject, framing of questions, and assumptions of a reporter. And positive
discrimination accorded some degree of fairness in the news process. However, one participant cited
a case in which a Muslim journalist was criticized for the way he covered a Muslim issue (FGD,
July22, 2012).

Similarly, there was also the possibility of skewed sourcing, as seen in stories on Maoists covered by
reporters close to the Maoists. Participants called for newsroom diversity, and more objective and
yet engaged reporting of minority issues.

7.2.3 Opportunities: A BA-pass student at Kathmandu University expressed the view that there is no
money in media sector, but it offers opportunities and exposures for professional development.
Professional engagement with media also helps one by enhancing the ability to tap opportunities
available in other sectors. "I did not take up media studies to make good earning," he said. "Though I
took up media studies, I am working in development sector now. One can work in other sectors
besides media, I think there are opportunities" (FGD, March 11, 2012).

Professional fellowships offered by various organizations--both at home and abroad--provide good
deal of opportunities towards a journalist's professional development, some participants observed.
They not only provide exposure but also contribute to broaden one's worldview. Participants who
have had benefitted from fellowships encouraged others to pursue training and fellowship
opportunities whenever available.

7.2.4 What needs to be done
Editorial freedom should be a topic of a new debate now. The concept of editorial freedom
should be viewed in terms of the capitalist orientation and media ownership. Corporate
houses have to ensure editorial freedom. There should be a culture of respecting both the
capital and the labor (Loose Network Discussion, SPCBN/UNDP, June 29, 2012).
Donor-driven approach is one of the major problems in training sector. Media training are
based more on what funding agencies want rather than what journalists actually need.
Need-based training module is necessary (FGD, June 24, 2012).
Training packages must be attuned to the level of trainees. Basic level training for aspiring
journalist who hasnt yet entered the media field and advanced level training for those who
are already working in the field could be the two simple options in this regard (FGD, June 24,
2012).
Trainings have become a means to elongate the CV pages, particularly when they are
available for free. Training organizers may shift the usual full cost covering programs to a
model wherein the trainee bears half of the cost. This, some participants believe, could
promote the feeling of ownership as well as make the training more effective ((FGD, June 24,
2012).
Building journalistic capacity through close inspection of media contents and correction of
lapses could also help address some of our problems. Allowance seeking mentality and the
trend of holding training just for the name of training' should end from the institutional
level.
A journalist can always polish himself or herself with vigorous self study. Nepali journalists
mostly do not reflect this quality. In recent years, more women have enrolled in journalism
education, but most of them do not enter journalism profession. There could be many
reasons for this--from domestic factors to matters relating to professional opportunities and
limitations (FGD, May 6, 2012).
Accuracy, balance, credibility (ABC) should be in line with the vision of proportional inclusion
of even Dalit and other marginalized section of society.

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7.3 Media Credibility
7.3.1 Conceptual understanding: Credibility refers to the quality of being believable or trust-
winning. It concerns with several issues ranging from source, medium, message, process as well as
accountability of media contents, from production to the consumption phases. Media content with
no logical basis directly affects its credibility. To determine one's level of trust on media and their
content, there is the need for a mixed approach to one's media assessment, according to some users
of media.

Asked if their trust on Nepali media had increased or decreased over the past 3-4 years, a FGD
session generated mixed views. Amidst mushrooming media outlets, the public has multiple choices
and the trust factor is always relative in nature. "The way I trust a media or its content is always
guided by the details provided to me. The more the factual details the more I tend to trust them,"
said a media user during an FGD program held at Media Foundation (FGD, July 27, 2012).

Media credibility is thus a matter linked with the Channel-Audience connection facilitated with
contents of local concern. People tend to trust those media that cater to their interests or
curiosities. For example, female participants said they "rarely skip primetime news at Kantipur and
Avenues" whereas Nepal 1 fared less for its "low coverage on Nepali issues" (FGD, July 27, 2012).

In many cases the public has displayed their trust to media. Those people who fall sick and need to
go to hospital during general strikes or other emergency situations contact media seeking their help
rather than doctors or the police (FGD, May 1, 2012). This is a sign that public trust on media has not
died out.

7.3.2 Opportunities: Opportunities on the credibility factor in Nepali media can be related to
availability of choices of information and channel of communication. In the modern context, public
trust on media can be said to depend on verifiability of truth of the contents, as well as the rooms
made available in media forums for public participation.

Over the years, media have given increased space for public participation. Increasingly, sound bites
and images of public have been included in television news or their opinion and comments have
been given space in the 'feedback' sections of newspapers (FGD, July 27, 2012.).

7.3.3 Challenges: Some participants observed that lack of seriousness in data verification is one of
the major challenges in credibility standard. On the crime reporting front, for example, the
participants were dissatisfied with television and other media for presenting the accused as guilty.

Some participants were concerned about the way people view new media, without much anxiety.
One observed that that there was almost no concern about the credibility question of online
feeds/sources.

Distortion of facts is a regular blame on media. Media should not distort facts. Television
commercials sometimes air contents that ultimately turn out fraudulent. Risk to public health grows
when, for example, a celebrated film artiste is hired in a commercial to advertise a substandard
consumer product.

Electronic media credibility is even lower because of frequent factual inaccuracies and violations of
Code of Ethics.

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Similarly, public trust on media may drastically fall when, for example, a news item or coverage on
the craze of using Mehendi (henna) further promotes the craze without talking anything about the
possible medical risk (e.g. allergies which sometimes can have serious consequences on the users'
health).

The participants opined that maximum use of news sources, presence of an independent media
monitoring services, provision of incentives and prizes for aspiring journalist and seriousness
towards implementing media ethics would lead to high credibility of Nepali media.

They expressed the belief that neutrality and balance factor in the media coverage-- both of state
and private-sector ownership--could go a long way towards winning public trust. Public service
media had been the real need of the current time.

Government media's role in this regard is significant, as they still enjoy greater public trust than the
private sector media outlets.

At an FGD program, some women professionals maintained that knowing Code of Ethics was also
important as it is the link issue between credibility and capacity. Credibility scale is positively
affected when news contents display relevant public issues (FGD, July 27, 2012).

Programs with no logical basis should be avoided by television or they will lose their credibility.
Rather media should be active in spreading awareness about the negative consequences of such
programs.

7.4 Media Capacities
7.4.1 Conceptual understanding: Capacity is the art of identifying issues and presenting them. An
FGD program held in Kathmandu (FGD, 24 June, 2012) discussed various aspects of capacity building
of journalists, such as media education, practices and training opportunities in Nepal. Media capacity
refers to skill or capability of journalist to perform one's responsibility, whereas, on the part of
media users, it is related to the skills to use different media for effective and efficient use. The FGD
collected diverse views on role of training in capacity building of journalists and the impact of
institutional affiliation of journalist on their skills and practices.

7.4.2 Opportunities: Media houses, training institutes and universities, including TU, KU, PU and PoU
have been promoting journalism through practice, trainings and studies, respectively.

Wider ranges of opportunities are opening up in formal education and training sector. This
collectively has a positive bearing on the media capacity development.

Media studies programs at universities are becoming more popular. The opportunities for capacity
building of journalists have surpassed the traditional means of training, as vast literature is available
in different online resources and research-based institutions like Martin Chautari and Social Science
Baha.

New Media also has been an informal source of education, wherein the art of journalism can be
gained and developed through visual facilities like YouTube and social media networks such as
Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn etc as well as various blog sites.

International fellowships provide good opportunities for journalists to widen their worldview and
develop workmanship. At a separate FGD program held at Media Foundation premises in 11 March,
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2012, journalists who benefitted from various international fellowships shared their views and
experiences. Some of the noted fellowship packages were provided by East-West Center/Asia Pacific
Leadership Fellowship, American government, IIMC (India), Climate Change Media Partnership
(2010) and the Swansea University, UK, Even locally hosted trainings were of significant usefulness to
some participants.

7.4.3 Challenges: Media's capacity related problems could be linked to either Newsroom or
classroom or both. But classroom knowledge must be complimented or bridged with the practical
skills required in the actual field of journalism. Many teachers see a huge gap between what is
taught in the classrooms and what is required in the newsrooms. (Loose Network Discussion,
SPCBN/UNDP, June 29, 2012).

Professional journalism training are very limited; most journalists have considered their own media
house as the training ground for them.

Media managers are usually not interested to address the issue of journalists' capacity building.

Journalism trainers feel that the training modules generally applied in the country to build journalist
capacity are mostly outdated and cannot ensure long-term utility.

There has been unfair distribution of training resources and opportunities between rural and urban
areas.

Quick-fix attitude on part of the learners, i.e. to be satisfied barely with the rubrics of the profession,
is not supporting their long-term career goals, or professional sustainability. Moreover, some
pointed out growing training fatigue among people who have to attend the same types of courses
again and again (FGD, March 11, 2012)

Resources in media have increased but quality issues remain ignored. The current technology-driven
media has sidelined the mainstream conventional journalism. Technology is preferred over
journalistic capacity. And even media houses underestimate the issue of journalist's ability and,
instead, seek their apparent technological insight. If you have an expensive latest camera, you can
be a photographer and will be given big space said one participant, illustrating this point.

Media training has become too much Capital-centric. Criteria for selecting trainees are erroneous,
where the same person can attend a particular kind of training for dozens of occasions. A
distinguished media trainer claimed he has met a trainee who has attended similar media trainings
for the 40
th
time!

In-house media training/refresher courses should be frequently arranged for working
journalists within a media organization.
Trainees as well as working journalists must be oriented on the importance of focused and
serious learning. They must be taught to make optimum utilization of media and
communication resources.
Training and other opportunities of capacity development should be diversified nationwide,
rather than concentrating them in the capital.
Fellowship, awards and other forms of incentives should be provided to enhance journalist's
capabilities.
Women communicators feel that there is a need for beats-based training to Nepalese
journalists. Arrangement for editorial training could go a long way to improve the scenario. It
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will also contribute to overall human resource enhancement in a newsroom and the entire
media organization.
In terms of the performance caliber, women journalists are no less capable than their male
counterparts but roles are seldom given to them. What a woman journalist would desire is
responsibility with roles. Almost 95% our news sources are males--whether Brahmins,
janajati (ethnic nationalities or Madhesi (FGD, FNJ, May 1, 2012).
Female topics do not normally become issues in newsroom, as it is mostly predominated by
males. Female perspectives could be different- but there is a lack of willingness to include or
accommodate female perspectives--be it news, editorial, or workplace atmosphere. Any
design of training for journalists should address this lacking.

7.5 Media Literacy
7.5.1 Conceptual understanding: In general, participants agreed that media literacy as an ability to
use and understand media tools and contents. Most journalists in Nepal do have some formal
education but not media literacy. Being able to use and apply the media tools and content for
personal and professional development is necessary in the present times. Media literacy also
teaches journalists what they should not do in their profession.

In this regard, media literacy also means understanding the various media laws, codes and
instruments affecting the media sector. Reflecting over the level of media literacy, many members of
public expressed ignorance about were not aware about the existence of Press Council Nepal where
anyone can show their disagreement and appeal for action against any kind objectionable media
content.

7.5.2 Opportunities: The world today has become almost like one small village due to advances in
modern information and communication (ICT) technology as well as because of the growing public
access to mass media. While half of nation's population has access to mobile phone, and there is a
growth in public choice for media (FGD, MF-N, July 27, 2012). Seven out of nine public participants
had their own mobile phones, and the same number had personalized email accounts.

The use of media was found so pervasive that a participant claimed he used all forms of media,
depending on time and context. He said he would listen to radio immediately after waking up in the
morning and then would watch television after some time. During the day he would surf the Internet
or hook up with Facebook.

Aware of the existence of different newspapers and television stations in town, participant indicated
that media was a storehouse of knowledge and information for them. "If only we know the 'how to'
of so many facilities in the mobile as well as in the Internet, we could know and do so many things
through media," said a participant (FGD, July 27, 2012).

Without the media, today's audience or readers find their life full of darkness. The focus group
participants, too, said that it is the inbuilt nature of human mind to know what is happening around
us. And the media are playing a key role to address that need.

Flash news, phone calls, FM radio, music, video, email, social networks were some examples of the
common media tools referred to by the FGD participants.

7.5.3 Challenges: The status of media literacy is poor in the country, as some women
communicators said during a focus group discussion (FGD with Sancharika, May 6, 2012). New media
literacy is particularly of much importance, although training a vast number of journalists is a task
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that cannot be achieved overnight. Learning everything about technology or a system within a short
period of time is, indeed, not possible.

Most of the journalists working as news desk editors are not trained, and this in a sense also reflects
media illiteracy. There is also the need for appropriate textbooks designed to enhance media
literacy. It should be integrated in academic and training curricula nationwide. For this concerted
efforts are necessary from all stakeholders.

The Internet and cellular mobile phones have not been used to their fullest potential mainly due to
technological difficulty or ignorance. A vast majority of people do not have access to these
resources.

Participants were quite aware of the issue of media convergence being pushed up by mobile phone,
and their own tapping of its scope was limited due to technological difficulty. They said their use of
mobile phones was limited to its regular function of making and receiving calls.

Long term strategy should be developed to train and educate journalists as well as the
general public as users of media, on various aspects of media utilities. Textbooks ought to be
designed and media literacy ought to be made an integral part of academic and training
curricula nationwide.
To ensure that media contents are accurate, balanced and credible, a filtering mechanism is
necessary to verify the validity of broadcasting or media contents.
Even as media are mostly easy to handle or to understand, it becomes difficult for many
rural folks to grasp the message when content and the technology both are complex for
them. Efforts should be made to minimize gaps between the media literate and the media
illiterate populations.
Participants at an FGD program expressed the view that the horizon of feedback mechanism
should increased and the public themselves should proactively find their space in media and
increase their participation.
The public should also work to create their own chautari or a kind of public meeting space
(forum) where they can discuss the good and the bad aspects of media. This would help
them to decide what to take and reject regarding media content.

7. 6 Conclusions
Traditional ideals of journalism, characterized by details, reason, and special skills of reporting and
writing are becoming universally accessible today to everyone mainly because of new technologies,
increasing media access and improved education system in schools.

And yet, little is being done to explore opportunities that enhance journalists capacities. While
Nepali journalists are increasingly becoming well-informed, there remains much to be desired in
terms of actually putting into practice what they already know. Journalists prestige as professionals
is not possible today without the wider public appreciating their work. Hence, media education or
media literacy should be a public agenda today.

To put it in a nutshell, while opportunities and challenges are equally potent in all categories,
professionalism in media would require more editorial freedom, need-based trainings, content-
assessment mechanism, vigorous self studies, commitment to profession, and open, dynamic and
inclusive newsrooms.

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Credibility status could be enhanced in multiple ways, including verification of data, attribution to
authentic sources, adherence to ethical codes and standard, exercise of neutrality and balance,
orientation towards general public, sense of responsibility or accountability in what one covers, and
dependence on factual information.

Likewise, most of the pressing issues relating to capacity development would demand a package of
programs such as in-house and/or out-house media training/refresher courses, nurturing serious
commitment among trainees as well as working journalists, optimum utilization of media and
communication resources, diversification/decentralization of opportunities, fellowship, awards and
other forms of incentives. Beats-based training, editorial writing training, gender balance in content
coverage and workplace sanctity are important in this regard.

What's more, a comprehensive strategy should be devised to achieve the right level of media
literacy, aimed at both media persons and the public. This is to make sure that journalists as well as
the people, as users of media, can have sufficient knowledge to tap the facilities offered, and use
available platforms, using the media skills.

It appears imperative to design appropriate textbooks, devise ways to assess media credibility, and
to take measures to minimize gaps between the media 'literate' and the media 'illiterates'.

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155

SECTION VIII:
CONCLUSION &
RECOMMENDATIONS

156

157

8. CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS
As the data in the previous chapter revealed, Nepali journalists participating in the surveys were
mainly young educated males, from the Brahmin-Chhetri background, urban, semi-urban, and still
largely print-based. They earn low to moderate income. Most of them work full-time, a majority of
them in the private sector media.

In comparison, the participants of the public survey were predominantly urban and semi-urban
young males, from the Brahmin-Chhetri background. Compared to the percentage of females in the
journalists' survey, the public survey had a slightly larger percentage of females. Half of the public
respondents were married, and most had an academic background in education, followed by
business/industry and agriculture.

The survey suggests that Nepali journalists are not confined to just a particular location. Most
journalists who work for print and online outlets live in urban clusters; those who work for radio or
TV are from semi-urban clusters.

Respondents appeared reticent about expressing their perceptions on professional code violation as
well as the types of professional challenges journalists face. Males and females across clusters cited
seeking or obtaining political or economic favor for writing stories, or disclosing identity of subjects
at risk (ex. rape victims, people in trauma) without their consent as the most serious examples of
code violations. Respondents often identified social perception of journalists as politically biased,
inadequate security to journalists from the state, political partisanship and institutional bias of
media houses, lack of technological resources and training for individual journalists among the most
serious professional challenges today. The limited numbers of responses on these themes are only
suggestive and cannot be generalized.

In terms of training experience, respondents across demographics and professional roles had more
basic training, special topic training, and seminar or workshop exposure, in that order, than
fellowship, exchange or internship experience. As the survey findings suggest, today journalists
across clusters, sexes, education levels, study area, beats, and media ownership types are seeking
capacity development opportunities beyond training. They appeared somewhat dissatisfied with
available opportunities, in-house training, mentorship, fellowships. They stressed on the need for
hands-on proficiency and advanced/specialized training, time managements, ICT skills, critical
thinking skills, and language skills. More than two-thirds of the public rejected the view that there
was no dearth of skilled journalists in Nepal.

The public viewed journalists as privileged with freedom, acknowledged their important role in
democratic transition of the country as well as in uncovering corruption, and saw them improving in
the quality of content. However, more than half the respondents in the public survey could not
accept that journalists are neutral. Generally, journalists had a favorable view of coverage of topics
such as peace, democracy and constitution-making. In contrast, the public viewed coverage on
governance, national politics, constitution-making as generally reliable, but the coverage on peace
and democracy was not considered much reliable. The public's preference for topics coverage varied
across clusters and sexes, with most emphasizing coverage of politics and government, economy,
society/culture etc.

