MATH20101 Complex Analysis 7.

Cauchys Residue Theorem

7. Cauchys Residue Theorem
7.1 Introduction
One of the more remarkable applications of integration in the complex plane in general,
and Cauchys theorem in particular, is that it gives a method for calculating real integrals
that, up until now, would have been dicult or even impossible (assuming that you only
had the tools of 1st year calculus or A-level mathematics to hand). As another application:
you may remember from MATH10242 Sequences and Series that you studied whether an
innite series

n=0
a
n
converged or not. However, in only very few examples were you able
to say what the limit actually is! Using complex analysis, it becomes very easy to prove
formul such as

n=1
1/n
4
=
4
/90.
7.2 Zeros and poles of holomorphic functions
Recall that a function f has a singularity at z
0
if f is not dierentiable at z
0
. We will only
consider the case when f has poles as singularities, and in the examples we have seen so
far f(z) has a pole at z
0
because we can write f(z) = p(z)/q(z) and q(z
0
) = 0 (so that f is
not even dened at z
0
). Thus it makes sense to rst study zeros of functions.
Denition. A holomorphic function f on a domain D has a zero at z
0
if f(z
0
) = 0.
By Taylors theorem, we can expand f as a Taylor series in some neighbourhood around
z
0
. That is we can wrote
f(z) =

n=0
a
n
(z z
0
)
n
(7.2.1)
for all z in some disc that contains z
0
.
Denition. We say that f has a zero of order m at z
0
if a
0
= a
1
= = a
m1
= 0 but
a
m
= 0. We say that z
0
is a simple zero if it is a zero of order 1.
Example. (i) Let f(z) = z
2
. Then f has a zero of order 2 at 0.
(ii) Let f(z) = z(z +2i)
3
. Then f has a zero of order 1 at 0 and a zero of order 3 at 2i.
Remark. The coecients a
n
in the Taylor expansion are given by a
n
= f
(n)
(z
0
)/n!. Thus
f has a zero of order m at z
0
if and only if f
(k)
(z
0
) = 0 for 0 k m1 but f
(m)
(z
0
) = 0.
In partiocular, if f(z
0
) = 0 but f

(z
0
) = 0 then z
0
is a simple zero.
Example. (i) Let f(z) = sin z. Then f(z) has zeros at k, k Z. Note that f

(k) =
cos k = (1)
k
= 0. Hence all the zeros are simple zeros.
(ii) Let f(z) = 1 cos z. Then f(z) has zeros at 2k, k Z. Now f

(z) = sin z and

f

(2k) = 0, but f

(2k) = cos 2k = 1 = 0. Hence all the zeros have order 2.

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MATH20101 Complex Analysis 7. Cauchys Residue Theorem
Lemma 7.2.1
Suppose that the holomorphic function f has a zero of order m at z
0
. Then, on some disc
centred at z
0
, we can write
f(z) = (z z
0
)
m
g(z)
where g is a holomorphic function on an open disc centred on z
0
and g(z
0
) = 0.
Proof. By (7.2.1) we can write
f(z) = a
m
(z z
0
)
m
+ a
m+1
(z z
0
)
m+1
+ = (z z
0
)
m

n=0
a
n+m
(z z
0
)
n
.
Take g(z) =

n=0
a
n+m
(z z
0
)
n
. 2
We can now link poles of a function f(z) = p(z)/q(z) with zeros of the function q.
Lemma 7.2.2
Suppose that f(z) = p(z)/q(z) where
(i) p is holomorphic and p(z
0
) = 0,
(ii) q is holomorphic and q has a zero of order m at z
0
.
Then f has a pole of order m at z
0
.
Proof. By Lemma 7.2.1, we can write q(z) = (z z
0
)
m
r(z) where r is holomorphic and
r(z
0
) = 0. Dene g(z) = p(z)/r(z). Then g(z) is holomorphic at z
0
, and so we can expand
it as a Taylor series at z
0
:
g(z) =

n=0
a
n
(z z
0
)
n
and this expression is valid in some disc |z z
0
| < R, for some R > 0. Then
f(z) =
p(z)
q(z)
=
p(z)
(z z
0
)
m
r(z)
=
g(z)
(z z
0
)
m
=
1
(z z
0
)
m

