Nanotechnology Applications Nanotechnologies to be more specific: nanomaterials are already used in numerous products and industrial applications.

s. Our Nanotechnology Products and Applications database already provides an overview of how nanomaterials and nanostructuring applications are used today in industrial and commercial appplications across industries (please note: This is NOT a consumer products database that you can find elsewhere; so no antibacterial socks, bathroom cleaners, face creams, or pet products here...). Our section "Ten things you should know about nanotechnology" provides you with an excellent first overview of what nanotechnologies are, what they are used for, and what some of the key issues are. If you want to get a more in-depth view of nanotechnology in important industry areas, then this section is for you. Here is a brief overview of some current applications of nanomaterials. Most of them represent evolutionary developments of existing technologies: for example, the reduction in size of electronics devices. Composites An important use of nanoparticles and nanotubes is in composites, materials that combine one or more separate components and which are designed to exhibit overall the best properties of each component. This multi-functionality applies not only to mechanical properties, but extends to optical, electrical and magnetic ones. Currently, carbon fibres and bundles of multi-walled CNTs are used in polymers to control or enhance conductivity, with applications such as antistatic packaging. The use of individual CNTs in composites is a potential long-term application. A particular type of nanocomposite is where nanoparticles act as fillers in a matrix; for example, carbon black used as a filler to reinforce car tyres. However, particles of carbon black can range from tens to hundreds of nanometres in size, so not all carbon black falls within our definition of nanoparticles. Clays Clays containing naturally occurring nanoparticles have long been important as construction materials and are undergoing continuous improvement. Clay particle based composites containing plastics and nano-sized flakes of clay are also finding applications such as use in car bumpers. Coatings and Surfaces Coatings with thickness controlled at the nano- or atomic scale have been in routine production for some time, for example in molecular beam epitaxy or metal oxide chemical vapor depositionfor optoelectonic devices, or in catalytically active and chemically functionalized surfaces. Recently developed applications include the selfcleaning window, which is coated in highly activated titanium dioxide, engineered to be highly hydrophobic (water repellent) and antibacterial, and coatings based on nanoparticulate oxides that catalytically destroy chemical agents. Wear and scratchresistant hard coatings are significantly improved by nanoscale intermediate layers (or multilayers) between the hard outer layer and the substrate material. The intermediate layers give good bonding and graded matching of elastic and thermal properties, thus improving adhesion. A range of enhanced textiles, such as breathable, waterproof and stainresistant fabrics, have been enabled by the improved control of porosity at the nanoscale and surface roughness in a variety of polymers and inorganics. Tougher and Harder Cutting Tools Cutting tools made of nanocrystalline materials, such as tungsten carbide, tantalum carbide and titanium carbide, are more wear and erosion-resistant, and last longer than their conventional (large-grained) counterparts. They are finding applications in the drills used to bore holes in circuit boards. Paints Incorporating nanoparticles in paints could improve their performance, for example by making them lighter and giving them different properties. Thinner paint coatings

(lightweighting), used for example on aircraft, would reduce their weight, which could be beneficial to the environment. However, the whole life cycle of the aircraft needs to be considered before overall benefits can be claimed. It may also be possible to substantially reduce solvent content of paints, with resulting environmental benefits. New types of foulingresistant marine paint could be developed and are urgently needed as alternatives to tributyl tin (TBT), now that the ecological impacts of TBT have been recognised. Anti-fouling surface treatment is also valuable in process applications such as heat exchange, where it could lead to energy savings. If they can be produced at sufficiently low cost, fouling-resistant coatings could be used in routine duties such as piping for domestic and industrial water systems. It remains speculation whether very effective anti-fouling coatings could reduce the use of biocides, including chlorine. Other novel, and more long-term, applications for nanoparticles might lie in paints that change colour in response to change in temperature or chemical environment, or paints that have reduced infra-red absorptivity and so reduce heat loss. Concerns about the health and environmental impacts of nanoparticles may require the need for the durability and abrasion behaviour of nano-engineered paints and coatings to be addressed, so that abrasion products take the form of coarse or microscopic agglomerates rather than individual nanoparticles. Lubricants Nanospheres of inorganic materials could be used as lubricants, in essence by acting as nanosized ball bearings. The controlled shape is claimed to make them more durable than conventional solid lubricants and wear additives. Whether the increased financial and resource cost of producing them is offset by the longer service life of lubricants and parts remains to be investigated. It is also claimed that these nanoparticles reduce friction between metal surfaces, particularly at high normal loads. If so, they should find their first applications in high-performance engines and drivers; this could include the energy sector as well as transport. There is a further claim that this type of lubricant is effective even if the metal surfaces are not highly smooth. Again, the benefits of reduced cost and resource input for machining must be compared against production of nanolubricants. In all these applications, the particles would be dispersed in a conventional liquid lubricant; design of the lubricant system must therefore include measures to contain and manage waste. In the following, we are taking a closer look at how nanotechnologies already are impacting many industrial areas. An excellent staring point is this chart that lists an impressive array of applications of nanoparticles: Food Nanotechnology Nanotechnology has begun to find potential applications in the area of functional food by engineering biological molecules toward functions very different from those they have in nature, opening up a whole new area of research and development. Of course, there seems to be no limit to what food technologists are prepared to do to our food and nanotechnology will give them a whole new set of tools to go to new extremes. For a more critical view of food nanotechnology, just take a look at "Nanotechnology food coming to a fridge near you" or "Are you ready for your nano-engineered wine? But there are also a lot of positives. Let's take a look at the potentially beneficial effects nanotechnology-enabled innovations could have on our foods and, subsequently, on our health. According to a definition in a recent report ("Nanotechnology in Agriculture and Food"; pdf), food is nanofood when nanoparticles, nanotechnology techniques or tools are used during cultivation, production, processing, or packaging of the food. It does not mean atomically modified food or food produced by nanomachines. Here is an overview of what nanotechnology applications are currently being researched, tested and in some cases already applied in food technology:

Let's start with where the benefits of this will be needed most: third world countries where food supply is often limited and the quality of available food leads to nutritional deficiencies and the quality of drinking water ia a major contributor to disease. In a study by the University of Toronto Joint Centre for Bioethics from two years ago ("Nanotechnology and the Developing World"; pdf), a panel of international experts ranked the 10 nanotechnology applications in development worldwide with the greatest potential to aid the poor. Number two on the list was "agricultural productivity enhancement", number three was "water treatment and remediation" and number six was "food processing and storage." Recent research has begun to address the potential applications of nanotechnology for functional foods and nutraceuticals by applying the new concepts and engineering approaches involved in nanomaterials to target the delivery of bioactive compounds and micronutrients. Nanomaterials allow better encapsulation and release efficiency of the active food ingredients compared to traditional encapsulating agents, and the development of nano-emulsions, liposomes, micelles, biopolymer complexes and cubosomes have led to improved properties for bioactive compounds protection, controlled delivery systems, food matrix integration, and masking undesired flavors. Nanotechnology also has the potential to improve food processes that use enzymes to confer nutrition and health benefits. For example, enzymes are often added to food to hydrolyze anti-nutritive components and hence increase the bio-availability of essential nutrients such as minerals and vitamins. To make these enzymes highly active, longlived and cost-effective, nanomaterials can be used to provide superior enzyme-support systems due to their large surface-to-volume ratios compared to traditional macroscale support materials. Application Processed nanostructured or -textured food (e.g. less use of fat and emulsifiers, better taste Nanocarrier systems for delivery of nutrients and supplements in the form of liposomes or biopolymer-based nanoencapsulated substances Organic nanosized additives for food, supplements and animal feed Inorganic nanosized additives for food, health food, and animal feed Status A number of nanostructured food ingredients and additives understood to be in the R&D pipeline; eg. mayonnaise A number are commercially available in some countries and over the internet

Materials range from colors, preservatives, flavorings to supplements and antimicrobials A range of inorganic additives (silver, iron, silica, titanium dioxide, selenium, platinum, calcium, magnesium) is available for supplements, nutraceuticals, and food and feed applications This area makes up the largest share of the current/short-term market for nanotech applications in the food sector (e.g. plastic polymers with nanoclay as gas barrier; nanosilver and nanozinc oxide for antimicrobial action; nanotitanium nitride for strength)

Food packaging applications eg. plastic polymers containing or coated with nanomaterials for improved mechanical or functional properties (see for instance: "Food packaging takes over the role of quality control")

Nanocoatings on food contact surfaces for barrier or antimicrobial properties

A number of nanomaterial-based coatings are available for food preparation surfaces and for coating food preparation machinery Main uses are currently in food packaging; possible uses emerging in animal feed R&D stage R&D stage

Surface-functionalized nanomaterials

Nanosized agrochemicals Nanosensors for food labelling (see: "Edible optical nanotechnology sensor for food packaging") Water decontamination

Nano iron is already available in industrial-scale quantities. A number of companies thought to be using the technology in developing countries Nanosized additives specifically developed or are under development for feed include nanomaterials that can bind and remove toxins or pathogens