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Although majority of journalists believed credible what they read, heard and saw in the Nepali
media, they cited poor quality of content or mediocre language or presentation, lack of awareness of
ethics, or the practice of accuracy, balance and credibility (ABCs), and lack of rigorous verification
as major factors affecting their professional credibility. Still, as the results in the public survey in the
previous chapter showed, both the journalists and the media outlets are highly regarded by the
members of the public. The public viewed media as the most trusted among all public institutions
and journalists as the second most trusted occupation group, after farmers.

Journalists' suggestions on improving the overall quality of the profession mainly underscore the
need for improved security situation, press-friendly laws, institutional transparency, editorial
independence, timely pays or salaries to employees, technological resources, journalism education
and training, etc. While journalists emphasized their democratic role in creating awareness and
development, the public generally did not believe that media houses were encouraging citizen
engagement or participation.

In terms of media literacy, a majority of journalists expressed the confidence in using new media
tools. They showed interest in learning various aspects of new media such as handling hardware
devices, online searching, video-conferencing, creating Web pages, and personal blogs. The public
used a wide variety of media or new media, and as the survey suggests, even in rural areas the
public today relies on TV, radio and the Internet equally. The public considers TV the most trusted
medium across clusters, followed by local FM radio or national radio. However, when it comes to
media literacy levels, more than two-third reported they only scanned their media and rarely
analyzed the context of information given to them.

Besides the pre-determined choices in the surveys, this study also drew from focus group and loose
network discussions. Those discussions helped to directly reach relevant stakeholders, such as active
professionals, media trainers/teachers, students, members of professional associations. They also
included ordinary media users and housewives as well as people from marginalized or minority
communities like Dalit, women, etc.

Participants often emphasized long-term, holistic, behavioral or attitudinal change in media
professionals as wel l as media users. They emphasized on the need for balancing economic profit
and editorial freedom, and also coping with the continuing threat of conflict, monopoly and
corporatization of media, lack of motivation among journalists, lack of women-friendly environment,
exclusionary newsroom, and skewed sourcing practices.

The FGD participants generally concurred with survey respondents in their assessment of media
media and media credibility. They cited examples of distortions, libelous content, disregard to
verification of facts, and media hype of propaganda. However, the stakeholders emphasized that the
swift pace of development in new technologies had created a sort of new media anxiety among
many people. The Internet had widened access to content, but it had also posed a challenge in
verifying materials online.

The FGD participants agreed with survey respondents on the poor quality of training opportunities
for journalists, lack of initiative from media outlets in offering in-house training, outdated curricula
and modules, quick-fix and shallow approach to imparting training, and faulty participant selection
criteria. But they went further in observing that the existing training programs were donor-driven
with little input from beneficiaries themselves, and a long-term, sustainable approach was lacking.

Some FGD participants observed that repeaedt participation by individuals in the same course had
resulted in training fatigue among some trainees while many other media professionals or
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enthusiasts were having hard time to acclimatize with the fast changing tech world that required
multi-tasking and constant adjustments.

8.1 Key findings and discussion
8.1.1 Literature and desk review
The post-1990 liberal polity brought about significant growth in media, particularly in the
field of radio; but the Nepali press is far from being professional.
Despite Nepali media's expanding role in today's society and its increasing penetration, the
extent of their impact in Nepali political and social realm remains unclear.
Few empirical studies exist, examining media credibility, capacity and literacy. It is
impossible to generalize on these ideas based on existing analysis and commentaries.
Generally, literature on media credibility in Nepal shows problems related with source and
message credibility. Political partisanship, loss of editorial independence, sensationalism, etc
are often cited as contributing to the lack of credibility of media. But, when it comes to
public perceptions of the media overall, people hold Nepali media in high esteem.
Legal provisions today are generally conducive to media development, but few are enforced
or implemented uniformly or consistently.
Codes of media ethics do exist, however, they are not binding on journalists, and a
systematic media accountability system has not yet evolved in the country.
Capacity development efforts have traditionally focused on journalism training, with little
consideration to incentives, award, the nature and mode of training, instruction, curricula
development as well as infrastructure, stakeholder collaboration, research and development
initiatives.
Formal education in journalism or media topics is gaining popularity, and academic curricula
appears to be becoming eclectic and diversifying, however, there is little information
available on the scope and impact of these programs on professional development of their
graduates.
Media literacy, the skills to analyze media and their messages critically, has received little
attention in the country.

8.1.2 Surveys
While the survey results can be generalized to the target population, the findings below are limited
by self-reporting, non-response, and variations in individual respondents' backgrounds.

8.2.1.1 Journalists survey
a. Demographics
Women comprised almost one in six respondents. They were most represented in urban
Kathmandu and the least represented in rural Baglung.
Womens representation was the highest for television and the lowest for online.
Among the respondents, about one in three was between the age of 25 and 30 years.
More than two thirds of journalists were from the Brahmin/Chhetri background, followed by
those from Newars, Madhesi/terai communities, hill janajatis and terai janajatis.
A majority of Nepali journalists have had higher education, half of them with a Bachelor's
degree and a little over a quarter with a Masters degree.
Majority of Nepali journalists worked for the daily newspapers, followed by radio. Journalists
working for the private media comprised a majority, followed by community media and
government media. Most worked full time.
Journalists working for radio were concentrated in the semi-urban cluster, followed equally
in urban and rural clusters.
More than half of the journalists had 2 to 10 years of work experience.
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b. Perceptions of media professionalism
More than one-third of Nepali journalists emphasized that their main role is to create
awareness on development issues, whereas almost a quarter stressed the need to reflect
the country's plurality and diversity in their work.
Nepali journalists considered seeking undue economic benefit or disclosing identity of
victims as lead examples of code violations. More than half of journalists considered lack of
awareness about ethics as the main reason for code violation.
The major challenges included partisan image of media professionals, lack of security from
state, partisan media houses, and individual media worker's lack of technological resources
and training.
The survey indicated that more than half of Nepali journalists believed that as news
professionals, they should be loyal to 'the public in general'.

c. Perceptions of media credibility
A majority of respondents said Nepali media and their content was generally trustworthy.
Almost half the respondents said Nepali media were not impartial.
Journalists often cited 'mediocre language presentation and style' as adversely affecting the
credibility of Nepali media.
Information in newspapers was trusted by more journalists than that in television and radio
and the Internet.
The coverage on peace and democracy was found as relaitviely more reliable by the majority
of repondents than the coverage on constitution-making, governance, and national politics.

d. Media capacities
Respondents were somewhat dissatisfied with the available training, curriculum, instruction
and practical opportunities such as in-house training and internships in the country today.
Need for capacity opportunities were highly emphasized by respondents: incentives,
mentorship, in-house training, reporting field trips, seminars, and fellowships in that order.
Story idea development, followed by information gathering and locating sources were
among the most sought-after training needs of journalists.
Advanced-level journalistic techniques, and proficiency-level techniques, followed by basic-
level techniques were most often cited needs in methods training.
In terms of resourcefulness, time-management, ICT skills, followed by critical thinking skills,
special language skills and multi-media were among the most commonly cited needs.
Many journalists preferred practical, hands-on and lecture method to other modes of
instruction.
Respondents felt that new media had helped them by enhancing access to subject matter,
and by helping contact the sources and to interact with them.
Most journalists, across cluster and sex, stated their preference for advanced level training.
Respondents generally declined to respond to training needs related questions. Of those
who responded, males and females both sought training mainly in news story idea
development, followed by information gathering.
More than two thirds of print journalists preferred training in various stages of reporting
compared to broadcast journalists, who showed interest mainly in story idea development,
information gathering, and finding sources.

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e. Media literacy
Many journalists (more than half of those surveyed) report they do not have access to new
media. Oddly enough, four-fifth of those surveyed say they could handle new media tools
efficiently, for professional work.
About four in five said they could handle new media tools for professional work.
Using new media tools, online searching, video-conferencing, creating web pages and
creating personal blogs were among the most cited new media learning interests.

8.2.1.2 Public opinion survey
a. Attributes of the public
Females comprised more than one-fourth of respondents.
Respondents were mainly young people in the age group 19 to 30 years.
Almost half comprised the public from Brahmin/Chhetri background, followed by people
from the terai/Madhesi communities, and janajatis, and Newars.
Most of the public respondents came from Kathmandu Valley and terai districts of Bara,
Parsa, Rautahat, followed by Morang and Sunsari and Banke.
Most were married.
Most among the public respondents worked in the education sector, followed by
business/industry and agriculture.

b. Perceptions of media professionalism
More than one-third of the public was not sure about the most needed topic to be covered
by the media. About one in five respondents singled out politics and current affairs as the
most needed topic for media coverage.
Unlike journalists who saw medias role more prominent in generating awareness on
development issues, the public emphasized journalists' role more vital in generating
awareness on health, education, economy and the environment.
A majority of the public concurred with journalists in stressing that journalists should be
loyal to the common people.
More than two-third of the public rejected the view that there was no dearth of skilled
journalists in Nepal.
On the view that journalism content is getting better now compared to the past, those
agreeing with the statement as somewhat true, true and very true added up to a majority.
Although the public had high perception of journalists' work as a watchdog, or as a catalyst
for social harmony, more than half rejected the statement that Nepali media was neutral.

c. Perceptions of media credibility
Most of the public relied on the radio for information and news, followed by friends and
family members, and TV.
The members of the public were divided in their channel preferences, with most opting for
TV, local FM stations, the national radio, and national dailies.
On a daily basis, most respondents watched television, listened to local FM radio, read
national daily, read local newspapers, listened to national radio station, visited Website.
Almost one-third of the surveyed public believed Nepali media presented news on public
interest, followed by those who thought it encouraged citizen participation.
The public generally did not believe that media houses encouraged citizen engagement or
participation.
The public trusted TV journalists, followed by journalists of the daily newspapers and the
radio equally. About one third of the respondents, however, could not say anything about
their credibility rating.
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The public was not sure regarding their trust in journalists by the topics they cover.
The public appeared to trust journalists working with government media more than those
working with the private media, or community media.
The public placed the media coverage on governance, national politics, and constitution-
making in the very reliable category, whereas the coverage on peace and democracy was
perceived to be not much reliable by almost half of the respondents.
The public rated the Nepali media top among the institutions it trusted the most. The
Commission for the Investigation of Abuse of Authority (CIAA), government service, and the
National Human Rights Commission (NHRC), Nepal Army equally followed the media in the
list.

d. Levels of media literacy
In terms of their access to media, most members of the public ranked the radio first,
followed by TV, newspapers and the Internet.
Two in every five people surveyed said they could read newspapers.
Nearly one half of the respondents said they were able to use mobile phones
Two in five persons said they were able to handle cameras for taking photos.
On the general Internet use, nearly one third said they had no skill in this area, but almost a
similar number said they could use it.
Self-reported media use skills of public indicate that the Nepali public is not far from being
discerning or media literate. However, in terms of analytical abilities, more than two-third
reported they only scanned their media and rarely analyzed the context of information given
to them.
A majority of the public surveyed had not produced a variety of written or audio-visual
material, had not written to newspapers or called a TV or radio station, etc.

8.2.1.3 SMS poll
a. Public trust
The public has a favorable view of media organizations and the news/analyses written or
produced by journalists. A majority of them believe that their trust in journalists has
increased over the past 3-4 years, whereas a slightly lower percentage of respondents
believe their trust in the media outlets has increased during that same time.

8.2.1.4 Focus group discussions
a. Professionalism
Respondents cited low salaries, irregular payments, ownership control, non-transparency
regarding the investment in the media sector, and insecurity as recurrent obstacles to
professionalism in media.
They noted dedication to profession and building the level of motivation as well as
projecting a good public image as the main challenges to journalists.
Participants observed that newsrooms are not female-friendly, and exclusion based on
socio-cultural factors is another area of concern for professional growth.

b. Media credibility
There were mixed views on whether people's trust on Nepali media had increased or
decreased in recent years.
People tended to trust those media that catered to their interests or curiosities.
Lack of seriousness in verification of facts was cited as one of the major challenges in
credibility standards of media.
Distortion of facts was a regular blame on media.
163

Electronic media credibility was even lower because of frequent factual inaccuracies and
violations of Code of Ethics online.

c. Media capacities
Participants viewed media capacity as an art of identifying issues and presenting them. They
emphasized media education, practices and training opportunities to enhance capacities.
They felt that media houses, training institutes and universities have been promoting
journalism through practice, trainings and studies, respectively, and wider ranges of
opportunities were opening up in formal education and training sector.
They saw new media as an informal source of education for capacity building.
They believed that international fellowships provided good opportunities for journalists to
widen their worldview and develop workmanship.

d. Media literacy
Participants viewed media literacy as an ability to use and understand media tools and
contents. They also considered it as means to understanding the various media laws, codes
and instruments affecting the media sector.
Participants felt that the state of media literacy in Nepal was poor. They emphasized that the
public needed to be discerning in their media use habits.
They observed that most of the journalists working as news desk editors are not trained, and
this in a sense also reflects media illiteracy.
As new technologies advance, there is a growing pressure on the public to learn how to use
all forms of media, suited to specific time and context.
Participants said the Internet and cellular mobile phones have not been used to their fullest
potential mainly due to technological difficulty or ignorance. A vast majority of people do
not have access to these resources.

It becomes apparent from the above discussion points that in a number of ways the profile of the
journalists emerging from this survey defies some of the traditional stereotypes of the Nepali
journalist. Today, as the survey shows, the majority of journalists are relatively young, have higher
academic degrees, and most work full time. The media and the public hold each other in high
esteem. Journalists think they must be most loyal to the general public, and the public considers the
media as the most trusted social institution. In addition, the public rates journalists among the
second most trusted vocational group, after farmers. The SMS poll results, which show that the
public's trust in the media has clearly increased in the past few years, also highlights the growing
clout of media in the country.

The overall public perception of media appears positive, with more than two-third of the public
believing that there is no dearth of skilled journalist in Nepal today. Majority of the public sees the
role of the press in the country's transition to federalism, believes journalists have less political
affiliation today, journalism content is getting better now, that media are contributing to exposing
cases of corruption, and there is more freedom today, etc. Also in the survey, almost one-third of
the public believe Nepali media presents news on public interest, followed by those who thought it
encourages citizen participation.

Journalists, on their part, may not be positive about themselves. Results of this survey suggest that
they tend to have somewhat mixed views about their satisfaction with achievement in the
profession; with over 40% saying they are somewhat dissatisfied. Their general dissatisfaction with
the available training, curriculum, instruction, practical opportunities such as in-house training and
internships underscores the need for fresh intervention or intitiative towards their capacity building.
A majority of them call for advanced and proficiency level training, incentives and support.
164

Another facet of this study is the rare insight the results offer into the state of media literacy among
the public or the news professionals. A sizable percentage of respondents in the public survey said
they were not sure about topic coverage in the media. More than two-third reported they only scan
their media and rarely analyze the context of information given to them. This suggests that the level
of media literacy among the public is rather low. It may also come as a surprise that the public
reported they trust journalists working with government media more than those working with the
private media, or community media.

Insights from stakeholders emphasize long-term and substantive measures to improve the overall
state of Nepali media. Notably, stakeholders suggested enhancing professional commitment of
journalists, improving public appreciation of their works, devising media accountability measures,
promoting vigorous self-study by professionals and in-house training, reforming working conditions,
and making media education or media literacy a public agenda.

The value of this study lies in its wealth of data, incorporating perspectives and views of the general
public on wide-ranging themes about the media. The sample size was robust enough to ensure
above 95% confidence level for genuine random sample, however, respondents' base for some
questions (identified within relevant sections of survey chapters) was very low thus making certain
results ungeralizable to general population.

For an online survey with selective print option, there is the potential for coverage error, or for non-
response or self-reporting bias. One example may relate to "media literacy". Based on literature,
media literacy was assessed in terms of access/user skills, critical understanding, and communicative
abilities. However, surveys are not effective ways to assess "the level of media literacy" of the public,
especially in assessing their "critical understanding". Self-reporting bias cannot be ruled out in the
case of the survey questions on critical viewing habits of individual media users (See Question 56,
Public Opinion Survey).

Some apparent discrepancies in the responses, for example, regarding low access to the Internet as
a source of information but a high rate of reliance on it (questions 23 and 44 in journalists' survey,
and question 54 and 34 in public survey), may owe to misreading of queries by respondents, or low
response rates. It is possible that respondents perceived "access" differently, or took it to include
access in cybercafs or public facilities, beyond home or office.

It is also likely that public responses on media use skills--generally impressive throughout the
competency level-- could be subject to self-reporting bias of respondents across clusters, sexes,
education level, etc.

With some limitations, the results of this survey offer many insights into the characters, attitudes,
behaviors, preferences, or expectations of Nepali journalists and the public at this moment in time.
Considering that the instruments used in the surveys cover a wide spectrum of professional issues
and public concerns about the media within a multi-approach framework, this study may set the
groundwork for periodic or longitudinal study of the country's media landscape so that in the future
these instruments can be refined further and change over time can be measured for more
substantive and meaningful conclusions.

165

8.2 Recommendations
The following recommendations are based on the key findings:

To the research community
Update, share and integrate the growing body of scattered literature on the topics of media
professionalism, media credibility, capacity and literacy in Nepal.
Adopt a collaborative, inclusive approach involving multiple stakeholders in order to
incorporate diverse and widest perspectives.
Continue to update existing body of relevant literature periodically, and undertake
systematic, empirical and ideally longitudinal studies so that changes over time cold be
reflected as well as more precise and substantive results on key themes like attributes of
Nepali media professional and media users/the public, professional issues, media credibility,
media capacity and media literacy can be obtained in the future.
Focus on other important capacity factors, such as in-house training, fellowships, exchange
programs, incentives, mentorship, awards, events, field visits, professional collaboration,
etc. Currently, literature on media capacity development in Nepal remains confined to
training and academic experience.
Promote and nurture actionable research, linking objectives with policy advocacy and
practical needs in the field.

To the regulatory bodies or agencies
Formulate a clear, holistic plan for media development and take measures to put the vision
in practice.
Encourage and support actionable research initiatives and activities in order to nurture and
adopt evidence-based policy making and planning in the media sector.
Make media capacity development and media literacy a public agenda; help develop
programs in those areas as well as to implement them by playing the role of a constructive
facilitator in order to address the limitations of the marketplace.
Reorient capacity development efforts with sufficient amounts of incentives, awards, and
the skill development packages, also promoting stakeholder collaboration, research and
development initiatives.
Devise a comprehensive strategy to achieve the right level of media literacy, aimed at both
media persons and the public.
Work to ensure that all the prevailing legal and official instruments relating to media,
information and communications are fully functional in the best interest of people and other
stakeholders.
Take a long-term view of media development and help to make media literacy an integral
part of school or academic curricula, and , introduce and implement teaching measures to
promote credibility and to minimize gaps between the media 'literate' and the media
'illiterates'.
Redefine the role of institutions like Press Council Nepal (PCN) in order to address the issues
of journalists' credibility and accountability, especially in the context of expanding new
media landscape and skills and competencies needs associated with it.
Help introduce and implement needs-based package of programs (such as in-house and/or
out-house media training/refresher courses, fellowship, awards, incentives etc), especially
for deserving or underprivileged media professionals.

