TSL 3103 ELT Natural Approach

Proposer/ advocator Goals Crashen & Terrell/ 1977 Students can acquire the target languages in a natural and communicative situation. No mother tongue

Communicative Audio-lingual Language Method (ALM) Teaching (CLT)

?/1972 Be able to communicate with others in the target language in different situations Both mother tongue and target language Charles Fries /1939 Be able to listen, speak, read, and write in the target language, with emphasis on listening and speaking Less mother tongue

Mother Tongue

Merits 1. Students acquire the target 1. language in a natural and easy way. 2. Teaching materials are 2. designed very well. Students ca acquire language from easy to difficult, from simple to complex, and from concrete 3. to abstract.

4.

Limits 1. Students may use the target 1. language fluently, but they cannot use it accurately. 2. Teachers should collect various teaching aids and use them appropriately. 3. Special teaching designs is 2. necessary for the students with better abilities. 3.

Teaching Aids Visual aids, such as pictures, maps, advertisement; games

Students have the 1. Students can learn target opportunities to express their language in natural order: own thoughts and opinions. listeningspeaking Students have the readingwriting. opportunities to communicate 2. Students can speak the with each other in the correct answers without classroom. thinking by overlearning. Students can learn the culture of the target language because the teaching materials are related to the social environments. The communicative situation makes students reconstruct their knowledge and thoughts, so students can learn to fluently speak the target language more easily. Its difficult for a nonnative 1. It fails to teach the long-term speaking teacher who is not communicative proficiency. very proficient in the target2. Structural linguistics didnt language to teach effectively. tell us everything about Teacher training and language that we needed to certification are needed. know. Students pronunciation and 3. Its impossible and grammatical knowledge is unnecessary to teach students poor. without using native It is difficult for teachers to languages. evaluate students expression 4. Its boring for students to in the learning process. overlearn the drills and its tiring for teachers to teach. (a)Interesting and meaningful Textbooks, drills, tapes, materials, such as linguistic language labs games, role plays, and problem solving materials. (b) Technologyfilms, videos, TV, computers, can be used as teaching aids.

Features 1. 5 important hypothesis 1. Language learning is learning 1. to communicate. The A. the Acquisition-Learning H primary function of language 2. Students acquire language subconsciously in the natural is for interaction and and communicative situations. communication. 2. Classroom goals are focused B. the Monitor H Students may call upon learned on all of the components of 3. communicative competence knowledge to correct and not restricted to 4. themselves when they grammatical or linguistic communicate, but that competence conscious learning has only 3. Students learn to use the this function. appropriate language forms in C. the Natural Order H 5. The acquisition of grammatical the different places. 4. Communicative activities structures proceeds in a include functional predictable order. communicative activities and 6. D. the Input (i+1) H social interaction activities. Students acquire language best 5. Teachers are assistants, by understanding input that is guides, counselors and slightly beyond their current group process managers. level of competence. 6. Students are expected to E. the Affective Filter H Student work should center on interact with each other 7. rather than with the teacher. meaningful communication 7. Learners should take the rather than on form; input responsibility of the failed should be interesting and so communication. 8. contribute to a relaxed 8. Language is created by the classroom atmosphere. individual through trial and -----------------------------2. The teacher was the source of error. Correction of errors may be absent or the learners input and the infrequent. creator of an interesting and 9. Students can speak fluently stimulating variety of but not accurately. classroom activities. 3. Learners dont need to say 10. Four language skills are practiced. Reading and anything during the silent period until they feel ready to Writing can start from the first day, if desired. do so. 4. Start with TPR commands. 5. Use visuals, typically magazine pictures, to introduce new vocabulary. 6. The focus in the classroom is on listening and reading abilities. 7. No sentence patterns practice and no error correction during the process of acquisition.

New material is presented in dialogue forms Theres dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases, and overlearning. Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills. Theres little or no grammatical explanation. Grammar is taught by inductive analogy explanation. There is much use of tapes, language labs, and visual aids. It is based on Behaviorist psychology. Students successful responses are immediately reinforced and their errors are corrected immediately. The teaching sequences are aural training, pronunciation training, speaking, reading, and writing. Structures are sequenced by means of contrastive analysis and taught one at a time.

