Centre for Distributed Generation and Sustainable Electrical Energy

A Brief Review of Power System Dynamic Stability Characteristics

Summary report

M. Hughes, O. Anaya-Lara, N. Jenkins and G. Strbac

October 2004

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A brief review of power system dynamic stability characteristics

Table of Contents
Table of Contents......................................................................................................... 2 Executive Summary..................................................................................................... 3 List of Figures.............................................................................................................. 5 List of Symbols and Abbreviations ............................................................................. 5 1. 2. 3. Introduction ........................................................................................................ 6 Assessment of dynamic stability ........................................................................ 6 2.1 Comments on generator dynamic behaviour................................................ 6 Influences on dynamic stability characteristics.................................................. 7 3.1 Generator operating conditions .................................................................... 7 3.2 Network line reactance................................................................................. 9 3.3 Influence of turbine governor control ........................................................ 10 3.4 Influence of Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) excitation control ....... 11 3.5 Influence of a Power System Stabiliser (PSS) ........................................... 12 3.6 Influence of Fixed Speed Induction Generator (FSIG) based wind farms. 14 3.7 Influence of Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) based wind farms . 15 Conclusions ...................................................................................................... 16

4.

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A brief review of power system dynamic stability characteristics

Executive Summary
A power system is continually subjected to changes in its load and operating conditions and it is essential that the system posses the ability to maintain stable operation when subjected to disturbances. The ability to maintain stable operation in the presence of small disturbances is referred to in the power systems field as dynamic stability. The purpose of this report is to very briefly look at the dynamic characteristics of generators, their prime movers and controls and highlight the way that their contributions to system dynamic stability are influenced by the operating conditions and system interconnections. The impact on dynamic stability of new types of energy sources such as wind generation based on fixed speed and doubly fed inductions generator wind turbines is also considered in this report. For the purpose of this report the dynamic stability characteristics of the simple network of is considered. Although not proposed as an approximate analogue, the system in some ways can be considered representative of the English-Scottish network, with a mixed generation Scottish system transporting power to the larger system of England and Wales. Case studies are carried out to demonstrate the significance of relevant parameters and assess dynamic stability of the system via eigenvalue analysis. A number of factors that impact the system stability performance were investigated including (i) loading conditions, (ii) network characteristics, (iii) turbine governor control, (iv) automatic voltage regulator (v) power system stabiliser and (v) influence of fixed speed and doubly fed induction generators. It was confirmed that increased value of network line reactance gives rise to higher values of generator load angle and reduced generator damping. Furthermore, the high value of load angle associated with leading power factor operation is shown to reduce generator damping and hence making the system less stable. It was demonstrated that governor control of steam and gas turbines may reduce system damping and the impact of inertia was discussed. Furthermore, negative impact that automatic voltage control may have on system damping is examined and the stabilising effects of power system stabilisers demonstrated. It was shown that under oscillatory system conditions PSS induces a component of electrical power that is in phase with rotor speed variations, thereby improving damping. Much speculation exists concerning the influence of wind farms on system operation and stability. Wind farms based on Fixed Speed Induction Generators (FSIGs) have poor transient stability characteristics but this report shows that they add significantly to the damping of the system. The operating characteristic of a synchronous generator is such that power output changes are most directly linked to changes in rotor angle. Since, damping is governed by torque (or power) variations in phase with speed variations, the natural response of a generator connected to a power network is oscillatory. The operating characteristic of an induction machine is such that torque changes are related directly to speed changes. With an induction

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A brief review of power system dynamic stability characteristics

generator, therefore, under oscillatory system conditions the torque variations produced are predominantly in phase with speed variations. Consequently, under oscillatory conditions the power variation imposed on the synchronous generators is predominantly damping power so that the introduction of an FSIG on to a system improves the system damping. Although damping contribution of a doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) tends to be less than that of a FSIG, the results indicate that significant improvement in the system damping and dynamic stability margin is provided.

