TRITA-FKT 2002:39 ISSN 1103-470X ISRN KTH/FKT/D--02/39--SE

ON DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF RUBBER ISOLATORS

Mattias Sjberg

Stockholm 2002

Department of Vehicle Engineering

The Marcus Wallenberg Laboratory for Sound and Vibration Research

The Marcus Wallenberg Laboratory for Sound and Vibration Research

On Dynamic Properties of Rubber Isolators

Mattias Sjberg

Doctoral Thesis

ISSN 1103-470X ISRN KTH/FKT/D--02/39--SE

Address MWL Dept. Vehicle Engineering, KTH 100 44 Stockholm

Visiting address Teknikringen 8 Stockholm

Telephone +46 8 790 89 27

Fax +46 8 790 61 22

E-mail mwl@fkt.kth.se

Preface
The work forming this thesis was carried out between October 1999 and December 2002 at the Department of Vehicle Engineering at the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) in Stockholm and at Scania CV AB in Sdertlje, which also provided the gratefully acknowledged financial support. There are a number of persons who have helped me during this time period to whom I would like to express my gratitude. First of all to my supervisor Leif Kari ? thank you for providing excellent guidance in this subject and in the world of research; to Kent Lindgren for his assistance with measurements; to my room mate Urmas Ross for helping out whenever my computer and I disagreed; to Anthony Vinogradoff for language and readability improvement and to my industrial supervisor Boris Thorvald and to Tor Langhed for giving valuable feedback with an industrial touch. I would also like to thank the remainder of my colleagues at the Department of Vehicle Engineering and at the Group of Vehicle Dynamics at Scania for an inspiring environment both professionally and socially. I would also like to thank my parents and my brother with his family for being there, giving me such valuable spare time during all joint projects ? many being in our wilderness in Hlsingland. Finally, I would especially like to express my appreciation to my wife Malin and my children Arvid and Vilma for providing the most important aspects of my life. Mattias Sjberg Stockholm in December 2002.

Abstract
This work aims at enhancing t he understanding and to provide improved models of the dynamic behavior of rubber vibration isolators which are widely used in mechanical systems. Initially, a time domain model relating compressions to component forces accounting for preload effects, frequency and dynamic amplitude dependence is presented. The problem of simultaneously modelling the elastic, viscoelastic and friction forces are removed by additively splitting them, where the elastic force response is modelled either by a fully linear or a nonlinear shape factor based approach, displaying results that agree with those of a neo-Hookean hyperelastic isolator under a long term precompression. The viscoelastic force is modelled by a fractional derivative element, while the friction force governs from a generalized friction element displaying a smoothed Coulomb force. This is a versatile one-dimensional component model effectively using a small number of parameters while exhibiting a good resemblance to measured isolator characteristics. Additionally, the nonlinear excitation effects on dynamic stiffness and damping of a filled rubber isolator are investigated through measurements. It is shown that the well-known Payne effect ? where stiffness is high for small excitation amplitudes and low for large amplitudes while damping displays a maximum at intermediate amplitudes ? evaluated at a certain frequency, is to a large extent influenced by the existence of additional frequency components in the signal. Finally, a frequency, temperature and preload dependent dynamic stiffness model is presented covering the ranges from 20 to 20 000 Hz, ? 50 to +50 ?C at 0 to 20 % precompression. A nearly incompressible, thermo -rheologically simple material model is adopted displaying viscoelasticity through a time ? strain separable relaxation tensor with a single Mittag? Leffler function embodying its time dependence. This fractional derivative based function successfully fits material properties throughout the whole audible frequency range. An extended neo-Hookean strain energy function, being directly proportional to the temperature and density, is applied for the finite deformation response with component properties solved by a nonlinear finite element procedure. The presented work is thus believed to enlighten working conditions impact on the dynamic properties of rubber vibration isolators, while additionally taking some of these most important features into account in the presented models. KEYWORDS Rubber isolator, Dynamic stiffness, Nonlinear, Payne effect, Audible frequency, Fractional derivative, Mittag? Leffler function, Thermo rheologically simple, Neo-Hooke

Dissertation
This thesis consists of an introduction a nd 5 appended papers. The performed work has been planned jointly by Mattias Sjberg and Leif Kari, where the latter acted as supervisor. The appended papers are: PAPER A Sjberg M. Rubber Isolators - Measurements and modelling using fractional derivatives and friction. SAE paper No 2000-01-3518, 2000. The model development, implementation, simulation, experiment, evaluation and writing were essentially performed by Mattias. Mattias has done approximately 95 % of the total work. PAPER B Sjberg M. Kari L. Nonlinear behavior of a rubber isolator system using fractional derivatives. Vehicle System Dynamics 37(3), 217-236, 2002. The model development, implementation, simulation, experiment, evaluation and writing were essentially performed by Mattias. Mattias has done approximately 95 % of the total work. PAPER C Sjberg M. Kari L. Nonlinear isolator dynamics at finite deformations: An effective hyperelastic, fractional derivative, generalized friction model. Submitted 2002 for publication in Nonlinear Dynamics. The model implementation and simulation were essentially performed by Mattias. The model development, evaluation and writing was performed jointly by Mattias and Leif. Mattias has done approximately 75 % of the total work. PAPER D Sjberg M. Kari L. Testing of nonlinear interaction effects of sinusoidal and noise excitation on rubber isolator stiffness. Polymer Testing 22(3), 347-355, 2003. The experiments, evaluation and writing were essentially performed by Mattias. Mattias has done approximately 95 % of the total work. PAPER E Kari L. Sjberg M. Temperature dependent stiffness of a precompressed rubber isolator in the audible frequency range. Submitted 2002 for publication in International Journal of Solids and Structures. The model development, evaluation and writing were performed jointly by Mattias and Leif. The simulation was performed by Leif. Mattias has done approximately 50 % of the total work