Hypothesis
the Acquisition-Learning H

Definition
Acquisition is a unconscious and intuitive process of constructing the system of a language. Learning refers to a process in which conscious rules about a language are developed. Learning cannot lead to acquisition. Conscious learning can function only as a monitor or editor that checks and repairs the output of the acquired system. The acquisition of grammatical structures proceeds in a predictable order. Errors are signs of naturalistic developmental processes and during acquisition, similar developmental errors occur in learners, no matter what their mother tongue is. People acquire language best by understanding input that is slightly beyond their current level of competence. If an acquirer is at stage or level i, the input (s)he understands should contain i+1. Input should neither be so far beyond their reach nor so close to their current stage. The ability to speak fluently cannot be taught directly; it emerges independently in time. The learners emotional state or attitudes as an adjustable filter that freely passes, impedes, or blocks input necessary to acquisition. Three kinds of affective or attitudinal variables are: (1) motivation, (2) self-confidence (3) anxiety. The best acquisition will occur in environments where anxiety is low and defensiveness absent.

the Monitor H the Natural Order H

the Input (i+1) H

the Affective Filter H

Direct Method Similarity

Natural Approach

1. It emphasized that the principles underlying the 1. It is believed to conform to the naturalistic principles method were believed to conform to the principles of found in successful second acquisition. naturalistic language learning in young children.

Difference
1. 2. 3. 4. DM focuses on: Teacher monologues 1. Direct repetition 2. Formal questions and answers 3. Accurate production of target language sentences NA focuses on: Exposure input Optimizing emotional preparedness for learning Listening & Reading

Total Physical Community Language Learning Response (TPR) (CLL)

Proposer/ advocator

Asher/ 1964

Counseling Learning Method Curran/1961

Be able to respond To get the language competence and performance by asking physically to the sentences questions. made in the target language. Mother Tongue No mother tongue Both mother tongue and the target language Merits 1. It provides rapid and rather 1. Each student lowers the defenses that prevent open permanent language gains on interpersonal communication. early levels, so students can 2. The anxiety caused by the educational context is lessened by remember the learned means of the supportive community. vocabulary for a long time. 3. The teachers presence is not perceived as a threat, but as a 2. Students respond actively counselor. and feel interested in the learning processes. 3. Its easy for teachers to teach students verbs. Limits 1. Its difficult to teach the 1. The counselor-teacher can be too nondirective. Some abstract content with TPR intensive inductive struggle is a necessary component of 2. Students pronunciation is second language learning. Learning by being told is much poor. better. 3. Teachers have to do obvious 2. Translation is an intricate and complex process that is often actions carefully or students easier said then done. If subtle aspects of language are would be confused and be mistranslated, there could be a less than effective misled by the unnecessary understanding. hints. 3. The training is required for an ideal knower. (s)he would 4. TPR has been an have a perfect command of the foreign language and would experimental model with have to be professionally competent in both psychology and volunteer students; its, not linguistics. useful for the inactive 4. It has limitations in a large-group situation with one teacher. students. 5. Theres a need for clients who speak a common language. 5. TPR is especially effective in the beginning levels of language proficiency, but then loses its distinctiveness as learners advance in their competence. Teaching Aids No text. Body language and Various materials for different purposes; colored coded practical materials. signals; tapes; recorders

Goals

Features 1.

