A proposal to improve our understanding of entrepreneurship using the

4-H Study of Positive Youth Development: A Sample Case of

Proposed by
Richard M. Lerner Tufts University richard.lerner@tufts.edu William Damon Stanford University wdamon@stanford.edu Erin Phelps Tufts University Erin.phelps@tufts.edu Jacqueline V. Lerner Boston College lernerj@bc.edu

Applying Principles of Developmental Measurement and Methodology to Assess the Development of Entrepreneurship Across the Life Span
SUMMARY
The measures and design of a major, national longitudinal study of adolescent developmentthe 4-H Study of Positive Youth Developmentreflect the methodological features needed to provide quantitative and qualitative data pertinent to the role of both (1) potential contextual bases of entrepreneurship (e.g., relating to family influences or mentors roles); and (2) individual characteristics related to the life skills that may be a key precursor of entrepreneurial development (i.e., a measure of intentional self-regulation, Selection, Optimization, and Compensation ( SOC)). The study began with the assessment of fifth grade youth. Currently, eleventh grade data are being collected, and plans for grade twelve nearly are finalized. New measures can be added for the grade twelve data collection in order to provide new information about the late adolescent outcomes of early adolescent entrepreneurial interests, goals, and activities. If the study is extended beyond grade twelve, supplemental measures can be studied developmentally into the young adult years.

Priority changes suggested

Add new measures about entrepreneurship to twelfth grade data collection (2009-2010). Extend study for a post-high school wave (grade thirteen).

Potential advancement in understanding entreprenership

Enacting the priority changes will provide the first truly developmental data about entrepreneurship development in adolescence. Practioners and policy-makers will now be able to identify key individual and contextual variables on which to focus to promote the development of entrepreneurship.

THE 4-H STUDY OF POSITIVE YOUTH DEVELOPMENT DATA SET

Although not designed to study the course of entrepreneurship development across the adolescent years, we believe that the measures and design of a major, national longitudinal study of adolescent developmentthe 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development1reflect the methodological features needed to provide quantitative and qualitative data pertinent to the role of both (1) contextual bases of entrepreneurship (e.g., relating to family influences or to mentors rolesadult models present in communitybased, out-of-school-time, youth development programs); and (2) individual characteristics related to the life skills that may be a key precursor of entrepreneurial development (i.e., a measure of intentional self-regulation, Selection, Optimization, and Compensation (SOC2)). The study began with the assessment of fifth grade youth. Currently, eleventh grade data are being collected, and plans for grade twelve nearly are finalized. As an active longitudinal study, new measures can be added for the grade twelve data collection; these measures can provide new information about the late adolescent outcomes of early adolescent entrepreneurial interests, goals, and activities and/or, if the study is extended beyond grade twelve, supplemental measures can be studied developmentally into the young adult years. Indeed, if the study is in fact extended for a portion of the early, post-high school portion of the participants lives, unique information may be obtained about the developmental changes from early adolescence to young adulthood that are associated with the
THE VIEWS EXPRESSED ARE THOSE OF THE AUTHOR(S) AND DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT THOSE OF THEIR EMPLOYER(S) OR THE KAUFFMAN FOUNDATION. ALL ERRORS AND OMISSIONS ARE SOLE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE AUTHOR(S).

