CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION TO SYSTEMIC PATHOLOGY WHAT IS AGING?

The study of aging - gerontology - is a relatively new science that has made incredible progress over the last 30 years. In the past, scientists looked for a single theory that explained aging. There are

two main groups of aging theories. The first group

states that aging is natural and programmed into the body, while the second group of aging theories says that aging is a result of damage which is accumulated over time. In the end, aging is a complex interaction of genetics, chemistry, physiology and behavior. OTHERS DEFINITION ABOUT AGING
Complex biological process in which changes at

molecular, cellular, and organ levels result

in a progressive, inevitable, and inescapable decrease in the bodys ability to respond appropriately to internal and/or external stressors.

Aging is an enigma of the role of senescence in nature.

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AGING AND TELOMERE?????

A chromosome is a long strand of DNA. At the

end of a

chromosome is a telomere, which acts like a bookend.

Telomeres keep chomosomes protected and prevent them from fusing into rings or binding with other DNA. Telomeres play an important role in cell division. What Happens When a Cell Divides? Each time a cell divides, the DNA unwraps and the information in the DNA is copied. The process does not copy all of the DNA information - the telomeres are not copied. When the cell is finished dividing, the DNA comes back together. The telomeres lose a little bit of length each time this happens.

TELOMERE, CELL DEATH AND CANCER..

Cancer Cancer is a condition in which certain cells in your body stop dying. Every system in your body is carefully balanced to allow for cells replicating and dying. If cells stop dying and keep replicating, the balance is disrupted and there are too many of one kind of cell. Groups of these cells form tumors. Researchers believe that cancer cells are creating an enzyme called telomerase, which prevents telomere shortening. Where Does Telomerase Come From? Every cell in your body has the genetic code to make telomerase, but only certain cells need to produce this enzyme. White blood cells and sperm cells, for example, need to have telomere shortening switched off in order to make copies of themselves through your lifetime. In

advanced cancer, the cancer cells also seem to be producing telomerase, which allows them to continue to replicate without dying.

PROGRAMMED AGING THEORY: Assert that the human body is designed to age and there is a certain biological timeline that our bodies follow.

These theories assert that aging is an essential and innate part of the biology of people, and that aging is programmed into our body systems. The three main systems that are connected with aging are the endocrine

(hormonal) system, the immune system and our genes. These systems change over time. These changes cause the symptoms and signs of aging.

What happen to our endocrine system as we age? The hormone or endocrine theory of aging asserts that the most important factors in aging are the changes brought about in the body by the endocrine system. The complex endocrine system of our body controls the hormones

that regulate many body

processes. As we age, these systems become less efficient,

leading to changes in our bodies such as menopause. The hormone theory of aging believes that these changes eventually cause the effects of aging. How our immune systems contribute in aging? The immune system theory of aging is that the rate of aging is largely controlled by the immune system. As we age, the numbers of critical cells in the immune system decrease and become less functional. Starting before age 20, the thymus (which produced certain immune cells) begins to shrink. GENE The genetic theory of aging believes that lifespan is largely determined by the genes we inherit. According to the theory, our potential age is primarily determined at the moment of conception. The Evidence behind the Theory: There is some evidence to support this theory. People with parents who have lived long lives are more likely to live long themselves (though this could be partially explained by learned behaviors, such as food preferences). Also, identical twins (who have the exact same genes) have closer lifespans than siblings.

How Genes Impact Lifespan: Some genes are beneficial and enhance longevity -- a gene that helps a person metabolize cholesterol would reduce a person's risk of heart disease, for example. But some genes are harmful, like those that increase the risk cancer. Some gene mutations are inherited, too, and may shorten lifespan. (Mutations also can happen after birth, since exposure to toxins, free radicals and radiation can cause gene changes.) GENE THEORYAND GENE MUTATION THEORY What is the function of DNA and RNA?