Based on 3 important 1. The sense of belonging needed by both students and teachers. hypothesis: 2. Both teachers and students have the responsibility for the (A) the Bio-program H learning activity. Children, in learning their3. In a good knower-client relationship, there quickly develops first language, appear to do a a warm, sympathetic attitude of mutual trust and respect. The lot of listening before they client emulates the language and person of the knower; the speak, and their listening is knower is fulfilled and enriched through the counselingaccomplished by physical teaching experience. responses. 4. More important to learners is the freedom and initiative they (B) the Brain Lateralization H are permitted. Motor activity is a right- 5. The most basic ingredient in CLL is a mutual interest, brain function that should respect and concern of teachers for students and students for precede left-brain language students. processingspeaking. 6. A group of ideas concerning the psychological requirements (C) Reduction of Stress H for successful learning are collected under the acronym An important condition for SARD. (S-security, A-attention and aggression, R-retention successful language learning and reflection, D-discrimination) is the absence of stress. 7. The teaching procedure: 2. Imperativedrills are the (a) The students sit in a circle, and the teacher(s) is(are) outside major classroom activity in the circle. TPR. (b) During the first stage, a tape recorder is normally used. The 3. Commands are easy first, only voices taped are those of the student-clients when they and then become more and are speaking in the target language. more complex. (c) The students initiate the conversation in their native language 4. Students are listeners and and the knower Translates it into the target language. They performers. They do a lot then repeat in the target language what they have heard the of listening and acting until knower said. they master the commands. (d) Students assist each other and they use the teacher when They are required to respond there is a need. The knower provides translation only when both individually and someone signals by raising his/her hand. collectively. (e) Color coded signals are used. If red is flashed, an error has 5. Students respond to the been made. If amber, there is a more suitable idiom and a commands physically. No better way. If green, the utterance is acceptable. Blue verbal response is indicates native expertise. necessary. 8. Students developmental stages: (a)The Embryonic Stage Students are totally dependent on the teacher. (b) The Self-assertion Stage The student-clients begin to show some independence and tries out the language. (c) IThe birth Stage The students speak independently. They are most likely to resent what they feel unnecessary assistance from the knower. (d) The Reversal Stage They are secure to take correction. (e) The Independent Stage Interruptions are infrequent. They occur for enrichment and improvement of style.

The Silent Way

Proposer/ advocator Goals

Gattegno/ 1972
Let students use the target language to express their own thoughts and feeling independently and develop the ability to correct their errors by themselves

Suggestopedia / Suggestology Lozanov/ 1978

Conduct the many negative suggestions or fears which inhibit learning feelings of incompetence and fear of making mistakes, and make students learn the target language in a relaxing atmosphere. Mother Tongue Both mother tongue and the target language Both mother tongue and the target language Features1. Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers 1. In a relaxing atmosphere with carpeted or creates rather than remembers and repeats floor, easy chairs and classic music what is to be learned. The learners should Baroque, integrated the use of music, the develop independence, autonomy and element of lecture and theater, through the responsibility. reputation of the method and the instructor, 2. Learners in a classroom must cooperate with students language competence, confidence each other in the process of solving language and wills to communicate are reinforced. problems. 2. Students are encouraged to be as 3. Teachers provide single-word stimuli, or short childlike as possible, yielding all phrases and sentences once or twice, and then authority to the teacher. students must refine their understanding and3. Every student is provided a new name and a pronunciation themselves. new role within the target language on the 4. Teachers utilize a set of Cuisinere rods first day of class. They live with a new small colored wooden rods of varying lengths identity rather than struggle with a foreign to introduce vocabulary, verbs and syntax, language. The new names also contain especially about the spatial relationships and phonemes from the target language culture related prepositions as well as every aspect of that learners find difficult to pronounce. language ranging from comparisons to tense, 4. The dialogues are presented to the students the conditional and the subjunctive. in three phases: 5. Teachers use a series of colorful wall charts to (a) explicative reading introduce pronunciation models, grammatical(b) intonational reading paradigms. (c) concert 6. The teacher is silent as much as possible, and 5. Students engage in interaction activities to make students work out solutions themselves. review the material and involve new 7. Four language skills are emphasized and utterances as much as possible. students are encouraged to read and write the 6. The teacher maintains a solemn attitude sentences they have heard and spoken. towards the session and shows absolute 8. Students correct the errors themselves and confidence in the method. teachers view these errors as the responses to the teaching and give students some hints and help. Merits 1. Students interact not only with teachers but 1. Students are willing and able to also with each other. communicate in the target language and students learn the target language in a relaxing atmosphere. 2. Easy grammatical explanation helps students learn the target language more easily.

Limits 1.

2. 3.

4.

Teachers must know their teaching objectives 1. clearly and make use of the teaching aids effectively. 2. Students may be confused with the symbols of the colored wooden rods. 3. Students waste too much time struggling with a concept that would be easily clarified by the 4. teachers direct guide. It is difficult for teachers to evaluate students progress in their learning process. 5.