Animal feed applications

Nanotechnology in Energy Nanotechnologies provide the potential to enhance energy efficiency across all branches of industry and to economically leverage renewable energy production through new technological solutions and optimized production technologies. Nanotechnology innovations could impact each part of the value-added chain in the energy sector: Energy sources Nanotechnologies provide essential improvement potentials for the development of both conventional energy sources (fossil and nuclear fuels) and renewable energy sources like geothermal energy, sun, wind, water, tides or biomass. Nano-coated, wear resistant drill probes, for example, allow the optimization of lifespan and efficiency of systems for the development of oil and natural gas deposits or geothermal energy and thus the saving of costs. Further examples are high-duty nanomaterials for lighter and more rugged rotor blades of wind and tidepower plants as well as wear and corrosion protection layers for mechanically stressed components (bearings, gear boxes, etc.). Nanotechnologies will play a decisive role in particular in the intensified use of solar energy through photovoltaic systems. In case of conventional crystalline silicon solar cells, for instance, increases in efficiency are achievable by antireflection layers for higher light yield. First and foremost, however, it will be the further development of alternative cell types, such as thin-layer solar cells (among others of silicon or other material systems like copper/indium/selenium), dye solar cells or polymer solar cells, which will predominantly profit from nanotechnologies. Polymer solar cells are said to have high potential especially regarding the supply of portable electronic devices, due to the reasonablypriced materials and production methods as well as the flexible design. Medium-term development targets are an efficiency of approx. 10% and a lifespan of several years. Here, for example, nanotechnologies could contribute to the optimization of the layer design and the morphology of organic semiconductor mixtures in component structures. In the long run, the utilization of nanostructures, like quantum dots and wires, could allow for solar cell efficiencies of over 60%.

Energy conversion
The conversion of primary energy sources into electricity, heat and kinetic energy requires utmost efficiency. Efficiency increases, especially in fossil-fired gas and steam power plants, could help avoid considerable amounts of carbon dioxide emissions. Higher power plant efficiencies, however, require higher operating temperatures and thus heat-resistant turbine materials. Improvements are possible, for example, through nano-scale heat and corrosion protection layers for turbine blades in power plants or aircraft engines to enhance the efficiency through increased operating temperatures or the application of lightweight construction materials (e.g. titanium aluminides). Nano-optimized membranes can extend the scope of possibilities for separation and climate-neutral storage of carbon dioxide for power generation in coal-fired power plants, in order to render this important method of power generation environmentally friendlier in the long run. The energy yield from the conversion of chemical energy through fuel cells can be stepped up by nano-structured electrodes, catalysts and membranes, which results in economic application possibilities in automobiles, buildings and the operation of mobile electronics. Thermoelectric energy conversion seems to be comparably promising. Nano-structured semiconductors with optimized boundary layer design contribute to increases in efficiency that could pave the way for a broad application in the utilization of waste heat, for example in automobiles, or even of human body heat for portable electronics in textiles.

Energy distribution
Regarding the reduction of energy losses in current transmission, hope exists that the extraordinary electric conductivity of nanomaterials like carbon nanotubes can be utilized for application in electric cables and power lines. Furthermore, there are nanotechnological approaches for the optimization of superconductive materials for lossless current conduction. In the long run, options are given for wireless energy transport, e.g. through laser, microwaves or electromagnetic resonance. Future power distribution will require power systems providing dynamic load and failure management, demand-driven energy supply with flexible price mechanisms as well as the possibility of feeding through a number of decentralized renewable energy sources. Nanotechnologies could contribute decisively to the realization of this vision, inter alia, through nano-sensory devices and power-electronical components able to cope with the extremely complex control and monitoring of such grids.

Energy storage
The utilization of nanotechnologies for the enhancement of electrical energy stores like batteries and super-capacitors turns out to be downright promising. Due to the high cell voltage and the outstanding energy and power density, the lithium-ion technology is regarded as the most promising variant of electrical energy storage. Current materials for chemical hydrogen storage do not meet the demands of the automotive industry, which requires a hydrogen-storage capacity of up to ten weight percent. Various nanomaterials, inter alia based on nanoporous metal-organic compounds, provide development potentials, which seem to be economically realizable at least with regard to the operation of fuel cells in portable electronic devices. Another important field is thermal energy storage. The energy demand in buildings, for example, may be significantly reduced by using phase change materials such as latent heat stores. Interesting, from an economic point of view, are also adsorption stores based on nanoporous materials like zeolites, which could be applied as heat stores in district heating grids or in industry. The adsorption of water in zeolite allows the reversible storage and release of heat.