166

To media organizations
Promote pluralistic ideologies and practices within organizations so as to gradually terminate
political partisanship for greater editorial independence.
Initiate and support need-based training, content-assessment mechanism, self-study ,
commitment to profession, and open, dynamic and inclusive newsrooms.
Provide for regular in-house training, mentoring, incentives and other opportunities to
journalists/staff members.
Find ways to improve the economic or financial status of journalists. Provide paid leave,
special reporting assignments and similar other facilities involving some financial incentives
to journalists.
Honor the growing public trust by widening the space for public participation and promote
accountability.
Enhance the representation of women, ethnicities, and other minorities in the media,
including improving of newsroom diversity.
Collaborate with policy agencies, academia, training institutions, other civil society groups,
and seek feedback from members of the public on improving work performance as well as in
exploring and introducing innovative ways in order to enhance professional standing of
journalists, improve media credibility, media capacity and media literacy in the country.

To media professionals
Focus on improving professional skills and competence through continued self-reflection,
practice, self-study and reviews.
Be conversant in professional writing, language quality, presentation, production and new
media or technology skills, and in socio-cultural-historical issues like development, plurality
and diversity.
Set high ethical and performance standards for professional growth and excellence by
means of self-regulation, constant practice, steering away from political partisanship, or
from seeking undue economic or political benefits or other lapses in journalistic code of
conduct.
Seek and explore opportunities in the area of capacity development, such as desired types of
training, fellowships, exchange programs, reporting trips, collaboration with other
professional individuals and organizations.
Take the lead in the newsroom or the field to help create a supportive environment that
encourages learning and sharing with peer groups or fellow professionals.

To the training and academic institutions
Help develop relevant, timely and needs-based curricula based on a shared understanding of
professional and capacity enhancement of journalists in the country, with real and
meaningful hands-on or practical opportunities or internships for trainees and students.
Develop curricular and learning materials at various levels of competencies and felt needs,
such as basic, proficiency, and advanced level courses as well as modes of delivery (lectures,
participatory, hands-on, etc)
Introduce, nurture and strengthen training, teaching and learning in journalistic methods
and techniques across competency levels, such as basic-level techniques of journalism (news
gathering, attribution, interviewing, writing, editing, etc), proficiency-level techniques
(research, news collection, writing, editing, production, etc), and advanced-level journalistic
techniques (research, investigative/interpretive methods, social science as well as math in
journalism, etc),
167

Keep abreast with developments in media education and training, with a focus on new
trends and innovations in information and communication technologies or new media, such
as social media, convergence, citizen journalism, and mobile journalism.
Serve as a forum to identify, explore and test new, locally relevant and useful ideas in media
development.
Besides, core editorial courses on media, offer programs on news/media entrepreneurship,
media management, critical thinking, time management, ICT as well as on history,
economics and culture, especially tailored to the needs of future Nepali journalists. This
could also include courses (degree or non-degree) on media literacy aimed exclusively at
media users.
Create greater opportunities to offer fellowships, grants and scholarships to deserving or
needy trainees or students in media education and training.
Collaborate with media industry, policy agencies, research community and civil society to
improve the overall professional standing of media and to enhance their capacity.
Periodically help to record, tract and review progress in media development as well as
career development or achievements of alumni via networking, follow-up or research.

To civil society and/or partners in media development
- Collaborate with various stakeholders with intersecting interests in media development.
- Watch the watchdogs. Monitor and evaluate media processes, events and products. Keep
constant vigil on the ways media houses offer various contents for public consumption.
- Support and foster media capacity issues in specialty areas and topics like public affairs,
economy, business, medicine, law, agriculture etc.
- Offer technical or financial support to needs-based, sustainable projects and programs in
media capacity development, beyond training, ensuring input and participation by the target
populations or beneficiaries of such programs and activities.
- Ensure effective monitoring, impact assessments and evaluation of programs and activities
undertaken in partnership with stakeholders.

To the public
- As discerning public in a democracy with a fast-changing and expanding media-landscape,
take a more pro-active approach in engaging with the media.
- Work to enhance critical competence in media use habits beyond scanning content, to also
include evaluating media processes, events and products, especially in the ways media
houses offer various contents for public consumption.
- Offer timely and relevant offline, online and on-air feedback, comments and suggestions to
media outlets in order to help improve content quality or work processes.
- When possible and needed, start public media forums, citizens media clubs, citizens
journalism projects.
- Exercise the constitutionally guaranteed rights of an engaged citizenry and, if necessary,
resort to legal means to hold the media accountable to the public.
- Collaborate with stakeholders in initiating long-term public focused media literacy programs,
in the public domain as well as in academia.

168

169

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Wilson, Carolyn; Grizzle, Alton, et al. 2011. "Media and information literacy curriculum for teachers".
Retrieved on July 21. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0019/001929/192971e.pdf

173

APPENDICES

174

175

Appendix 1: Datasheet from survey of journalists

Target Sample: 1,073
Clusters: 10
Number of journalists responding to questionnaire: 972
Forms rejected/rendered invalid: 134 (include response counts 7 or below, and above 700 for being
too few or too many and unreadable responses)
Cases accepted for analysis (N): 838

Question options and response percentages received for each option
A. DEMOGRAPHY
1. Sex
Other 0.39%
Male 81.97%
Female 17.64%

2. Age
Below 18 Years 0.62%
19-24 22.72%
25-30 35.71%
31-36 21.47%
37-42 12.86%
43-48 2.50%
49-54 2.50%
55-64 1.25%
Above 65 Years 0.37%

3. Ethnicity
Other 1.52%
Janajati (Tarai) 2.92%
Janajati (Hills) 6.98%
Tarai/Madhes/Other Group 7.23%
Dalit (Tarai) 1.14%
Dalit (Hills) 3.17%
Newar 7.49%
Bahun/Chhetri (Tarai) 14.59%
Bahun/Chhetri (Hills) 53.81%
Muslim 1.14%

4. Cluster
Other 4.08%
Okhaldhunga/Solukhumbu Area 1.97%
176

Kathmandu Valley (Kathmandu/Bhaktapur/Lalitpur Area) 30.92%
Dailekh/Pyuthan/Rukum/Salyan/Surkhet Area 6.32%
Dolakha/Ramechhap/Sindhupalchok Area 6.32%
Dhanusha/Mahottari/Saptari Area 8.42%
Banke/Bardiya/Dang Area 8.55%
Baglung/Manang/Mustang Area 1.71%
Bara/Parsa/Rautahat Area 8.29%
Butwal/Kaski/Palpa Area 14.47%
Biratnagar/Itahari/Inaruwa Area 8.95%

5. Education Level
Other Education Level 0.25%
SLC 2.01%
Grade Ten, Test or Less 0.13%
10+2 or Proficiency Level 21.08%
Bachelor's 49.69%
Master's or More 26.47%
Self-Education 0.38%

6. Major Study Area
Other 4.70%
Engineering 1.06%
Law 2.73%
Medicine 0.46%
Humanities and Social Sciences (Arts) 69.20%
Science and Technology 2.12%
Management (Commerce) 19.73%

7. Marital Status
Don't Want To Mention 0.75%
Single Woman or Man 0.50%
Divorced 0.63%
Unmarried 32.38%
Married 65.75%

B. PROFESSIONAL

8.Outlet
Online 3.24%
Other 1.99%
Television 10.96%
Daily Newspapers 42.47%
Radio 29.27%
News Agencies 1.25%
177

Weeklies/Periodicals 10.83%

9. Ownership Type
Other 1.52%
Private 69.37%
State Owned 8.73%
Community 20.38%

10. Nature of Work
Other 0.63%
Part Time 14.32%
Full Time 78.39%
Columnist 0.88%
Freelancer/Writer 5.78%

11. Years of Work
Between 1 and 2 Years 7.23%
Less than 1 Year 1.25%
11-15 Years 19.08%
16-20 Years 9.10%
2-5 Years 25.69%
21-25 Years 2.49%
26-30 Years 1.37%
31 Years or More 1.62%
6-10 Years 32.17%

12. Income from Journalism
Don't Want to Mention 7.93%
Rs. 25,001 - Rs. 50,000 5.67%
Less than Rs. 3,000 8.31%
Rs.12,001 - Rs. 25,000 22.80%
Rs. 3,001 - Rs. 6,000 21.54%
More than Rs. 50,001 0.63%
Rs. 6,001 - Rs. 12,000 33.12%

13.a Editorial Supervision
Sometimes 27.87%
Never 25.32%
Usually 20.95%
Can't Say 5.10%
Almost Always 20.77%

13.b Rewriting/Editing
Sometimes 25.67%
178

Never 12.58%
Usually 27.68%
Can't Say 2.18%

13.c Reporting
Sometimes 15.69%
Never 2.43%
Usually 25.11%
Can't Say 0.43%

13.d Scripting/Shooting
Sometimes 31.26%
Never 28.91%
Usually 16.70%
Can't Say 3.85%

13.e Anchoring
Sometimes 20.90%
Never 32.81%
Usually 10.79%
Can't Say 2.70%

13.f Translation
Sometimes 41.03%
Never 29.84%
Usually 13.05%
Can't Say 4.43%

13.g Photojournalism
Sometimes 37.75%
Never 20.51%
Usually 19.42%
Can't Say 3.45%

13.h Cartoon/Graphics
Sometimes 9.73%
Never 77.84%
Usually 2.43%
179

Can't Say 7.30%
Almost Always 2.70%

13.i Online/Blogging
Sometimes 35.39%
Never 25.51%
Usually 18.52%
Can't Say 4.73%

14.a Politics
Sometimes 31.10%
Never 5.40%
Usually 39.29%
Can't Say 0.93%

14.b Economy
Sometimes 38.66%
Never 9.03%
Usually 32.14%
Can't Say 1.89%

14.c Society/Culture
Sometimes 33.53%
Never 3.39%
Usually 41.52%
Can't Say 0.80%

14.d Science/Technology
Sometimes 42.09%
Never 4.91%
Usually 35.47%
Can't Say 1.07%

14.e Crime/Court
Sometimes 41.58%
Never 11.82%
Usually 30.85%
Can't Say 1.97%
180

14.f Disaster
Sometimes 45.86%
Never 8.05%
Usually 31.10%
Can't Say 1.79%

14.g Celebrity
Sometimes 50.00%
Never 9.78%
Usually 25.43%
Can't Say 1.30%

14.h Other Beats
Sometimes 41.10%
Never 6.85%
Usually 21.92%
Can't Say 13.24%

15. Roles of Journalists
Advocate against social discrimination 0.97%
Reflect plurality and diversity in work 23.30%
Provide platform for diaologue 10.68%
Press for government and rulers to be accountable 15.53%
Involve common people in contemporary issues 1.94%
Inform, educate and entertain common people 13.59%
Generate awareness on development issues 33.98%

16. Code Violation
Identify victims without their consent 22.37%
Intrude in private lives, including of children 5.26%
Harm national interest by publishing materials 1.32%
Use no sourcing even in normal situations 1.32%
Publish indecent or gory pictures 6.58%
Seek or take economic benefits from writing news 27.63%
Not disclose identity as journalist in collecting news 5.26%
Violate confidentiality of news sources 11.84%
Investigate private lives of public figures 17.11%
Use materials from elsewhere without attribution 1.32%

17. Hurdles to Following Ethical Practice
181

Lack of awareness about ethics 52.63%
Lack of respect to moral norms and values 5.26%
Unhealthy competition for scoop 9.21%
Lack of personal integrity and honesty 1.32%
Undermining of norms and values for personal benefit 30.26%
Lack of reaction from the concerned to wrongs by journalists 1.32%

18. Social Challenges
Threat to press freedom by non state parties 5.19%
The feeling about there being too many media 3.90%
The concept - journalists are not responsible 1.30%
The corrupt image of journalists in society 5.19%
The politically partisan image of journalists 67.53%
The image of journalists as running after sensation 16.88%

19. State Challenges
Inadequate legal reforms 4.82%
Little progress implementing press-friendly laws 13.25%
State not providing enough security to journalists 80.72%
Lack of transparency adopted by stakeholders 1.20%

20. Organisational Challenges
Concentration of media houses in capital 15.79%
Unsatisfactory pay and perks 9.21%
Media houses inclining towards a party 46.05%
Too much profit orientation of media houses 2.63%
Unsatisfactory media house management 11.84%
Illegal and non-transparent investment in media 2.63%
Lack of adequate coordination-reporting and desk 1.32%
Management interference in editorial work 5.26%
Investors focus on other business by way of media 3.95%
Little commitment to public interest news 1.32%

21. Individual Challenges
Others 2.67%
Ignoring code of conduct 1.33%
Lack of continued and adequate professional commitment 4.00%
No proper guidelines or help 2.67%
Lack of skill to covering special topic 9.33%
Journalists feeling above the law 2.67%
Lack of journalism education, training 16.00%
Lack of skill to use new media technology 13.33%
Lack of technological resources and training 42.67%
Presence of political bias 4.00%
182

Inability to pay proper attention to ABC 1.33%

22. Loyalty
Self and Self-conscience 2.25%
Those about whom the news is written or those made the subjects of news 2.25%
Listeners, viewers and readers 34.83%
Media houses 1.12%
Editors and journalist colleagues 1.12%
Common people 56.18%
Influential sources of information 2.25%

C. CREDIBILITY

23.a From Friends and Family Members
Rely sometimes 57.86%
Rely never 9.06%
Can't say 1.29%
Rely frequently 19.41%
Rely almost always 12.38%

23.b Newspaper
Rely never 3.96%
Can't say 1.20%

23.c Radio
Rely never 3.95%
Can't say 1.54%

23.d TV
Rely never 27.24%
Can't say 30.34%

23. e Internet
Rely never 3.33%
183

Can't say 0.67%

23.f Mobile
Rely never 2.58%
Can't say 0.69%

24. a Believable
Disagree 19.90%
Strongly disagree 5.62%
Strongly agree 8.51%
Can't say 8.35%
Agree 57.62%

24. b Impartial
Disagree 47.12%
Can't say 12.69%
Agree 26.52%

24.c Factual
Disagree 25.93%
Can't say 14.48%
Agree 48.99%

24. d Complete
Disagree 38.90%
Can't say 13.60%
Agree 36.32%

24.e Trustworthy
Disagree 29.31%
Can't say 13.62%
184

Agree 48.45%

24. f Attribution
Disagree 29.19%
Can't say 12.26%
Agree 48.01%

25. Production Process
Check facts and quotes 78.72%
My supervisors/editors check, edit, rewrite 1.06%
Experts review the materials 1.06%
Study background materials for context 15.96%
Get suggestions from seniors to prepare materials 3.19%

26. Trust Factors
To print or broadcast materials without research 1.45%
Mediocre language presentation and style 42.03%
Sensationalise events and subject matters 1.45%
Distort facts 4.35%
Not verify facts properly 26.09%
Exaggerate facts, events and subjet matters 1.45%
Use unidentified sources too often 2.90%
Not sensitive to audience reaction/feedback 1.45%
Use materials without historical, economic context 14.49%
Present news with personal prejudices 4.35%

27. Responsibility
Others 0.16%
Desk 2.84%
I myself 85.96%
Advertisers 0.16%
Owners of media houses 0.79%
Managers of media houses 0.47%
Editor 8.83%
Sources specified in the materials 0.79%

28. a Trust in Newspapers
Trust little 13.76%
Trust very much 12.32%
Cannot trust 0.80%
Trust not at all 1.76%
Trust 71.36%
185

28.b Trust in Newspaper
Trust little 32.28%
Cannot trust 1.99%
Trust 58.11%

28. c Trust in TV
Trust little 21.06%
Cannot trust 0.66%
Trust 65.67%

28. d Trust in Online News
Trust little 41.02%
Cannot trust 4.75%
Trust 48.14%

29. a Peace, Democracy
Somewhat not trustworthy 35.11%
Very trustworthy 5.66%
Not trustworthy at all 4.49%
Can't say 3.66%
Trustworthy 51.08%

29. b Constitution Making
Can't say 4.65%
Trustworthy 48.54%

29. c Governance
Can't say 6.11%
Trustworthy 47.99%

29. d National Politics
186

Can't say 4.84%
Trustworthy 44.46%

29. e Society/Economy
Can't say 4.19%
Trustworthy 57.77%

29.f Science, Tech and Environment
Can't sayd 7.05%
Trustworthy 50.97%

D. CAPACITY

30. Education Opportunity
Other 20.16%
Bachelor's in Journalism 27.42%
Master's in Journalism 19.35%
Journalism in 10+2 27.82%
Journalism in High School 5.24%

31.a Basic Training
Between more than 1 and up to 6 months 16.52%
Less than a week 36.77%
From 1 week to 1 month 37.48%
More than 6 months 5.33%
Not participated 3.91%

31.b Special Training

31. c Fellowship
187


31. d Exchange program

31. e Internship

31. f Seminar

32. Training Location
International level 7.37%
Others 1.75%
In-House Program 10.88%
National Level 21.75%
Local and Regional Level 58.25%

33. a Satisfaction from Training
Somewhat dissatisfied 46.68%
Very dissatisfied 12.90%
Very satisfied 1.71%
Can't Say 2.28%
Satisfied 36.43%

33.b Curriculum Satisfaction
188

Can't Say 4.93%
Satisfied 37.44%

33. c Material Satisfaction
Can't Say 2.95%
Satisfied 30.16%

33. d Instructor Satisfaction
Can't Say 2.25%
Satisfied 43.69%

33. e Interns Satisfaction
Can't Say 7.64%
Satisfied 26.39%

33. f Trainee Satisfaction
Can't Say 7.23%
Satisfied 27.27%

34. Professional Development
Has helped some 28.80%
Has helped a lot 29.15%
Can't say 0.71%
Has helped 38.52%
Hasn't helped 2.83%