Contents
1 Background 1.1 VIBRATION ISOLATORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 AIM OF PRESENTED RESEARCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Component properties 2.1 NONLINEAR EFFECTS OF RUBBER COMPONENTS . . . . 2.1.1 Dynamic amplitude dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.2 Consequence of frequency interaction on the dynamic amplitude dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 FREQUENCY DEPENDENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 TEMPERATURE FREQUENCY SHIFTS . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Component modelling 3.1 FREQUENCY DEPENDENCE . . . . . . . 3.1.1 Fractional derivatives . . . . . . . . 3.2 DYNAMIC AMPLITUDE DEPENDENCE 3.3 FINITE DEFORMATION DEPENDENCE 4 Presented models 4.1 MODEL IN PAPER A C . 4.1.1 Elastic force model . . 4.1.2 Short term viscoelastic 4.1.3 Friction force model . 4.1.4 Total force model . . . 4.2 MODEL IN PAPER E . . . . 5 Future Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . force model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 2 3 3 3 6 8 8 9 12 12 13 14 15 17 17 17 18 18 19 19 23

Chapter 1

Background
It is believed that rubber was rst used by the Mayan people in ancient Mesoamerica as long ago as 1600 BC, where sap from the rubber tree was mixed with juices from other plants. This resulted in a durable and elastic material used for making e.g. rubber balls for ritual games and artwork. The recipe for the modern type of rubber however, where natural gum is heated after being mixed with sulphur a process called vulcanization is accredited to Charles Goodyear. Accidentally he found in 1839 that, due to the vulcanization process, the rubber changed drastically producing a material with unique mechanical properties. Ever since, rubber has found an indisputable role in many mechanical applications where tires, seals, hoses and vibration isolators are a few examples.

1.1 VIBRATION ISOLATORS Associated with vehicle applications, vibrations are normally conceived as unwanted dynamic motions and great eort is made reducing these motions to improve comfort for passengers and goods and to increase vehicle component durability. The most common way of reducing unwanted vibrations at a receiving structure is, at some point between the source and receiver, to either reect the vibration energy by signicantly changing the impedance or to dissipate it by inducing additional damping. The former is readily achieved either by introducing a much softer component compared to the surrounding structure or by introducing an increase in mass. Structures in vehicles are generally quite sti and additional mass comes with a penalty in the form of increased fuel consumption, meaning that in practice the most widely used way of changing the impedance is by introducing a softer component a vibration isolator. The properties of rubber being generally soft while showing large inherent damping makes the material a perfect choice for use in vibration isolators. A representative rubber vibration isolator consists of one or more pieces of vulcanized rubber bonded to metal parts, facilitating load distribution and installation.

M. SJOBERG

The large dierence in material bulk and shear modulus enables the design of a wide range of component properties by adjusting its geometry. Material as well as component properties are discussed in the subsequent text and they are related in that a rubber component exhibits the same basic characteristics concerning stiness and loss angle as the material does in terms of shear modulus magnitude and loss factor. Exceptions to this rule of thumb are e.g. when the geometry of the component introduces additional nonlinear eects, such as a progressive stiness (discussed in Paper C), or when the evaluated frequency range is extended, resulting in component internal resonances which inuence its dynamic properties (discussed in Paper E).

1.2 AIM OF PRESENTED RESEARCH As various mechanical systems utilize rubber isolators for dynamic improvement, there is a great need to understand and properly predict the behavior of these rubber components. However, as the eld of interest often varies; from low frequencylarge amplitude dynamics to structure borne sound transmission, while prediction of system dynamics is performed with a variety of tools; e.g. multi body system (MBS) programs, nite element (FE) programs and linear frequency domain transfer function predictions, it is dicult to implement a model considering all applications. Furthermore, a model accounting for too wide ranges of working conditions would probably not be of practical use since the computational eort would be quite cumbersome. Using simplied rubber component models, which adequately span the working conditions in question while omitting less important properties, is therefore often desirable. However, the need to correctly adjust simple model parameters often demand extensive investigations. The aim of this work is thus to enhance understanding of how component properties are inuenced by certain working conditions while also providing some accurate descriptive models. Those presented can be used in complete system investigations and as a means of nding model parameters for simpler approaches.