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translation of entrepreneurial interests and purposes into entrepreneurial activities and achievements. The 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development is a longitudinal study that began in 2002 with a sample of about 1,700 fifth grade youth and about 1,100 parents from thirteen states 3. At this writing, with the active collection of grade eleven data, the 4-H study includes about 5,000 youth (about half of whom have been assessed two or more times) and about 2,500 parents from 34 states. Participants reside in rural, suburban, and urban areas in different parts of the country and represent a variety of racial, ethnic, religious backgrounds, and socioeconomic levels. (Full details of sample composition are presented in several publications.4) Overall, the 4-H Study data set currently includes six waves of data collection (grades five to ten), is engaged in collecting wave seven (grade eleven) data, and has support for an eighth wave of data collection in grade twelve. As such, the number of repeated assessments of the individuals participating in the project makes the design especially sensitive to the detection of trajectories of intraindividual change. Coupled with the fact that the measurement model within the 4-H Study involves psychometrically welldeveloped, change-sensitive measures that have been found to be empirically useful across the age range involved in the study, the data set affords a unique opportunity to assess the nature and bases of the development of entrepreneurship. However, we should emphasize that the 4-H Study was not designed to be a study of entrepreneurial development. The study was designed to test a theoretical model about the role of resources in the homes, schools, and communities of youth in promoting PYD and in the reduction of problem and risk behaviors. These resources are termed developmental assets.5 In turn, PYD is conceptualized by the Five Cs of competence, confidence, connection, character, and caring, and of the sixth C of contribution6. More details about the methodology of the 4-H Study have been presented in prior reports7. More information about the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development is available at http://ase.tufts.edu/iaryd/researchPositive4H.htm.

WHY THE 4-H STUDY OF POSITIVE YOUTH DEVELOPMENT DATA SET IS IMPORTANT
Entrepreneurial purpose and skills do not emerge in adolescence or young adulthood fully formed and functional. There are no genes that contain codes for entrepreneurship. To the contrary, entrepreneurship develops across the life span, deriving from biological, psychological, social, and ecological factors that influence all human behavior and development8. Accordingly, to discover the antecedents, moderators, mediators, and outcomes of entrepreneurial development, researchers need to use multivariate, multilevel, longitudinal approaches that are framed by developmental systems theoretical perspectives9. In contemporary developmental science, these theoretical approaches constitute cutting-edge conceptual models about change across the life span. These models specify that mutually (reciprocally) influential relations among variables from the biological, psychological, social, cultural, and historical levels of organization within the ecology of human life provide the bases for entrepreneurial development across the life span. Within this theoretical frame, life span development involves organized, systematic, and successive changes within an individual in these multilevel relations; as well, developmental science includes the assessment of between-person differences in their patterns of within-person (intraindividual) change10. Yet, even in those longitudinal data sets that have been used to date to study the development across life of entrepreneurship most notably, the National Longitudinal Study of Youth (NLSY)11 and the Terman Genetic Studies of Genius12 there is a general absence of measurements useful for appraising individual development. That is, there has been no assessment of intraindividual change in a variable across two or more times of measurement13. In the studies that have been derived from these two data sets, variables measured at one point in time have been used to predict scores in different (nonequivalent or noncommensurate) variables that are measured at a subsequent time point. This work represents prediction analysis, not longitudinal assessment; it is devoid of analysis of intraindividual change. Clearly, extant longitudinal research has not fully capitalized on the opportunity to assess intraindividual change present within large, longitudinal data sets. While provocative and potentially important predictive relationships have been found between variables in the contexts of youth (e.g., families, role models) and