35.a Fellowship Need
Is necessary 47.60%
Is not necessary 2.74%
Is necessary to some extent 19.01%
is very necessary 29.45%
189

Can't say 1.20%

35. b Exchange Need
Is necessary 54.73%
Can't say 0.69%

35. c Award Need
Is necessary 45.52%
Can't say 1.21%

35.d Incentive Need
Is necessary 30.91%
Can't say 0.33%

35. e Mentorship Need
Is necessary 48.34%
Can't say 0.35%

35.f In House Training Need
Is necessary 50.43%
Can't say 0.17%

35. g Seminar Need
Is necessary 51.65%
Can't say 0.87%

190

35. h Festival Need
Is necessary 42.70%
Can't say 0.89%

35. i Field Visits Need
Is necessary 44.43%
Can't say 0.34%

36. Reporting Training Need
Other 2.00%
Production (Proof, sound etc) 1.00%
Preparing draft, writing, rewriting 3.00%
Editing texts, graphics, audiovisuals 10.00%
Developing news story concepts 42.00%
Information gathering/recording 22.00%
Finding sources (documents, people) 20.00%

37. Method Training Need
Special techniques of interviewing 2.50%
Others 1.25%
Advanced techniques (research, investigative) 33.75%
Basic techniques of journalism 18.75%
Proficiency level techniques (research etc) 25.00%
Language and presentation 1.25%
Special story techniques 3.75%
Special media editing skills 7.50%
Special topic/beat 5.00%
Familiarity with the big picture 1.25%

38. Resourcefulness Need
Sensitivity to values and ethics of journalism 3.85%
Special language skills 10.26%
Convergence, multi-media platform skills 8.97%
Sensitivity to inclusion and diversity 3.85%
Handling emotions in disasters, trauma etc 1.28%
Time management 29.49%
Critical thinking skills 17.95%
ICT skills 24.36%
191

39. Training Mode
Discussions, deliberations 7.32%
Distance learning 3.66%
Practical, hands-on 71.95%
Lecture or explanation 14.63%
Professional network, collaboration 2.44%

40. Training Level
Others 1.09%
Basic (1-3 months) 10.87%
Advanced (More than 3 months) 72.10%
Proficiency (1-3 months) 10.87%
Preliminary (1 month) 5.07%

41. Ease of Training Location
Others 0.45%
Internal (in-house) 17.86%
Own village or city 9.38%
Regional centre 8.04%
District headquarters 20.54%
Capital 29.46%
Foreign country 14.29%

42. Suitability of Instructor
International media instructors 18.55%
Senior colleagues in media house 16.13%
Active journalists not of your media 16.94%
Instructors using your native tongue 1.61%
Instructors with journalism degree 6.45%
Instructors trained as trainers 6.45%
Topic/subject specialists 33.87%

43. Training Option
Others 0.48%
I will pay training cost 7.75%
I will need media house/external support to pay for training 75.30%
I will need other non-financial support such as leave 16.46%

44. Access to Resources
Audio-video recorder 1.25%
Online resources 1.25%
Office computer 25.00%
Access to Internet 3.75%
192

Library and reference materials 1.25%
Mobile phone 11.25%
Personal computer (laptop etc) 56.25%

45. Gains from New Media
By enhancing speed, efficiency of work 6.06%
Enabling work from any location 7.07%
Helping share articles 5.05%
Enhancing access to subject matter 48.48%
Helping create professional contacts 3.03%
Helping contact, interact with sources 17.17%
Helping increase access to sources 13.13%

46. Why no New Media
Others 3.45%
I don't want lose my privacy 10.34%
I don't have the skill to use new media 8.87%
I don't have the access to new media 53.20%
I don't find the technology easy 9.36%
I don't have time to use the new media 14.78%

47. Affiliation with Organisations at Home/Abroad
Both 6.84%
None of the above 8.24%
Foreign 2.33%
At Home 82.58%

48. Gains from Affiliation
Others 1.89%
Opportunity for training etc 4.40%
Increased professional identity 23.27%
Brought honour to my work 11.95%
Increased access to resources 6.29%
Opportunity to expand network 52.20%

49. Gains from Political Affiliation
Yes, it does 17.44%
No, it does not 64.16%
Can't say 18.40%

50. Why Political Affiliation
Thanks to relations with particular leader 1.00%
Can't say 6.00%
To increase access to political info and sources 20.00%
193

To receive political favour/protection 6.00%
Due to the background of political participation 4.00%
Due to personal belief or principles 60.00%
To remain in the power loop 3.00%

51. Other Income
Don't want to say 5.60%
Yes, I do 31.16%
No, I don't 63.24%

52. Other Work
Other 3.40%
Civil society 11.65%
Private sector 73.30%
Public/govt sector 11.65%

53. Gains from Other Work
Helped somewhat 37.24%
Helped a lot 45.52%
Can't say 7.59%
Hasn't helped 9.66%

54. Professional Satisfaction
Can't say 2.03%
Satisfied 38.65%
Not satisfied 13.93%

E. LITERACY
55. Media Skills
Others 1.35%
Use tools needed for professional work 79.73%
Search quality information in the Internet 6.76%
Do video-conferencing 1.35%
Send emails with attachments 1.35%
Create personal blogs 1.35%
Create a database for making news 1.35%
Use social media such as Facebook 6.76%

56. Learning Interest
Others 3.95%
Use software needed for your work 2.63%
Use tools needed for your work 21.05%
194

Search quality information in the Internet 19.74%
Podcast via the Internet 1.32%
Videostreaming in the Internet 1.32%
Videoconferencing in the Internet 15.79%
Send emails with attachments 1.32%
Create web pages 13.16%
Create personal blogs 10.53%
Use Internet for researching stories 2.63%
Create own database for news stories 3.95%
Collaborate with friends online 1.32%
Use social media like Facebook 1.32%

195

Appendix 2: Datasheet from public opinion survey

Target Sample: 2,418
Clusters: 10
Number of the public responding to questionnaire: 2,466
Forms rejected/rendered invalid: 213 (include repeat responses, duplicates, and unreadable
responses)
Cases accepted for analysis (N): 2,253

Question options and response percentages received for each option
A. DEMOGRAPHY
1.SEX Respondents Percentage (n)
Other 21 0.98%
Male 1482 69.38%
Female 633 29.63% 2136
Blanks 115

2. AGE
Below 18 Years 209 9.75%
19-24 509 23.75%
25-30 451 21.05%
31-36 331 15.45%
37-42 265 12.37%
43-48 174 8.12%
49-54 98 4.57%
55-64 82 3.83%
Above 65 Years 24 1.12% 2143
Blanks 110

3. Ethnicity
Other 12 0.57%
Janajati (Tarai) 204 9.64%
Janajati (Pahad) 207 9.78%
Tarai/Madhes/Other Group 244 11.53%
Dalit (Tarai) 94 4.44%
Dalit (Pahad) 43 2.03%
Newar 204 9.64%
Bahun/Chhetri (Tarai) 393 18.57%
Bahun/Chhetri (Pahad) 615 29.06%
Muslim 100 4.73% 2116
Blanks 137 6.47%

4. Cluster
196

Other 37 1.76%
Okhaldhunga/Solukhumbu Area 48 2.28%
Kathmandu Valley (Kathmandu,
Bhaktapur, Lalitpur Area)
356 16.92%
Dailekh/Pyuthan/Rukum/Salyan/Sur
khet Area
25 1.19%
Dolakha/Ramechhap/Sindhupalchok
Area
141 6.70%
Dhanusha/Mahottari/Saptari Area 275 13.07%
Banke/Bardiya/Dang Area 282 13.40%
Baglung/Manang/Mustang Area 48 2.28%
Bara/Parsa/Rautahat Area 353 16.78%
Butwal/Kaski/Palpa Area 235 11.17%
Biratnagar/Itahari/Inaruwa Area 304 14.45% 2104
Blanks 149 7.08%

5. Marital Status
Don't Want To Mention 12 0.57%
Single Woman or Man 47 2.23%
Divorced 24 1.14%
Unmarried 786 37.29%
Married 1239 58.78% 2108
Blanks 145 6.88%

6. Education Level
Other Education Level 36 1.83%
SLC 298 15.17%
Grade Ten, Test or Less 301 15.33%
10+2 or Proficiency Level 449 22.86%
Bachelor's 576 29.33%
Master's or More 259 13.19%
Self-Education 45 2.29% 1964
Blanks 289

7. Occupation
Other 207 10.83%
Engineering 53 2.77%
Law 39 2.04%
Agriculture 377 19.72%
Accounts 78 4.08%
Business/Industry 399 20.87%
Education 506 26.46%
Communication 191 9.99%
Health 62 3.24% 1912
Blanks 341
197

8. Channel Reliance for Information
Other 1 0.27%
Internet 55 14.99%
TV 67 18.26%
Newspapers 43 11.72%
Mobile Phone 18 4.90%
Radio 99 26.98%
Friends, family members 84 22.89% 367
Blanks 1886

9. Radio Listening Habit
No, I don't 525 25.85%
Yes, I do 1506 74.15%
Blanks 222 2031

10. Radio Listening Frequency
Daily 789 46.74%
Twice a month 157 9.30%
Can't say 125 7.41%
Once or twice a week 240 14.22%
Three or four times a week 377 22.33% 1688
Blanks 565

11. Trust on Radio
Trust little 305 17.93%
Trust to some extent 757 44.50%
Trust almost nothing 80 4.70%
Can't say 112 6.58%
Trust all or most 447 26.28% 1701
Blanks 552

12. Reason for Trust on Radio
Other 29
Are complete 67
Are impartial 200
believable (patyarlagada) 506
Relevant to me 139
Use expert sources and materials 91
Are trustworthy 202
Factual 301
Blanks

13. Local FM Listening Habit
198

No, I don't 207 10.01%
Yes, I do 1861 89.99% 2068
Blanks 185

14. Local FM listening frequency
Daily 1194 61.99%
Can't say 85 4.41%
Blanks 327

15. Level of Trust on FM Info
Little 361 18.80%
To some extent 900 46.88%
Almost nothing 97 5.05%
Can't say 108 5.63%
All or most 454 23.65% 1920
Blanks 333

16. Reason for FM Trust Level
Other 27 1.55%
Are complete 78 4.47%
Are impartial 247 14.15%
Believable (patyarlagada) 564 32.30%
Relevant to me 226 12.94%
Use expert sources and materials 60 3.44%
Are trustworthy 202 11.57%
Factual 342 19.59% 1746
Blanks 507

17. TV Viewing Habit
No, I don't 175 8.31%
Yes, I do 1930 91.69% 2105
Blanks 148

18. TV Viewing Frequency
Daily 1230 63.73%
Can't say 40 2.07%
Blanks 323

199

19. Trust on TV
Little 306 15.64%
Can't say 72 3.68%
All or most 733 37.46% 1957
Blanks 296

20. Reason for Trust on TV
Other 24 1.32%
are complete 111 6.10%
are impartial 310 17.04%
believable (patyarlagada) 425 23.36%
relevant to me 179 9.84%
use expert sources and materials 111 6.10%
are trustworthy 238 13.08%
factual 421 23.14% 1819
blanks 434

21. National Newspaper Reading
Habit

No, I don't 382 18.33%
Yes, I do 1702 81.67% 2084
Blanks 169

22. Newspaper Reading Frequency
Daily 1045 59.65%
Can't say 50 2.85%
Blanks 501

23. Trust on Newspaper
Little 281 16.07%
Can't say 75 4.29%
All or most 527 30.13% 1749
Blanks 504

24. Reason for Trust on Newspaper
Other 20 1.21%
200

factual 358 21.66% 1653
blanks 600

25. Local Newspaper Reading Habit
No, I don't 483 23.68%
Yes, I do 1557 76.32% 2040
Blanks 213

26. Local Newspaper Reading
Frequency

Daily 881 52.98%
Can't say 87 5.23%
Blanks 590

27. Level of Trust on Local
Newspaper

Little 369 22.85%
Can't say 97 6.01%
All or most 325 20.12% 1615
Blanks 638

28. Reason for Trust on Local
Newspaper

Other 31 2.05%
factual 294 19.44% 1512
blanks 741

29. Weekly Paper Reading Habit
No, I don't 566 28.26%
Yes, I do 1437 71.74% 2003
201

Blanks 250

30. Weekly Paper Reading
Frequency

Sometimes 806 53.06%
Usually 499 32.85%
Rarely 157 10.34%
Can't say 57 3.75% 1519
Blanks 734

31. Level of Trust on Weekly Paper
Little 423 28.03%
Can't say 81 5.37%
All or most 194 12.86% 1509
Blanks 744

32. Reason for Trust on Weekly
Paper

Other 35 2.51%
factual 224 16.09% 1392
blanks 861

33. Websites Visiting Habit
No, I don't 787 39.85%
Yes, I do 1188 60.15% 1975
Blanks 278

34. Website Visiting Frequency
Daily 526 39.70%
Can't say 128 9.66%
Blanks 928

35. Level of Trust on Website
Little 230 17.48%
202

Can't say 121 9.19%
All or most 296 22.49% 1316
Blanks 937

36. Reason for Trust on Website
Other 43 3.56%
factual 200 16.56% 1208
blanks 1045

37. Channel Preference
None 44 10.30%
TV 158 37.00%
National Dailies 51 11.94%
National Radio 56 13.11%
Website 34 7.96%
Weekly, Fortnightly and Other
Periodicals
10 2.34%
Local FM Radio 62 14.52%
Local Daily Newspaper 12 2.81% 427
Blanks 1826

38. Agree most with statements
Nepali media encourage citizen
participation (letter to editor etc)
39 19.40%
Nepali media use expert source and
materials
4 1.99%
Present news on public interest 63 31.34%
Journalists are honest and are not
corrupt
12 5.97%
National media give as much priority
to local news as they give the
national news
22 10.95%
Media houses are honest and are
not corrupt
7 3.48%
News materials are unbiased 5 2.49%
News materials are just 5 2.49%
News materials are trustworthy 7 3.48%
News materials are factual 9 4.48%
203

Local media give as much priority to
national news as they give the local
news
28 13.93% 201
Blanks 2052

39. Agree most with statements on
media houses

try to understand audience feedback
on quality of news
27 6.72%
try to understand audience feedback
on cultural diversity
22 5.47%
none 199 49.50%
try to be responsible 16 3.98%
try to know more about audiences
(surveys)
59 14.68%
adopt ways to involve audiences
(direct phone call, etc)
61 15.17%
try to be transparent 15 3.73%
media monitors and community
organisations reguarly
evaluate/monitor media
3 0.75% 402
blanks 1851

40. Trust on Journalist by Channel
Online media (Internet) 34 7.56%
Other 7 1.56%
TV 107 23.78%
Daily newspapers 76 16.89%
Can't say 137 30.44%
Radio 76 16.89%
Weeky, Fortnightly and Other
periodicals
13 2.89% 450
Blanks 1803

41. Trust on Jouranlist by Base
Other 4 0.72%
Nepali journalists stationed in local
area
117 20.97%
Nepali journalists stationed in
district, zone and region
90 16.13%
Can't say 252 45.16%
Nepali journalists working from
capital
55 9.86%
Nepali journalists working from
foreign countries
40 7.17% 558
Blanks 1695

204

42. Trust on Journalist by Topic
Court, crime 24 6.56%
Other 6 1.64%
Economy, business 27 7.38%
Can't say 162 44.26%
Politics, current affairs 51 13.93%
Science, technology, etc 33 9.02%
Conflict, disasters 16 4.37%
Social and cultural issues 36 9.84%
Celebrity 11 3.01% 366
Blanks 1887

43. Trust on Journalist by Media
Ownership

Other 13 0.64%
None 91 4.50%
Private Media 585 28.92%
Government Media 796 39.35%
Community Media 538 26.59% 2023
Blanks 230

44. Level of Trust by Beat
44.a Peace and Democracy
Not much reliable 887 45.75%
Reliable 114 5.88%
Very reliable 147 7.58%
Can't say 208 10.73%
Not reliable at all 583 30.07% 1939
Blanks 314

44.b Constitution
Not much reliable 569 30.74%
Reliable 221 11.94%
Very reliable 671 36.25%
Can't say 204 11.02%
Not reliable at all 186 10.05% 1851
Blanks 402

44.c Governance
Not much reliable 554
Reliable 256
Very reliable 653
Can't say 117
Not reliable at all 192
205

Blanks 421

44.d National Politics
Not much reliable 542
Reliable 216
Very reliable 667
Can't say 247
Not reliable at all 113
Blanks 448

45. Trust by Institution
CIAA 28 13.08%
Court 39 18.22%
Other 17 7.94%
EC 10 4.67%
Nepal Police 5 2.34%
Nepal government 2 0.93%
Nepal Army 18 8.41%
Media 41 19.16%
National Treasury (NRB) 8 3.74%
NHRC 18 8.41%
Government service 28 13.08% 214
Blanks 2039

46. Trust by Occupation
Other 13 6.25%
Engineer 3 1.44%
College, university teacher 4 1.92%
Farmer 48 23.08%
NGO worker 9 4.33%
Astrologer 6 2.88%
Contractor 2 0.96%
Doctor 14 6.73%
Shaman (Jhankri) 3 1.44%
Nurse 9 4.33%
Journalist 31 14.90%
Tourism Professional 2 0.96%
Police 2 0.96%
Banker 3 1.44%
Political Leader 2 0.96%
Accountant 1 0.48%
Lawyer 6 2.88%
School Teacher 10 4.81%
206

Businessmen 3 1.44%
Stock Broker 3 1.44%
Researcher 4 1.92%
Government Officer 13 6.25%
Parliament Member 3 1.44%
IT Professional 2 0.96%
Army Personnel 12 5.77% 208
Blanks 2045

47. Frequently Covered Topics
Other 2 0.72%
Can't say 112 40.29%
Blanks 1975

48. Needed Topics
Other 6 2.86%
Can't say 73 34.76%
Blanks 2043

49. Professional Roles
Advocate against social evils such as
discrimination
15 12.20%
Other 16 13.01%
Reflect plurality and diversity of the
nation in work
14 11.38%
Help dialogue among various actors
of the society
9 7.32%
Press the government and ruler to
be responsible
17 13.82%
Involve common people in the
important contemporary topic
14 11.38%
207

Inform, educate and entertain the
common people
18 14.63%
Generate awareness on health,
education, economy, environment
etc
20 16.26% 123
Blanks 2130