n=0
a
n
(z z
0
)
n
=
a
0
(z z
0
)
m
+
a
1
(z z
0
)
m1
+
a
2
(z z
0
)
m2
+ .
However, a
0
= g(z
0
) = p(z
0
)/r(z
0
) = 0, as p(z
0
) = 0. Hence f has a pole of order m at z
0
.
2
Example. (i) Let
f(z) =
sin z
(z 3)
2
.
Then f has a pole of order 2 at z = 3. This is because sin z = 0 when z = 3 and
(z 3)
2
has a zero of order 2 at z = 3.
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MATH20101 Complex Analysis 7. Cauchys Residue Theorem
(ii) Let
f(z) =
z + 3
sin z
.
Then f has a simple pole at k for each k Z. This is because sin z has a simple
zero at z = k for each k Z but z + 3 = 0 when z = k.
7.3 Residues and Cauchys Residue Theorem
We begin with the following important denition.
Denition. Suppose that f is holomorphic on a domain and has an isolated singularity
at z
0
and Laurent expansion
f(z) =

n=0
a
n
(z z
0
)
n
+

n=1
b
n
(z z
0
)
n
0 < |z z
0
| < R.
The residue of f at z
0
is dened to be
Res(f, z
0
) = b
1
.
That is, the residue of f at the isolated singularity z
0
is the coecient of (z z
0
)
1
in the
Laurent expansion.
By Laurents Theorem (Theorem 6.1.1) we have the alternative expression
Res(f, z
0
) =
1
2i
_
Cr
f(z) dz
where C
r
(t) = z
0
+re
it
, 0 t 2 (and 0 < r < R) is a circular anticlockwise path around
z
0
in the annulus of convergence. This shows that residues are related to integration.
Cauchys Residue Theorem relies on using Cauchys Theorem in just the right way. In
particular, we have to be careful about the paths that we integrate over. We make the
following denition.
Denition. A closed path is said to be a simple loop if, for every point z not on , the
winding number is either w(, z) = 0 or w(, z) = 1. If w(, z) = 1 then we say that z is
inside .

3
Figure 7.3.1: Here
1
is a simple loop. The loops
2
and
3
are not simple because there
are points where the winding number is 1.
Thus a simple loop is a loop that goes round anticlockwise in a loop once, and without
intersecting itself; see Figure 7.3.1. In practice, we will look at simple loops that are made
up of line segments and arcs of circles.
We can now state the main result of this section.
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MATH20101 Complex Analysis 7. Cauchys Residue Theorem
Theorem 7.3.1 (Cauchys Residue Theorem)
Let D be a domain containing a simple loop and the points inside . Suppose that f is
meromorphic on D with nitely many isolated poles at z
1
, z
2
, . . . , z
n
inside . Then
_

f(z) dz = 2i
n

r=1
Res(f, z
r
).
Remark. A word of warning: you will have noticed that many expressions in complex
analysis have a factor of 2i in them. A very common mistake is to either miss a 2i out,
or put one in by mistake.
We shall defer the proof of the Residue Theorem until later.
7.4 Calculating residues
In order to use the Residue Theorem we need to be able to easily calculate residues. In
some cases, ad hoc manipulations have to be used to calculate the Laurent series, but there
are many cases where one can calculate them more systematically.
First recall that if f(z) has Laurent series
f(z) =
b
m
(z z
0
)
m
+ +
b
1
(z z
0
)
+

n=0
a
n
(z z
0
)
n
then we say that f has a pole of order m at z
0
. We say that a pole of order 1 is a simple
pole.
Remark. If we can write f(z) = p(z)/q(z) where p and q are dierentiable and p(z) = 0
when q(z) = 0 then the poles of f occur at the zeros of q. Moreover f has a pole of order
m at z
0
if q has a zero of order m at z
0
.
It is easy to calculate the residue at a simple pole.
Lemma 7.4.1
(i) If f has a simple pole at z
0
then
Res(f, z
0
) = lim
zz
0
(z z
0
)f(z).
(ii) If f(z) = p(z)/q(z) where p(z
0
) = 0, q(z
0
) = 0 but q

(z
0
) = 0, then
Res(f, z
0
) =
p(z
0
)
q

(z
0
)
.
Proof. (i) If f has a simple pole at z
0
then it has Laurent expansion
f(z) =
b
1
z z
0
+

n=0
a
n
(z z
0
)
n
.
Hence
(z z
0
)f(z) = b
1
+

n=0
a
n
(z z
0
)
n+1
so that lim
zz
0
(z z
0
)f(z) = b
1
.
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MATH20101 Complex Analysis 7. Cauchys Residue Theorem
(ii) The hypotheses imply that f has a simple pole at z
0
. By part (i) and the fact that
q(z
0
) = 0, the residue is
lim
zz
0
(z z
0
)p(z)
q(z)
= lim
zz
0
p(z)
_
q(z)q(z
0
)
zz
0
_ =
p(z
0
)
q