Teaching Aids Cuisinere rods, phonic charts, transparencies

Students dont concentrate on the language learning because eof the music. Students speech is somewhat inaccurate grammatically and phonologically. All students need to share a common native language. Teachers must be proficient not only in the target language but also I students native language. Not all teachers are skilled in acting, singing and choosing the appropriate music and not all students can appreciate the music. A carpet, sofas, classic music tapes, flowers and pictures

Grammar-Translation Method (G-T)

Proposer/ advocator Goals 1840~1940 To learn a language in order to read its literature or in order to benefit from the mental discipline and intellectual development that result from foreign language study. Mother Tongue Both mother tongue and the target language Limits 1 Students learn the target language 1. indirectly. 2 Students just learn the knowledge of books not the common language, so they may have trouble applying their knowledge to the real social situations. 2. 3 Students have poor listening and speaking ability because they seldom 3. practice listening and speaking.

Direct Method (Natural Method)

? Students can understand the target language without translation

No mother tongue It overemphasizes and distorts the similarities between naturalistic first language learning and classroom foreign language learning and it fails to consider the practical realities of the classroom. It lacks a rigorous basis in applied linguistic theory. It requires teachers who are native speakers or who have native like fluency in the foreign language. It is largely dependent on the teachers skill, rather than on a textbook, and not all teachers are proficient enough in the foreign language to adhere to the principles of the method. Sometimes a simple brief explanation in the students native tongue would have been a more efficient route to comprehension.

4.

With translation of the native language, 1 students can read and write the target language I an easy and meaningful way. 2 2 Students can learn the grammars of the 3 target language with a systematic and correct way. 4 Teaching Aids Textbooks and grammar books Features 1. Reading and writing are the major focus; 1. little or no systematic attention is paid to speaking or listening. 2. 2. Vocabulary is based on the reading text used, and words are taught through 3. bilingual word lists, dictionary study and memorization. 3. The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice. 4. 4. Accuracy is emphasized. 5. Grammar is taught deductively. 5. 6. The students native language is the medium of instruction. 6. 7. 8.

Merits 1

Students can learn the target language directly and systematically. Students can pronounce correctly. Students can learn to use both the written form and oral form of the target language. Students can have interest in learning. Pictures and articles related to the textbooks Classroom instruction is conducted exclusively in the target language. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught. Oral communication skills are built up in a carefully graded progression organized around question and answer exchanges between teachers and students in small-intense classes. New teaching points are introduced orally before students see the written form. Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration objects and pictures; abstract vocabulary is taught by association of ideas. Both speech and listening comprehension are taught. Correct pronunciation and grammar are emphasized; grammar is taught inductively. Students have to offer the interesting materials to draw students curiosity to learn the target language.

Comparing Learning Theories ~ Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism & Humanistic

hi there...^_^

Learning Theories
Comparison Among L. Theories List of Key Theorists

Behaviorism
B.F. Skinner Ivan Pavlov Edward Thorndike John B. Watson

Cognitivism
Jean Piaget Robert Gagne Lev Vygotsky

Role of Learners

Learners are basically passive, just responding to stimuli.

Learners process, store & retrieve information for later use - creating associations and creating a knowledge set useful for living. The learner uses the information processing approach to transfer and assimilate new information. Instructor manages problem solving & structured search activities, especially with group learning strategies. Instructor provides opportunities for students to connect new information to schema.

Role of Teachers

Instructor designs the learning environment. Instructor shapes childs behaviour by positive/ negative reinforcement. Teacher presents the information & then students demonstrate that they understand the material. Students are assessed primarily through tests. Behaviourism is a theory of animal and human learning that only focuses on objectively observable behaviours and discounts mental activities. Behaviour theorists define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new behaviour. Experiments by behaviourists identify conditioning as a universal learning process. There are two different types of conditioning, each yielding a different behavioural pattern: 1.Classic conditioning occurs when a natural reflex responds to a stimulus. The most popular example is Pavlov's observation that dogs salivate when they eat or even see food. Essentially, animals and people are biologically "wired" so that a certain stimulus will produce a specific response. 2.Behavioral or operant conditioning occurs when a response to a

Key Concepts

Cognitivism focuses on the brain. How humans process and store information was very important in the process of learning. Schema - An internal knowledge structure. New information is compared to existing cognitive structures called "schema". Schema may be combined, extended or altered to accommodate new information. Three-Stage Information Processing Model input first enters a sensory register, then is processed in short-term memory, and then is transferred to long-term memory for storage and retrieval. o Sensory Register - receives input from senses which lasts from less than a second to four seconds and then disappears through decay or replacement. Much of the information never reaches short term memory but all information is monitored at some level and acted upon if necessary. o Short-Term Memory (STM) sensory input that is important or interesting is transferred from the

stimulus is reinforced. Basically, operant conditioning is a simple feedback system: If a reward or reinforcement follows the response to a stimulus, then the response becomes more probable in the future. For e.g. leading behaviourist B.F.Skinner used reinforcement techniques to teachpigeons to dance and bowl a ball in a mini alley.