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contemporaneous or later life entrepreneurial interests or activities, respectively, no study has linked context to intraindividual change. In turn, although a small, qualitative study by Damon14 underscores the importance of entrepreneurial purpose and skills, his insights need to be expanded within longitudinal research that, for instance, uses sets of life skills such as those indexed by the Baltes and Freund SOC model to trace how intraindividual changes in a young persons selection of positive purposes is transformed into entrepreneurship strategies, interests, activities, and achievements. That is, SOC assesses how young people select positive goals (related to entrepreneurship, for instance), develop strategies or garner resources to optimize their chances to attain their goals, and compensate or change their actions or plans when their strategies fail or when goals are blocked. The 4-H Study can provide a data set affording the elucidation of these developmental issues. As shown in Appendix 1, the 4-H data set assesses a wide range of constructs pertinent to individual and contextual characteristics, many of which are of relevance to the study of entrepreneurship across the early adolescent to young adulthood years. Of particular relevance to the entrepreneurship literature we have discussed, the data set includes repeated measures of selection, optimization, and compensation (SOC), of future goals and expectations, of (more specifically) career aspirations and expectations, and of youth community contributions. To illustrate how these variables may lend themselves to future analyses pertinent to entrepreneurial developmentespecially if they are supplemented by new measures introduced in grade twelve or in subsequent, post-high school waves of assessmentwe may note that we use both quantitative and qualitative (open-ended) items to measure future career aspirations. For instance, in the seventh grade, we asked, It is interesting to think about the job/occupation most desirable to you, without having to consider limiting factors like money, ability, or opportunities needed to obtain further education and training. This may sound impossible, but if you were completely free to choose any job you wanted, what would it be? Analogous questions were asked in prior and subsequent waves of data collection. Although considerable coding and data analytic work will need to be done to capitalize on responses to these and other questions, Appendix 2 presents a sample of some of the responses that young adolescentsten- to thirteen-year-olds (grades five to eight)spontaneously gave in response to this one question. Although the overall rate of responses indicative of an entrepreneurial aspiration were low ranging from about 1 percent of responses to this item in grade five to about 4 percent in grade eight this information, nevertheless, suggests that there is a subset of even very young adolescents who see their futures as marked by entrepreneurial activity. Based on responses to this item, this subset increases across the early adolescent period.15 If researchers now would turn to triangulating data from this question with data from other items pertinent to entrepreneurship within the 4-H Study and, as well, extend their analyses across all grades, a richer picture of both early and subsequent adolescent development pertinent to entrepreneurship might be obtained. For instance, developmental analyses of the 4-H data set can include assessment of the life skills indexed by the SOC in the development of entrepreneurial career expectations and of conceptions of a future that includes entrepreneurship. In addition, we can assess how young adolescents statements, which may reflect interest in starting a small business, may be transformed in the lives of some older youth into larger entrepreneurial goals or actions. Moreover, the links between the development of entrepreneurial purpose and youth involvement in, and enhancement of, their communities can be ascertained. Furthermore, because the 4-H data set includes indices of the Five Cs of positive youth development, as well as repeated measures of risk/problem behaviors, first-ever analyses of the impact of entrepreneurship development on healthy, successful personal development can be undertaken. Moreover, as just noted, during the 2008-2009 academic year, as grade eleven data are collected and grade twelve data collection is planned, the 4-H Study measurement model can be enhanced to include both outcome variables in late adolescence that are pertinent to early entrepreneurship functioning and assuming that data collection is extended beyond grade twelve the import of the early development of entrepreneurship for development in the beginning portions of the adult years could be assessed, as well. As such, although not a study designed originally, or ideally, for the assessment of the development of entrepreneurship, the fact that the project may be enhanced in these ways makes the 4-H Study, today, the best longitudinal study available for appraisal of entrepreneurial development.

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In essence, then, the 4-H Study data set can be used to bring heretofore unavailable data to bear on the implications of entrepreneurship development for entrepreneurial actions, individual health, and civic engagement among young people whose development is marked by entrepreneurial interests, purposes, and skills. Furthermore, if we extend the collection of data in the 4-H Study beyond grade twelve (20092010), the implications of the development of entrepreneurship in adolescence for entrepreneurial actions in early adult life can be ascertained for the first time. Such work could capitalize usefully on the methodology of Damon16 by: 1. Deriving from the quantitative analyses those youth whose developmental trajectories reflect high, moderate, and low levels across adolescence of entrepreneurial interest, purpose, and skills. 2. Conducting qualitative interviews with each group of youth. By triangulating quantitative and qualitative data in this way, the 4-H Study data set could provide a unique and rich depiction of the ways in which an entrepreneurial life is constructed across adolescence and into young adulthood.