Energy usage
To achieve sustainable energy supply, and parallel to the optimized development of available energy sources, it is necessary to improve the efficiency of energy use and to avoid unnecessary energy consumption. This applies to all branches of industry and private households. Nanotechnologies provide a multitude of approaches to energy saving. Examples are the reduction of fuel consumption in automobiles through lightweight construction materials on the basis of nanocomposites, the optimization in fuel combustion through wear-resistant, lighter engine components and nanoparticular fuel additives or even nanoparticles for optimized tires with low rolling resistance. Considerable energy savings are realizable through tribological layers for mechanical components in plants and machines. Building technology also provides great potentials for energy savings, which could be tapped, for example, by nanoporous thermal insulation material suitably applicable in the energetic rehabilitation of old buildings. In general, the control of light and heat flux by nanotechnological components, as for example switchable glasses, is a promising approach to reducing energy consumption in buildings. Graphene Nanotechnology in Energy Graphene-based nanomaterials have many promising applications in energy-related areas. Just some recent examples: Graphene improves both energy capacity and charge rate in rechargeable batteries; activated graphene makes superior supercapacitors for energy storage; graphene electrodes may lead to a promising approach for making solar cells that are inexpensive, lightweight and flexible; and multifunctional graphene mats are promising substrates for catalytic systems. These examples highlight the four major energy-related areas where graphene will have an impact: solar cells, supercapacitors, lithium-ion batteries, and catalysis for fuel cells. An excellent review paper ("Chemical Approaches toward Graphene-Based Nanomaterials and their Applications in Energy-Related Areas") gives a brief overview of the recent research concerning chemical and thermal approaches toward the production of well-defined graphene-based nanomaterials and their applications in energy-related areas. The authors note, however, that before graphene-based nanomaterials and devices find widespread commercial use, two important problems have to be solved: one is the preparation of graphene-based nanomaterials with well-defined structures, and the other is the controllable fabrication of these materials into functional devices.

Solar cells
Graphene has great potential to be used for low-cost, flexible, and highly efficient photovoltaic devices due to its excellent electron-transport properties and extremely high carrier mobility. "Recently, several graphene-based solar cells have been reported, in which graphene serves as different parts of the cell. One of the reasons for the current interest in graphene is the great potential for transparent and conductive electrodes in solar cells. Graphene is an ideal 2D material which can be assembled into film electrodes with good transparency, high conductivity, and low roughness." Graphene also has other attractive properties for photovoltaic devices: "For example, graphene has been incorporated into conjugated polymers to improve the exciton dissociation and the charge-transport properties of the materials. Additionally, graphene also has potential to be used as photoactive material, since its bandgap and bandposition can be induced and tuned via chemical functionalization or by controlling the size of the graphene sheets."

Lithium-ion batteries
The energy densities and performances of rechargeable lithium ion batteries which are used widely in portable electronics such as cell phones, laptop computers, digital cameras, etc. largely depend on the physical and chemical properties of the electrode materials. Thus, many research attempts have been made to design novel nanostructures and to explore new electrode materials in order to achieve higher capacity and to increase the battery's charge rate, increasingly also employing graphene in form of nanosheets, paper, and carbon nanotube or fullerene hybrids of graphene materials should depend highly on the layers. Single- or few-layered graphene, with less agglomeration, should be expected to exhibit a higher effective surface area and thus better supercapacitor performance."

Catalysis
Graphene has recently received special interest in the field of catalysis because of its unique two-dimensional structure with its high surface area, special electronic and ballistic transport properties. "Various graphene-based nanomaterials, such as functionalized graphenes, doped graphene, and graphene/metal or metal oxide composites, are emerging and have been investigated as catalysts for electrocatalytic reactions in fuel cells or other traditional catalytic reactions,"

Outlook
Many critical problems are still waiting for efficient solutions, particularly regarding the precise structural engineering of graphene, which is crucial for both bandgap adjustment and building-block functionalization. According to them, graphene chemistry is obviously one of the best choices to solve these problems. In the meantime, graphene-based materials are emerging as highly attractive materials for real applications, especially in the area of energy conversion and storage. "Since the incorporation of graphene with an active second phase, such as carbon nanotubes, conducting polymers and metal oxides, can dramatically enhance the performance due to the synergistic effects, graphene-based composites are of scientific and industrial interest and may become competitive materials for energy-related applications," Notwithstanding all the progress that has been made in the recent past, the authors conclude that the research toward an understanding of the relationship between graphene-based nanomaterials and improved performance in energy-related applications is still at its early stage, and dilemmas remain for further studies.