(z
0
)
.
2
Example. For example, let
f(z) =
cos z
(1 z
976
)
.
This has a simple pole at z = 1 and satises the hypothesis of Lemma 7.4.1. Hence
Res(f, 1) =
cos
(976) 1
975
=
1
976
.
We can generalise Lemma 7.4.1 to poles of order m.
Lemma 7.4.2
Suppose that f has a pole of order m at z
0
. Then
Res(f, z
0
) = lim
zz
0
_
1
(m1)!
d
m1
dz
m1
((z z
0
)
m
f(z))
_
.
Proof. If f has a pole of order m at z
0
then it has a Laurent series
f(z) =
b
m
(z z
0
)
m
+ +
b
1
z z
0
+

n=0
a
n
(z z
0
)
n
valid for 0 < |z z
0
| < R, for some R > 0. Hence
(z z
0
)
m
f(z) = b
m
+ (z z
0
)b
m1
+ + (z z
0
)
m1
b
1
+

n=0
a
n
(z z
0
)
m+n
.
Dierentiating this m1 times gives
d
m1
dz
m1
(z z
0
)
m
f(z) = (m1)!b
1
+

n=0
(m + n)!
(n + 1)!
a
n
(z z
0
)
n+1
.
Dividing by (m1)! and letting z z
0
gives the result. 2
Example. Let
f(z) =
_
z + 1
z 1
_
3
.
This has a pole of order 3 at z = 1. To calculate the residue we note that (z 1)
3
f(z) =
(z + 1)
3
. Hence
1
2!
d
2
dz
2
_
(z 1)
3
f(z)
_
=
6
2!
(z + 1)
6
2!
2 = 6
as z 1. Hence Res(f, 1) = 6.
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MATH20101 Complex Analysis 7. Cauchys Residue Theorem
Let us check this by calculating the Laurent series. First let us change variables by
writing w = z 1. Then z = w + 1 and we can write
_
z + 1
z 1
_
3
=
(w + 2)
3
w
3
=
w
3
+ 6w
2
+ 12w + 8
w
3
=
8
w
3
+
12
w
2
+
6
w
+ 1
=
8
(z 1)
3
+
12
(z 1)
2
+
6
(z 1)
+ 1.
Hence f has a pole of order 3 at z = 1 and we can read o Res(f, 1) = 6 as the coecient
of 1/(z 1).
In other cases, one has to manipulate the formula for f to calculate the residue.
Example. Let
f(z) =
1
z
2
sin z
.
This has singularities whenever the denominator is zero. Hence the singularities are at
z = 0, k. We will use Laurent series to calculate the residue at z = 0.
Recalling the power series for sin z we can write
f(z) =
1
z
2
sin z
=
1
z
2
_
z
z
3
6
+
_
=
1
z
3
_
1
z
2
6
+
_
1
=
1
z
3
_
1 +
z
2
6
+
_
=
1
z
3
+
1
6z
+
where we have omitted higher order terms. (Note that when doing computations such as
these, one can usually ignore terms that will not contribute to the coecient of 1/z.) Hence
Res(f, 0) = 1/6.
For the poles at k, k = 0, we could change variables to w = z k and calculate the
Laurent series. Alternatively, we can use Lemma 7.4.1(ii). First note that we can write
f(z) =
p(z)
q(z)
where p(z) = 1 and q(z) = z
2
sin z. Now, for k = 0, k is a simple zero of sin z (as
sin

k = cos k = 0) and so is a simple zero of q(z). Hence

Res(f, k) =
p(k)
q

(k)
=
(1)
k
(k)
2
as q

(z) = 2z sin z + z
2
cos z so that q

(k) = (k)
2
cos k = (1)
k
(k)
2
.
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MATH20101 Complex Analysis 7. Cauchys Residue Theorem
7.5 Applications
7.5.1 Easy examples
We shall evaluate some simple integrals around the circular contours C
2
(t) = 2e
it
, 0 t
2 and C
4
(t) = 4e
it
, 0 t 2. Thus C
2
is the circle of radius 2 centred at 0 described
anticlockwise, and C
4
is the circle of radius 4 centred at 0 described anticlockwise. Hence
both C
2
and C
4
are simple loops.
Consider the function
f(z) =
3
z 1
Then f has a pole at z = 1 and no other poles. We can read o from the denition of f
that Res(f, 1) = 3. As the pole at z = 1 lies inside C
2
, by the Residue Theorem we have
that
_
C
2
f dz = 2i Res(f, 1) = 6i.
Similarly, the pole at z = 1 lies inside C
4
, hence
_
C
4
f dz = 2i Res(f, 1) = 6i.
See Figure 7.5.1.
1 2
4
C
2
C
4
Figure 7.5.1: The function f(z) = 3/(z 1) has a pole at z = 1 which lies inside both C
2
and C
4
.
Now consider the function
f(z) =
1
z
2
+ (i 3) 3i
.
Then f has a pole when the denominator has a zero. To nd the poles we rst factorise
the denominator
z
2
+ (i 3)z 3i = (z 3)(z + i)
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MATH20101 Complex Analysis 7. Cauchys Residue Theorem
(to do this we could either use the quadratic formula or inspired guesswork). Thus f has
simple poles z = 3 and z = i. Using Lemma 7.4.1 we can calculate that
Res(f, i) =
1
3 + i
, Res(f, 3) =
1
3 + i
.
See Figure 7.5.2.
2
4
C
2
C
4
3
i
Figure 7.5.2: The function f(z) = 1/(z
2
+ (i 3)z 3i)) has simple poles at z = i and
z = 3.
Now consider
_
C
2
f dz. The pole z = i is inside C
2
but the pole z = 3 is outside.
Hence
_
C
2
f dz = 2i Res(f, i) = 2i
_
1
3 + i
_
=
2i(3 i)
10
=
2 6i
10
=