Chapter 2

Component properties
2.1 NONLINEAR EFFECTS OF RUBBER COMPONENTS

Component nonlinearities due to amplitude dependence are often present as discussed by Harris and Stevenson [37]. These eects can be due both to the geometrical design of the component as well as to intrinsic material behavior as discussed by e.g. Treloir [88] or Freakly and Payne [31]. These references present material nonlinear stressstrain relations for nite strain ranging approximately from 20 to 500 %. Components also exhibit nonlinear properties for small to intermediate amplitudes ranging approximately up to 5 % component strain due to material behavior where small cyclic deformation results in increased stiness compared to that of large cyclic deformation [31]. An example of how the nite amplitude material or geometrical properties might inuence a component forcedisplacement curve, is given in Figure 2.1 as the precompression of a cylindrical component (with a diameter of 10 mm and a height of 2.5 mm) results in a progressive preload curve (shown by the dotted line). Dynamic steady state motion of dierent amplitudes superimposed on the precompression, in this case 0.8 mm, reveals that stiness (indicated by the slope from the minimum to the maximum point of the oscillating motion) is reduced as amplitude increases. This behavior is known as the Payne eect [79] also denoted as dynamic amplitude dependence, although the eects are in fact rate independent. Despite this attempt to distinguish between reasons for component nonlinearities by means of dierent amplitudes it is not always possible to make a clear distinction as e.g. large amplitude oscillations are inuenced not only by the Payne eect but also through material and geometrical nite deformation dependencies as discussed in Paper C. 2.1.1 Dynamic amplitude dependence

There are two well-known amplitude eects occurring in lled vulcanized rubber material; the Mullins eect and the Payne eect. An example of the former eect is when previously unstrained rubber is subjected to strain cycles at con-

M. SJOBERG

1000

760

720 750

Force [N]

Force [N]
0.25 0.5 0.75 1

680
Force [N]

500

640

250 600

560

0.75

0.8
Displacement [mm] Displacement [mm]

0.85

Displacement [mm]

(a) Dotted line; Nonlinear forcedisplacement curve due to precompression.

(b) Solid line; Dynamic nonlinearity due to small amplitude motion. (Zoomed at the working point)

Figure 2.1: Schematic component behavior when exposed to a precompression with superimposed small amplitude dynamic motion.

stant peak value and the rst few oscillations result in reducing peak stress values as discussed by Mullins [69], Mullins et al. [68]. This eect is also shown by Sj oberg [85] through component measurements. To eliminate the recording of this eect while performing measurements of dynamic characteristics, it is useful to conduct mechanical conditioning, namely subjecting the test object to a few large deformation cycles to rearrange molecular networks prior to measurements. The latter eect often becoming more pronounced as llers, such as carbon black, are added to the rubber compound is displayed as a decreased shear modulus magnitude with increased amplitude. Component measurements and models showing this phenomena are presented in Paper A D. Interaggregate interactions breaking as motion increases, but which are almost fully recovered within each cycle, is believed to be the main reason for this eect [66]. An intact ller structure displays a large shear modulus magnitude for small amplitudes but as the amplitude increases the structure breaks resulting in a modulus decrease. The breaking of ller structure, described as frictional behavior, however increases the loss factor and as the amplitude increases further the frictional behavior is released resulting in a low shear modulus magnitude due mainly to the remaining polymer chains and rubber-ller hydrodynamic eects [66, 79]. The energy dissipation mechanism is also decreased in importance resulting in low values of loss factor [65]. An example of the Payne eect is shown in Figure 2.2 as dynamic stiness and loss angle of a lled vibration isolator is evaluated for various amplitudes. A thorough discussion is given in reference [79], showing examples of a strong amplitude dependence of the shear modulus and loss factor of butyl rubber with various ller concentrations. In addition, Medalia [66]

On dynamic properties of rubber isolators.

15

20

Stiffness [kN/mm]

10

15

10

0 0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

5 2

Amplitude [mm]

Figure 2.2: Measurements of stiness and loss angle of a lled rubber isolator showing a strong amplitude dependence, denoted the Payne eect [Paper D].

gives a good review of amplitude, frequency and temperature eects on mechanical rubber characteristics. Other work focusing on the inuence of llers on dynamic properties is performed by e.g. Dean et al. [21], Jurado et al. [44], Sommer and Meyer [86] and Wang [93], where the two latter articles, besides the Payne eect, also discuss temperature inuences on the ller eects. Wang et al. [92] point to additional stress reducing phenomena due to repeated strain sweeps. The eects discussed here result not only in nonlinear amplitude eects as indicated in Figure 2.2 but also in a frequency split. A single frequency harmonic displacement excitation, x = asin(0 t) of a rubber vibration isolator, results in a force response of the fundamental frequency, or rst harmonic 0 , as well as of a number of physical overtones F = F0 sin(0 t + 0 ) + Fn sin(n t + n ), (2.1)

where the rst equals the third harmonic, the second equals the fth harmonic etc, as shown in Paper D. Tariq et al. [87] as well as Onogi and Matsumoto [74] quantify the degree of nonlinearity by evaluating the overtones. As discussed in Paper C, the existence of additional harmonics is possible if the component exhibits e.g. nonlinear nite forcedisplacement relations which is the case in Figure 2.1.