Nanotechnology in Space
Nanotechnology will play an important role in future space missions. Nanosensors, dramatically improved high-performance materials, or highly efficient propulsion systems are but a few examples.

Propulsion systems

Most of today's rocket engines rely on chemical propulsion. All current spacecraft use some form of chemical rocket for launch and most use them for attitude control as well (the control of the angular position and rotation of the spacecraft, either relative to the object that it is orbiting, or relative to the celestial sphere). Real rocket scientists though are actively researching new forms of space propulsion systems. One heavily researched area is electric propulsion (EP) that includes field emission electric propulsion (FEEP), colloid thrusters and other versions of field emission thrusters (FETs). EP systems significantly reduce the required propellant mass compared to conventional chemical rockets, allowing to increase the payload capacity or decrease the

launch mass. EP has been successfully demonstrated as primary propulsion systems for NASAs Deep Space 1, Japans HAYABUSA, and ESAs SMART-1 missions. A nanotechnology EP concept proposes to utilize electrostatically charged and accelerated nanoparticles as propellant. Millions of micron-sized nanoparticle thrusters would fit on one square centimeter, allowing the fabrication of highly scalable thruster arrays. Pretty far out are proposals that the manipulation of Casimir forces could lead to a propulsion system for interstellar spaceships. The basic idea is that if one could exploit the fact that vacuum is an energy reservoir, thanks to zero-point energy, future space travelers would have access to a limitless energy source. The only thing they need, of course, is some kind of propulsion system that harvests the required energy from the vacuum. That this is not totally crazy was demonstrated in a 1984 paper. Serious research efforts are being made in various laboratories to harness the Casimir and related effects for vacuum energy conversion (read more: "nanotechnology, the mysterious Casimir Force, and interstellar spaceships").

Radiation shielding
Radiation shielding is an area where nanotechnology could make a major contribution to human space flight. NASA says that the risks of exposure to space radiation are the most significant factor limiting humans ability to participate in long-duration space missions. A lot of research therefore focuses on developing countermeasures to protect astronauts from those risks. To meet the needs for radiation protection as well as other requirements such as low weight and structural stability, spacecraft designers are looking for materials that help them develop multifunctional spacecraft hulls. Advanced nanomaterials such as the newly developed, isotopically enriched boron nanotubes could pave the path to future spacecraft with nanosensor-integrated hulls that provide effective radiation shielding as well as energy storage. Another area of required radiation shielding is the protection of onboard electronics. It has been reported previously that electronic devices became more radiation tolerant when their dimensions are reduced. For example, multi-quantum well or quantum dot devices can be tens or hundreds times more radiation tolerant than conventional bulk devices. It even was shown that quantum dot/CNT-based photovoltaic devices were five orders of magnitude more resistant than conventional bulk solar cells. Recently, a few studies on radiation effects of high energetic particles such as proton, electron, and heavy ions on nanomaterials like carbon nanotubes and nanowires have focused on the changed structural properties of the nanomaterials after irradiation (read more: "Carbon nanotubes harden electronics for use in aerospace"). Anti-satellite weapon countermeasure In January 2007, China successfully tested an Anti-satellite (ASAT) missile system by destroying their own defunct LEO satellite, which generated huge amounts of space debris. This ASAT test raised worldwide concerns about the vulnerability of satellites and other space assets and possibility of triggering an arms race in space. In order to meet emerging challenges posed by such ASAT missile systems, military strategists and researchers are developing novel technologies to protect their space assets. In view of this, Raytheon Company has developed a counter measure system using quantum dots to protect space assets such as satellites from missile attacks. They have developed a decoy consisting of quantum dots of different sizes and shapes that are engineered to emit radiation having a radiation profile similar to that of the asset. Space elevator

Tie a rock to the end of a piece of ribbon, then spin it over your head. It will be pulled taut as the rock circles about. Now, imagine a ribbon 62,000 miles long, anchored near the equator with a weight on the other end. The centrifugal force of the earth's rotation will make it behave the same way. You'll end up with not only the world's biggest nunchuck, but also a kind of elevator to outer space. A space elevator based on carbon nanotube cables is one of those ideas from 1950sstyle futurism that are so whacky they might just work.

Protecting satellites from energy weapons

A recent research paper published at the Center for Strategy and Technology, at the Air Force's Air War College, discusses how nanotechnology can be used to improve the design of satellites to mitigate the threats posed by ground-based directed energy weapons and high-powered microwaves. The paper states that several nations, including the U.S., Russia and China, already have either built or are developing the technology to construct ground-based directed energy weapons.