50. Loyalty
Other 7 4.46%
Other journalist or friends 17 10.83%
Self and self-conscience 19 12.10%
Those about whom news is written
or made the topic of news
10 6.37%
Political parties 4 2.55%
Advertisers 7 4.46%
Listeners, viewers and readers 12 7.64%
Managers of media houses 3 1.91%
Media houses 7 4.46%
Common people 68 43.31%
Influential sources of information 3 1.91% 157
Blanks 2096

51. How True Statement
51. a No Dearth of Skilled Journalists
Somewhat true 215 11.49%
Very true 87 4.65%
Can't say 91 4.86%
True 206 11.01%
False 1272 67.99% 1871
Blanks 382

51. b Role in Transition
Very true 129 7.04%
Can't say 176 9.60%
True 604 32.95%
False 303 16.53% 1833
Blanks 420

51. c Less Political Affiliation Now
Very true 82 4.55%
Can't say 209 11.60%
True 401 22.25%
False 603 33.46% 1802
208

Blanks 451

51. d Journalism Content Getting
Better

Very true 145 8.12%
Can't say 140 7.84%
True 675 37.82%
False 216 12.10% 1785
Blanks 468

51. e Anti-Corruption Role
Very true 158 8.84%
Can't say 149 8.34%
True 537 30.05%
False 291 16.28% 1787
Blanks 466

51. f More Freedom
Somewhat true 455 25.74% 507
Very true 107 6.05% 82
Can't say 155 8.77% 209
True 430 24.32% 401
False 621 35.12% 603
Blanks 485 451

1768

51. g FM Expansion
Very true 272 15.53%
Can't say 150 8.56%
True 768 43.84%
False 182 10.39% 1752
Blanks 501

51.h Desirable Profession
Very true 117 6.69%
Can't say 236 13.50%
True 531 30.38%
False 353 20.19% 1748
Blanks 505

209

51. I Inclusive Media
Can't say 146 8.33%
True 625 35.65%
False 204 11.64% 1753
Blanks 500

52. How true statements
52. a Journalists are politically
neutral

Somewhat true 461
Very true 41
Can't say 176
True 181
False 984
Blanks 401

52. b Journalists pay attention to
ABC

Very true 75 4.21%
Can't say 176 9.88%
True 420 23.58%
False 318 17.86% 1781
Blanks 472

52. c Journalists do not circulate
rumours

Very true 90 5.06%
Can't say 168 9.44%
True 466 26.18%
False 416 23.37% 1780
Blanks 473

52. d Journalists present impartial
news

Very true 128 7.22%
Can't say 152 8.57%
True 571 32.21%
False 260 14.66% 1773
Blanks 480

210

52. e Journalists work in the public
interest

Very true 157 9.00%
Can't say 150 8.60%
True 624 35.78%
False 185 10.61% 1744
Blanks 509

52. f Journalists do not fear being vocal critic of government
Can't say 131 7.58%
True 652 37.71%
False 200 11.57% 1729
Blanks 524

52. g Journalists help social (ethnic, religious)
harmony

Can't say 139 7.97%
True 658 37.71%
False 183 10.49% 1745
Blanks 508

52. h Journalists are helping in the country's development
Can't say 169 9.62%
True 664 37.79%
False 177 10.07% 1757
Blanks 496

53. Hurdles to journalists in following code of
conduct

Other 16 13.11%
Lack of awareness on code of conduct 16 13.11%
Poor work conditions, such as lack of security 10 8.20%
Lack of respect to moral norms and values 19 15.57%
211

Lack of incentives to doing good work 7 5.74%
Unhealthy competition for presentation of scoops 7 5.74%
Lack of personal honesty and integrity 10 8.20%
Disrespect for norms and values for personal
benefits
15 12.30%
Media houses not giving attention to moral
concerns
9 7.38%
Editor, publisher being involved in activities
against code of conduct
7 5.74%
Concerned agencies not objecting to the wrongs
by journalists
6 4.92% 122
Blanks 2131

54. Access to resources
Audio recorder 2 0.62%
Other 4 1.24%
Internet 29 8.98%
Computer 3 0.93%
None 27 8.36%
Camera 6 1.86%
TV 70 21.67%
Newspapers 44 13.62%
Video recorder 2 0.62%
Mobile phone (for communciation) 27 8.36%
Radio 106 32.82%
CD, VCD, DVD 3 0.93% 323
Blanks 1930

55. Skill to do things
55.a Read newspapers (print)
Can do a little bit 231 12.69%
Can do very well 542 29.76%
Can't say 20 1.10%
Can do 759 41.68%
Can't do 269 14.77% 1821
Blanks 432

55. b Read newspapers online
Can't say 51 2.91%
Can do 538 30.71%
Can't do 538 30.71% 1752
Blanks 501

212

55.c Use mobile phone
Can't say 13 0.73%
Can do 835 46.91%
Can't do 148 8.31% 1780
Blanks 473

55.d Take pictures with a camera
Can't say 32 1.83%
Can do 760 43.48%
Can't do 305 17.45% 1748
Blanks 505

55. e Record video
Can't say 47 2.72%
Can do 633 36.59%
Can't do 451 26.07% 1730
Blanks 523

55. f Use the Internet
Can't say 47 2.71%
Can do 531 30.59%
Can't do 551 31.74% 1736
Blanks 517

55.g Type words on computer
Can't say 37 2.14%
Can do 551 31.79%
Can't do 561 32.37% 1733
Blanks 520

55.h Use email
213

Can't say 47 2.72%
Can do 493 28.56%
Can't do 614 35.57% 1726
Blanks 527

55. I Send email with attachment
Can't say 58 3.38%
Can do 427 24.88%
Can't do 673 39.22% 1716
Blanks 537

55. j Chat online
Can't say 50 2.95%
Can do 467 27.57%
Can't do 599 35.36% 1694
Blanks 559

55. k Make phone calls using the Internet (such as
Skype)

Can't say 197 11.53%
Can do 418 24.46%
Can't do 600 35.11% 1709
Blanks 544

55. l Play computer/video games
Can't say 197 11.64%
Can do 341 20.15%
Can't do 178 10.52% 1692
Blanks 561

55. m Use presentation software (PowerPoint, SlideRocket)
effectively

Can't say 148 8.84%
Can do 295 17.61%
214

Can't do 261 15.58% 1675
Blanks 578

55. n Create webpages and private blogs
Can't say 79 4.71%
Can do 298 17.77%
Can't do 298 17.77% 1677
Blanks 576

55. o Link private blogs with social media like Facebook and
Twitter

Can't say 129 7.82%
Can do 254 15.40%
Can't do 271 16.43% 1649
Blanks 604

55. p Other

56. Which do you do often while reading newspapers, watching TV and listening to radio?
I just scan through them 135 63.98%
I analyse the context of information given by
them
13 6.16%
I try to understand what kind of materials are
there in them to lure me
5 2.37%
I distinguish between factual and fictitious
materials
5 2.37%
I look for and consider whether the media are
exaggerating, distorting facts
5 2.37%
I try to understand if the presentation is an
advertisment
6 2.84%
I try to find if there is the interest of the media
house in the content of the media
5 2.37%
I do not care who produced the news materials 5 2.37%
I try to look at what political and social messages
they materials give
9 4.27%
I seriously consider whether the content is good
for me or not
3 1.42%
I consider whether the information has more than
one interpretation
1 0.47%
I try to find out who the information is aimed at 2 0.95%
I begin to question on the information material if
I find it deficient
0 0.00%
I archive and preserve materials for further 0 0.00%
215

review later
Other 17 8.06% 211
Blanks 2042

57. How often have you done these?
57. a I have prepared various written texts for my personal and professional
use

Never 759 44.26%
Frequently 67 3.91%
Usually 116 6.76%
Can't say 64 3.73% 1715
538

57. b I have prepared various audiovisual materials for my personal and professional use
Never 740 45.23%
Frequently 109 6.66%
Usually 132 8.07%
Can't say 76 4.65% 1636
Blanks 617

57. c I have sent feedback to newspapers in the letter to editor columns
Never 813 49.57%
Frequently 96 5.85%
Usually 97 5.91%
Can't say 34 2.07% 1640
Blanks 613

57. d I have sent feedback to radio and television
Never 834 51.45%
Usually 87 5.37%
Can't say 62 3.82% 1621
Blanks 632

57. e I have published comments and posts on
the blogs

Never 895 55.73%
Usually 124 7.72%
Can't say 77 4.79% 1606
216

Blanks 647

57. f I have used social media network such as Facebook and Twitter and posted materials
on them
Never 745 45.62%
Frequently 91 5.57%
Usually 189 11.57%
Can't say 181 11.08% 1633
Blanks 620

57. g I have collaborated with others online (such as in
creating wiki)

Never 925 59.07%
Usually 107 6.83%
Can't say 59 3.77% 1566
Blanks 687

217

Appendix 3: Journalists' survey questionnaire in English

Nepal Journalists Survey 2012

Media Foundation-Nepal, with support from UNDP, is conducting a survey on the issues relating to
professional development of Nepali journalists. Your responses will be helpful in exploring and
creating meaningful opportunities for journalists.

This survey takes approximately 35 minutes to complete. Your participation is entirely voluntary. Your
information will be kept confidential.

Please leave your email address at the end of this survey; the findings of the survey will be shared
with you through the same email.

Please mark the boxes clearly with

DEMOGRAPHY

1. Sex
Female
Male
Other

2. Age
18 years or less
19-24
25-30
31-36
37-42
43-48
49-54
55 or above

3. Ethnicity
Brahmin/Chhetri (Hill)
Brahmin/Chhetri (Terai)
Terai/Madhesi Other Castes
Dalit (Hill)
Dalit (Terai)
Newar
Janajati (Hill)
Janajati (Terai)
Muslim
Others (please specify)

4. Your work station
BaglungManangMustang area
BankeBardiyaDang area
BaraPrasaRautahat area
ButwalKaskiPalpa area
DailekhPyuthanRukumSalyan-
Surkhet area
DhanushaMahottariSaptari area
DolakhaRamechhapSindhupalchowk
area
BiratnagarInaruwaItahari area
Kathmandu Valley (Bhaktapur
KathmanduLalitpur area)
OkhaldhungaSolukhumbu area
Other area

5. Education level (choose the most recent one)
Grade 10 or less High School (SLC)

218

10+2 or Intermediate
Bachelor's level
Master's and above
Other academic degree
No academic degree (self-education)

6. Your major area of study, if you have attained a college or university degree (choose only one)
Humanities and social sciences (Arts)
Business/management (Commerce)
Science and technology
Medicine
Engineering
Agriculture and animal science
Forestry
Other

7. Marital status
Single (haven't married)
Married
Divorced
Widowed
No disclosure

PROFESSIONAL DETAILS

8. What news outlet do you mostly work for? (Please, choose only one)
Daily print media
Weekly print media or other periodicals
Radio
Television
Online
News Agency
Other (please specify)
9. What is the type of your news organization?
State-owned
Private
Community

10. What is the nature of your work?
Full time staff
Part time staff
Freelance journalist/contributor
Columnist

11. How long have you been working as a journalist?
Less than a year
1 to 2 years
2 to 5 years
6 to 10 years
11 to 15 years
16 to 20 years
21 to 25 years
26 to 30 years
30 or more years

12. What is your average monthly income as a journalist?
Under NRs. 3000
NRs. 3001 to NRs. 6000
NRs. 6001 to NRs. 12000
NRs. 12001 to NRs. 25,000
NRs. 25,001 to NRs. 50,000
Above 50,000
Dont want to say

13. How often do you do the following works these days?

1=
Never
2=
Occasionally
3=
Frequently
4=
Almost
always
5=
Can't
say

219

Editorial supervision

Copy writing or editing

Reporting

Scripting/shooting/camera work

Anchoring/News reading

Translation (English to Nepali; Nepali
to English or other ethnic languages
of Nepal)

Photojournalism

Creating graphics or cartoons

Online content creation/blogging

14. If you are a reporter, how often do you cover the following beats? (If you are not a reporter, please
go to the next question)
1=
Never
2=
Occasionally
3=
Frequently
4=
Almost
always
5=
Can't
say
Politics, government and current
affairs

Economy and business
Science, technology, environment,
education health

Court, crime and violence
Crises, disaster, conflict, traumatic
situations

Celebrity, arts and media; lifestyle,
sports
Others

15. Which, among the following, are the most important roles for journalists? (Please choose only
three)
Reflect plurality and diversity of the country in their works
Create awareness on health, education, economy, environment, the development process, etc
Serve as a forum for dialogue among various actors of society
Hold the government and rulers accountable
Advocate against social ills like superstition, social discrimination
Inform, educate and entertain the public
Engage the public in important issues of the day to bring about positive change in their lives

16. Which of the following do you consider the most common violation of Code of Conduct by
journalists? (Please choose only three)
Disclosing identity of subjects at risk (rape victims, people in trauma) without their consent
Disclosing confidential sources of news
Investigating personal lives of public figures
Not indentifying yourself as a journalist during reporting
Seeking or obtaining political or economic favor for writing stories
Encroaching upon privacy of ordinary people, including minors
Publishing gruesome or obscene images, etc.
Publishing scandalous or libelous materials (character assassination)
Using materials from other sources without attribution, citation
Using hidden cameras, audio-recorders to report stories
220

Photographing, interviewing children without parental consent
Publishing parts of emails/SMS of ordinary public
Using anonymous sources in a story even without special circumstance
Encouraging violence, terrorism and crime in reporting stories
Publishing materials that undermine national interest or integrity
Being insensitive to communal harmony
Holding court in contempt

17. What are the key hindrances in maintaining adherence to Code of Conduct in Nepali journalism?
(Please choose only three)
Lack of awareness among journalists on Code of Conduct
Ignoring norms and values for the sake of personal gains
Lack of respect for ethical norms and values
Unhealthy competition among journalists to get scoops
Lack of personal honesty and integrity
Media houses themselves being less concerned about ethical concerns
Editors and Publishers themselves being engaged in activities breaching the Code
Non-reaction from the concerned against the wrongs done by journalists
Other

18. Which of the following are the most serious social challenges for Nepali journalists? (Please
choose only three)
Social/public perception that journalists are politically biased
Perception that journalists sensationalize issues
Social/public perception that journalists are corrupt
Perception that journalists are not responsible towards people and society
Threat to press freedom by individuals and non-state social actors
The perception that there are too many news outlets or media in the country
Other (please specify) :

19. Which of the following are the most serious challenges to Nepali journalists today at the level of
state or the law? (Please, choose only three)
Inadequate security to journalists from the state
Inadequate legal reforms
Little progress in enforcing press-friendly laws
Continued government interference in journalists' work
Lack of transparency on part of various stakeholders

20. Which of the following are the most serious challenges to Nepali journalists, at the organizational
level? (Please, choose only three)
Politically partisan and biased media houses
Concentration of media houses in the Capital
Unfair management practices within the media
Illegal and non-transparent sources of investment in publishing houses
Investors using media as a tool to promote other businesses,
Management interference with editorial works
Media houses being profit-motivated
Media owners' conflicts of interest
Low salaries, wages for journalists and delayed payments
Inadequate resources within media houses
Unfair competition among media houses
Lack of diversity (inclusiveness) in newsrooms
Weak coordination between Reporters and News Desk
Little commitment to public interest information

21. At the individual level, which of the following are the most serious challenges to journalists
today? (Please choose only three)

221

Lack of technical resources
Lack of technical knowhow and New Media skills
Lack of skills to cover specialized topics or issues
Lack of journalism education/training
Lack of proper institutional guidance or support to journalists
Lack of commitment to journalism as a profession
Lack of attention towards Journalists Code of Conduct
Political bias or partisanship
Journalists tendency to hold themselves above rules and regulations
Lack of respect for factual accuracy, truthfulness, fairness and balance in reporting
Other (please specify):

22. Which of the following should journalists be more responsible towards? (Please choose only three)
The public in general
The audience/readers
One's own conscience
The media owners and managers
Editors or colleagues in media
The advertisers
The people one covers
The influential sources of information
Other (please specify):

CREDIBILITY

23. As a consumer of media, how often do you rely on the following for your daily news?

24. To what extent do you agree with the following statements?

1=
Strongly
disagree
2=
Disagree
3=
Agree
4=
Strongly
agree
5=
Can't
say
What I read, hear or see in Nepali media
are credible.