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A brief review of power system dynamic stability characteristics

List of Figures
Fig. 1. Generic network model. ................................................................................... 7 Fig. 2. Influence of Generator 2 active power output P2............................................. 8 Fig. 3. Influence of Generator 2 reactive power Q2. ................................................... 9 Fig. 4. Influence of network line reactance X2............................................................ 9 Fig. 5. Influence of Generator 2 steam turbine governor gain Kds2. ........................ 10 Fig. 6. Influence of Generator 2 gas turbine governor gain Kdg2............................. 11 Fig. 7. Influence of Generator 2 AVR voltage feedback gain Kv2. .......................... 12 Fig. 8. Influence of Generator 2 AVR current feedback gain Ki2............................. 13 Fig. 9. Influence of Generator 2 Power System Stabiliser Kpps2. ............................ 13 Fig. 10. Influence of Generator 1 Power System Stabiliser Kpps1. .......................... 14 Fig. 11. Influence of Fixed Speed Induction Generator (FSIG) wind farm size. ...... 15 Fig. 12. Influence of Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) wind farm size........ 16

List of Symbols and Abbreviations

G1 G2 P2 Q2 PF2 X1, X2, X3 Kds2 Kdg2 AVR Kv2 Ki2 PSS Kpps1 Kpps2 FSIG DFIG PU Generator 1 Generator 2 Generator 2 active power output Generator 2 reactive power output Generator 2 power factor Transmission system reactances Generator 2 steam turbine governor gain Generator 2 gas turbine governor gain Automatic Voltage Regulator Feedback gain of AVR voltage control loop Feedback gain of AVR current control loop Power System Stabiliser Gain of Power System Stabiliser in generator 1 Gain of Power System Stabiliser in generator 2 Fixed Speed Induction Generator Doubly Fed Induction Generator Per Unit

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A brief review of power system dynamic stability characteristics

1. Introduction
A power system is continually subjected to changes in its load and operating conditions and it is essential that the system has the ability to maintain stable operation when subjected to disturbances. The ability to maintain stable operation in the presence of small disturbances is referred to in the power systems field as dynamic stability. A power system is very complex and its dynamic stability characteristics are influenced by the complex interaction of its generating stations, transmission and distribution networks, its operating levels and loads. Before any understanding of the complexities of power system dynamic stability is possible, an appreciation of the fundamental dynamic characteristics of basic system components and the factors that influence them and their contributions to overall stability characteristics is essential. The purpose of this report is to very briefly look at the dynamic characteristics of generators, their prime movers and controls and highlight the way that their contributions to system dynamic stability are influenced by the operating conditions and system interconnections.

2. Assessment of dynamic stability

The most direct way to assess dynamic stability is via eigenvalue analysis of a model of the power system. Once the non-linear model of the system has been linearised, many techniques are available for the calculation of the system eigenvalues. For stability, all of the eigenvalues must lie in the left half complex plane. Any eigenvalue in the right half plane denotes an unstable dynamic mode and system instability. The way in which system operating conditions, system parameters and controllers influence dynamic stability can be demonstrated by observing their influence on the loci of critical eigenvalues, i.e. the eigenvalues furthest to the right in the complex plane. For the purpose of this report the dynamic stability characteristics of the simple network of Fig. 1 will be considered. The network consists of three generating stations. Generators 1 and 2 supply power to the local load on bus 4 and to the major power system represented by generator 3 and its load. Generators 1 and 2 can be represented as synchronous generators driven by either steam or gas turbines and generator 2 can also represent a windfarm employing either fixed-speed or doubly-fed induction generators. Generator 3 is a steam turbine driven synchronous generator. Generator 3 is of the order 5 times the combined size of generators 1 and 2. Although not proposed as an approximate analogue, the system in some ways can be considered representative of the English-Scottish network, with a mixed generation Scottish system transporting power to the larger system of England and Wales.