Space instrumentation
Black is black, right? Not so, according to a team of NASA engineers now developing a blacker-than pitch nanomaterial that will help scientists gather hard-to-obtain scientific measurements or observe currently unseen astronomical objects, like Earth-sized planets in orbit around other stars. The nanomaterial being developed by a team of 10 technologists at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md., is a thin coating of multi-walled carbon nanotubes. While carbon nanotubes would find use in the Space Elevator thanks to their extraordinary strength, in this application, NASA is interested in using the technology to help suppress errant light that has a funny way of ricocheting off instrument components and contaminating measurements. MIT hosts the Space Nanotechnology Laboratory whose primary mission is to develop nano-fabrication, advanced lithography and precision engineering technology for building high performance space instrumentation, including x-ray telescopes and high resolution x-ray spectrometers, magnetospheric imagers and solar physics instrumentation. The use of nanotechnology materials and applications in the construction industry should be considered not only for enhancing material properties and functions but also in the context of energy conservation. This is a particularly important prospect since a high percentage of all energy used (e.g., 41% in the United States) is consumed by commercial buildings and residential houses by applications such as heating, lighting, and air conditioning. According to an economic assessment (pdf), nanotechnology has a significant impact in the construction sector. Several applications have been developed for this specific sector to improve the durability and enhanced performance of construction components, energy efficiency and safety of the buildings, facilitating the ease of maintenance and to provide increased living comfort. Though self-cleaning feature has been possible to attain using micron sized coatings and surface treatments e.g. Teflon, polysilazane based coatings, etc. now this feature has become a marketing tool / motto for nanotechnology applications, especially for consumer markets like construction, textile, etc. "Nanoparticles of TiO2, Al2O3 or ZnO are applied as a final coating on construction ceramics to bring this characteristic to the surfaces. TiO2 is being used for its ability to break down dirt or pollution when exposed to UV light and then allow it to be washed off by rainwater on surfaces like tiles, glass and sanitaryware. ZnO is used to have UV resistance in both coatings and paints. Nanosized Al2O3 particles are used to make

surfaces scratch resistant. These surfaces also prevent / decelerate formation of bad smells, fungus and mould. "Basic construction materials cement, concrete and steel will also benefit from nanotechnology. Addition of nanoparticles will lead to stronger, more durable, selfhealing, air purifying, fire resistant, easy to clean and quick compacting concrete. Some of the nanoparticles that could be used for these features are nano silica (silica fume), nanostructured metals, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and carbon nanofibers (CNFs). Current pressure to reduce CO2 emissions from the manufacture of cement is guiding research to use nanotechnology to alter the processing conditions of cement, therefore reducing these emissions. Concrete structures also make profit from nano-enhanced coatings that prevent graffiti and other unwanted stains to adhere on to it. In addition to these materials, new lightweight, flame-retardant, self-healing and resilient construction materials, e.g. new nanocomposites, are expected to be helped in their development by nanotechnology. "Nanotechnology will also have a considerable impact on glass and therefore on windows. For marketing purposes, these windows are commonly called smart windows which implies that they are multifunctional through their energy saving, easy cleaning, UV controlling and photovoltaic features. "Nanotechnology could allow the development of materials with better insulation properties, intelligent structures capable of optimizing the use of energy. New insulating materials have been developed with the help of advances in nanotechnologies. These insulating materials are: nanofoams, nanostructured aerogels and vacuum insulated panels (VIPs). "In the future, smart living spaces will be made possible via embedded sensing systems that would enable buildings sense and act according to environment and also to the users needs." A review by scientists at Rice University has looked at the benefits of using nanomaterials in construction materials but also highlights the potentially harmful aspects of releasing nanomaterials into the environment. The team compiled a list of current use of nanomaterials in various building applications and also highlighted potential and promising future uses.

Which nanomaterials are used in construction

Carbon nanotubes Expected benefits are mechanical durability and crack prevention (in cement); enhanced mechanical and thermal properties (in ceramics); real-time structural health monitoring (NEMS/MEMS); and effective electron mediation (in solar cells). Silicon dioxide nanoparticles Expected benefits are reinforcement in mechanical strength (in concrete); coolant, light transmission, and fire resistance (in ceramics); flame-proofing and anti-reflection (in windows). Titanium dioxide nanoparticles Expected benefits are rapid hydration, increased degree of hydration, and self-cleaning (in concrete); superhydrophilicity, anti-fogging, and fouling-resistance (in windows); non-utility electricity generation (in solar cells). Iron oxide nanoparticles Expected benefits are increased compressive strength and abrasion-resistant in concrete. Copper nanoparticles Expected benefits are weldability, corrosion resistance, and formability in steel. Silver nanoparticles Expected benefits are biocidal activity in coatings and paints. Quantum dots Expected benefits are effective electron mediation in solar cells. One particular area for nanotechnology in the construction industry is concrete, specifically research on how to reinforce concrete to improve its mechanical performance.