Nepali media are fair

Nepali media are accurate in their news
and information

Nepali media carry complete version of
news stories

Nepali media are trustworthy

Nepali media use expert sources and
materials

1=
Never
2=
Occasionally
3=
Frequently
4=
Almost
always
5=
Not sure/
can't say
Friends, family members,
colleagues

Newspaper or magazine
Radio
Television
Internet
Mobile phone
Other (specify)

222

25. Normally, what processes do you follow when preparing print or broadcast materials? (Please
choose all that apply)
I verify facts and quotes
I do further background research for context
My supervisor or editor copy-edits or rewrites it
I or my supervisor consults experts for review or further input
I sometimes host-verify the content with the concerned people who are covered
I get guidance and advices from senior staff while developing the content
Other

26. What factors have affected the credibility of Nepali media most? (Please choose only three)
Mediocre language usage and style of presentation
Shallow coverage of issues without contextual insight (history, economy, etc).
Lack of verification of facts or sources
Distortion of facts
Distortion of quotes
Exaggeration of facts, events or issues
Political bias in news reporting
Sensationalisation of events or issues
Blatant cases of plagiarism
Overuse of anonymous sources
Indifference towards readers' or audience feedbacks
Indifference towards publishing or broadcasting corrections
Publishing of promotional materials or advertisement as news
Lack of research on topics covered
Other

27. Who do you think is most responsible for the news content you have produced? (Please choose
only one)
I am
The editor
Desk
The owners of my media
The managers of my media
The sources of the news
themselves
Advertisers
Others

28. To what extent do you trust the information or analyses presented in the following media in
Nepal?

1=
Believe
almost
nothing
2=
Believe
little
3=
Believe
some
4=
Believe all
or most of
what the
medium
reports
5=
Can't say
Newspapers or
magazines

Radio/FM stations
Television
Online

29. Overall, how reliable do you find Nepali medias coverage on the following topics?

1=
Not at all
reliable
2=
Not very
reliable
3=
Somewhat
reliable
4=
Very
reliable
5=
Can't
say

223

Peace and democratic process
Constitution making (state
restructuring, form of government,
citizens' rights, social inclusion, etc)

Governance

National politics
Social and economic development
Science, technology and
environment

CAPACITIES

30. Have you had any opportunities to receive formal education in journalism? (choose all that apply
or skip to Question No 24 in case you have no formal education in media)
High School journalism course
Intermediate (10+2 level) course in journalism
BA in journalism
MA in journalism
Others (specify)

31. What opportunities of learning have you received at least once in the past? (In case of no such
opportunity, go to Question 28)

Less
than a
week
Between
a week
and a
month
Between
more than a
month and
six months
More than six
months
None
Basic journalism training
Special topic journalism
training

Journalism fellowship
Exchange program
Internship
Seminar, workshop or
conference

32. If you are trained in journalism, where did you receive your training from? (Please choose all that
apply, and if not, go to Question 28)
From local or regional program(s)
From national program(s)
From international program(s)
In-house program offered by my own media house
Other (Please specify):

33. Looking at journalism training programs in the country today, how satisfied are you with the
following?
1=
Very
dissatisfied
2=
Fairly
dissatisfied
3=
Fairly
satisfied
4=
Very
satisfied
5=
Not sure/
can't rate

Overall quality of existing journalism
training programs

Quality of training curricula

224

Availability of instructional and other
resource materials

Quality of trainers
Practical aspect, scope for in-house
training/internship
Quality of trainees

34. If youve received training or education in journalism, how has it helped you in your professional
development?
Hasnt helped at all
Helped somewhat
It has helped
Helped greatly
Cant say

35. How much do you think Nepali journalists need the following to perform their jobs better?

1=
Not
at all
2=
A
little
3=
A
good
deal
4=
A lot
0=
Can't
say
Fellowships
Exchange programs
Awards
Good remuneration/cash incentives
Mentorship (professional counseling, guidance)
In-house refresher training
Professional workshops, seminars, conventions
Other journalistic events like media festivals
Paid reporting trips, field visits offered by
employers

36. Which of the following are your immediate training needs in terms of gathering and writing news
stories? (You may choose three)
Story idea development
Locating sources (people, document, field visit, etc.)
Drafting, writing, rewriting the story
Text, graphics, audio-visual editing (news desk work, design, etc)
Production (proof reading/sound/light, live-broadcasting, streaming, webcasting, etc)
Other (specify)
225

37. Which among the following are your immediate training needs in terms of methods and
techniques in journalism? (You may choose three)

Basic journalism techniques (news gathering, attribution, interviewing, writing, editing,
etc)
Proficiency-level journalistic techniques (research, news collection, writing, editing,
production, etc)
Advanced level journalism techniques (research, investigative/interpretive methods,
social science as well as mathematical approach, etc)
Specialized topics or beats (conflict, development, inclusion, environment, business, law
etc.) Special interviewing techniques (face-to-face, telephonic, Web-based, etc.)
Special editing techniques across platforms (copy, still/audio visual images )
Language and presentation skills (style, voice, moderation of programs, anchoring, etc.)
Genre-specific techniques (news, features, analyses, commentaries, op-ed, etc)
Familiarizing with bigger contexts (history, economy and current affairs)
Other (specify)

38. Which of the following are your immediate training needs in terms of journalism
resourcefulness? (Please, choose only three)
Time management (planning, organizing, scheduling, forward-diary, etc)
Critical thinking skills
Special language skills (English, native language or mother tongues, etc)
Information and Communication Technology skills (new media applications, handling
essential equipment)
Skills to work for diverse media (Convergence, multi-media, online / open-source, citizen
journalism, etc)
Handling emotions (in crises, disasters, hostilities, conflict, traumatic situations)
Sensitivity towards journalistic norms and Code of Conduct
Sensitivity towards social diversity and inclusion (Janjati, madhesh, women, dalit, far-
Western, Karnali, etc)
Coordination, supervision, monitoring or evaluation
Other (specify)

39. Which of the following do you consider the most important modes of instruction that
help to enhance your journalistic capabilities? (Please, choose only three)
Lectures (trainer-centric instructions, which may also produce notes to the trainees)
Deliberative (workshops, boot camps, interactions, seminar-type participatory sessions)
Distance learning opportunities (e-learning)
Feedback and evaluation (room for accommodating trainees suggestions for future
improvements)
Networking and collaboration (room for continuing relations with instructors or fellow
trainees)
Other (specify)

40. Which of the following journalism training programs best suits your current needs?
(Please, choose only three)
Elementary (up to 1 month)
Basic (Between 1 and 3 months)
Proficiency (Between 1 and 3 months)
Advanced (More than 3 months)
None

41. Which of the following locations best suits your current training needs? (Please,
choose only one)
In-house (within my media house)
In my village or city center
In district headquarters
In regional headquarters

226

In the capital city
In locations abroad
Other (Please specify)

42. What kind of trainers may serve your training interest best? (Please, choose all that
apply)
In-house senior colleagues (editors, reporters, etc)
Working media professionals outside your media house
Experts from relevant fields
Media trainers with TOT credentials
Trainers in native language
Trainers with background in journalism education
International media trainers
Other (specify)

43. If you were to participate in a training program in the near future, what would you say?
(Please, choose all that apply)
I would pay for the training myself
I would need sponsorship, either from my organization or others
More than financial aspect, I would need other professional support (paid leave; less work
load)
Other (specify):

44. For your work, which of the following resources do you have access to? (please select
all that apply)
Persnal computer (laptop or desktop)
Office computer
Library/Reference materials
Online resources
Internet access
Mobile phone
Camera
Audio-video recorders

45. If you use new media (internet, mobile, social media, etc), how has it supported your
professional capabilities? (please select all that apply)
Has offered greater access to media content
Has enhanced my access to news sources
Has helped to connect and interact with my sources easily
Has enabled me to work from anywhere
Has improved my work speed and efficiency
Has helped in creating participatory and professional contacts
Has helped to share my stories or promote them

46. If you dont use New Media., why don't you use them? (please select all that apply)
I don't have access to new media
I don't feel comfortable with new media technologies
I am not trained or skilled enough to use them
I don't have enough time to spend with new media
I don't want to lose my privacy by using new media
Others

227

47. What kind of media organizations or associations are you affiliated with? Domestic
International
Both of them
None of them

48. If affiliated, how has your affiliation or membership helped you in your professional
growth as a journalist? (If not, go to next question).
Offered me networking opportunities
Provided access to a variety of resource materials
Enhanced my professional identity as a journalist
Given me greater recognition of my work
Offered me opportunities to participate in training, fellowship or other professional
development programs
Other

49. Do you think political orientation or affiliation helps in the professional capabilities of
Nepali journalists?
Yes
No
Can't tell

50. If journalists have political orientation or affiliation, what do you think are the reasons
for this? (Choose only three).
Because of individual faith or ideological affinity
For better access to political party sources and information
For entry and growth in the profession
Due to the past background in politics
For political protection (and gain) as well as patronage
Due to special connection with particular leader
Simply to be in the sphere of power and influence
Other
Can't say

51. Besides your regular work in journalism or media, do you earn from any other source
or other profession?
Yes
No
Dont want to say

52. If working in other areas, which of the following sectors are you involved in for
additional income? (Select all that apply)
Public sector/govt
Private sector
Civil society
Other (specify)

53. If you are working in other sector, has that served your journalistic pursuit? (Select all
that apply)
Has helped a lot
Has helped little bit
No help
Cant say

54. How far are you satisfied with the progress you have achieved in your profession?
Not satisfied
Fairly satisfied
Satisfied
Quite satisfied

228

MEDIA LITERACY

55. Which of the following can you do more efficiently? (Please choose three only).
Use equipment needed in my job
Videoconference
Search for quality information online
Send e-mails with attached files
Create a personal blog
Use social media networks (eg.
Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, etc.)
Create a web page
Online video streaming or podcasting
Use Internet research and reporting
Collaborate with peers online
Use software tools in my work (eg. infographics, visual journalism tools)
Create my own reporting or research database
Other (specify)

56. Which of the following would you want to learn for your professional advancement?
(Please choose three only).
Use equipment needed in my job
Videoconference
Search for quality information online
Send e-mails with attached files
Create a personal blog
Use social media networks (eg. Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, etc.)
Create a web page
Online video streaming or podcasting
Use Internet research and reporting
Collaborate with peers online
Use software tools in my work (eg. info graphics, visual journalism tools)
Create my own reporting or research database
Other (specify)

57. In the box below, you may e write down your suggestions, if any, that couldbe helpful
for the professional development of Nepali journalists?

58. Thinking back, have you ever participated in a survey of Nepali journalists, before?
Yes No Don't know/can't say

Please leave your EMAIL ADDRESS HERE

Phone/Mobile number

THANK YOU FOR YOUR PARTICIPATION!
Enumerator's name:

229

Appendix 4: Journalists' survey questionnaire in Nepali

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=-+ =+- == =-~+
=- == - -
=-= ==+=
+= +
=+-
-
== ++= ==--=

- +++- ==-+ -=== +-- ++-= -+:+ == =~ =+=+- -c-
++= =-- = c--=

=- == =-+ -s =-+=-= ==++, =--, =
=- == =-~ -- +== ==+=-=
=~+ -= - ++ ---=
++ +- === =|+ =:=+ ++-=
-+:+ =-~ -- ++-=
+++- ==- =+ ++-=
=-== ++ =:= ++-=
== ++= ==--=

-+= ~-== +++- -== =- --= =- ~= ~-, -=+ == +- -+-+ - -=
++= =-- = c--=

-=== =- -+ - = = =+ --c
240

==: =- == =-+ - --= =+ =-== =-=+ +-c
==: =+ =-==~ == +=- =-== =-- -, += +=~ =-=+ +-c
== ++= ==--=

+++- =- +-+- =+- =- -+:== =+=+ c-
=a=- +=== -=+=+ - :-+=+
=+= +===
+--+== =~ ===
=-=:- =--=
:=-== +-=
=-:= +-
+==
=:=~:= +:
== ++= ==--=

= -= =:= :=-=, =-:=, === =:= = +== =--c ~- --= -+:+ =-==+ =-
-:= += =-== +-=|+ c- ++= =-- = c--= =--- ~- +- -= = =--=
-=---=== +-= t|
=--==== +-= t|
=--=== ==++ r- - =-+= =- =-== =
+- +- s== += =- == -|
+=+ =- - += +=- t|
=-~=- - =-==+ ==++-= ==- =- =-== =
++-+=- = =- ===-= :- --+ += =- =-== =
== ++= ==--=

- -+: -= =:= +== =--- ~-, +- +== =--- ++= =-- = c--=
-= =:== = +-= c-
==: -= =:= +-+ =-= =-
-= =:= +== =- =+- =+ == c-
=== -= =:= +== =- === c-
-= =:= +== = = = =+-=- ===- =--
== ++= ==--=

-+: +++- ==-+ +-- = - ==s-== =-: ---c
--
-
-
=+ +- +- -:-

241

= = =-: ---c ~- =-- =-=- ==-+ - =-=-= -+:+ =-==+ -+== +-- =-== +-=|+ c
++= -- -= =+ c--= =-: -- -- ~- +- -= - = =--=
=-==+ ==++ --- =- =-= |+ c
--+ =- =+--== +-= -t|+ c
+++- ==-+ =-==+ +-=- -t|+ c
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-==, +=+, =-==+ -+=+ == +=+== =-~= - =-= +- =+ c
== ++= ==--=

-+:+ -==, =--+ ~+- - =:-= -+= ++++ =-==+ =- -+==: =-== =c
=c

=-

~- =+-

+++-= =--+ += -= =: -c- ~- ==+ +- + -- =+c- ++= ---= =+ c--=
=a=- =- - =:-+ ==-+

=--+ +=+ =- ==-= +-= t=-

=-=== +- =- === +=- =-

-=-= =--= =-~= ~|+ +s~== =

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242

+++- -+ == =-== - =-= ==- =--c ~- === -+:+ =-==+ -+== +a+ =-== +=|+
c
+ =-== +-=|+ c
==== =-== +-=|+ c
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z =:= =-
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=- +=+ == =-- =++-+ +== =-

243

~:= ++= =-

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=- +=+ == =-- =+=-= ==+, -=: -=- =- === +== =-

======+ == ===-=-=+-+ =- :=-= -=: ~-:- -= =-

== ++= ==--=

-+= +++-=+ =-==+ -+=+ == =-== -- -+:+ +- =-=- ~| -=+ +== =r--=

= -+:= == = +++==-+ =~-= +--= ~= =- =
|

:-

++=, -+:+ :== s=- -+= == =- =--=
+-=:= -=
-+:+ =-~=-+ == -+ +=-
=-++ -=

244

Appendix 5: Public opinion questionnaire in English

Survey of Public Views on Nepali Media

Media Foundation-Nepal, with support from UNDP, Government of Japan and UNESCO, is conducting this
survey. Your participation is crucial to identify how the public views the media today and what it expects from
journalists.

This survey takes approximately 25 minutes to complete. Your participation is entirely voluntary. Your information
will be kept confidential.

Please leave your email address at the end of this survey; the findings will be shared with you through the same
email.

PLEASE CLEARLY TICK MARK IN HE BOXES BELOW

A. DEMOGRAPHIC QUESTIONS
1. Sex

Female

Male

Other

2. Age

Under 18
years

19-24

25-30

31-36

37-42

43-48

49-54

55-64

65 or
above
3. Ethnicity

Brahmin/Chhetri (Hill)

Brahmin/Chhetri (Terai)

Terai/Madhesi /Other
Castes

Dalit (Hill)

Dalit (Terai)

Newar

Janajati (Hill)

Janajati (Terai)

Muslim

Others (please, specify)

4. The Area you represent? (Tick only one)
BaglungManangMustang area
BankeBardiyaDang area
BaraPrasaRautahat area
ButwalKaskiPalpa area
DailekhPyuthanRukumSalyan
Surkhet area
DhanushaMahottariSaptari area
DolakhaRamechhap
Sindhupalchowk area
Morang Sunsari area
Kathmandu Valley (Kathmandu,
Bhaktapur,Lalitpur area)
OkhaldhungaSolukhumbu area
Other areas
5. Marital status

Single (haven't married)

Married

Separated

Divorced

Widowed


6. Education (choose the most recent level)

Grade 10 or less

High School (SLC)

10+2 or Intermediate

Bachelor's Level

Master's and above

No academic degree (self-
educated)

7. Profession or occupation mostly associated with

Agriculture

Business
245

Accounting

Communications

Education

Legal sector

Medicine and Health

Engineering


B. MEDIA CREDIBILITY
8. Which of the following do you mostly rely on for news? (Tick three only)

Friend, family member,
colleague

Newspapers

Radio

Television

Internet

Mobile phone

Other (specify)

9. Do you listen to national-level radio channels like Radio Nepal or Radio Kantipur? (If "No",
please go to question # 13).

Yes

No

10. How often do you listen to national-level radio channels?

Every day

Three to four times a
week

One to two times a week

One to two times a
month

Can't say

11. Overall, how much do you trust the information and analysis presented in the national-
level radio channels?

Trust almost nothing

Trust little

Trust to some extent.

Trust all or most of the
reports

Not sure/cant say

12. If you trust little, somewhat or all of what the national-level radio channels report, why
do you trust them?

Because the reports are
believable

Because they are fair

Because they are
accurate

Because they are in-
depth or complete

Because they are
trustworthy

Because they use expert
sources or materials

Because they are
relevant to my needs


13. Do you listen to local FM radio channels? (If "No", please go to question # 17)

Yes

No

14. How often do you listen to local radio channels?

Every day

week


One to two times a
month

Can't say

15. Overall, how much do you trust the information and analysis presented in the local radio
channels?


Trust little
246


reports

Not sure/cant say

16. If you trust little, to some extent or all of what the local FM radio channels report, why
do you trust them?

believable


Because they are
accurate

depth or complete

Because they are
trustworthy


Because they are


17. Do you watch TV news? (If "No", please go to question # 21).

Yes

No

18. How often do you watch TV news?

Every day

week


One to two times a
month

Can't say
19. How much do you trust the information and analysis presented in TV news?


Trust little

Trust some

reports

Not sure/cant say

20. If you trust little, some or all of what the TV channels report, why do you trust them?

believable


Because they are
accurate

depth or complete

Because they are
trustworthy


Because they are


21. Do you read national daily newspapers like Gorkhapatra, or Kantipur? (If "No", please go
to question # 25)

Yes

No
22. How often do you read national newspapers?

Every day

week


One to two times a
month

Can't say
23. Overall, how much do you trust the information and analysis presented in national
newspapers?


Trust little

Trust some

reports

Not sure/cant say

247

24. If you trust little, some or all of what the national newspapers report, why do you trust
them?

believable


Because they are
accurate

depth or complete

Because they are
trustworthy


Because they are


25. Do you read local newspapers? (If "No", please go to question # 29).

Yes

No

26. How often do you read local newspapers?

Every day

week


One to two times a
month

Can't say

27. Overall, how much do you trust the information and analysis presented in local
newspapers?


Trust little

Trust some

reports

Not sure/cant say

28. If you trust little, some or all of what the local newspapers report, why do you trust
them?

believable


Because they are
accurate

depth or complete

Because they are
trustworthy


Because they are


29. Do you read weeklies, magazines or periodicals? (If "No", please go to question # 33).

Yes

No
30. How often do you read weeklies, magazines or periodicals?

Often

Sometimes

Rarely

Can't say

31. Overall, how much do you trust the information and analysis presented in weeklies,
magazines or periodicals?


Trust little

Trust some

reports

Not sure/cant say

32. If you trust little, some or all of what the weeklies, magazines or periodicals report, why
do you trust them?

believable

248

Because they are
accurate

depth or complete

Because they are
trustworthy


Because they are


33. Do you visit Websites (Internet) for news? (If "No", please go to question # 37).

Yes

No

34. How often do you visit Websites for news?

Every day

week


One to two times a
month

Can't say

35. Overall, how much do you trust the information and analysis presented in news
Websites (Internet)?


Trust little

Trust some

reports

Not sure/cant say

36. If you trust little, some or all of what the news Websites report, why do you trust them?

believable


Because they are
accurate

depth or complete

Because they are
trustworthy


Because they are


37. Based on your media use experience, which of the following do you trust the most for
the information or analysis presented in them? (Please tick three options only)
National-level radio
stations
Local or regional radio
stations
Television stations
National daily
newspapers
Local or regional daily
newspapers
Weeklies, magazines
or periodicals
News Websites
(Internet)
None

38. Which of the following do you agree the most with? (Select only three)
Nepali media report on
issues of real concern to
people
National news media cover
as much local news as
national news
Local news media cover as
much national news as
local news
Journalists have integrity
and are not corrupt
Media organizations have
integrity and are not
corrupt
Nepali media use expert
sources or materials in
their reports
News reporting is fair
News reporting is accurate
News reporting is
trustworthy
News reporting is impartial
249

There is a high level of
citizen participation in
Nepali media (in talk show
programs, readers'
comments in newspapers,
etc.)