PRIORITY IMPROVEMENT 1 OF THE 4-H STUDY OF POSITIVE YOUTH DEVELOPMENT DATA SET
In our view, what makes such potential analyses of the extant 4-H Study data set, and of its possible extension beyond the high school years, so useful for the understanding of entrepreneurial development is that the 4-H Study measures numerous attributes of the individual and of the context of youth development. Within developmental systems theoretical models, intraindividual change, and interindividual differences in intraindividual change, derive from mutually influential relations between people and their contexts. However, in order to elucidate the bases of the development of entrepreneurship and, critically, to identify possible contextual bases that serve as tipping points for enhancing or diminishing the probability of effective and sustained entrepreneurial actions, the 4-H data set can be used fruitfully to test hypotheses about the familys role, in-school and out-of-school educational programs, and community resources in promoting entrepreneurship in adolescence, and, if the data set is expanded beyond grade twelve, into young adulthood. Indeed, as seen also in Appendix 1, the 4-H Study assesses an array of family and parenting constructs and numerous types of school-based and out-of-school time (OST) activities. As such, suggestions derived from the prediction research analyses within the entrepreneurship literature17about the influences of particular facets of family functioning or of community experiences (e.g., a mentor encountered in an OST activity, including youth development programs, such as 4-H, Boys & Girls Clubs, or Scouting)can be subjected for the first time to developmental analysis. It may be that particular types of family functions (e.g., parenting that is warm, induces rules for appropriate behavior, and includes effective parental monitoring of youth, i.e., authoritative parenting) and/or experiences in particular in-school programs or OST activities (e.g., ones that mentor a youth in regard to entrepreneurship) are discovered to be linked to the development of SOC skills and, in turn, to the development of entrepreneurial aspirations and expectations18. Use of the 4-H Study data set will enable, for the first time in the study of entrepreneurship, such developmental questions to be addressed within the context of a developmentally sensitive design and measurement model. As such, the findings derived from such developmental analyses may provide a useful empirical basis for intervention efforts designed to enhance the probability of high levels of entrepreneurial purpose, skills, and achievements. If so, then the analysis and/or extension into a post-high school wave of the 4-H Study will prove to be a unique and singularly important resource for evidence-based practice and advocacy for promoting entrepreneurship across the life span.

IMPLICATION OF IMPROVEMENT 1 OF THE 4-H STUDY OF POSITIVE YOUTH DEVELOPMENT DATA SET
To conduct an adequate analysis of the development of entrepreneurship within contemporary developmental science, researchers need to describe and explain the intraindividual changes in entrepreneurial interests, purpose, skills, and achievements. Past research either has lacked adequate measurement, designs, or data analytic techniques to assess such individual development or has failed to assess the individual context relations that propel entrepreneurship across the life span. As we have noted earlier in this paper, the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development was not intended to be a study of the development of entrepreneurship. Such a developmental study would include a richer set of indices of entrepreneurial interests, purpose, skills, activities, and achievements. In addition, an ideally

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designed longitudinal study of the development of entrepreneurship would include contextual assessments that delved deeply into the formal and informal entrepreneurship educational experiences of youth, ones that focused more intensely on the years from high school to beyond early adulthood, so that more of the life course of entrepreneurial accomplishments could be ascertained. In addition, a study explicitly designed to understand the development of entrepreneurship would include from the outset the goal of triangulating quantitative and qualitative data, and it would use the deep analysis of the lives of young entrepreneurial exemplars to elucidate the nature of the development of the entrepreneurial life. Moreover, in that the development of entrepreneurship involves person context relations, an explicitly designed study of this development should include cross-national and cross-cultural data to elucidate the role of these broadest levels of the context in entrepreneurial development. While the 4-H Study does not have the features of an investigation intended from its outset to study the entrepreneurial development, we believe we have illustrated that it is a data set that can begin to remedy the shortcomings of past research. Indeed, we have emphasized that, because of the ongoing nature of the 4-H Study, and the fact that the sets of measures to be administered to the grade twelve participants have not yet been finalized, the 4-H Study affords a timely, cost-effective, and singular opportunity for developmental scientists to ascertain the development of entrepreneurship across the transition from high school and into the young adult years. As such, we believe that the exploitation and extension of the 4-H Study can provide a model for future developmental research on entrepreneurship across the adolescent and adult years.