Nanotechnology and the Environment

Nanotechnological products, processes and applications are expected to contribute significantly to environmental and climate protection by saving raw materials, energy and water as well as by reducing greenhouse gases and hazardous wastes. Using nanomaterials therefore promises certain environmental benefits and sustainability effects. Note, however, that nanotechnology currently plays a rather subordinate role in environmental protection, whether it be in research or in practical applications. Environmental engineering companies themselves attach only limited importance to nanotechnology in their respective fields.

Potential environmental benefits

Rising prices for raw materials and energy, coupled with the increasing environmental awareness of consumers, are responsible for a flood of products on the market that promise certain advantages for environmental and climate protection. Nanomaterials exhibit special physical and chemical properties that make them interesting for novel, environmentally friendly products. Examples include the increased durability of materials against mechanical stress or weathering, helping to increase the useful life of a product; nanotechnology-based dirtand water-resistant coatings to reduce cleaning efforts; novel insulation materials to improve the energy efficiency of buildings; adding nanoparticles to a material to reduce weight and save energy during transport. In the chemical industry sector, nanomaterials are applied based on their special catalytic properties in order to boost energy and resource efficiency, and nanomaterials can replace environmentally problematic chemicals in certain fields of application. High hopes are being placed in nanotechnologically optimized products and processes for energy production and storage; these are currently in the development phase and are slated to contribute significantly to climate protection and solving our energy problems in the future. In most commercially available nano-consumer products, environmental protection is not the primary goal. Neither textiles with nanosilver to combat perspiration odor, nor especially stable golf clubs with carbon nanotubes, help protect the environment. Manufacturers often promise such advantages, typically without providing the relevant evidence. Examples include self-cleaning surface coatings or textiles with spot protection, with are advertized as reducing the cleaning effort and therefore saving energy, water and cleaning agents. Emphasis is often placed on the sustainable potential of nanotechnology. Nonetheless, this usually reflects unsubstantiated expectations. Determining the actual effects of a product on the environment both positive and negative requires examining the entire life cycle from production of the raw material to disposal at the end of the life cycle. As a rule, the descriptions of environmental benefits fail to consider the amount of resources and energy consumed in producing the products.

Specific examples of nanotechnology applications that benefit the environment

Nanotechnology could make battery recycling economically attractive Many batteries still contain heavy metals such as mercury, lead, cadmium, and nickel, which can contaminate the environment and pose a potential threat to human health when batteries are improperly disposed of. Not only do the billions upon billions of batteries in landfills pose an environmental problem, they also are a complete waste of a potential and cheap raw material. Researchers have managed to recover pure zinc oxide nanoparticles from spent Zn-MnO2 batteries alkaline batteries. Nanomaterials for radioactive waste clean-up in water