2.1 Comments on generator dynamic behaviour

When a generator feeding power into a large network is subjected to a small disturbance, the dynamic response of the generator rotor with respect to the system is oscillatory with, in general, relatively light damping. This produces oscillatory variations in the magnitudes of the generator voltage, currents, power and torque. Under such circumstances it is often useful to consider the influence of controllers and system elements on performance in terms of their influence on synchronising power and

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A brief review of power system dynamic stability characteristics damping power. Oscillations in power (or torque) resulting from the disturbance are considered to be expressible in terms of two components. One is the component of power oscillations that is in phase with rotor angle oscillations; this is termed the synchronising power component. The other is the component in phase with rotor speed oscillations; this is termed the damping power component.
Bus1 Bus4 X1 X2 Bus2

Generator1 X3 Load

Generator 2

Bus3 Main System

Fig. 1. Generic network model.

A controller that increases the magnitude of the power component in phase with rotor speed, i.e. the damping power, will improve the damping of the system oscillations. Any increase produced in the synchronising power component indicates that changes in rotor angle produce greater changes in the restoring torque on the generator shaft, which helps ensure that the generator remains in synchronism with the system being supplied. The term synchronising power (or torque) is, in addition, often applied to large disturbance situations, such as behaviour following three-phase system faults. Here the term simply applies to the load power (or load torque) developed, which is predominantly related to the swing in rotor angle. This load torque acts on the rotor and in such a direction as to return it to the final equilibrium value of rotor angle where the system is again in a steady condition and in synchronism with the system being supplied.

3. Influences on dynamic stability characteristics

3.1 Generator operating conditions
The generator operating condition has a large impact on the generator and the system dynamic characteristics. As the generator power output operating level is adjusted in response to the load demand, the operating load angle of the generator changes and this has a considerable influence on generator damping. The major source of generator damping is via the rotor q axis damper circuits. At low values of power output, where the load angle is small, the q axis damping is high and the contribution from the d axis circuits is small. With

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A brief review of power system dynamic stability characteristics increased power output, as the load angle increases, the damping contribution of the q axis reduces. Increased contribution from the d axis circuits is insufficient to compensate for this and the generator damping reduces. This is demonstrated in Fig. 2, which shows that as the generator power increases the critical eigenvalue is shifted to the right half and for the highest value considered the critical eigenvalue enters the right half plane indicating dynamic instability.

P2 = 0.28 PF2 = 0.887 (lagging)

P2 = 0.56 PF2 = 0.95 (lagging)

P2 = 0.84 PF2 = 0.96 (lagging)

Fig. 2. Influence of Generator 2 active power output P2. P2 = 0.28, 0.56, 0.84 PU. G1: Steam turbine. G2: Steam turbine. A more dramatic change in generator damping is observed when the operating Power Factor (PF) moves from lagging to leading. Under conditions of heavy system load the currents in the transmission and distribution lines of the network are high giving rise to heavy absorption of reactive power. This creates the need for the generators to generate reactive power and operate under lagging power factor conditions. Under light loading conditions the currents in the transmission and distribution lines of the network are low, the reactive power absorbed by the line reactances is low and capacitive effects dominate. This leads to reactive power being generated by the network and under such conditions it is desirable for the generators to absorb reactive power and operate under leading power factor conditions. Lagging power factor conditions are achieved by applying a high value of field voltage (thereby producing a high value of the internally generated voltage in the generator stator). The change to leading power factor conditions is achieved by reducing the field voltage (and consequently the internally generated voltage in the stator). To achieve the same output power at a lower value of excitation voltage requires an increased value of the operating load angle. The high value of load angle associated with leading power factor operation leads to a severely reduced contribution from the q axis circuits and generator damping is greatly reduced. This is demonstrated by the plot of Fig. 3, which shows that as reactive power changes from lagging to leading the critical eigenvalue is shifted markedly towards the right and instability results for a modest value of leading reactive power.