COST ESTIMATE OF IMPROVEMENT 1 OF THE 4-H STUDY OF POSITIVE YOUTH DEVELOPMENT DATA SET
A total of $1.85 million dollars would be needed for this project. A sum of $7,000 would be needed to add items in grade twelve to the current 4-H Study questionnaire. To continue the study into grade thirteen, a total of $1.2 million would be needed. This cost is commensurate with the current level of funding received to undertake a wave of the study. Finally, support in the amount of $650,000 would be needed for a final year of analysis, report writing, and dissemination of findings about the development of entrepreneurship across the adolescent decade.

NOTES
1. Richard M. Lerner et al., Positive youth development, participation in community youth development programs, and community contributions of fifth grade adolescents: Findings from the first wave of the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development, Journal of Early Adolescence, 25, no.1 (2005): 17-71. 2. Paul B. Baltes, Ullman Lindenberger, and Ursula M. Staudinger, Lifespan theory in developmental psychology, in Theoretical models of human development. Volume 1 of Handbook of Child Psychology (6th ed.) Editors-in-chief: William Damon and Richard M. Lerner (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2006), 569-664; Alexandra M. Freund and Paul B. Baltes, Life-management strategies of selection, optimization, and compensation: Measurement by self-report and construct validity, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82 (2002): 642-662. 3. Steinunn Gestsdottir and Richard M. Lerner, Intentional self-regulation and positive youth development in early adolescence: Findings from the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development, Developmental Psychology, 43, no.2 (2007): 508-521; Stacy Zimmerman, Erin Phelps and Richard M. Lerner, Intentional selfregulation in early adolescence: Assessing the structure of selection, optimization, and compensations processes, European Journal of Developmental Science, 1 no.3 (2007): 272-299.; Stacy Zimmerman, Erin Phelps, and Richard M. Lerner, Positive and negative developmental trajectories in U.S. adolescents: Where the PYD perspective meets the deficit model, Research in Human Development, 5, no.3 (2008): 153-165. 4. For example, Steinunn Gestsdottir and Richard M. Lerner, Intentional self-regulation and positive youth development in early adolescence: Findings from the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development, Developmental Psychology, 43, no.2 (2007): 508-521; Helena Jelicic, et al., Using positive youth development to predict contribution and risk behaviors in early adolescence: Findings from the first two waves of the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development, International Journal of Behavioral Development, 31, no. 3 (2007): 263273.; Richard M. Lerner, et al., Positive youth development, participation in community youth development programs, and community contributions of fifth grade adolescents: Findings from the first wave of the 4-H Study
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of Positive Youth Development, Journal of Early Adolescence, 25(1),(2005) 17-71.; Lang Ma, et al., Academic Competence for Adolescents who Bully and who are Bullied: Findings from the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development, Journal of Early Adolescence (in press); Erin Phelps, et al. Nuances in early adolescent development trajectories of positive and of problematic/risk behaviors: Findings from the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development, Child and Adolescent Clinics of North America, 16, no.2 ,(2007):473496; Stacy Zimmerman, Erin Phelps and Richard M. Lerner, Intentional self-regulation in early adolescence: Assessing the structure of selection, optimization, and compensations processes, European Journal of Developmental Science, 1 no.3 (2007): 272-299.; Stacy Zimmerman, Erin Phelps, and Richard M. Lerner, Positive and negative developmental trajectories in U.S. adolescents: Where the PYD perspective meets the deficit model, Research in Human Development, 5, no.3 (2008): 153-165. 5. Peter L. Benson, Peter C. Scales, Stephen F. Hamilton and Arturo Sesma, Jr. Positive youth development: Theory, research, and applications, Theoretical models of human development. Volume 1 of Handbook of Child Psychology (6th ed.) Editors-in-chief: William Damon and Richard M. Lerner (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2006), 894-941. 6. Richard M. Lerner, Liberty: Thriving and civic engagement among Americas youth. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2004). 7. For example, Steinunn Gestsdottir and Richard M. Lerner, Intentional self-regulation and positive youth development in early adolescence: Findings from the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development, Developmental Psychology, 43, no.2 (2007): 508-521; Helena Jelicic, et al., Using positive youth development to predict contribution and risk behaviors in early adolescence: Findings from the first two waves of the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development, International Journal of Behavioral Development, 31, no. 3 (2007); Richard M. Lerner, et al., Positive youth development, participation in community youth development programs, and community contributions of fifth grade adolescents: Findings from the first wave of the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development, Journal of Early Adolescence, 25(1),(2005) 17-71.; Lang Ma, et al., Academic Competence for Adolescents who Bully and who are Bullied: Findings from the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development, Journal of Early Adolescence (in press); Erin Phelps, et al. Nuances in early adolescent development trajectories of positive and of problematic/risk behaviors: Findings from the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development Child and Adolescent Clinics of North America, 16, no.2 ,(2007):473496; Stacy Zimmerman, Erin Phelps and Richard M. Lerner, Intentional self-regulation in early adolescence: Assessing the structure of selection, optimization, and compensations processes, European Journal of Developmental Science, 1 no.3 (2007): 272-299.; Stacy Zimmerman, Erin Phelps, and Richard M. Lerner, Positive and negative developmental trajectories in U.S. adolescents: Where the PYD perspective meets the deficit model, Research in Human Development, 5, no.3 (2008): 153-165. Christina Theokas and Richard M. Lerner. Observed Ecological Assets in Families, Schools, and Neighborhoods: Conceptualization, Measurement and Relations with Positive and Negative Developmental Outcomes, Applied Developmental Science, 10, no. 2 (2006): 61-74. 8. William Damon and Richard M. Lerner, Entrepreneurship across the Life Span: A developmental analysis and review of key findings: A Kauffman Foundation White paper. (Kansas City, Missouri: The Kauffman Foundation, 2008a). 9. William Damon and Richard M. Lerner, eds., Handbook of Child Psychology (6th ed.) (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2006); William Damon and Richard M. Lerner, Child and adolescent development: An advanced course (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2008b); Richard M. Lerner Developmental science, developmental systems, and contemporary theories of human development, Theoretical models of human development. Volume 1 of Handbook of Child Psychology (6th ed.) Editors-in-chief: William Damon and Richard M. Lerner (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2006), 1-17. 10. Paul B. Baltes, Hayne W. Reese, and John R. Nesselroade, J. R. Life-span developmental psychology: Introduction to research methods. (Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1977). 11. Bradley R. Schiller and Philip E. Crewson, Entrepreneurial origins: a longitudinal inquiry, Economic Inquiry 35 (1997): 41-52. 12. Eva Schmitt-Rodermund, The long way to entrepreneurship: Personality, parenting, early interests, and competencies as precursors for entrepreneurial activity among the Termites, R. K. Silbereisen, & R. M. Lerner (Eds.). Approaches to positive youth development (London: Sage, 2007), 205-224.