sensory register to the STM. Memory can be retained here for up to 20 seconds or more if rehearsed repeatedly. Short-term memory can hold up to 7 plus or minus 2 items.STM capacity can be increased if material is chunked into meaningful parts. o Long-Term Memory & Storage (LTM) - stores information from STM for long term use. Long-term memory has unlimited capacity. Some materials are "forced" into LTM by rote memorization and over learning. Deeper levels of processing such as generating linkages between old and new information are much better for successful retention of material. Meaningful Effects - Meaningful information is easier to learn and remember. If a learner links relatively meaningless information with prior schema it will be easier to retain. Serial Position Effects - It is easier to remember items from the beginning or end of a list rather than those in the middle of the list, unless that item is distinctly different Practice Effects - Practicing or Rehearsing improves retention especially when it is distributed practice. By distributing practices the learner associates the material with many different contexts rather than the one context afforded by mass practice. Transfer Effects The effects of prior learning on learning new tasks or material. Interference Effects - Occurs when prior learning interferes with the learning of new material. Organization Effects - When a learner categorizes input such as a grocery list, it is easier to remember. Levels of Processing Effects Words may be processed at a lowlevel sensory analysis of their

How Does Learning Take Place

Skinner Known for operant conditioning A stimulus is provided A response is generated. Consequence to the response is present. Type of consequence is present. Reinforcement is provided which could be positive or negative. Pavlov Known for classical conditioning. A spontaneous reaction that occurs automatically to a particular stimulus. To alter the natural relationship between a stimulus & a reaction was viewed as a major breakthrough in the study of behaviour. Thorndike Thorndike concluded that animals learn, solely, by trial & error, or reward and punishment. - All learning involves the formation of connections, and connections are strengthened according to the law of effect. Intelligence is the ability to form connections and humans are the most evolved animal because they form more connections than any

physical characteristics to highlevel semantic analysis of their meaning. The more deeply a word is process the easier it will be to remember. State Dependent Effects - If learning takes place within a certain context it will be easier to remember within that context rather than in a new context. Piaget Human intelligence & biological organisms function in similar ways. They are both organized systems that constantly interact with the environment. Knowledge is the interaction between the individual and the environment. Cognitive development is the growth of logical thinking from infancy to adulthood. Vygotsky Vygotskys components of Cognitive Development: Mastering symbols of the culture and developing the cultural forms of reasoning. Complex functions begin as social interactions between individuals; gradually acquire meaning and are internalized by the learner. Speech and other symbols are first mastered as a form of communication and eventually structure & manage a childs thinking. Zone of Proximal Development focuses on interactive problem solving.

other being. - The "law of effect" stated that when a connection between a stimulus and response is positively rewarded it will be strengthened and when it is negatively rewarded it will be weakened. Thorndike later revised this "law" when he found that negative reward, (punishment) did not necessarily weaken bonds, and that some seemingly pleasurable consequences do not necessarily motivate performance. - The "law of exercise" held that the more an SR(stimulus response) bond is practiced the stronger it will become. As with the law of effect, the law of exercise also had to be updated when Thorndike found that practice without feedback does not necessarily enhance performance. Looking more specifically at academic learning, i.e. the content of a lesson, rather than managing the behaviour within it, -Thorndike's "Theory of Transfer of Identical Elements" represents the central behaviourist stance, that the amount of learning that can be generalized between a familiar situation and an unfamiliar one is determined by the number of elements that the two situations have in common. He concluded that education does not generalize easily and that if it is to be preparation for life beyond school, then it should be as life-like as possible. Also Thorndike maintained that a skill should be introduced

when a learner is conscious of their need for it as a means of satisfying some useful purpose. -Regarding material, Skinner specified that to teach well, a teacher must decide exactly what it is they want to teach - only then can they present the right material, know what responses to look for and hence when to give reinforcement that usefully shapes behaviour. He suggested 3 principles which teachers should use to promote effective learning: 1) present the information to be learned in small behaviourally defined steps. 2) give rapid feedback to pupils regarding the accuracy of their learning (learning being indicated by overt pupil responses) 3) allow pupils to learn at their own pace. Building on these development - problem solving skills of tasks can be placed into 3 categories: Those performed independently by the learner. Those that cannot be performed even with help. Those that fall between the 2 extremes, the tasks that can be performed with help from others. Seymour Papert Matheticsthe art of learning. Guidelines for the art of learning. 1st principle-Give yourself time. nd 2 principle-discussion. 3rd principle-look for connections. The building of knowledge is the goal.