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A brief review of power system dynamic stability characteristics

Q2 = 0.211 PF2 = 0.957 (lagging)

Q2 = 0.05 PF2 = 0.997 (lagging)

Q2 = -0.0936 PF2 = 0.991 (leading)

Fig. 3. Influence of Generator 2 reactive power Q2. Q2 = 0.2108 lagging; Q2 = 0.05 lagging; Q2 = -0.0936 leading. G1: Steam turbine. G2: Steam turbine.

3.2 Network line reactance

Increased value of network line reactance gives rise to higher values of generator load angle and reduced generator damping. Higher values of line reactance also result in a decrease in the frequency of local mode oscillations. Fig. 4 shows how the critical eigenvalue is moved towards the right in the complex plane as the reactance between busbar 2 and busbar 4 is increased.

X2 = 0.15

X2 = 0.3

X2 = 0.45

Fig. 4. Influence of network line reactance X2. X2 = 0.15, 0.3, 0.45 PU. G1: Steam turbine. G2: Steam turbine.

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A brief review of power system dynamic stability characteristics

3.3 Influence of turbine governor control

Governor control of steam and gas turbines can reduce system damping. The major control action of a turbine governor is to adjust the turbine output power as the network load varies. Increased network load leads to increased generator torque, a deceleration of the turbine shaft and a reduction in speed. The change in speed is detected by the governor and used to increase the turbine power output to match the demand. In terms of dynamic contribution, if the turbine power could respond instantaneously to a change in speed, then the governor would contribute a power response directly in phase with speed variations and thereby contribute directly to damping. The response in power output of the turbine is not instantaneous and considerable lag exists in its response to speed variations. At typical local mode oscillation frequencies, the phase lag introduced by the turbine and governor is greater than 90o and the turbine contributes negative damping. This characteristic is demonstrated in the plot of the critical eigenvalue loci of Fig. 5. The case is that of a reheat steam turbine and it can be seen that as the governor gain is increased (i.e. the droop setting is reduced) the critical eigenvalue is driven towards the right half complex plane. At local mode frequencies the dynamic response of a reheat turbine is effectively reduced to that of the high-pressure cylinder only. The long time lag of the reheater effectively prevents the intermediate and low-pressure cylinders of the turbine from contributing to the dynamic response and without the attenuating influence of the reheater, the reduction in damping would be considerably worse.

Kds2 = 0 Kds2 = 25 Kds2 = 100

Fig. 5. Influence of Generator 2 steam turbine governor gain Kds2. Kds2 = 0, 25, 100. G1: Steam turbine. G2: Steam turbine.

A similar situation exists for a gas turbine. The phase lag introduced by the governor and turbine at local mode frequencies is of a similar order to that with the steam turbine. Control is exercised over a larger portion of the total power capability, when compared with the steam turbine. However the resulting influence over damping is also dependent on the inertia of the turbine and generator set. In the case of a single-shaft gas turbine the inertia constant

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A brief review of power system dynamic stability characteristics is generally much greater than that of a steam turbine due to the high operating speed of the turbine and compressor. The high inertia attenuates speed variations following system disturbances and hence results in reduced turbine power response thereby reducing the negative damping influence. Fig 6 is for the case of a single-shaft gas turbine. It can be seen that compared to the steam turbine case, at low values of gain the gas turbine is more stable with the critical eigenvalue lying deeper in the left half plane due mainly to the higher value of inertia constant. However, due to the larger phase shift associated with power control loop elements the critical eigenvalue is more sensitive to droop gain variations and is pushed well into the right half plane for a droop gain of 100 (equivalent to a 1% droop).

Kdg2 = 0

Kdg2 = 25

Kdg2 = 100

Fig. 6. Influence of Generator 2 gas turbine governor gain Kdg2. Kdg2 = 0, 25, 100. G1: Steam turbine. G2: Gas turbine (single shaft).

