unexamined life not worth living philosophizing examing oneself to discern good nad evil to reach moral excel,

perfection, happiness Socrates - his art ~ midwifery

Most relevant difference is that the Socratic art is focused on spiritual or intellecutal rather than corporal labor: The triumph of my art is in throughly examing whether the though which the mind of the young man brings forth is a false idol or a noble and true birth ( Theaesttus 150b-c) He can ask others questions he lacks the wit to answer: and therefore I am not myself at all wise, nor have I anything to show which is the invention or birth of my own soul and those who converse with me profit This was the first methods of ethics in Western culture After Socrates it was interpreted in two different ways, each one representative of the two main types of thinking on ethics in Western culture. The first is best described as idealist and the seoncd as constructivist. Plato and Aristotle, two disciples of Socrates initiated these two different ways of reasoning in ethics. From Plato's Phaedo to Republoic to Kantian Critique of Pratical Reason the history of western ehtics has been characterized by continousus yet unsuccessful attempt at finding a way of creating a definit, universal, immutable system of morality. This background makes it easier to understand new developments that happened during the 19th and 20th The methods that can be called Platonic or idealist always seek the same goal: to make ethics a scientific discipline understood in old meaning of this word, that is as certain universal and immutable knowledge. The idea behind this assumption is that ethical principles and norms are so important for human beings that they must necessarily be absolute, invariable, and apodicitc. All these theories asusme that the human mind has the capacity to know universal moral principles, although how this accomplished diverges according to the accounts of different philosophical schools. For instance, Plato thought that the idea of the good can be captured by our minds through a process of reminiscence remmebering the time iin which we were in direct touch with the world of pure ideas these ideas have not only ontic reality but also deontological power, as paradigms of human conduct. Ethics and politics there an be constructed as pure sciences, the same as mathematics. We could infer this directly from the place Plato gives to mathematics in the studies he prescribes for the rulers to be of his ideal polis (Republic ) Platonism- not most influenctial Stoicism more successful another dogmatic system that identified God with reason ( logos ) and thought that all the things of nature were governed by an internal logos disseminated

throughout all of them ( logos spermatikos) Nature is the rule of morality, only way to reach wisdom and happiness Origin of Natural law, pervasive in Western culture form Stoicism to now Zeno is father of Stoic mvmt Main theses virtue is knowledge or understanding Knowledge must be absolute and apodictic in accordance to his idea of reaosn as a caulty of consistent and firm and unchangeable products origin of Stoic dogmatism Stoics' rejection of emotions as interfereing with reaosn, disturbing apatheia ( indifference) that they held to be indispensable for seeing true virtue clearly and reaching it All passions should be bloted out, completely gone in wise man

Natural law theory expression of divine will and law of God core of moral theology nous, intellectus -mental faculty capable of receiving the first and immutable specualtive principles as the logical principles of identity, contradiction and causality no similar faculty in pratical reason Medival theologians tried to repair- identified special faculty capable of knowing intuitively and without any doubt the first moral principles similar to nous and specualtive reasoning logical setting of natural law 1 good is to be done, evil is to be avoided 2 ten commandents officia natural duties peculiar mental faculty syndresis ensured objectivity of natural law and its epistemic accessibility to humans beings Somme called the infallibilty, impeccabiltiy, and indestructibility of syndresis Moral mathematics would be a reasonable characterization of the role of ethics according to this dogmatic and idealistic tradition Which brings us to modern philosophy (folowed this trajectory ) Descartes and Spinoza Des ethjics should be exact science, like math and mechanics If I always saw clearly what was true and good, I should never have to deliberate about the right judgement or choice) Discourse on Method presented provisional morality highest and most perfect moral system, which ppresupposes a complete knowledge of the other sciences and is the ultimate level of wisdom - tried to construct more scientific system

Spinoza a follower ethica Ordine Geometrico Demonstrata thinking of structure of Euclid's Elenments when he titled his book The form of the work....pg 58 pg60 things began to change only in 18th century Hume- It seems to me that the only objects of the abstract sicences or of demonstration are quantity and number and that all atempts to extend this more perfect speices of knowledge beyond these boudns are mere sophistry and illusion The existence of any being can only be proved by arguments from its cause or effect and founded entirely by experience... foundation of moral reasoning which forms the greater part of human knowledge and is source of all human acitons and behavior. Moral reasonings are either concerning particular or general facts. All deliberations in life regard the former Hume like Aristole deliberation opposite demonstration no demostr reasoning regrading empirical facts How can one construct ethics with these tools? - great question facing 19th and 20th reasoning concerning quantity and number is dmeonstr reasoning proper of empirical inquiry is deliberations util and pragmitism Mill rejects speculative tradition, aware of new proposal spec thinking sterile in moral setting, can't deal with real problems or find true solutions return to the beginning when Socrates began to think of quesitons something new needed in Mill's time util grounding morality growth of econ as scientific and principle of efficiency util prag new biogical and evol data pratical decisions are wise or unwise need evaluation and deliberation deliberation opposite demonstration more logical and metaphysical than moral which approach is correct funamental question immutable principles in huams, either individually or socially our minds can't make universal and immutable moral principles however, these reasons aren't abs absolutists accus deliber of relativism

deliber accuse absolu of nave idealism core question 1 we reach values and principles by intuition or some similar way, construction 2 Circumstances and ocnsequences play a big role in moral reasoning or not Abs natural laws can't be given up for contigent reasons speicfic circumstances of each case can modify features of the app of the rule but don't change substantially deliberation understood as a structured method of reasoning a bout facts, values and duties takes into account abstract and specific cirumstances and predicatble consequences to make wise and thorough decisions deliberation differetn from dialogue, discussion, negotiation and consensus rational process, that takes into account reason feeling values beliefs hope traditions and expectations humans introduce all of them to moral rasoning deliberation deal with rational , reasonable and prudent things