Decrease amount of teaching and increase student projects. proposed an alternative teaching technique called programmed learning/ instruction & also a teaching machine that could present programmed material. Watson Watson believed that humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of love & rage. All other behaviour is established through stimulus-response associations through conditioning. Identify possible reinforcers by observing behaviours of learners Select Stimulus Identify and describe the terminal objective observable behaviour By a process of shaping & smaller steps achieve goals Mastery learning is an eg ff behavioural approach Behaviourism still continues to play a large role in motivation, classroom management, and special education needs. Implications of Skinners Operant Conditioning Theory in Teaching & Learning 1. Newly learned skill or technique ought to be given continuous reinforcement. 2. Use of positive reinforcement which glues present result is more effective. 3. Extinction process by means of Operant

Relevance to Educational Technology/ Implications

Cognitivists believe learners develop learning through receiving, storing and retrieving information. With this idea, it is important for instructional designers to thoroughly analyse & consider the appropriate tasks needed in order for learners to effectively & efficiently process the information received. Likewise, designers must consider the relevant learner characteristics that will promote or impede the cognitive processing of information. Do task analysis & learner analysis Create tests Create learning materials according to any one of the Instructional Design Models Implications of cognitive theories: - Cognitive processes influence learning. - As children grow, they become capable of increasingly more sophisticated thought. - People organize the things they learn. - New information is most easily acquired when people can associate it with things they have already learned. - People control their own learning.

Conditioning & can be used to modify pupils undesirable behaviour e.g. to withdraw the reinforcement which has been given before. 4. Guide pupils to master the concept of discrimination through the operant conditioning process so that they will acquire the knowledge & skill accurately. 5.Negatively reinforcement is also suitable & can be used to achieve and desired behaviour.(If the pupils did not follow the rules or discipline in the classroom). Possible Learning Activities Instructional cues to elicit correct response Practice paired with target stimuli Reinforcement for correct responses Building fluency (get responses closer and closer to correct response) Multiple opportunities/ trials (Drill and practice) Discrimination (recalling facts) Generalization (defining and illustrating concepts) Associations (applying explanations) Chaining (automatically performing a specified procedure) Explanations Demonstrations Illustrative examples Gestalt Theory Matched non-examples Corrective feedback Outlining Mnemonics Dual-Coding Theory Chunking Information Repetition Concept Mapping Advanced Organizers Analogies Summaries Keller's ARCS Model of Motivation Interactivity Synthesis Schema Theory Metaphor Generative Learning Organizational strategies Elaboration Theory

Learning Theories
Comparison Among L. Theories List of Key Theorists

Constructivism
John Dewey Jerome Bruner Merrill Lev Vygotsky Seymour Papert Learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge, social interactions & motivation affect the construction. Educators focus on making connections between facts & fostering new understanding in students. Instructors tailor their teaching strategies to student responses and encourage students to analyse, interpret & predict information. Teachers also rely heavily on open-ended questions and promote extensive dialogue among students. Constructivism calls for the elimination of a standardized curriculum. Instead, it promotes using curricula customized to the students' prior knowledge. Also, it emphasizes hands-on problem solving.

Humanistic
Abraham Harold Maslow Carl Rogers James F.T Bugental - Learning is an active process/pupils participate actively in Learning activities - Pupils determine the learning materials, method of learning, quantity of learning & values - making a right or wrong choice is entirely the pupils responsibility - facilitator and organiser to motivate pupils to use their own learning strategy to achieve self-perfection - be aware of pupils need help pupils to acquire knowledge - guide pupils so that their potentials can be develop to the optimal level - create non-threatening environment / condition - teaching and learning strategy should be designed to follow individual needs and emotional development - teaching and learning activities should be related to actual life experience to instil values of living skills among pupils - school provide opportunity for pupils to discover themselves and master reflective thinking skill to access their own self and to acquire the ability for self discipline