3.4 Influence of Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) excitation control

With constant generator excitation voltage, variations in the generator stator current caused by network load changes would result in unacceptable variations in the generator terminal voltage. The AVR excitation control scheme detects variations in the generator terminal voltage and uses these to adjust the field voltage of the generator to maintain the terminal voltage close to its desired value. The types and designs of excitation control schemes are wide and varied and they possess widely differing performance characteristics. However, whatever the scheme, an unfortunate feature is that the voltage feedback loop of the AVR gives rise to a component of generator power that is in anti-phase with speed variations and consequently negative damping is introduced which reduces dynamic stability margins. The influence of the AVR gain of a static excitation control system on dynamic stability is demonstrated in Fig. 7. As the AVR gain is increased the locus of the critical eigenvalue is shifted towards the right half complex plane.

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A brief review of power system dynamic stability characteristics

Kv2 = 25

Kv2 = 100

Kv2 = 200

Fig. 7. Influence of Generator 2 AVR voltage feedback gain Kv2. Kv2 = 25, 100, 200. G1: Steam turbine. G2: Steam turbine.

The adverse influence of the voltage feedback signal on dynamic stability is combated by stabilisation terms in the excitation control loop. In the particular static excitation control system considered, the main stabilisation is provided by a generator field current feedback signal. This serves to reduce the effective time constant of the generator field and in doing so reduces the negative damping influence of the voltage feedback signal of the AVR and consequently improves damping. The beneficial influence of the generator field current feedback signal is demonstrated in Fig 8. As the gain of the current feedback loop is increased it can be seen that the critical eigenvalue is driven further to the left of the complex plane thereby providing improved damping.

3.5 Influence of a Power System Stabiliser (PSS)

Generator and system damping can be improved by introducing a PSS into the excitation control scheme of the generator. Under oscillatory system conditions its purpose is to induce a component of electrical power that is in phase with rotor speed variations, thereby improving damping. A PSS may be based on a signal derived from generator speed, electrical power or network frequency. The signal is processed via appropriate filters to provide the required phase relationship between the induced electrical power variations and generator rotor speed. The capability of a PSS, based on an electrical power input signal, introduced on generator 2 is demonstrated in Fig. 9. The case considered is that with generator 1 driven by a steam turbine and generator 2 by a gas turbine for a system operating condition that without the power system stabiliser is unstable. It shows how increasing the gain of the PSS shifts the critical eigenvalue to the left and out of the right half plane thereby providing stable operation.

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A brief review of power system dynamic stability characteristics

Ki2 = 0.87

Ki2 = 0.535

Ki2 = 0.283

Fig. 8. Influence of Generator 2 AVR current feedback gain Ki2. Ki2 = 0.283, 0.535, 0.87. G1: Steam turbine. G2: Steam turbine.

Kpss2 = 2

Kpss2 = 1.25

Kpss2 = 0

Fig. 9. Influence of Generator 2 Power System Stabiliser Kpps2. Kpss2 = 0, 1.25, 2.0. G1: Steam turbine. G2: Gas turbine.

Fig.10 shows the influence of placing the PSS on generator 1 instead of generator 2. Again, as the PSS gain is increased the critical eigenvalue is shifted to the left and out of the right half complex plane. It can be seen that when the PSS is sited on generator 1 it has much more influence on stability than when it is sited on generator 2. Since the major causes of the damping difficulties are the gas turbine governor controller and the leading power factor operating condition of generator 2, this may appear surprising. The performance of a PSS, however, is influenced by many factors and in the case considered, the gas turbine governor

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A brief review of power system dynamic stability characteristics controller of generator 2 interacts adversely with the PSS employed reducing its effectiveness. On generator 1, which employs a steam turbine, interaction with the governor controller is much less and a much more effective contribution to system damping is provided.

Kpss1 = 0.75

Kpss1 = 0.25

Kpss1 = 0

Fig. 10. Influence of Generator 1 Power System Stabiliser Kpps1. Kpss1 = 0, 0.25, 0.75. G1: Steam turbine. G2: Gas turbine.