Gene theory and gene mutation theory both offer explanations for aging at the level of DNA. Gene theory suggests that genes are somehow altered over time, such that they naturally cause aging . Gene mutation theory is based on the observation that mutations accumulate over time, and it is mutations that cause aging and disease. This view is supported by the fact that samples of cells from older people do generally have more genetic mutations than cells taken from younger people.

In addition, some diseases associated with age result from genetic mutations. Cancer is often the result of multiple mutations and some mutations reveal underlying genetic weaknesses, which cause disease in some people. Gene mutation theory also notes that for mutations to accumulate, normal DNA-repair mechanisms must have weakened. All cells have inherent repair mechanisms that routinely fix DNA errors. For these errors to accumulate, the repair system must have gone awry, and DNA-repair failure is thought to be a factor in cancer.

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Cross-link theory: When you heat onions or toast bread, the sugar molecules bond to protein molecules. This bonding, which in cooking is called carmalization, is a result of the sugar molecules attaching to protein molecules. When this happens, a series of reactions occur (called glycation) that result in protein molecules bonding to each other. The process is slow and complicated, but over time more and more protein molecules are cross-linked. These cross-linked molecules don't function properly. When enough cross-linked molecules accumulate in a specific tissue (such as cartilage, lungs, arteries and tendons), there can be a change in function. What Changes With Cross-Linking? Basically, things become stiffer. When tissues stiffen, they do not function as efficiently. Many of the symptoms of aging have to do with the stiffening of tissues. Cataracts, for example, are a stiffening of your eyes' lenses. Researchers believe that if the concentration of sugar in the blood is high, then more cross-linking occurs. Everyone could benefit from keeping their blood sugar from spiking. Foods with a high glycemic index, such as sugary sodas and juices, release sugar into the body quickly. These foods have been associated with

disease.

cardiovascular

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FREE RADICAL THEORY: Free radicals are a byproduct of normal cell function. When cells create energy, they also produce unstable

oxygen

molecules. These molecules, called free radicals, have a free

electron. This electron makes the molecule highly unstable. The free radical bonds to other molecules in the body - causing proteins and other essential molecules to not function as they should. Luckily, antioxidants can minimize free radical damage. Antioxidants - the Free Radical Sponge This theory asserts that many of the changes that occur as our bodies age are caused by free radicals. Damage to DNA, protein cross-linking and other changes have been attributed to free radicals. Over time, this damage accumulates and causes us to experience aging.

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The Evidence: There is some evidence. Studies have shown that increasing the amount of antioxidants in the diets of mice and other animals can slow the effects of aging. This theory does not fully explain all the changes that occur during aging. It is likely that free radicals are only one part in the aging equation.

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ACCUMULATE OF ERROR THEORY:

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WEAR AND TEAR THEORY:

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The wear and tear theory of aging believes that the effects of aging are caused by damage done to cells and body systems over time . Essentially, these systems "wear out" due to use. Once they wear out, they can no longer function correctly. Causes of Damage: A range of things can damage body systems. Exposure to radiation, toxins and ultraviolet light can damage our genes. The effects of our body's own functioning can also cause damage. When the body metabolizes oxygen, free radicals are produced that can cause damage to cells and tissues. The Evidence: Not much. While the theory makes some sense if you think of the body as a machine, it doesn't really work when you realize the capacity of the body to repair damage. Of course, not all damage can be repaired fully, and mistakes in repairs may accumulate over time. A more likely explanation is that the decrease of functioning that is seen as "tear" in the "wear and tear" theory is really the result, not the cause, of aging. AUTOIMMUME THEORY:
The immune system is the most important line of defense against foreign substances that enter the body. With age the system's ability to produce necessary antibodies that fight disease declines, as does its ability to distinguish between antibodies and proteins. In a sense the immune system becomes selfdestructive and reacts against itself. Examples of autoimmune disease are lupus, scleroderma and adult-onset diabetes.

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