5
(1 + 3i).
Now consider
_
C
4
f dz. In this case, both the poles at z = i and z = 3 lie inside C
4
.
Hence
_
C
4
f dz = 2i (Res(f, i) + Res(f, 3)) = 2i
_
1
3 + i
+
1
3 + i
_
= 0.
7.5.2 Innite real integrals
In this section we shall show how to use the Residue Theorem to calculate some innite
real integrals, i.e. integrals of the form
_

f(x) dx (7.5.1)
where f is a real-valued function dened on the real line.
First we need to make precise what (7.5.1) means. Formally, we say that
_

f(x) dx
exists if
lim
A,B
_
B
A
f(x) dx (7.5.2)
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MATH20101 Complex Analysis 7. Cauchys Residue Theorem
converges, where the limits can be taken in either order. We then dene
_

f(x) dx to be
equal to this limit.
If
_

f(x) dx exists then it is equal to its principal value, dened by

lim
R
_
R
R
f(x) dx. (7.5.3)
However, there are many functions f for which (7.5.3) exists but (7.5.2) does not. For
example, take f(x) = x. Then
_
R
R
f(x) dx =
_
R
R
xdx =
1
2
x
2

R
x=R
=
R
2
2

R
2
2
= 0
and so converges to 0 as R . Hence (7.5.3) exists. However
_
B
A
f(x) dx =
_
B
A
xdx =
1
2
x
2

B
x=A
=
B
2
2

A
2
2
does not converge if we rst let B tend to and then let A tend to .
The following gives a criterion for (7.5.2) to converge.
Lemma 7.5.1
Suppose that f is a continuous function and there exists constants C > 0 and r > 1 such
that for |x| 1 we have
|f(x)|
C
|x|
r
. (7.5.4)
Then (7.5.2) converges and the limit, which we denote by
_

f(x) dx, exists and is equal

to its principal value (7.5.3).
Instead of giving a general theorem, let us consider an example that will illustrate the
method. We will show how to use the Residue Theorem to evaluate
_

1
(x
2
+ 1)(x
2
+ 4)
dx (7.5.5)
(the fact that 1 and 4 are squares will make the calculations notationally easier, but this is
not essential to the method).
First note that there exists a constant C > 0 such that

1
(x
2
+ 1)(x
2
+ 4)

C
x
4
.
Hence, by Lemma 7.5.1, the integral (7.5.5) exists and is equal to its principal value, i.e. to
lim
R
_
R
R
1
(x
2
+ 1)(x
2
+ 4)
dx.
Let
f(z) =
1
(z
2
+ 1)(z
2
+ 4)
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MATH20101 Complex Analysis 7. Cauchys Residue Theorem
(note that we have introduced a complex variable). Let [R, R] denote the path along the
real axis that starts at R and ends at R. This has parametrisation t, R t R. Note
that we can equate the real integral (7.5.5) with the complex integral as follows:
_
R
R
1
(x
2
+ 1)(x
2
+ 4)
dx =
_
[R,R]
f(z) dz.
To use the Residue Theorem, we need a closed contour. Introduce a semi-circular path
S
R
(t) = Re
it
, 0 t and the D-shaped contour
R
= [R, R] + S
R
(see Figure 7.5.3).
R R
Figure 7.5.3: The D-shaped contour
R
. It starts at R, travels along the real axis to
R, and then anticlockwise along the semicircle S
R
with centre 0 and radius R.
Now
R
is a simple closed loop. To use the Residue Theorem, we need to know the
poles and residues of f(z). Now
f(z) =
1
(z
2
+ 1)(z
2
+ 4)
=
1
(z i)(z + i)(z 2i)(z + 2i)
.
Hence f(z) has simple poles at z = +i, i, +2i, 2i. If we take R > 2 then the poles
at z = i, 2i lie inside
R
(note that the poles at z = i, 2i lie outside
R
). Now by
Lemma 7.4.1,
Res(f, i) = lim
zi
(z i)f(z)
= lim
zi
1
(z + i)(z 2i)(z + 2i)
=
1
6i
and
Res(f, 2i) = lim
z2i
(z 2i)f(z)
= lim
z2i
1
(z i)(z + i)(z + 2i)
=
1
12i
.
Hence by the Residue Theorem
_
[R,R]
f(z), dz +
_
S
R
f(z) dz =
_