Loss angle [ o ]

6 2.1.2

M. SJOBERG Consequence of frequency interaction on the dynamic amplitude dependence

Vibration isolators are rarely exposed to single tone excitation which however is the usual measurement condition for evaluating component properties. An example of an isolators use clearly violating this simplied case, is an ordinary rubber engine mount reducing transmission of high frequency engine vibrations to the chassis, while simultaneously being driven over rough road surfaces inducing large movements of the engine. Inuence of these eects have to some degree been investigated by Harris [36] while presenting elastomer response during non-sinusoidal excitation, a subject also addressed by Turner et al. [89] and Gregory [35]. Coveney et al. [20] present simulations of a model exposed to dual-sine excitation and compare these to the measurements in reference [36], whereas Kooijman and Verheij [53], having railway sleeper rubber pads in mind, show measurements pointing to a softening eect on high frequency low amplitude stiness due to simultaneous large amplitude step loading. Paper D of this thesis experimentally investigates the inuence of multiple excitation on the dynamic amplitude dependence as component stiness and loss angle for a high frequency signal is evaluated while being superimposed with large amplitude low frequency signals, as shown in Figure 2.3. Here it can be concluded that stiness at a certain frequency is not governed by the amplitude at that frequency but rather by the largest amplitude present in the signal and that superimposing large amplitude motion, also increases the loss angle. Additionally presented in Paper D is the high frequency component stiness while being exposed to low frequency noise, thus being a novel extension of the previous work in reference [36]. In accordance with the previous case a high frequency stiness reduction is found due to the large amplitude noise. Further, the low frequency noise inuence is increased as its amplitude increases and as its cut-o frequency approaches that of the high frequency signal, as shown in Figure 2.4.

On dynamic properties of rubber isolators.

12

Stiffness [kN/mm]

10 8 6 4 2

Stiffness at 10 Hz with varying amplitude at 10 Hz Stiffness at 10 Hz with varying superimposed amplitude at 1 Hz

25

Damping [ o ]

20 15 10 5

0.2

0.4

0.6

Amplitude [mm]

0.8

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

Figure 2.3: Dashed line; Component stiness and loss angle at a single reference harmonic signal of 10 Hz with varying amplitude. Solid line; Component stiness and loss angle at 0.05 mm and 10 Hz reference signal superimposed with a 1 Hz signal of various amplitudes.

Figure 2.4: Component stiness at reference signal 0.05 mm with 50 Hz with a superimposed noise signal of varying amplitude and cuto frequency.

8 2.2 TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE

M. SJOBERG

Rubber, as all elastomers, shows a relatively strong temperature dependence where the material behavior is split into three regions; a glassy, a transition and a rubber region. For low temperatures the material is crystalline rendering a high magnitude of the dynamic shear modulus whereas the loss factor is small. As the temperature increases, the material eventually enters the transition region, where it becomes leather-like while the dynamic shear modulus magnitude decreases. The transition point, where the change of shear modulus magnitude is the greatest, also results in a maximum value of loss factor. Dynamic shear modulus magnitude and loss factor both exhibit moderate changes with temperature once the rubbery region is reached. A diagramatical view of the temperature dependence is given in Figure 2.5, where shear modulus magnitude and loss factor is displayed at a xed frequency as discussed by Christensen [16], Payne and Scott [78] and G obel [34].
Shear Modulus Magnitude
Transition point

Glassy region Transition region Rubber region

Transition point

Temperature

Loss Factor

Temperature

Figure 2.5: Schematic characteristics of rubber material temperature dependence.

2.3

FREQUENCY DEPENDENCE

Rubber material additionally exhibits a strong frequency dependence displaying a glassy, transition and rubber region, as shown in Figure 2.6 being measurements of an unlled crosslinked rubber material at room temperature [48]. Clearly the shear modulus magnitude increases with frequency throughout the regions, an increase being moderate in the glassy and rubber region while taking on the greatest rate of change in the transition region. The loss factor increases with frequency in the rubber region, decreases in the glassy region and reaches a maximum in the transition region, which for this unlled material at room temperature is found at a very high frequency. In practice it is virtually impossible to measure material dynamic characteristics at the frequencies shown in the graph. However, it is possible to determine the characteristics at high

On dynamic properties of rubber isolators.

Shear Modulus Magnitude [N/m2]

10

10

Transition Region

Glassy Region

Rubber Region

10

10 2

10

10

10

Loss Factor

1.5 1 0.5 0 10 Rubber Region Transition Region

0

Glassy Region

10

10

10

Frequency [Hz]

Figure 2.6: Measured unlled material frequency dependence for an extended frequency range.

frequencies by using the knowledge of temperaturefrequency shifts as discussed in Section 2.4. Stiness and loss angle measurements for normal rubber isolators at low to intermediate frequencies at room temperature normally reveal the same basic characteristics, where an increase in frequency increases both stiness and losses. This is shown in Figure 2.7 through measurements on a lled natural rubber vibration isolator [85]. (Besides the frequency, amplitude is also varied during measurements, revealing the previously mentioned dynamic amplitude dependence, as discussed in section 2.1.1).