39. On Nepalese media organizations, which of the following do you agree the most? (Select
only three)
Nepali media organizations
make efforts to know more
about their audience
(example: they conduct
audience surveys)
about the perceptions of
the quality of their
programs or news
(example: audience
surveys, response to public
criticism or lack of trust)
about the perceptions of
the cultural diversity of their
programs or news
(example: audience
surveys, response to public
criticism or lack of trust)
offer channels for audience
engagement (phone-ins,
debates, citizen reporting,
etc.)
strive for transparency
strive for accountability
Media monitors and
community organizations
offer evaluations of Nepali
media performance on a
regular basis

40. Among the following, what type of journalists do you trust the most? (Please select only three)
Journalists working for
newspapers
Journalists working for weeklies,
magazines or periodicals
Journalists working for radio
stations
Journalists working for television
stations

Journalists working for online
media
Other (Please, specify)

Cant say/Don't know

41. In terms of their work stations, what categories of Nepali journalists do you trust the most?
(Please select only one)
Local journalists in your area
Journalists based in your region
Journalists based in the capital
Journalists based in a foreign country
Other (please, specify)

Cant say/Don't know

42. In terms of the topics covered, what type of journalists do you trust the most? (Please select
only three)
Journalists covering politics,
government and current
affairs
Journalists covering
economy and business
Journalists covering local
and cultural issues
science, technology,
environment, health

Journalists covering court,
crime and violence
Celebrity, arts and media;
lifestyle, sports
accidents, disaster, disease
and trauma

Cant say/Don't know
43. Which of the following media do you consider more credible? (Please select only one)
250

Private media (media
owned or operated by
private companies.)
Government media
(media owned or
operated by the
government. Example
(Radio Nepal, Nepal
Television, Gorkhapatra
newspaper, etc.)
Community media
(media operated by
community; could be
non-commercial)

44. How reliable would you rate the following media contents offered by Nepali journalists?
Not at all
reliable
Not very
reliable
Somewh
at
reliable
Very
reliable
Not
sure/ca
nt say
Peace and democratic process

Constitution making (state
restructuring, form of government,
citizens' rights, social inclusion, etc)

Governance (issues like
transparency, accountability,
corruption, etc)

National politics

45. Which of the following do you consider the most as serving in the interest of society?
(Please select only three)
Civil Service
Commission for the
Investigation of the Abuse of
Authority (CIAA)
Courts
Election Commission
Media
National Human Rights
Commission
National Treasury (Central
Bank)
Nepal Army
Nepal Government
Nepal Police

46. Which of the following do you trust the most for their professional honesty? (Please select
only three)
Government officials/civil
servants
Lawyers
Members of the parliament
NGO workers
Nurses
Medical doctors
Army personnel
Police
Politicians
School teachers
University or college
teachers
Journalists/media persons
Businessmen or women
Engineers
Mechanics
Tourism entrepreneurs
Bankers
IT professionals
Real estate professionals
Stock brokers
Contractors
Astrologers
Shamans (dhami-jhankri)
Researchers
Farmers

251

C. PROFESSIONAL ISSUES IN MEDIA
47. Which of the following topics do you think Nepali journalists report or write about most
frequently? (Please select only three)
Politics, government and
current affairs
Social and cultural
issues
Science, technology,
environment, health
Court, crime and
violence
Celebrity, arts and
media; lifestyle, sports
Accident, disaster,
disease and trauma

48. Which of the following topics do you think journalists should report or write about most
frequently? (Please choose three)
Politics, government and
current affairs
Science, technology,
environment, health
Court, crime and violence
Celebrity, arts and media;
lifestyle, sports
Accident, disaster, disease
and trauma

49. Which of the following do you think are the most important professional roles of a
journalist? (Please choose three)
Reflecting plurality and
diversity of the country in
their works
Creating awareness on
health, education, economy,
environment, the
development process, etc
Serving as a forum for
dialogue among various
actors of society
Holding the government
accountable
Advocating against social
ills like superstition, social
discrimination
Informing, educating and
entertaining the public
Engaging the public in
important issues of the day
to bring about positive
change in their lives

50. Who, among the following, should journalists be more responsible towards? (Please
select only three)
To the public in general
To the audience
To journalists' own
conscience
To media owners
To other journalists or
colleagues in media
To advertisers
To the people the
journalist writes about
To the managers of the
media house
To powerful sources of
information
To political parties

51. How true are the following statements in the present context?
Not at all
true
Somewhat
true

True Very
true
Not sure/
can't rate
The overall quality of Nepali journalism is
improving today

252

There is no shortage of educated, skilled,
and capable journalists today

Nepali media today have a lot of freedom

Nepali journalism played a big role in the
country's transition to federalism

Nepali journalists are not as much
affiliated with political parties today as in
the past

Nepali journalism is at the forefront of
exposing cases of corruption in the
country

The expansion of local FM radio stations
across the country is perhaps the most
significant achievement of Nepali media in
recent years

Nepali journalism has emerged as one of
the most desirable professions in the
country

Nepali journalism has palyed the role to
raise the voices of women and the
marginalized including the downtrodden.

52. How true are the following statements about Nepali journalists?
Not at all
true
Somewhat
True
True Very
true
Not sure/
can't rate
Nepali journalists are politically neutral

They maintain "accuracy, balance and credibility" (ABC)

They do not publish rumors

They provide impartial interpretation of news

They serve the public interest

They are vocal critics of the government

They help promote social (ethnic & religious) harmony

They are contributing to the country's development

53. What could be the key hindrances in maintaining ethical standards in Nepali journalism?
(Please choose only three)
Lack of awareness among journalists on ethical concerns
Disregard of ethical values and norms for personal benefits
Lack of respect for ethical standards
Unhealthy competition among journalists to get scoops
Lack of personal integrity
Lack of good working conditions in the field (insecurity)
Lack of incentives and encouragement to journalists
Lack of training and good education for journalists
Media houses themselves seem less concerned about ethical concerns
The involvement of editors or publishers in unethical practices
Lack of concern from stakeholders regarding the wrong deeds of journalists

253

C. MEDIA LITERACY
54. Which of the following do you have a regular access to? (Please select all that apply)
Newspapers
Magazines
Radio
Television
Internet access
(DSL/broadband/WiFi)
Computer
Mobile phone (for one-
to-one communication)

Camera
(photograph/video)
Audio recorder
Video recorder
DVD/CD/VCD player

None

55. How do you rate your following skills?
Unable Basic Average Good Cannot say
/Don't know
Reading newspapers (print)

Reading newspapers (online)

Using mobile phone

Taking pictures with camera

Using video recorder

Using the Internet

Using computer to type words

Sending e-mails

Sending e-mails with attached files

Chatting online

Using the Internet to make telephone calls
(example: Skype, viber, yahoo, msn)

Playing computer or video games

Using presentation tools (PowerPoint,
SlideRocket, etc)

Creating a web page or personal blog

Linking blogs with Facebook, Twitter, etc

Other (specify)

254

56. As a consumer of media content, which of the following do you do most often while listening
to radio or audio, reading newspapers or magazines, and watching video or TV? (Please select
only three)
I simply read, listen to or watch what is given in the message and stop there
I look at the context of the message
I consider what elements are intentionally included in the message to grab my attention
I distinguish between factual and fictional content presented in the message
I find out or check if the media message is exaggerating facts or events or distorting them
I consider if the message is actually an advertisement seeking to persuade me
I find out if the owner of the media has vested interest in making the message
I don't care who produced the media text
I look for social or political messages the media emphasizes
I seriously consider its advantages or disadvantages for me
I try to identify if the media text has more than one meaning
I recognize whom the message is intended for
If I don't like the media message, I start asking questions, trying to find out more about it
I preserve, record or archive the message to analyze or evaluate it further

57. How often have you done the following?
Occasionally Frequently Almost
always
Not sure/
can't say
I have produced a variety of written texts or content

I have produced audio, video or visual content

I have written letters to newspapers or magazines in
reaction to their articles

I have called radio or TV stations to comment on
their news

I have commented on blogs or posted updates on
my blog

I use social media network(s) like Facebook or
Twitter and have posted updates

I collaborate online with others, like posting on wiki

58. In the box below, please write down your suggestions on what Nepali journalists or the
media should do to serve the public better than they are already doing.

Please leave your EMAIL ADDRESS HERE:

Phone/Mobile number:

THANK YOU FOR YOUR PARTICIPATION!

Enumerator's name:

255

Appendix 6: Public opinion questionnaire in Nepali
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257

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- --= |+|= :== +--- -- ==== ==+-, +- - + --= =--c ~- + +-= --= =--c
--= =--- ~- +- - = =--=
+== -c-
-+ -c-
==-= -c-
=-- - +- -c-
--=-= -c-
-- - ~+ =-===+ +== =c-
= -= =~+ -c-
== ++= ==--=

+ -+: ==~=-= === ---c ---- ~- +- - - = =--=
-, -c =-, --

= -+: ==~=-= === +a+ ---c
+=+ -
--= --= +=+
--= |+: +=+
=--= |+: +=+
==~- =+-

==~=-= +--- -- ==- ==-= +a+ --= =--c
+= =-
==+- =+
+- -===
= - +==
~- =+-

258

- ==~=-= +--- -- ==- ==== ==+-, +- - + --= =--c ~- + +-= --= =--c
--= =--- ~- +- - - = =--=
+== -c-
-+ -c-
==-= -c-
=-- - +- -c-
--=-= -c-
-- - ~+ =-===+ +== =c-
= == =~+ -c-
== ++= ==--=

- + -+: =++ - +-+ =-- == -+ ===++ +t--c +t--- ~- +- - - = =--=
-, +tc
=-, +t-
-- -+: == -+ === +++ +a+ +t--c
+=+ -
--= --= +=+
--= |+: +=+
=--= |+: +=+
==~- =+-

- == -+ ===++= +--- -- ==- ==-= +a+ --= =--c
+= =-
==+- =+
+- -===
= - +==
~- =+-

- == -+ ===++= +--- -- ==== ==+-, +- - + --= =--c ~- + +-= --= =--c
--= =--- ~- +- - - = =--=
+== -c-
-+ -c-
==-= -c-
=-- - +- -c-
--=-= -c-
-- - ~+ =-===+ +== =c-
= == =~+ -c-
== ++= ==--=

- + -+: =+- == =-= ++- -- -+ ===++ +t--c +t--- ~- +- - - = =--=
-, +tc =-, +t-

-- -+: =+- == =-= ++- -- -+ ===++ +a+ +t--c
+=+ -
--= --= +=+
--= |+: +=+
=--= |+: +=+
==~- =+-

259

- =+- ===-= ++- -- -+ ===++= +--- -- ==- ==-= +a+ --= =--c
+= =-
==+- =+
+- -===
= - +==
~- =+-

-= --= -+ ===++= +--- -- ==== =-+-, +- - + --= =--c ~- + +-- --= =--c
--= =--- ~- +- - - = =--=
+== -c-
-+ -c-
==-= -c-
=-- - +- -c-
--=-= -c-
-- - ~+ =-===+ +== =c-
= == =~+ -c-
== ++= ==--=
- + -+: =--+, ++ - == =-++ +++====-- +t--c +t--- ~- +- - = =---
-, +tc =-, +t-
-+: =--+, ++ - == =-++ +++- +a+ +t--c
+=
+-=+-
-=
==~- =+-
=--+, ++ - == =-++ +++= +--- -- ==- ==-= +a+ --= =--c --=
=--- ~- +- - = =--=
+=
=-
==+- =+
+- -===
= - +==
~- =+-
- =--+, ++ - == =-++ +++-= +--- -- ==== =-+-, +- - + --= =--c ~- +
+-- --= =--c --= =--- ~- +- - = =--=
+== -c-
-+ -c-
==-= -c-
=-- - +- -c-
--=-= -c-
-- - ~+ =-===+ +== =c-
= == =~+ -c-
== ++= ==--=

+ -+: ===+ == -=:= :=-= ---c ---- ~- +- - = =--=
-, -c
=-, --
-+: ===+ -= -=:=:=-= +a+ +== =--c
+=+ -
--= --= +=+
--= |+: +=+
=--= |+: +=+
==~- =+-

260

===+ == -=:= :=-== +--- -- ==- ==- +a+ --= =--c
+= =-
==+- =+
+- -===
= - +==
~- =+-
- -=:=:=-== +--- -- === ==== =-+-, +- - + --= =--c ~- + +-= --=
=--c --= =--- ~- +- - = =--=
+== -c-
-+ -c-
==-= -c-
=-- - +- -c-
--=-= -c-
-- - ~+ =-===+ +== =c
= == =~+ -c-
== ++= ==--=

==- ==+ == --+ == +-+- = =~ t --= =--c ++= ---= =+ c--=
== --+ :=
--= |+|= :=
==~=-
== -+ ===++=
--= -+ ===++=
=--+, ++ - == =-++ +++
-=:= :=-= +- +- -:-
= --+ == +-+- ~-:== =~
t =-=- ---c ++= ---= =+
c--=
-+= =:== ----+ =-==+
-=- === +--- =c-
== =:== == ====: =- --
c- =- - --= ====: +- c-
--= =:== --= ====: =-
-- c- =- - == ===-: +-
c-
+++-= :=- c, =-- ~=
c--
== =--= :=- c =-- ~=
c--
-+= =:== =+- ===-= --
- ~+ =-=== +== =c-
=== === ====- c-
=== === ==-= c-
=== === --=-= c-
=== === -+ c-
-+= =:== -=+-+ =-~=-
=-=-+ ~|+ +:c =-- := -
==~=- =-+== ~= =c- -
==++=: =; =rc-

-+= === =-- -=+ == +-+- ~-:== =~ t =-=- ---c ++= ---= =+ c--=
-+= ===-- =+- +s+
-+ t ~ t =- +==
=c- =--, +s+ - =~- =c-
=+= +=- =+ +=+= - ===+
=---=: +s+= += =|+ c- ~-
~- +== =c-
=+= +=- =+ +=+= - ===+
=-+-+ --+--: +s+= +=
~-+ c- ~- ~- +== =c-
+s+=: =-~= -=- -~- =+=-
=+-=c- =--, += +-, ---
+=+=, -=+ +++-
+- +== =c-
=-+- - +== =c-
=:= =-==-+- ===+ =--=
-+= =:=+ =--++ -==- =-=+-
=c-
+- +- --

261

-=+ == +- == ==== += =- +++- -+:=: =~ t --=-= =c- ++= ---= =+
c--=
-+ +++++
=--+, ++ - =-++
:= ==~=-
=-=:- =:= :=-=
== ++= ==--=
~- =+-
- c-
-=+ == +- += += =- +++- -+:-: =~ t --=-= -c- ++= -= =+ c--=
=== - += =- -+= +++
=-=, === -+= += -
+= =- =+-= - += =-
- ==+= - += =-
== ++= ==--=
~- =+-
- c-
- -=+ == +- -= = r- -+= +++ -+:=: =~ t --=-= =c- ++= ---= =+
c--=
=--, =+ =====+ -=---
===-
=-+ =+=: ===-
===+ =-+-+ -==: ===-
--, +-+, ----, , ---= -==:
===-
==-, =++ -==: ===-
=+=, -+a, : +=-=+ =-+
-= ===-
=== ==- =a-, +=, ==,
=--= =+ ===-
== ++= ==--=
~- =+-
- c-
-=+ == +- =:== +--- =|+ === t --=-= s--c
-= =:= -= =-+ --=- -+ -
=--= ===- =+
=+ =:= := -+=, -+= ==~=-,
=++ =-- =++ --=-= -+ -
=== ===- =+
===+ =:= ==== ===- =+
=-+--
== ++= -=--=
+- +- -:-

-+= == ==== -=- -== - =+ |+ === === -+:= +a+ ~+ +=- ~|+ c
=-
~+ c-

~+ c

+ ~+ c

~- =+- +=++ ~+ c-

- =+-++
++=

=-+- =- =
+-==-, =++
--=+, -=+ =++,
===+ ==-+-
=

262

=- =--
+-, =-+--,
~== =-- -=

== =--

===+ ~=:+ -= += =- += -=+ == +-+- =-=: =~ t --=-= s--c ++=
---= =+ c--=
=+ =-
=r-= +== =-=+- ===
==-
--=- ===
=:= === ===-
== =-- =++ ===
== t+= -+= = +, -+= =-,
-+= =+, -+= +-
== ++= -=--=

- +=- :=-+ == -=+ == +=-: =~ t --=-= s--c ++= ---= =+ c--=
=+ =++ -==- +==
-+=
==
==+ =-= += =- =a
-=
:+= =+=+
=-+
+-
+++ ==+=
=--+ --
= ==
s+
=-
+=~+
-==== +t=- +
+== - ---==== +t=- +
=+
:=-=
+-+-
+==-
=-==
=++
+
==- +-+
=-==
== =-==
+ =-=+-+-
++
== ++= ==--=

= =-==+ -=
-+= +++-= -=+ == +- -== =~ t ==== + --- =c- ++= ---= =+ c--=
=--, =+ =====+ -=---
=-+ =+
=== =-+-
---,
+-+
----,
,
---=
263

==--,
=++ -=
=+=, -+a, : + =-=+ =-
===, +=, ==, =--= =+
== ++= -=--=
~- =+-
- c-

= -=+ == +-+- -== +++= t ===, =- +--- =-+- =-- =c ++= ---= =+ c--=
=--, =+ =====+ -=---
=-+ =+
=== =-+-
---,
+-+,
----,
,
---=
==-,
=++ -==: =+=, -+a, :: +
=-=+ =-
===, +=, ==, =--= =+
~- =+- - c-
== ++= ==--=
+-+- +=- ~=+ +++-+ -= =~ =--+- -c- ++= ---= =+ c--=
=+- +== + -=- --+-
+-=-- =-
---=, , =-+, ----, -+=
++= = =-- ===-
===+ -~- +, -+= =a-= =~
=- ==- =-== +-==-
=+ =+ -==: === -
--==-
=+--= -~ =-- ===+
-+--=: -+=- =-
=-=+-=: ==-, =-=- -
=-=+-=: =--+- =====+ -==
==- ==-
== ++= ==--=