Role of Learners

Role of Teachers

Key Concepts

Constructivism focuses on how learners construct their own meaning. They ask questions, develop answers and interact and interpret the environment. By doing these things, they incorporate new knowledge with prior knowledge to create new meanings. 1. Multiple perspectives and Representations of concepts & content r presented& encouraged. 2. Goals and objectives are derived by the student or in negotiation with the teacher or system. 3. Teachers serve in the role of guides, monitors, coaches, tutors& facilitators. 4. Activities, opportunities, tools &environments are provided to encourage metacognition, selfanalysis - regulation, reflection & - awareness. 5. The student plays a central role in mediating & controlling learning. 6. Learning situations, environments, skills, content & tasks are relevant, realistic, authentic &represent the natural complexities of the 'real world'. 7. Primary sources of data are used in order to

Humanism focuses on recognising human capabilities in areas such as creativity, personal growth and choice. 1. Main concept: Human nature basically good &noble. 2. Theory of hierarchical needs is basically the motivation theory in humanistic psychology. 3.Main core: Theory of SelfActualization: 4. Education development should be pupil-centred. - Teaching emphasized on individual potentials rather than reading materials. - Meaningful & useful learning experiences. Fostering of true, sincere &mutual trust between teacher & pupil.

ensure authenticity & realworld complexity. 8. Knowledge construction & not reproduction is emphasized. 9. This construction takes place in individual contexts and through social negotiation, collaboration & experience. 10.The learner's previous knowledge constructions, beliefs and attitudes are considered in the knowledge construction process. 11. Problem-solving, higher order thinking skills and deep understanding are emphasized. 12. Errors provide the opportunity for insight into students' previous knowledge constructions. 13. Exploration is a favoured approach in order to encourage students to seek knowledge independently and to manage the pursuit of their goals. 14. Learners are provided with the opportunity for apprenticeship learning in which there is an increasing complexity of tasks, skills and knowledge acquisition. 15. Knowledge complexity is reflected in an emphasis on conceptual interrelatedness & interdisciplinary learning. 16.Collaborative and cooperative learning are favoured in order to expose the learner to alternative viewpoints. 17. Scaffolding is facilitated to help students perform just beyond the limits of their ability.

18. Assessment is authentic and interwoven with teaching.

Implication of constructivism - in teaching & learning the role of the teacher is an advisor, facilitator,planner, motivator and assistant - the most suitable method is to use cooperative and collaborative model - pupils knowledge & awareness are important factors that influence the process of cognitive development - assist pupils to use their acquired knowledge to relate & apply to the learning of new knowledge - foster intrinsic motivation for pupils to learn on their own initiative - traditional evaluation is not suitable - the format and instrument of evaluation used for knowledge acquisition must be constructed by teacher & pupils together - pupils are encourage to use critical & creative thinking skills to solve problems - metacognitive skills are emphasised - reflective thinking to control, assess & make reflection on the result & achievement How Does Learning Take Place Constructivism promotes a more open-ended learning experience where the methods and results of learning are not easily measured and may not be the same for each learner. Piaget Bugental (1976) - Human experiences psychology are different from animals - Main team of research follow closely to the aim of meaningful human living. - study of human behaviours

 All knowledge is a human construction. The learner starts with a blank slate. Not logical thinking. 1. Learning is an internal process that occurs in the mind of the individual. 2. Cognitive conflict is essential to the learning process. Dewey Educations connection with society, outside world, life. What we learn should have meaningful relevancy. Instruction should centre around the childs experience

cover subjective internal process & explicit behaviours. - Humanistic psychology is base on psychology theory & application of psychology. - Basic consideration is emphasize on individual differences. - Research based on the idea of contribution which will change human living to be come meaningful, peaceful & well being. Carl Rogers - Every individual experience is a logical phenomenon. - Form his own unique concept through self-belief which are different from others. - Individual explicit behaviour is in accordance with his own self concept & belief. - Experience & knowledge acquire from the environment will enable the individual to form self concept (positive & negative). - Behaviour which has been displayed reflects individual self concept & belief. Principles Of Rogerss Approach In Education. - Emphasize on learner centred education. - Emphasize on freedom to learner. - Rational & approach are : Learning is considered as a curiosity to know. - Can only occur if the learning materials are meaningful as well as with the objective. - Effectiveness will only occur when pupils take their own initiative & fully involve themselves in the learning activities. Rogerss view on education - pupils participate actively in