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13. William Damon and Richard M. Lerner. Entrepreneurship across the Life Span: A developmental analysis and review of key findings: A Kauffman Foundation White paper. (Kansas City, Missouri: The Kauffman Foundation, 2008a.) 14. William Damon, The Path to Purpose.(New York: The Free Press, 2008). 15. The youth who answered entrepreneurially in these early years of adolescence were compared to a sample of 4-H youth matched for sex, race, geographic region, and urban, suburban, or rural location. Entrepreneurial youth come from families with significantly higher per capita incomes (t[144] = 7.02, p < .001), with significantly higher overall family incomes (t[145] = 7.59, p < .001), and with mothers who had significantly higher levels of education (Chi2[7] = 39.61, p < .001). 16. William Damon, The Path to Purpose. (New York: The Free Press, 2008). 17. Bradley R. Schiller and Philip E. Crewson, Entrepreneurial origins: a longitudinal inquiry, Economic Inquiry 35 (1997): 41-52.; Eva Schmitt-Rodermund, The long way to entrepreneurship: Personality, parenting, early interests, and competencies as precursors for entrepreneurial activity among the Termites. R. K. Silbereisen, & R. M. Lerner (Eds.). Approaches to positive youth development (London: Sage, 2007), 205-224; William Damon and Richard M. Lerner. Entrepreneurship across the Life Span: A developmental analysis and review of key findings: A Kauffman Foundation White paper. (Kansas City, Missouri: The Kauffman Foundation, 2008.) 18. William Damon and Richard M. Lerner. Entrepreneurship across the Life Span: A developmental analysis and review of key findings: A Kauffman Foundation White paper. (Kansas City, Missouri: The Kauffman Foundation, 2008a.)