3.6 Influence of Fixed Speed Induction Generator (FSIG) based wind farms
Much speculation exists concerning the influence of wind farms on system operation and stability. Wind farms based on Fixed Speed Induction Generators (FSIGs) have poor transient stability characteristics but it can be shown that they add significantly to the damping of the system. The operating characteristic of a synchronous generator is such that power output changes are most directly linked to changes in rotor angle. Power response to rotor speed oscillations is due mainly to the damper circuits and is relatively small. Since, damping is governed by torque (or power) variations in phase with speed variations the natural response of a generator connected to a power network is oscillatory. The operating characteristic of an induction machine is such that torque changes are related directly to speed changes. With an induction generator, therefore, under oscillatory system conditions the torque variations produced are predominantly in phase with speed variations. Consider the situation where an induction generator feeds power into a system, predominantly supplied by synchronous generators and where oscillatory conditions exist. Since an induction generator operates super-synchronously, any increase in system frequency reduces the difference between the rotor speed and its stator frequency and therefore results in a reduction of the generator power output. If the power demanded by the system load is considered essentially fixed, then this reduction imposes an increased electrical power from the synchronous generators. Since the frequency of the system is

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A brief review of power system dynamic stability characteristics dictated by the rotor speed of the synchronous generators, the power variations produced are essentially in phase with the rotor speed variations. Consequently, under oscillatory conditions the power variation imposed on the synchronous generators is predominantly damping power so that the introduction of an FSIG on to a system improves the system damping.

G1 = 1.0 FSIG = 1.0

G1 = 1.5 FSIG = 0.5

G1 = 2.0 FSIG = 0.01

Fig. 11. Influence of Fixed Speed Induction Generator (FSIG) wind farm size. G1: Steam turbine. G2: FSIG.

The plot of Fig. 11 is for the situation where generator 1 is a steam turbine driven synchronous generator and generator 2 is the fixed speed induction generator of a wind farm. The total power generation of the subsystem consisting of generators 1 and 2 is maintained constant as the proportion of the power produced by the wind farm is increased. It can be seen that as the proportion of the FSIG based wind farm power is increased, the critical eigenvalue is shifted to the left in the complex plane indicating improved damping and an increased dynamic stability margin.

3.7 Influence of Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) based wind farms
Wind farms based on Doubly Fed Induction Generators (DFIGs) have superior transient stability characteristics to either FSIGs or Synchronous generators. The control of the frequency of the three-phase rotor supply decouples the speed of the rotor from the speed of the stator flux vector. Consequently, variations in the speed difference between the physical rotor and the stator flux vector do not result directly in changes in load torque, so that the damping contribution of a DFIG tends to be less than that of a FSIG. The plot of Fig. 12 is for the case where generator 1 is a steam turbine driven synchronous generator and generator 2 is the doubly fed induction generator of a wind farm. The total generation of the subsystem comprising generators 1 and 2 is maintained constant as the proportion of power generated by the wind farm is increased. As the wind power component is increased the critical eigenvalue is shifted to the left. As expected the shift involved is less than that of the

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A brief review of power system dynamic stability characteristics FSIG case but the results still indicate that significant improvement in the system damping and dynamic stability margin is provided.

G1 = 1.2 DFIG = 0.8

G1 = 1.6 DFIG = 0.4

G1 = 2.0 DFIG = 0.01

Fig. 12. Influence of Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) wind farm size. G1: Steam turbine. G2: DFIG.

4. Conclusions
Whilst power system dynamics is a complex subject and dynamic stability depends on the interaction of many components with widely varying characteristics, it is hoped that this very brief report provides an appreciation of some of the fundamental factors that mould the dynamic stability characteristics of a power system. The large scale changes in generating profile due to the big expansion proposed in distributed generation and renewable energy sources warrants a new look at dynamic stability and the overall control strategies adopted for power stations, be they conventional or wind farms, to ensure dynamic compatibility, stability and system integrity.

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