2.4 TEMPERATURE FREQUENCY SHIFTS By comparing Figure 2.5 and 2.6 it can be concluded that there is a resemblance between the inuence of frequency and temperature on the material properties. A material is said to be thermorheologically simple when the relation between the frequency and temperature dependence is described by an equation of the form T ( ) = 0 (T ), (2.2) where T and 0 is the shear modulus at temperature T and at reference temperature T0 respectively and T is a well chosen empirically dened shift function [30, 78]. This method also called the method of reduced variables

10

M. SJOBERG

Dynamic Stiffness [kN/mm]

0.05 mm 20 15 10 5 0.5 mm 1 mm 2 mm 3 mm 50 100

0.1 mm

Frequency [Hz]

150

200

250

300

(a) Stiness for various amplitudes and frequencies.

(b) Loss angle for various amplitudes and low frequencies

Figure 2.7: Frequency and amplitude dependence of a carbon-black lled component. From reference [85].

has a sound base in thermodynamics as discussed by Christensen [16]. Dierent shift functions are possible e.g. the Arrhenius or the WilliamLandelFerry equation given by T = 10 C2 +T ,
C1 T

(2.3)

with the two material constants C1 and C2 . The method of reduced variables is commonly used to describe extended relaxation or dynamic behavior as shown by e.g. Rogers [81], Kari et al. [48], Palade et al. [75], Alcoutlabi and MartinezVega [1], Aprile et al. [2] and Bossemeyer [13]. The shift equation is frequently expanded to include changes of density and

Shear modulus magnitude

aT T / T0

T / 0 Frequency

Figure 2.8: Schematic inuence of three contributions due to an increase in temperature aecting shear modulus magnitude as a function of frequency.

On dynamic properties of rubber isolators. entropy resulting in the equation T ( ) = T T 0 (T ), T0 0

11

(2.4)

where vertical and horizontal shifts are present, as shown in Figure 2.8. The factor T /T0 is due to a change in the motion of molecules within the rubber and can be derived from simple molecular theories whereas the factor T /0 is due to a change in the material density, where an increase in temperature decreases density. The shift function T shows how the curve is moved horizontally with increasing temperature resulting in a shift to the right. In general, the largest contribution to the change in shear modulus is due to the horizontal shift, whereas the second largest is due to the factor T /T0 and the smallest to T /0 [30].

Chapter 3

Component modelling
As indicated by previous discussions, modelling dynamic properties of rubber components is a rather complex task as numerous factors e.g. frequency, amplitude, ambient temperature and applied preload are likely to have major eects on the properties in question.

3.1

FREQUENCY DEPENDENCE

The simplest model of a rubber isolator accounting for both elastic and viscous eects is the Kelvin-Voigt model where a linear elastic frequency independent stiness is coupled in parallel with a viscous dashpot where force is proportional to a rst order time derivative of the displacement. As discussed by Knothe and Grassie [51] in their review on the modelling of railway tracks, this is the most widely encountered rubber material or component model. It is a fully linear representation omitting all amplitude dependent eects and due to the viscous dashpot, it also strongly overestimates rubber high frequency losses, a property which in fact shows a relatively weak frequency dependence, as discussed by Enelund and Olsson [26] and Fenander [29]. Additionally, it represents an innite force response to a step displacement loading. Replacing the dashpot with a Maxwell element, being a spring in series with the dashpot, normally results in better high frequency description of stiness (thus remedying the step displacement force overestimation) but in a poor loss factor description. The resulting model, which is known as a three-parameter Maxwell model or the standard linear solid, can be expanded through incorporating the generalized Maxwell model, also known as the Wiechert model, obtaining improved broad band description. Although this techniques popularity is shown through its wide use [4, 12, 61, 73, 77] it nevertheless inevitably increases the number of parameters to clearly describe elastomer dynamic behavior. Other models employed to describe polymer viscoelastic behavior are the mini-oscillator model [64], the Augmented Hookes law [22] and the anelastic

12

On dynamic properties of rubber isolators.

13

displacement elds [55]. All of these methods involve the concept of hidden variables. 3.1.1 Fractional derivatives