REFERENCES
Baltes, Paul B., Hayne W. Reese, and John R. Nesselroade, J.R. 1977. Life-span developmental psychology: Introduction to research methods. (Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole),. Baltes, Paul B., Ullman Lindenberger, and Ursula M. Staudinger. 2006. Lifespan theory in developmental Psychology. Theoretical models of human development. Volume 1 of Handbook of Child Psychology (6th ed.) Editors-in-chief: William Damon and Richard M. Lerner. (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley) 569-664. Benson, Peter L. , Peter C. Scales, Stephen F. Hamilton, and Arturo Sesma, Jr. 2006.Positive youth development: Theory, research, and applications. Theoretical models of human development. Volume 1 of Handbook of Child Psychology (6th ed.) Editors-in-chief: William Damon and Richard M. Lerner (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley) 894-941. Damon, William. 2008. The Path to Purpose. (New York: The Free Press). Damon, William and Richard M. Lerner, eds. 2006. Handbook of Child Psychology (6th ed.) (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley). . Damon, William and Richard M. Lerner. 2008a. Entrepreneurship across the Life Span: A developmental analysis and review of key findings: A Kauffman Foundation White paper. (Kansas City, Missouri: The Kauffman Foundation). Damon, William and Richard M. Lerner. 2008b. Child and adolescent development: An advanced course. (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley). Freund, Alexandra M. and Paul B. Baltes. 2002. Life-management strategies of selection, optimization, and compensation: Measurement by self-report and construct validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 82. 642-662.
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Gestsdottir, Steinunn, and Richard M. Lerner. 2007. Intentional self-regulation and positive youth development in early adolescence: Findings from the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development. Developmental Psychology, 43, no.2: 508-521. Jelicic, Helena, Deborah Bobek, Erin Phelps, Jacqueline V. Lerner, and Richard M. Lerner. 2007. Using positive youth development to predict contribution and risk behaviors in early adolescence: Findings from the first two waves of the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 31, no. 3: 263-273 Lerner, Richard M. 2004. Liberty: Thriving and civic engagement among Americas youth. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications),. Lerner, Richard M. 2006. Developmental science, developmental systems, and contemporary theories of human development. Theoretical models of human development. Volume 1 of Handbook of Child Psychology (6th ed.) Editors-in-chief: William Damon and Richard M. Lerner. (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley) 1-17. Lerner, Richard M., Jacqueline V. Lerner, Jason Almerigi, Christina Theokas, Erin Phelps, Steinunn Gestsdttir, Sophie Naudeau, Helena Jelicic, Amy E. Alberts, Lang Ma, Lisa M. Smith, Deborah L. Bobek, David Richman-Raphael, Isla Simpson, I., Elise D. Christiansen, and Alexander von Eye. 2005 Positive youth development, participation in community youth development programs, and community contributions of fifth grade adolescents: Findings from the first wave of the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development. Journal of Early Adolescence. 25(1), 17-71. Ma, Lang, Erin Phelps, Jacqueline V. Lerner, and Richard M. Lerner.(forthcoming.) Academic Competence for Adolescents who Bully and who are Bullied: Findings from the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development. Journal of Early Adolescence Phelps, Erin, Aida Balsano, Kristen Fay, Jack Peltz, Stacy Zimmerman, Richard M. Lerner, and Jacqueline V. Lerner. 2007. Nuances in early adolescent development trajectories of positive and of problematic/risk behaviors: Findings from the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development. Child and Adolescent Clinics of North America, 16, no.2:,473496. Schiller, Bradley R. and Philip E. Crewson. 1997. Entrepreneurial origins: a longitudinal inquiry. Economic Inquiry. 35: 41-52. Schmitt-Rodermund, Eva. 2007. The long way to entrepreneurship: Personality, parenting, early interests, and competencies as precursors for entrepreneurial activity among the Termites. R. K. Silbereisen, & R. M. Lerner (Eds.). Approaches to positive youth development (London: Sage) 205-224. Theokas, Christina and Richard M. Lerner. 2006. Observed Ecological Assets in Families, Schools, and Neighborhoods: Conceptualization, Measurement and Relations with Positive and Negative Developmental Outcomes. Applied Developmental Science. 10, no. 2: 61-74. Zimmerman, Stacy, Erin Phelps and Richard M. Lerner. 2007. Intentional self-regulation in early adolescence: Assessing the structure of selection, optimization, and compensations processes. European Journal of Developmental Science. 1 no.3: 272-299. Zimmerman, Stacy, Erin Phelps, and Richard M. Lerner. 2008. Positive and negative developmental trajectories in U.S. adolescents: Where the PYD perspective meets the deficit model. Research in Human Development. 5, no.3: 153-165..