R
f(z) dz
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MATH20101 Complex Analysis 7. Cauchys Residue Theorem
= 2i (Res(f, i) + Res(f, 2i))
= 2i
_
1
6i

1
12i
_
=

6
.
If we can show that
lim
R
_
S
R
f(z) dz = 0 (7.5.6)
then we will have that
_

1
(x
2
+ 1)(x
2
+ 4)
dx = lim
R
_
[R,R]
f(z) dz =

6
.
To complete the calculation, we show that (7.5.6) holds. We shall use the Estimation
Lemma. Let z be a point on S
R
. Note that |z| = R. Hence
|(z
2
+ 1)(z
2
+ 4)| (R
2
1)(R
2
4)
so that

1
(z
2
+ 1)(z
2
+ 4)

1
(R
2
1)(R
2
4)
.
Hence, by the Estimation Lemma,

_
S
R
f(z) dz

1
(R
2
1)(R
2
4)
length(S
R
)
=
R
(R
2
1)(R
2
4)
0
as R , which is what we wanted to check.
Remark. As a general method, to evaluate
_
R
R
f(x) dx
one uses the following steps:
(i) Construct a D-shaped contour
R
as in Figure 7.5.3.
(ii) Find the poles and residues of f(z) that lie inside
R
when R is large.
(iii) Use the Residue Theorem to write down
_

R
f(z) dz.
(iv) Split this integral into an integral over [R, R] and an integral over S
R
. Use the
Estimation Lemma to conclude that the integral over S
R
converges to 0 as R .
For a particular example, one may need to make small modications to the above process,
but the general method is normally as above.
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MATH20101 Complex Analysis 7. Cauchys Residue Theorem
Remark. It is very easy to lose minus signs or factors of 2i when doing these computa-
tions. You should always check that your answer makes sense. For example, if I had missed
out a factor of i then I would have obtained something of the form
_

1
(x
2
+ 1)(x
2
+ 4)
dx =
i
6
.
This is obviously wrong: the left-hand side is a real number, whereas the (incorrect) right-
hand side is imaginary. Similarly, the integrand on the left-hand side is a positive function,
and so the integral must be positive; hence if the right-hand side is negative then there
must be a mistake somewhere in the calculation.
7.5.3 Trigonometric integrals
We can use the Residue Theorem to calculate integrals of the form
_
2
0
Q(cos t, sin t) dt (7.5.7)
where Q is some function. (Integrands such as cos
4
t sin
3
t 7 sin t, or cos t +sin
2
t, etc, fall
into this category.)
The rst step is to turn (7.5.7) into a complex integral. Set z = e
it
. Then
cos t =
z + z
1
2
, sin t =
z z
1
2i
.
Also [0, 2] transforms into the unit circle C
1
(t) = e
it
, 0 t 2. Finally, note that
dz = ie
it
dt so that
dt =
dz
iz
.
Hence
_
2
0
Q(cos t, sin t) dt =
_
C
1
Q
_
z + z
1
2
,
z z
1
2i
_
dz
iz
.
Then in principle we can evaluate this integral by nding the poles of
Q
_
z + z
1
2
,
z z
1
2i
_
1
iz
inside C
1
, together with their associated residues, and then use the Residue Theorem.
Instead of stating a general theorem, we shall compute some examples to illustrate the
method.
Example. We shall how to compute
_
2
0
(cos
3
t + sin
2
t) dt.
Let z = e
it
so that dt = dz/iz. Then
_
2
0
(cos
3
t + sin
2
t) dt
75
MATH20101 Complex Analysis 7. Cauchys Residue Theorem
=
_
C
1
_
_
z + z
1
2
_
3
+
_
z z
1
2i
_
2
_
dz
iz
=
_
C
1
_
z
3
8
+
3z
8
+
3z
1
8
+
z
3
8

z
2
4
+
1
2

z
2
4
_
dz
iz
=
_
C
1
1
i
_
z
2
8
+
3
8
+
3z
2
8
+
z
4
8

z
4
+
z
1
2

z
3
4
_
dz
The integrand has a pole of order 4 at z = 0 with residue 1/2i, and no other poles. Hence
_
2
0
(cos
3
t + sin
2
t) dt = 2i
1
2i
= .
Example. We shall compute
_
2
0
cos t sin t dt.
Again, substituting z = e
it
we have that
_
2
0
cos t sin t dt
=
_
C
1
1
4i
(z + z
1
)(z z
1
)
dz
iz
=
_
C
1
1
4i
(z
2
z
2
)
dz
iz
=
_
C
1
_
1
4
__
z
2