An ecient alternative in reducing the required number of model parameters while still obtaining a good description of viscoelastic materials or components frequency dependence is by incorporating constitutive relations including fractional calculus, as discussed by Gaul [32]. Instead of integer order time derivatives, as in the case of the ordinary dashpot, those of non-integer order, known as fractional derivatives, are employed, although a formulation involving fractional integration is sometimes preferable, as it simplies the handling of initial conditions [25]. Rossikhin and Shitikova [82] as well as Shimizu and Zhang [84] give thorough reviews of the use of fractional derivatives in the dynamic modelling of viscoelasticity. Although the history of the mathematical concept of fractional calculus dates back to the seventeenth century, as described in a historical survey by Oldham and Spanier [72], utilizing the tool for the description of viscoelasticity is more recent. In the early nineteen eighties Bagley and Torvik [6] applied the tool for describing material constitutive relations while solving equations of motion. Koeller [52] discusses fractional derivative components also known as springpots, which replace ordinary dashpots in viscoelastic models. Replacing the Kelvin-Voigts dash-pot by a spring-pot results in a fractional Kelvin-Voigt, which is applied by Cosson and Michon [17] and Horr and Schmidt [41]. Its time domain solutions are investigated by Yuan and Agrawal [94], Hwang and Hsu [42] and Eldred et al. [24], the latter investigating numerical time-domain solutions mentioning the aspects of history term truncation due to the nonlocality of the fractional derivative operator. A time domain solution of the fractional Kelvin-Voigt is presented in Paper A C, using the Gr unwald denition while also including the dynamic amplitude dependence. The fractional standard linear solid is used in references [6,17,32,67,76] and by Kari et al. [48] applying the model to t rubber dynamic material data of an extended frequency range subsequently calculating isolator behavior. Also in references [1,13,75,81] extended frequency material behavior using the method of reduced variables are combined with fractional representations while Aprile et al. [2] expand the theories to a thermo-coupled problem while investigating structural dampers. Time domain solutions of the fractional standard linear solid are investigated by Atanackovic [3], Schmidt and Gaul [83], Fenander [29], Enelund and Olsson [26] and Enelund et al. [27]. Enelund and Lesiuetre [28] also extend the previously mentioned theory of anelastic displacement elds [55] to include fractional order equations for the anelastic strain. Extensions of the fractional dierential concept are discussed by Kari [46], Bagley [5] and Ingman and Suzdalnitsky [43], while assuming the order of the derivative to be continuously distributed, temperature and time dependent, respectively. Fractional derivative models in connection with thermodynamics are discussed by Lion [57].

14

M. SJOBERG

Fully developed stiffness

Force

Initial stiffness

Displacement

Figure 3.1: Measurements of typical hysteresis loops for dierent amplitudes of the motion.

3.2

DYNAMIC AMPLITUDE DEPENDENCE

Most of the previously mentioned models are linear and thus they neither take into account nonlinear behavior due to nite deformation (discussed in Section 3.3) nor the dynamic amplitude dependence. However, modelling the dynamic behavior of rubber components exposed to an environment which causes the amplitude to vary which is normal in many applications the dynamic amplitude eect should not be neglected when lled rubber is used. Losses are present even at quasi-static conditions for lled rubber exposed to a harmonic excitation, indicating that the material exhibits damping mechanisms which cannot be described by viscous theories alone. Figure 3.1 shows typical hysteresis loops of a lled rubber for cyclic excitation with dierent amplitudes. It can be seen that the incremental stiness starts at a high value at the beginning of each motion but tends to a constant value as the displacement increases. In models relating forces to displacements, this behavior can be modelled by adding a rate independent friction force to the elastic and, if frequency dependence is considered, viscous forces. One way of considering this is by replacing the viscous component in a standard linear solid by a friction component as shown by Gregory [35]. Coveney et al. [20] elaborate on another type of model that includes friction components in series which is later used with a three-parameter Maxwell model [18]. The same authors also present results for the rate independent friction component when implemented in a nite element analysis [19]. Kraus [54] describes agglomeration and deagglomeration of ller particles using a model displaying dynamic

On dynamic properties of rubber isolators.

15

viscoelastic behavior based on the van der Waals potential. This model is later used by Ulmer [90] and Vieweg et al. [91]. Kaliske and Rothert [45] describe a friction model based on numerous Coulumb dampers in series with elastic springs, a model expanded by Bruni and Collina [15], Austrell et al. [4] and Brackbill et al. [14] to include frequency dependence, giving good representation of measured properties. A method to t the often numerous parameters of the generalized Couloumb friction model is presented by Olsson and Austrell [73]. Dynamic amplitude dependence is modelled by Mallik et al. [63] through separating the restoring and damping forces, making both nonlinear, needing a total of eight parameters. Also the complex Bouc-Wen model, being a nonlinear dierential equation model, has been used to describe hysteretic eects [71]. Another model also taking into account the amplitude and a frequency dependence is presented by Barber [7] which however needs extensive measurements to properly adjust the numerous model parameters. The rate independent friction component included in the model presented in Paper A and further used in Paper B C, shows a smooth behavior using only two parameters. This model, which is similar to the one presented by Berg [911], gives a good description of the measured characteristics.