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Appendix 1. Key Constructs Measured in the 4-H Study of PYD __________________________________________________________ Demographics (Age, Sex, Race, Ethnicity, Religion, Maternal Education, Household Income, Per Capita Income, Household Composition, Language(s) Spoken in Home, Years in Current Neighborhood) Positive Youth Development (Competence, Confidence, Connection, Character, Caring) Contribution to Community Intention Self-Regulation (Selection, Optimization, Compensation [SOC]) Ecological Assets (Individuals, Institutions, Collective Activity, Access) Out-of-School-Time Activities (Youth Development Programs, Sports, Arts, Clubs, Religious Organizations, etc.). Risk/Problem Behaviors (Depression, Smoking, Drinking, Drug Use, School Bullying) Pubertal Level School Engagement Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Interests Health Behaviors (Diet, Sleep, Exercise) Parenting (Warmth, Monitoring) Future Expectations (Career, Education, Family, Personal Fulfillment/Happiness)

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Appendix 2. Representative Entrepreneurial Aspirations of 4-H Study Participants in Grades Five to Eight
__________________________________________________________________________ ____ Grade 5 Own a McDonalds Ice cream shop owner To make my own company Own a dance studio for girls Own a gift shop Open up a garage and paint shop Restaurant owner Own a pet shop Own a hotel Grade 6 Own a successful private business Open a day care center Own a dance studio Be a builder and be my own boss Possibly an entrepreneur Be a pet shop owner Own a ranch Open my own beauty shop and do hair Own a doughnut shop Grade 7 Own an archery shop Own and run an inn Be a stable owner Open a hatchery Start a business in cooking and own my own restaurant Start my own business and become a hair dresser Have my own day care Own a giant and famous store Own my own business Grade 8 Own a box factory President/owner of a successful chain of businesses Own a veterinarian hospital Own a major publishing company or be editor of a huge newspaper Be an entrepreneur or venture capitalist Own a casino Be a high-powered CEO of a company I started Own a pharmacist/cafe If I could have any job, I would want to have my own little beach-side store in New Zealand where I could sell nifty craft stuff

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4-H STUDY OF POSITIVE YOUTH DEVELOPMENT

WWW.KAUFFMAN.ORG/DATASYMPOSIUM

2008 Kauffman Symposium on Entrepreneurship and Innovation Data

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WWW.KAUFFMAN.ORG/DATASYMPOSIUM

4-H STUDY OF POSITIVE YOUTH DEVELOPMENT

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