1
z
3
_
dz.
The integrand has a pole of order 3 at z = 0 with residue 0. There are no other poles.
Hence
_
2
0
cos t sin t dt = 0.
7.5.4 Summation of series
Recall that cot z = cos z/ sin z. Then cot z has a pole whenever sin z = 0, i.e.
whenever z = n, n Z. First note that sin z has a simple zero at z = n (as sin

z =
cos z = 0 when z = n). Hence cot z has a simple pole at z = n. By Lemma 7.4.1(ii)
we have
Res(cot z, n) =
cos n
cos n
=
1

.
This suggests a method for summing innite series of the form

n=1
a
n
. Let f(z) be a
meromorphic function dened on C such that f(n) = a
n
. Consider the function f(z) cot z.
Then
Res(f(z) cot z) =
a
n

and we can use the Residue Theorem to calculate

n=1
a
n
. For example, we will show how
to use this method to calculate

n=1
1/n
2
.
There are two technicalities to overcome. First of all, we need to choose a good contour
to integrate round. We will want to use the Estimation Lemma along this contour, so we
will need some bounds on |f(z) cot(z)|. Secondly, f(z) may have poles of its own and
76
MATH20101 Complex Analysis 7. Cauchys Residue Theorem
these will need to be taken into account. (In the above example, to calculate

n=1
1/n
2
we will take f(z) = 1/z
2
, which has a pole at z = 0.)
Instead of choosing a D-shaped contour, here we use a square contour. Let C
N
denote
the square in C with vertices at
_
N +
1
2
_
i
_
N +
1
2
_
,
_
N +
1
2
_
+ i
_
N +
1
2
_
,

_
N +
1
2
_
+ i
_
N +
1
2
_
,
_
N +
1
2
_
i
_
N +
1
2
_
(see Figure 7.5.4). This is a square with each side having length 2N + 1. (The factors of
1/2 are there so that the sides of this square do not pass through the integer points on the
real axis.)
N 0 1 1 N
N + 1 (N + 1)
Figure 7.5.4: The square contour C
N
.
Lemma 7.5.2
There is a bound, independent of N, on cot z where z C
N
, i.e. there exists M > 0 such
that for all N and all z C
N
, we have | cot z| M.
Proof. Consider the square C
N
. This has two horizontal sides and two vertical sides,
parallel to the real and imaginary axes, respectively.
Consider rst the horizontal sides. Let z = x + iy be a point on one of the horizontal
sides of C
N
. Then |y| 1/2. Hence
| cot z| =

e
iz
+ e
iz
e
iz
e
iz

e
iz

e
iz

|e
iz
| |e
iz
|

77
MATH20101 Complex Analysis 7. Cauchys Residue Theorem

e
y
+ e
y
e
y
e
y

= coth |y|
coth
_

2
_
as |y| 1/2.
Consider now the vertical sides. If z is on a vertical side of C
N
then
z =
_
N +
1
2
_
+ iy.
Hence
| cot z| =

e
iz
+ e
iz
e
iz
e
iz

e
2iz
+ 1
e
2iz
1

e
i2y
+ 1
e
i2y
1

e
2iy
+ 1
e
2iy
1

=
1 e
2y
1 + e
2y
1.
Hence | cot z| max{1, coth /2} for all z C
N
. 2
Instead of stating a general theorem on how to use the Residue Theorem to evaluate
innite sums, we will work through an example to illustrate the method. Very similar
techniques and slight modications to the argument work for many other examples.
We will evaluate

n=0
1/n
2
. Let f(z) = 1/z
2
and consider the function
f(z) cot z =
cot z
z
2
=
cos z
z
2
sin z
.
This has a pole whenever the denominator has a zero. These occur when z
2
sin z = 0, i.e.
when z = n, n Z. Note that when n = 0 we have a simple pole and when n = 0 we have
a pole of order 3.
Let us calculate the residue when n = 0. We use Lemma 7.4.1(ii). Then
Res
_
cot z
z
2
, n
_
=
cos n
n
2
cos n + 2nsin n
=
1
n
2
.
Now consider the pole at z = 0. There are (at least) three ways to work out the residue
here, and for completeness well discuss them all. Firstly, we can write
1
z
2
cos z
sin z
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MATH20101 Complex Analysis 7. Cauchys Residue Theorem
=
1
z
2
_
1
(z)
2
2!
+
(z)
4
4!