Bruner Learner constructs new ideas or concepts based upon their current / past knowledge Learning by discovery through developmental stages. Benchmarks reveal each stage of childs development, interaction & discovery is learning. Education relevant to students need, stages in cognitive development Merrill knowledge is constructed from experience learning is a personal interpretation of the world learning is an active process in which meaning is developed on the basis of experience conceptual growth comes from the negotiation of meaning, the sharing of

multiple perspectives & the changing of our internal representations through collaborative learning learning should be situated in realistic settings; testing should be integrated with the task and not a separate activity Vygotsky's theory presents three principles: 1. Making meaning the community places a central role, and the people around the student greatly affect the way he or she sees the world. 2. Tools for cognitive development - the type and quality of these tools (culture, language, important adults to the student) determine the pattern and rate of development. 3. The Zone of Proximal Development problem solving skills of tasks can be placed into three categories: i. Those performed independently by the learner. ii. Those that cannot be performed even with help. iii. Those that fall between the two extremes, the tasks that can be performed with help from others.

learning activities. - Pupils take their own initiative and involve themselves fully in learning activities then learning result attained would be optimal. - The most effective learning is learn the way how to learn (pupils acquire knowledge by means of own learning & not much from teacher. - Learning materials ,method of learning , quantity of learning & values should be determine by the pupils themselves. - Teacher has to respect pupils opinion & choice. - Games with creative elements & art education should contain high ethical & aesthetical values. - Activates the feeling & emotional of pupils , thus enable them to develop their potentials completely. - School should provide opportunity 4 pupils 2 discover themselves $ master reflective thinking skills 2 asses their ownself as well as 2 acquire the ability 4 self-disipline.

Seymour Papert Matheticsthe art of learning. Guidelines for the art of learning. 1st principle-Give yourself time.

Relevance to Educational Technology/ Implications

2nd principle-discussion. 3rd principle-look for connections. The building of knowledge is the goal. Decrease amount of teaching and increase student projects. As opposed to an objective approach to learning, constructivism is more open-ended in expectation where the results and even the methods of learning themselves are not easily measured and may not be consistent with each learner. Case-Based Learning Authentic situations Multiple cases to build cognitive flexibility Social interactions, collaborations Assessment of activity Shift teachers role to scaffolding, modelling, coaching of learners. Experiences are critical Shift from behavioural objectives to activity goals Advance organizers - in teaching & learning the role of the teacher is an advisor,facilitator, planner, motivator and assistant - the most suitable method is to use cooperative and collaborative model - pupils knowledge & awareness are important factors that influence the process of cognitive development - assist pupils to use their acquired knowledge to relate & apply to the learning of new knowledge - foster intrinsic motivation for pupils to learn on their own initiative - traditional evaluation is not suitable - the format and instrument of evaluation used for

- stresses the importance of developing individual potentials - strategy & method for teaching & learning should be orientated towards pupilcentred - individual teaching method - inquiry-discovery - practical approach - enrichment and remedial activities

knowledge acquisition must be constructed by teacher & pupils together - pupils are encourage to use critical & creative thinking skills to solve problems - metacognitive skills are emphasised - reflective thinking to control, assess & make reflection on the result & achievement Possible Learning Activities Modelling Collaborative Learning Coaching Scaffolding Problem-Based Learning Authentic Learning Anchored Instruction Cognitive Flexibility Hypertexts Object-based Learning - Individual learning - group activity with teacher as facilitator. - inquiry-discovery (scienceobserving the life cycle of a frog) - discussion - brainstorming - problem solving - simulation

Behavioural psychologists 1. Learners need grades, gold stars, and other incentives as motivation to learn and to accomplish school requirements. 2. Students should be graded according to uniform standards of achievement which the teacher sets for the class. 3. Curriculum should be organized along subject matter lines that are carefully sequenced. Cognitive psychologists 1. Teachers need to determine what students are thinking about while solving math problems.

2. The teacher should help students to monitor and control their own learning behaviour. Humanistic psychologists 1. Learners can be trusted to find their own goals and should have some options or choices in what they learn at school. 2. Students should set their own individual standards and should evaluate their own work.

3. The school experience should help students to develop positive relations with their peers .