Scientists are working on nanotechnology solution for radioactive waste cleanup, specifically the use of titanate nanofibers as absorbents for the removal of radioactive ions from water. Researchers have also reported that the unique structural properties of titanate nanotubes and nanofibers make them superior materials for removal of radioactive cesium and iodine ions in water. Nanotechnology-based solutions for oil spills Conventional clean-up techniques are not adequate to solve the problem of massive oil spills. In recent years, nanotechnology has emerged as a potential source of novel solutions to many of the world's outstanding problems. Although the application of nanotechnology for oil spill cleanup is still in its nascent stage, it offers great promise for the future. In the last couple of years, there has been particularly growing interest worldwide in exploring ways of finding suitable solutions to clean up oil spills through use of nanomaterials. Water applications The potential impact areas for nanotechnology in water applications are divided into three categories treatment and remediation, sensing and detection, and pollution prevention (read more: "Nanotechnology and water treatment") and the improvement of desalination technologies is one key area thereof. Nanotechnology-based water purification devices have the potential to transform the field of desalination, for instance by using the ion concentration polarization phenomenon (see: "Nanotechnology makes portable seawater desalination device possible"). Another, relatively new method of purifying brackish water is capacitive deionization (CDI) technology. The advantages of CDI are that it has no secondary pollution, is cost-effective and energy efficient. Nanotechnology researchers have developed a CDI application that uses graphene-like nanoflakes as electrodes for capacitive deionization. They found that the graphene electrodes resulted in a better CDI performance than the conventionally used activated carbon materials. Carbon dioxide capture Before CO2 can be stored in Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage (CCS) schemes, it must be separated from the other waste gases resulting from combustion or industrial processes. Most current methods used for this type of filtration are expensive and require the use of chemicals. Nanotechnology techniques to fabricate nanoscale thin membranes could lead to new membrane technology that could change that. Hydrogen production from sunlight - artificial photosynthesis Companies developing hydrogen-powered technologies like to wrap themselves in the green glow of environmentally friendly technology that will save the planet. While hydrogen fuel indeed is a clean energy carrier, the source of that hydrogen often is as dirty as it gets. The problem is that you can't dig a well to tap hydrogen, but hydrogen has to be produced, and that can be done using a variety of resources. The dirtiest method at least until highly efficient carbon capture and sequestration technologies are developed is the gasification of coal (read more: "Nanotechnology could clean up the hydrogen car's dirty little secret"). The cleanest by far would be renewable energy electrolysis: using renewable energy technologies such as wind, solar, geo- and hydrothermal power to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. Artificial photosynthesis, using solar energy to split water generating hydrogen and oxygen, can offer a clean and portable source of energy supply as durable as the sunlight. It takes about 2.5 volts to break a single water molecule down into oxygen along with negatively charged electrons and positively charged protons. It is the extraction and separation of these oppositely charged electrons and protons from water molecules that provides the electric power.

Working on the nanoscale, researchers have shown that an inexpensive and environmentally benign inorganic light harvesting nanocrystal array can be combined with a low-cost electrocatalyst that contains abundant elements to fabricate an inexpensive and stable system for photoelectrochemical hydrogen production. Green Nanotechnology There is a general perception that nanotechnologies will have a significant impact on developing 'green' and 'clean' technologies with considerable environmental benefits. The best examples are the use of nanotechnology in areas ranging from water treatment to energy breakthroughs and hydrogen applications. As a matter of fact, renewable energy applications probably are the areas where nanotechnology will make its first large-scale commercial breakthroughs (see: Nanotechnology applications could provide the required energy breakthroughs). Conflicting with this positive message is the growing body of research that raises questions about the potentially negative effects of engineered nanoparticles on human health and the environment. This area includes the actual processes of manufacturing nanomaterials and the environmental footprint they create, in absolute terms and in comparison with existing industrial manufacturing processes (read more: "Nanotechnology - not that green?"). In order to make any conclusive observations, 'green' nanotechnology requires a full life cycle assessment like any other industrially manufactured products. A white paper ("Green Nanotechnology Challenges And Opportunities"; pdf) issued by the ACS Green Chemistry Institute in partnership with the Oregon Nanoscience and Microtechnologies Institute addresses the critical challenges to advancing greener nanotechnology. Researchers agree that the safest possible future for advancing nanotechnology in a sustainable world can be reached by using green chemistry. Green chemistry means designing chemical products and processes in a way that reduces or eliminates hazardous substances from the beginning to end of a chemical products life cycle. The practice began in the United States with the passage of the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990, which established a national policy to prevent or reduce pollution at its source whenever feasible. Reducing pollution at the source, according to the act, "is fundamentally different and more desirable" than managing waste and controlling pollution. Since then, the EPA Green Chemistry Program has built collaborations with academia, industry, other government agencies, nongovernmental organizations and international partners to promote pollution prevention through green chemistry. As the report "Green Nanotechnology: It's easier than you think" (pdf) states: "Green nanotechnology offers the opportunity to head off adverse effects before they occur. Green nanotechnology can proactively influence the design of nanomaterials and products by eliminating or minimizing pollution from the production of the nanomaterials, taking a life cycle approach to nanoproducts to estimate and mitigate where environmental impacts might occur in the product chain, designing toxicity out of nanomaterials and using nanomaterials to treat or remediate existing environmental problems. Green nanotechnology does not arise de novo; rather, it builds on the principles of green chemistry and green engineering and focuses them through a new lens on the unique and often counterintuitive effects that occur in nanoscale materials. Apart from the obvious areas of using nanomaterials in the areas of solar cells, biofuels and fuel cells, green nanotechnology applications might involve a clean production process, such as synthesizing nanoparticles with sunlight or the recycling of industrial waste products into nanomaterials, such as turning diesel soot into carbon nanotubes. Just as an aside: there is some truly green nanotechnology: growing nanomaterials in plants however this will never address industrial production of nanomaterials.