__
(z)
(z)
3
3!
+
(z)
5
5!

_
1
=
1
z
2
1
z
_
1
(z)
2
2!
+
(z)
4
4!

__
1
(z)
2
3!
+
(z)
4
5!

_
1
=
1
z
2
1
z
_
1
(z)
2
2!
+
(z)
4
4!

__
1 +
(z)
2
3!

(z)
4
5!
+
_
=
1
z
3
_
1
(z)
2
3
+
_
so that Res(cot z/z
2
, 0) = /3. (We used the expansion (1x)
1
= 1+x+x
2
+ .) Note
that to calculate the residue we need only calculate the coecient of the term involving
1/z; hence we need to be very careful when manipulating these innite sums to ensure that
we account for all the possible places which may contribute towards 1/z.
Alternatively, from real analysis we have the following power series expansion for cot z:
cot z =
1
z

z
3

z
3
45

2z
5
945
.
Hence
cot z
z
2
=
1
z
3


3z


3
z
45

2
5
z
3
945

from which it is clear that z = 0 is a pole of order 3 with residue /3.
Finally, one could use Lemma 7.4.2 to calculate the residue.
Now let C
N
be the square contour illustrated above. Note that each side of the square
has length 2N + 1. Hence the length of C
N
is 4(2N + 1).
Note that the poles that lie inside C
N
occur at z = 0, 1, , N. By the Residue
Theorem we have that
2i
N

n=N
Res
_
cot z
z
2
, n
_
=
_
C
N
cot z
z
2
dz.
Recall from Lemma 7.5.2 that | cot z| M on C
N
, where M is independent of N. Also
note that |1/z
2
| 1/N
2
for z on C
N
. By the Estimation Lemma we have

_
C
N
cot z
z
2
dz

M
N
2
length C
N
=
M
N
2
4(2N + 1)
which tends to 0 as N . Hence
lim
N
N

n=N
Res
_
cot z
z
2
, n
_
= 0. (7.5.8)
Now
N

n=N
Res
_
cot z
z
2
, n
_
=
1

n=N
Res
_
cot z
z
2
, n
_
+ Res
_
cot z
z
2
, 0
_
+
N

n=1
Res
_
cot z
z
2
, n
_
= 2
N

n=1
1
n
2


3
79
MATH20101 Complex Analysis 7. Cauchys Residue Theorem
and combining this with (7.5.8) we see that
2

n=1
1
n
2


3
= 0.
This rearranges to give

n=1
1
n
2
=

2
6
.
7.6 Proof of the Residue Theorem
Let us rst recall the statement of the Residue Theorem:
Theorem 7.6.1 (Cauchys Residue Theorem)
Let D be a domain containing a simple loop and the points inside . Suppose that f is
holomorphic on D except for nitely many isolated poles at z
1
, z
2
, . . . , z
n
inside . Then
_

f(z) dz = 2i
n

r=1
Res(f, z
r
).
Proof. The proof is a simple application of the Generalised Cauchy Theorem (Theo-
rem 4.5.7).
Since D is open, for each r = 1, . . . , n, we can nd circles
S
r
(t) = z
r
+
r
e
it
, 0 t 2
centred at z
r
and of radii
r
such that S
r
and the points inside S
r
lie in D and such that
S
r
contains no singularity other than z
r
(see Figure 7.6.1).
Let D

= D \ {z
1
, . . . , z
n
}. We claim that the collection of paths
, S
1
, . . . , S
n
satisfy the hypotheses of the Generalised Cauchy Theorem (Theorem 4.5.7) with respect
to D

: i.e. their winding numbers sum to zero for every point not in D

.
To see this, rst note that
w(, z) = w(S
r
, z) = 0 for z D.
Hence the hypotheses of the Generalised Cauchy Theorem hold for points z not in D. It
remains to consider points in D that are not in D

, i.e. the poles z

r
.
Since each pole z
r
lies inside , we have that
w(, z
r
) = w(, z
r
) = 1.
Moreover,
w(S
j
, z
r
) =
_
0 if j = r
1 if j = r.
Hence
w(, z
r
) + w(S
1
, z
r
) + + w(S
n
, z
r
) = 0.
80
MATH20101 Complex Analysis 7. Cauchys Residue Theorem
z
3
z
1
z
2
S
3
S
1
S
2