=== + - +-+- +++-= =~ t =a= --+c =-- -c ++= ---= =+ c--=
=-=+-+-
-, + +s++-
=+ - =+- --++-
== =-+-
== +++ - =+- =-=+-
--+--+-
==+ = =c - ===: -=--
-:c =--=+-
== =-+ =--++-=+- ==-+
+~-=
=--=+-
=--+ =-+-
== ++= -=--=

264

==+ =~= -=+ ~-:-= +a+ =- c-
=-
c-

====
=- c

=-
c

+ =- c

~- =+-

-, =+= == +++-=+ = c-

-+= +++-= =: ==--+ ==- s= ~=+
=+ c

-=-= =-- +++- =--+ =-=== t ==-
c--

-+= ====== ==- ===+ =--- t-+ c

-+= +++- ~==+ ~-:+ =- +==
==+a= c

-+= +++-= ---+ c-

--= |+|= :=+ --- -+= == ===+
+c- =~ =--+- =+-+ -

-+= +++- |+= =:- +-== +c

-+= +++-= +c: ++ -~- === =-=,
=- =+ =- =-- -+=++, +-=- =s=-
=--+- ~=+ =+ c

265

- -+= +++- -=+ ~-:-= -+:=: +a+ =- =c-
=-
c-

====
=- c
=- c

+ =-
c
~- =+-

=--+ -=-= -=- c-

==-=, =-=- --=-=- |= =--
=-==+ +-=: =- c-

=+-- -=-= c - +=- = -:--

-+ === +--- =c-

=-=++ += += =c-

=++ =: =-=- =- +c +--

===+ =-= +=+ =-=-+=: ==c-

+ -+== =-== +=:-+ c-

+++-=: +=- ===-- +=- =- += + +=:-+ --=+c ++= ---= =+ c--=
===-- =--+ =~-
=a=- =~+ == =-= ==--=+
----
--+ =-= ==--=+- =~-+ +=
- === ==+-+ == =---
+--++
=a=- -s - :=-+ +=
== =--== --+ =++ -==
== --
==+++++ - ===-- -+-+
+=+=+= ==- --
=+-= -+=-== +++= -- ==-
+=+- =+a -=-=-
+= =- --- = --- =-- =+
=~-
= += =+- +=-+- +=--
+-++ += --
== ++= ==--=

266

= =:= =-
-=+ +- +- += -+:+ -==- +-= c
+++++
:=
==~=-
:=-=
+==
=:,
~=:,
:~:
=:= +- ++- ===+ ==
+===
~:= +:
=:= +:
+-=+- +-= c-
== ++= ==--=

-+: -=+ +- +a+ = =- =+--c
=+- =-=
=-=
=+c

=+c

+ = =+c

~-
=+-

+++++ c+ +t-

:=-== |+ +++++ +t-

=:- +- +== =-

+=== --- --

~:= +: =-

:=-= +== =-

+==== - =:+ =-

:== =-

+:= |=== = :== +s=-

=-=:-= -== =-

:=-=+ ==== ==+- =- =--, -+:+,
~:, =-, |=|=|-

+=== - ~:= =- -c-

+~-+ +---+ == +- -:= --::
+= =-- =+-- +== =-

- += - -= == -=-

-= ==-: +=+, =-==-- ===+
=== ===== =:-

== ++= ==--=

267

- := =, =-~=- - - +++ +t -+: -=+ +-+- + t =--c ++= ---= =+ c--=
==- +tc, =c - -c =- =+ -
:|+ ==-+ =~=: +==c, -c
= =-+- =- =a ==== +-- +--
--- |+ c- ~- ~- c,
+--- ==== +-+- ==- == c- +-
=- +++-+- c-, c;==c
=:== -= =--: t:=t: -
:==- =+ c c- ~- -= =c
c
+--- === --+- + - + ~- ~-
c
+--- ==-= == =-+ ==++ --
=++ c + ~- -c
==-=== +== =+- =+ -, ---
=-
= =:== + +-- ===+ - =--+
=-: =: c, = -- c
==- == =-: + +: -+:
-c, =~-+-+ -= =c
==-===+ |+~ t = c + ~-
-= =c
==-=== +=+- =- c, - +=-
c
==-=== s+ ==- ~- + +
~-+ == +- =- --c
+c == - =-=+- =- ==-===-:
=~= - === = rc
== ++= ==--=
268

-+:= -=+ +=-= +a+ = ==- ~|+ c
+--= +-
=-

+-=+-
=c

= =c

=+== =c

- ~|-

=a=- - +=- +==-+ ==
--+ =- ===-= -= =+ c

=a=- - +=- +==-+ -= =
|- = ===-= -= =+ c

+++++=: +s+ +-+= - =;++
+s=- =+ c

:= - =-~=--: +-+= -
=;++ +s=- =+ c

-=-= +== +-+= - += ===
++- =+ c

+=+, =-==-- ===+ =:=
===- +== =c

--= ===- += =- =+ c

=-== == =-=:-= += =c
=-- -+

= -+= +++ - =:== =-=+-=: =~ = =- +-==- + =-+= -=+ +== =+- =~-
--=

-+:+ ==++ s=-
:== s=-

+- =:= -=

269

Appendix 7: SMS poll questions in English & Nepali
Public Opinion Survey: SMS Poll

In English
Has your trust in Nepali news organizations increased over the past 3-4 years?
SMS to 4001 with mf<SPACE>y, if YES, mf<SPACE>n, if NO

Do you agree that your trust in news/analysis by Nepali journalists has increased over
the past 3-4 years?
SMS to 4001 with mf<SPACE>a, if you AGREE, mf<SPACE>d, if you DISAGREE

Lets judge our media based on the actual views of citizens

Two systematic, national surveys on Nepali media- one on Fjournalists' perspectives and another on
public perceptions-- have already been completed in June & July, 2012

Your SMS responses will help CAP these surveys, making it possible for the first time to compare
views of journalists and the public on a broad scale.

This SMS poll is part of the surveys being undertaken by Media Foundation-Nepal (MF-N), with
support from UNDP, Government of Japan, and UNESCO. The results of the findings can be accessed
later at MF-N website.

In Nepali
|=|=|= =- =--+ +--=
+ -=- -=- -+= === =--+- -+:+ --= t+ c
++= c ~- mf<SPACE>y =:+ = =, c- ~- mf<SPACE>n =:+ = =
|=|=|= = =- =--= ~= =- -=
-=- -=- -+= +++-= c- =+ === - -=-- -+ --== =|+ c-
+ === -+:+ =-=- c
++= c ~- mf<SPACE>a =:+ = =, c- ~- mf<SPACE>d =:+ = =
|=|=|= = =- =--= ~= =- -=

=:==: =--+ ----+ +-= =-=+- = +++ - =-=+-+ =+-= =|+
=:===+ := == =-- -====+ ==+- ~|+ c- -+:+ |=|=|= =-+ +- -
=---= ==-- --c- , === +++ == -=+-+ +-=: --- =-= -=- =- ==- c

= |=|=|= =- =-- =:= +=-:-= =|-:+, =+- =+ =--++ =-=== =+
=:===+ == =---+ |+ = - =--+ +-= -+= ~-== +=-:-+ --=:== --
=+- c

270

Appendix 8: List of participants in focus group discussions (FGDs) & loose
network discussions

FGDs by Media Foundation

Media literacy
Media Foundation Nepal
July 27, 2012

Geeta Khanal (Homemaker)
Jiya Khanal (Student)
Kabita Khanal Adhikari (Homemaker)
Lekh Raj KC (Government service)
Raj Kumar Nepal (Student)
Samjhana Rajbanshi (Homemaker)
Sita Chitrakar (Homemaker)
Sitamsh Rijal (Student)
Dharma Adhikari
Shekhar KC

Media & inclusion
Jagaran Media Center
July 23, 2012 Monday

Amar Sunar (Freelancer)
Bankaila (JMC)
Bhoj Raj Bishwakarma (CIN)
Biru Nepali (JMC)
Khagendra Sunar (Headlines FM)
Laxman Darnal (Gorkhapatra)
Madhu Shahi (Kantipur)
Mina Kari (JMC)
Rajendra Bishwakarma (Samarchar Daily)
Rajesh Marasini (JMC)
Ramhari Shahi (Gorkha FM)
Rita Budhathoki (Radio Nepal)
Sudip KC (Samachar Daily)
Sushil Darnal (RSS)
Dharma Adhikari
Shekhar KC

Media training
Martin Chautari

June 24, 2012
Chiranjibi Khanal
Hari Kala Adhikari
Harsha M Maharjan
Jitendra Bajrachrya
Kapil Kafle
Kundan Aryal
Laxman Datt Pant
Mohan Mainali
Pratyoush Onta
RK Regmee
Saurav Dhakal
Shreeram Singh Basnet
Tirtha Bista
Dharma Adhikari
Shekhar KC

Women & media
Sancharika Samuha/MF-N
May 6, 2012

Babita Khanal
Bimala Timphewa
Kamala Panthi
Montessori Rajbhandari
Nirmala Sharma
Nitu Pandit
Sangita Lama
Suchitra Shrestha
Dharma Adhikari
Punita Rimal

Professional issues in journalism
Federation of Nepali Journalists (FNJ)
May 1, 2012

Shiva Gaunle
Jagat Nepal
Om Sharma
Khim Ghale
Jan Sharma
Dharma Adhikari
Gopal Chitrakar
Punita Rimal
Jagadish Pokharel

271

The profession of journalism
Media Foundation Nepal
March 11, 2012

Bhadra Sharma (The Kathmandu Post)
Bishnu Nepal (National News Agency)
Deepak Adhikari (AFP)
Dharma Adhikari (MF)
Gerhard Schoenhofer (MF)
Ghanashyam Khadka (Kantipur Daily)
John Nr Parajuli (BBC)
Kosh R. Koirala (Republica)
Nabin Jha (Himal Media)
Post Bahadur Basnet (Republica)
Prakash Chandra Pariyar (Kantipur TV)
Pratima Banskota (Kantipur Daily)
Ramesh P. Bhusal (The Himalayan Times)
Rubina K. C. (Terai T V)
Tilak Pathak (Nagarik National Daily)
Upendra Pokharel (Nepal Magazine)
Jina Tamang (MF)

Loose network discussions (by UNDP)

With working journalists
Noordijk Hall, Hotel Summit
July 10, 2012

Renu Chhetri
Anil Bogati
Durga Khanal
Surendra Pandey
Tilak Pathak
Sunil Neupane
Bigyan Sharma
Keshav Koirala
Raj Kumar Baniya
Sita Gurung
Ganesh Man Gurung
Ujjwal Acharya
Gagan Bista
Sushil Pant
Dila Pant
Bharat Maharjan
Shreeram Shrestha

With journalism teachers
Kiran Hall, Hotel Summit
June 29, 2012

Badri Paudyal
Kundan Aryal
Ramjee Dahal
Rishikesh Dahal
Binaya Devkota
Yam Bahadur Dura
Bhanu Bhakta Acharya
Shree Ram Khanal
Prem K Luitel
Prakash Acharya
J. Pokhrel
Dila Pant
Yek Raj Pathak
Dilli Ram Bhattarai
Prabal Raj Pokhrel
Chiranjibi Khanal
Renu Chhetri
Sita Gurung
Saroj Dhakal
Dharma Adhikari
Shree Ram Paudyal
Tilak Pathak
Bharat Maharjan

With working journalists
Tara House, Sanepa
June 27, 2012

Jagadish Pokhrel
Suman Luitel
Uttara Ghimire
Pratikshya Kattel
Janak Timilsina
Sita Gurung
Irada Pahadi
Elipha Pradhananga
Sujeena Shakya
Niraj Dahal
Sahadev Bhandari
Netra Tamang
Renu Chhetri
Dharma Adhikari
Tilak Pathak

272

Appendix 9: List of focus groups and loose network discussions

Focus group discussion (FGD), Public and the media, Media Foundation- Nepal, July
27, 2012.
Focus group discussion (FGD), Inclusion in Nepali Media, MF-N/Jagaran Media
Center, Kathmandu: July22, 2012.
Focus group discussion (FGD), Media Training in Journalism, MF-N/MC, June 24,
2012.
Focus group discussion (FGD), Professional issues in journalism, Discussion with FNJ
executive members, May 1, 2012.
Focus group discussion (FGD), Sancharika Samuha, MF-N, May 6, 2012.
Focus group discussion (FGD), The journalism profession, MF-N/working journalists,
March 11, 2012.
Loose network discussion with journalists, UNDP/SPCBN, July 10, 2012
Loose network discussion with media students, SPCBN/UNDP, 27 June 2012.
Loose network discussion with university teachers of journalism, SPCNB/UNDP, 29
June 2012.

273

Appendix 10: Study/research team

Research & writing
Dharma Adhikari, PhD
(Research Director, lead author)
Chiranjibi Kafle
Shekhar KC

Survey team
Gopal Chitrakar (Survey Director)
Punita Rimal (Team Coordinator)
Baburam Fyuba (Field Leader)
Gopal Jha (Filed Leader)
Rem Biswokarma

Enumeretors/field staff
Jitendra Khadka
Krishna Adhikari
MatinaTwayanabasu
Narayan Shrestha
Narendra Shrestha
Ram Bahadur GC
Sharmila Dharel
Shatrughan Nepal
Shekhar Dhakal
Shusma Poudel
Triple Gurung

Project administration/Finance
Jagadish Pokhrel (Project Coordinator)
Prabhat Kiran Koirala (Admin Officer)
Ashok Upreti (Finance Officer)
Ajay Dani (Errands)
Dil Kumari Thapa (office support)

Data & processing personnel
Sandeep Aryal (sub contract)
Ranendra Adhikari (sub-contract)
Govinda Raj Nepal (data entry)
Jina Tamang (data entry)

Team of experts/External reviewers
Jan Sharma, PhD
Rabindra Roy, PhD
P. Kharel
Sharad Chandra Wasti
Sudheer Sharma

Team of desk reviewers
Deepak Adhikari
Harsha Man Maharjan
Hem Raj Kafle
Prakash Acharya

274

Appendix 11: Terms of Reference (TOR)

Component One:
Mapping (with the time line)

Literature and desk review of media capacity development initiatives to date.
a. Nepals media history and current situation;
b. Medias role and impact in political and social aspects;
c. Media law and their implications on media;
d. Capacity development opportunities for journalists in the media houses and awards,
fellowships and training; and
e. Overview of TU/ PU/KU journalism training curriculum and other capacity
development initiatives by donor/ INGOs/ NGOs

Journalists Assessment
Assessment of journalists to identify, challenges faced by journalists and capacity development
needs.
This assessment will be done in person, as well through via journalist networks reaching rural and
urban journalists, from both print and broadcast backgrounds.

(A) Coverage: 10 districts (15 per cent of total districts with FNJ membership)
(B) Coverage distribution: Kathmandu, 4 districts from Terai, 3 from Hilly and 2 from Mountain
regions spread across the development regions
(C) Respondents: approximately 800 (approximately 10 per cent of total journalists including
women, Dalit, Madhesis and marginalized community)
( D) Respondent distribution: spread proportionally among print (daily, weekly, magazine) and
electronic (radio, television, online) journalists

The survey questions will seek answers on their academic background, experience, beat, challenges
they face, trainings they participated in, capacity development need, their perception of media
credibility and their suggestions to improve the overall perception of journalism and media.

Proposed Time Frame: 3 months (From Feb 23, 2012)

Component Two: Public Opinion Poll
General survey backed up by on air (via sms) and online polling capacity to reveal publics view
towards Nepali media and journalists as a source of credible information, as well as assess citizens
media literacy.

A survey of public, sampled randomly along with SMS and online polling by their choice to
participate, to understand their perception of media on credibility, level of reliability on media as the
source of information (various topics such as constitution making, national politics, good
governance, etc) and the level of their media literacy.

The survey will analyze first 2,000+ responses

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Appendix 12: Survey form online

http://www.nepalmediasurvey.org

276

Appendix 13: List of selected professional associations & groups

Federation of Nepali Journalist
Sancharika Samuha
Association of Nepalese Indigenous Nationalities Journalists Nepal
Jagaran Media Center
Revolutionary Journalists Association
Press Union
Press Chautari
Reporters Club
Working Women Journalists Association
Nepal Forum of Environmental Journalists (NEFEJ)
Education Journalists Group
Health Journalists Group
South Asian Free Media Association (SAFMA)
Sampadak Samaj
Photo Journalists Association
Sports Journalists Association
Sancharika Samuha Nepal
Nepal Working Journalists Association
Nepal Independent Journalists Association
National Union of Journalists
Madesh Media House
Journalists Development Society Nepal
Association of Community Radio Broadcasters (ACORAB)

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Appendix 14: List of tables and figures

Table 1: Examples of media credibility measures
Table 2: Nature of academic programs in universities
Table 3: Journalism/media training institutions
Table 4: Mapping Literature on credibility, capacity and literacy
Table 5: Area-wise breakdown of sample journalists in percentages
Table 6: Area-wise breakdown of sample public
Table 7: Learning opportunities at least once in the past by journalists' educational levels
Table 8: Learning opportunities at least once in the past by journalists' major study areas
Table 9: Learning opportunities at least once in the past by beats
Table 10: Learning opportunities at least once in the past by journalists' media outlet types
Table 11: Learning opportunities at least once in the past by journalists' media ownership types
Table 12: Capacity development needs by major study areas of journalists
Table 13: Capacity development needs by education level of journalists
Table 14: Capacity development needs by major outlets journalists work for
Table 15: Capacity development needs by media ownership types
Table 16: Capacity development needs by journalists' beats
Table 17: Level of training preferences by education level, major study area, major outlet and beat
Figure 1: Capacity development model
Figure 2: Cluster map for journalists' and public opinion surveys, June-July 2012

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MEDIA & THE NEPALI PUBLIC: Survey Assessments of Media Capacity, Credibility
and Media Literacy showcases findings of surveys the Media Foundation undertook
in partnership with UNDP, the government of Japan and UNESCO during April-July,
2012. Overall, the assessments found that Nepali media landscape today is
characterized by increasing reach and access; however, challenges persist in mapping
media development, improving professional ethics, media credibility, media capacity
and media literacy in the country.

Media and The Nepali Public 2012

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