3.3

FINITE DEFORMATION DEPENDENCE

Including long-term nonlinear behavior in the description of vibration isolators are performed by numerous references e.g. Ravindra and Mallik [80] or Natsiavas and Tratskas [70], where elastic restoring forces of the nonlinear Dung-type are investigated. Focus of these works is on the analytical solution of the dynamic problem, while the isolator properties are not necessarily obtained from real components. A suitable and straightforward approach, when focus is shifted to model agreement with specic experimental observations of component properties, is to nd an equation describing the preloadprecompression curve, to be included in the elastic modelling. This methodology is performed by Gjika et al. [33] while investigating the response of a structure on rubber vibration isolators. A recent and comprehensive review of analytical elastic force models is presented in reference [39]. In particular, nonlinear shape-factor based models, where the increased shape factor, due to decreased isolator thickness during compression is accounted for, showing improved representation [49, 56]. The former of the models is a renement of the latter displaying results for cylindrical isolators that surprisingly well agree with those of a time consuming nite element computation using a Neo-Hookean hyperelasticity. Paper C utilizes the nonlinear model from reference [49] for describing nite elasticity thus resulting in an extension of the model in Paper A B. However, a convenient technique to include the preload dependence in constitutive relations sought for e.g. FE-implementation, is to assume hyper-elastic material behavior using a strain energy function, while properly accounting for

16

M. SJOBERG

nite strain. Numerous variations of phenomenological strain energy functions are found in the literature [8, 40] where ArrudaBoyce, BlatzKo, Mooney Saunders, MooneyRivlin, Neo-Hooke, Yeoh and Ogden are a few examples. Zdunek and Bercovier [95] employ the MooneyRivlin model in the analysis of a rubber bushing and a conical spring presenting results of loadcompression curves. Investigating oscillatory motion superimposed on a nite deformation due to preload, being a key issue, when modelling vibration isolators, is simplied by the assumption that time and prestrain eects are multiplicatively separable. Zdunek [96] uses this simplication with an equation relating the time dependent relaxation function to the materials shear relaxation modulus, while solving the stiness problem for vibration isolators. Kari [47] as well as Kim and Youn [50] apply the concept of this time prestrain separability where the latter draw conclusion that this is valid for unlled materials and the former applies distributed fractional representations of the short-term response. A dierent approach to an additive separability of the rate independent stress and a rate dependent overstress modelled by a classical viscous damping model is found in [58, 59] where instead, a temperature dependence is included through a multiplicative split of the deformation gradient as proposed by Lu and Pister [62]. Later Lion expands the model by adding the dynamic amplitude dependence [60]. The frequency dependence is further modelled by a fractional standard linear solid in conjunction with hyperelastic models in references [38, 76] also being the description applied in Paper E, while additionally accounting for the inuence of temperature on component properties in the complete audible frequency range.

Chapter 4

Presented models
4.1 MODEL IN PAPER A C The model presented in Paper A C which relates component forces to component compression, describes a vibration isolator taking into account frequency and dynamic amplitude dependence. It consists of three parts which additively contribute to the exerted component force using only ve parameters to describe component characteristics (see Figure 4.1 for its mechanical analogy). The rst part is an elastic component, the second gives short-term viscoelasticity through the fractional derivative component springpot mentioned in Section 3.1 and the third part is the smooth frictional component mentioned in Section 3.2. The model disregards thermomechanical coupling eects and wave eects within the isolator. 4.1.1 Elastic force model

In Paper A and B the elastic component consists of a linear stiness which is found to adequately describe the component elastic characteristics in the amplitude range of interest. However, this model is extended in Paper C by introducing an elastic component exhibiting nonlinear behavior arising from
) [

)elast

)freq

)frict

Figure 4.1: Mechanical analogy of model presented in Paper A C

17

18

M. SJOBERG

geometrical and material nonlinearities associated with nite deformations. A shape factor based theory is used to achieve an appropriately simplied model transforming the complex geometry of a preloaded cylindrical component into a globally equivalent conguration [49]. The incremental elastic stiness at compression 0 x L is given by Kelast = D2 3 D2 L 1 + , 4 (L x)2 8L(L x) (4.1)

resulting in the elastic compression force Felast = 3 D2 x 4 Lx 1+ D2 (2L x) 16L2 (L x) , (4.2)

for an isolator with original height L and diameter D made of a rubber material using a static shear modulus . This nonlinear behavior has been shown to agree surprisingly well with a time consuming nite element analysis [49]. 4.1.2 Short term viscoelastic force model

The frequency dependence is described by a springpot where force is proportional to a non-integer time derivative D of the displacement Ffreq = bD x (4.3)

where 0 < < 1 and b > 0 are model constants. The main advantage of the model being the minimum parameter number required for a broad frequency band t to rubber component measurements. The short-term viscoelastic force at time tn = nt is obtained through the Gr unwald denition as Ffreq (tn ) = bD xn b t ()
n1 j =0

(j ) xnj , (j + 1)

(4.4)

where denotes the Gamma function. Apparently the fractional derivative operator is a nonlocal operator in temporal sense for 0 < < 1; that is, the fractional derivative depends on the displacement history not only on the current value in line with components made of materials with memory e.g. rubber isolators. 4.1.3 Friction force model

The model describing friction in this work displays the smooth characteristics found through measurements as shown in Paper A and B hereby enabling a good t to forcedeection curves. The friction force develops gradually, following the equation Ffrict = Ffs + x xs (Ffmax Ffs ), x2 (1 ) + (x xs ) (4.5)

On dynamic properties of rubber isolators. for a motion in increasing x-direction and Ffrict = Ffs + x xs (Ffmax + Ffs ), x2 (1 + ) (x xs )