D
Figure 7.6.1: Here we have 3 poles at z
1
, z
2
, z
3
inside . The circles S
1
, S
2
, S
3
(centred on
z
1
, z
2
, z
3
, respectively) have been chosen so that they lie inside and do not intersect each
other.
Hence, by the Generalised Cauchy Theorem,
_

f +
_
S
1
f + +
_
Sn
f = 0
which gives
_

f =
_
S
1
f + +
_
Sn
f
= 2i (Res(f, z
1
) + + Res(f, z
n
)) ,
concluding the proof. 2
7.7 Exercises
Exercise 7.1
Examine the nature of the singularities of the following functions and determine the residue
at each singularity:
(i)
1
z(1 z
2
)
, (ii) tan z, (iii)
sin z
z
2
, (iv)
z
1 + z
4
, (v)
_
z + 1
z
2
+ 1
_
2
.
Exercise 7.2
Let C
r
be the circle C
r
(t) = re
it
, 0 t 2, with centre 0 and radius r. Use the Residue
Theorem to evaluate the integrals
(i)
_
C
4
1
z
2
5z + 6
dz, (ii)
_
C
5/2
1
z
2
5z + 6
dz, (iii)
_
C
2
e
az
1 + z
2
dz (a R).
81
MATH20101 Complex Analysis 7. Cauchys Residue Theorem
Exercise 7.3
(a) Consider the following real integral:
_

1
x
2
+ 1
dx.
(i) Explain why this integral is equal to its principal value.
(ii) Use the Residue Theorem to evaluate this integral. (How would you have done
this without using complex analysis?)
(b) (i) Now evaluate, using the Residue Theorem, the integral
_

e
2ix
x
2
+ 1
dx.
(ii) By taking real and imaginary parts, calculate
_

cos 2x
x
2
+ 1
dx,
_

sin2x
x
2
+ 1
dx.
(Why is it obvious that one of these integrals is zero?)
(iii) Why does the D-shaped contour used in the lectures for calculating such inte-
grals fail when we try to integrate
_

e
2ix
x
2
+ 1
dx?
By choosing a dierent contour, explain how one could evaluate this integral
using the Residue Theorem.
Exercise 7.4
Use the Residue Theorem to evaluate the following real integrals:
(i)
_

1
(x
2
+ 1)(x
2
+ 3)
dx, (ii)
_

1
28 + 11x
2
+ x
4
dx.
Exercise 7.5
By considering the function
f(z) =
e
iz
z
2
+ 4z + 5
integrated around a suitable contour, show that
_

sinx
x
2
+ 4x + 5
dx =
sin2
e
.
Exercise 7.6
Evaluate the integral discussed in 1.1:
_

xsin x
(x
2
+ a
2
)(x
2
+ b
2
)
dx
by integrating around a suitable contour.
82
MATH20101 Complex Analysis 7. Cauchys Residue Theorem
Exercise 7.7
Convert the following real integrals into complex integrals around the unit circle in the
complex plane. Hence use the Residue Theorem to evaluate them.
(i)
_
2
0
2 cos
3
t + 3 cos
2
t dt, (ii)
_
2
0
1
1 + cos
2
t
dt.
Exercise 7.8
Use the method of summation of series to show that

n=1
1/n
4
=
4
/90.
Why doesnt the method work for evaluating

n=1
1/n
3
?
Exercise 7.9
Suppose a = 0. Consider the function
cot z
z
2
+ a
2
Show that this function has poles at z = n, n Z and z = ia. Calculate the residues at
these poles.
Hence show that

n=1
1
n
2
+ a
2
=

2a
coth a
1
2a
2
.
Exercise 7.10
(Sometimes, one has to be rather creative in picking the right contour...) Let 0 < a < 1.
Show that
_

e
az
1 + e
z
=

sin a
using the following steps.
(i) Show that this integral exists and is equal to its principal value.
(ii) Let f(z) = e
az
/(1 + e
z
). Show that f is holomorphic except for simple poles at
z = (2k + 1)i, k Z. Draw a diagram to illustrate where the poles are. Calculate
the residue Res(f, i).
(iii) On the diagram from (ii), draw the contour
R
=
1,R
+
2,R
+
3,R
+
4,R
where:

1,R
is the horizontal straight line from R to R,

2,R
is the vertical straight line from R to R + 2i,

3,R
is the horizontal straight line from R + 2i to R + 2i,

4,R
is the vertical straight line from R + 2i to R.
Which poles does
R
wind around? Use Cauchys Residue Theorem to calculate
_

R
f.
(iv) Show, by choosing suitable parametrisations of the paths
1,R
and
3,R
and direct
computation, that
_

3
f = e
2ia
_

1
f.
83
MATH20101 Complex Analysis 7. Cauchys Residue Theorem
(v) Show, using the Estimation Lemma, that
lim
R
_

2,R
f = lim
R
_

4,R
f = 0.
(vi) Deduce the claimed result.
84