19

(4.6)

for a motion in decreasing x-direction. The two parameters dened by the user are the maximum friction force Ffmax and a displacement parameter x2 giving the rate of friction force development. The parameters Ffs and xs are updated each time the displacement changes direction at x = 0 as Ffs Ffrict |x =0 and xs x|x =0 . Clearly, the friction force is independent of compression displacement rate magnitude while developing nonlinearly and gradually with compression displacement. 4.1.4 Total force model

A straightforward evaluation of exerted component force using Equation 4.2 4.6, resulting in a total force Ftot (tn ) = Ffreq x(tn ) + Felast x(tn ) + Ffrict x(tn ) , (4.7)

is possible when the model is excited by prescribed displacements. However, a Newmark algorithm is used to calculate resulting displacements from the equations of motion when the model is included in a dynamic system with external excitation, as described in Paper A. Paper B brings the model verication one step further as the response of a one degree of freedom system (with a rubber isolator acting as a resilient component between a mass and a displacement excited base) is experimentally investigated and compared to simulations. In Figure 4.2 a time sequence of measured base excitation and corresponding mass response is shown together with those of simulations. By using the smooth friction description from Equation 4.5 - 4.6 this model shows an improved dynamic amplitude description compared to the models in references [4,45,73] while it simultaneously reduces the number of model parameters. The novel solution of including a fractional Kelvin-Voigt for the description of viscoelastic behavior in conjunction with the smooth friction model, extends the applicable frequency range normally seen for this type of model, [4, 9, 10]. Additionally, an even more versatile model for description of vibration isolators is obtained through extending the model to include nonlinear nite compression behavior, as shown in Paper C.

4.2

MODEL IN PAPER E

The model presented in Paper E takes into account a frequency, precompression and temperature dependence of a vibration isolator while being conned to isothermal conditions. Applied for the long-term nite deformation response is an extended neo-Hookean strain energy function, being directly proportional to the temperature and density. This motion is decomposed into a homogeneous

20

M. SJOBERG

Displacement [mm]

0.05 0.025 0 0.025 0.05 0 0.25

Mass response

0.5
Base excitation

0.75

Displacement [mm]

0.02 0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0 0.25

Time [sec]

0.5

0.75

Figure 4.2: Comparison between measured (solid) and simulated (dotted) mass response when system is exposed to a base displacement excitation.

Thermal expansion
0 T

Long-term finite deformation

Precompression
T

Superimposed dynamic motion

Figure 4.3: Motions of the model in Paper E.

On dynamic properties of rubber isolators.

21

10 10 10 10 10 Phase (degrees)

Stiffness (N/m)

50oC 25oC 0oC +25oC +50oC

0 500 1000 10
1

10

10 Frequency (Hz)

10

10

Figure 4.4: Calculated component transfer stiness and phase versus frequency for various temperatures using model in Paper E.

thermal expansion, followed by a quasistatic mechanical loading due to the preload. Handling the following superimposed innite motion giving dynamic contributions, is simplied by the timeprestrain separability for non-lled material, justied in references [50, 96]. The applied constitutive relation is elastic in dilatation while displaying viscoelasticity in deviation, where its time dependence is described through the shear relaxation modulus. Incorporating a MittagLeer function for the description of time-domain relaxation enables a broad frequency band t when being transformed into the frequency-domain. Additionally, an assumption of thermo-rheological simplicity enables the use of the method of reduced variables with the WilliamLandelFerry equation describing the temperaturefrequency shifts. Component properties for an extended frequency range (20 20 000 Hz) are solved using a nonlinear nite element procedure and results for various temperatures are presented in Figure 4.4. It is clear that component stiness is greatly inuenced by both temperature and frequency where low temperatures result in large values of component stiness as the material exhibits transition and glass region properties while higher temperatures reveal the presence of isolator internal resonances. The model extends the previous works in references [47] and [48] by including temperature and preload, respectively. It thus presents a versatile model covering a wide range of working conditions for a complete vibration isolator, while eectively reducing the number of model parameters, as opposed to previous references [38,5860] primarily focusing on material behavior. The three former are applicable in a relatively narrow frequency band and the latter, together

22

M. SJOBERG

with [76], extend the frequency applicability, however omitting temperature dependence.

Chapter 5

Future Research
The presented work is believed to enlighten the working conditions impact on the dynamic properties of rubber vibration isolators while additionally taking some of these most important features into account in the presented models. Nevertheless there are possible extensions to the presented work which include Linearizing the model in Paper A C, (i.e linearizing the friction force model,) for various working conditions. This would simplify stiness and loss angle evaluation e.g. for extraction of parameters for alternative rubber component models. Including a temperature dependence and a thermodynamic coupling eect to the model in Paper A C. This would mean that monitoring the eects of changes to the dynamic properties due to internal dissipation could be investigated. Investigating the reasons for the loss angle behavior for dual signal excitation in Paper D. Including the dynamic amplitude dependence to the model in Paper E hereby improving the model versatility.

23

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