8.

2 The World Communicates

1. The wave model can be used to explain how current technologies transfer information describe the energy transformations required in one of the following: Mobile Phone: Sound energyelectrical energyradio (electromagnetic) energyelectrical energysound energy Fax/Modem: light energyelectrical energylight energy Radio/TV: sound energymechanical energyelectrical energyradio/TV (electromagnetic) energyelectrical energymagnetic and mechanical energysound energy (and light energy in TV)

describe waves as a transfer of energy disturbance that may occur in one, two or three dimensions, depending on the nature of the wave and the medium Waves occur in one, two and three dimensions depending on the nature of the wave and the nature of the medium. Waves that travel down a rope that has been shaken up and down is travelling in one dimension. A stone that has been dropped into water is travelling in two dimensions. The sound from when we speak and the light from a lamp travel in three dimensions. identify that mechanical waves require a medium for propagation while electromagnetic waves do not One way to classify waves is as either: Mechanical Waves; or Electromagnetic Waves Waves that travel through physical media such as ropes, springs, wood, concrete, air are termed mechanical waves as they require a medium through which the waves can travel. Electromagnetic Waves do not require a medium for propagation. (Eg light) define and apply the following terms to the wave model: medium, displacement, amplitude, period, compression, rarefaction, crest, trough, transverse waves, longitudinal waves, frequency, wavelength, velocity Medium: a region through which a wave propagates. (Travels through) Displacement: Change in position with a given direction. Amplitude: The maximum displacement of a vibrating particle from its equilibrium. Period: The time for one wave to pass a point; the time it takes to complete one oscillation. Compression: The region in a longitudinal wave where particles are closer than in their normal equilibrium position. Rarefaction: The region in a longitudinal wave where the particles are spread out further than their equilibrium positions. Crest: A region of upward displacement in a transverse wave. Trough: In a transverse wave, a region of downwards displacement. Transverse Waves: A wave in which the particles vibrate at right angles to the direction of the energy transfer. Longitudinal Waves: A wave in which the particles vibrate parallel to the direction of energy transfer. Frequency: Number of waves that pass a point per second. The number of oscillations per second.

Module 8.2 The World Communicates

Wavelength: The distance between two corresponding points on successive waves. Velocity: The time of rate of displacement. The displacement in a time period in a given direction.

describe the relationship between particle motion and the direction of energy propagation in transverse and longitudinal waves
Transverse Wave: In a transverse wave the particles vibrate at right angles to the energy transfer.

Longitudinal Waves: In a longitudinal wave the particles vibrate back and forth parallel to the direction of the energy transfer.

Module 8.2 The World Communicates

v f Wave Characteristics 1. Amplitude (a or A) the maximum displacement of a point from its equilibrium position. 2. Wavelength ( ) the distance between any two corresponding successive points; this could be the distance between two successive crests or two troughs (or between two successive compressions or two rarefactions) 3. Frequency (f or n) the number of waves to pass a given point per second. It is also the number of complete vibrations per second on a point on the wave. Its units are hertz. (Hz) 4. Period (T) the time for one complete wave to pass any point. It is also the time for one complete oscillation of a point on the wave. The equation for period is: T=1/f. Its unit is seconds. (s). 5. Wave Velocity (v) the velocity of waves is related to the other wave characteristics as follows: v= distance/time v= number of waves X wavelength/time = frequency X wavelength That is, v f

quantify the relationship between velocity, frequency and wavelength for a wave:

Module 8.2 The World Communicates

2. Features of a wave model can be used to account for the properties of sound identify that sound waves are vibrations or oscillations of particles in a medium

Sound is the sensation that our brain interprets when vibrations carried to our ears stimulate the auditory nerves. Vibrating Objects produce sound. As an object vibrates, it sets up a series of compressions and rarefactions that move through a medium and are eventually detected by our ears.
relate compressions and rarefactions of sound waves to the crests and troughs of transverse waves used to represent them

A Compression is a volume of increased pressure and corresponds to a crest in a transverse wave. A Rarefaction is a volume of reduced pressure and corresponds to a trough in a transverse wave.
explain qualitatively that pitch is related to frequency and volume to amplitude of sound waves

Pitch is a psychological response a subjective quality so it cannot be directly measured but instead depends on who hears it. The pitch of the note, how high or low it is relates to the frequency and is also affected by loudness. Loudness is also a psychological response a subjective quality so it varies depending on who hears it. Loudness depends on the intensity of the sound and the sensitivity of the ear. For a given frequency, the intensity of a sound is proportional to the square of the waves amplitude. (Distance) That is:

1 d2

explain an echo as a reflection of a sound wave

An echo is the result of the reflection of sound from an object or material. The sound wave bounces off the material and the observer hears the reflection some time after the original sound is produced. describe the principle of superposition and compare the resulting waves to the original waves in sound The Principle of Superposition states: If two or more waves of the same type pass through the same medium at the same time, the displacement of any point is the sum of the individual displacements. The superposition of two waves can result in a complex wave.

Module 8.2 The World Communicates

3. Recent technological developments have allowed greater use of the electromagnetic spectrum describe electromagnetic waves in terms of their speed in space and their lack of requirement of a medium for propagation

Electromagnetic Waves consist of waves that do not require a medium for transmission. They travel at a speed of 3x108 m.s-1 in a vacuum. The transmission of electromagnetic waves is because of an interaction between electric and magnetic fields. All electromagnetic waves are produced by accelerating charges. As electrons accelerate they generate changing electric fields. These changing electric fields produce changing magnetic fields which produce changing electric fields which... The result is a self propagating electromagnetic wave.
identify the electromagnetic wavebands filtered out by the atmosphere, especially UV, Xrays and gamma rays

Gamma Rays are absorbed by nuclei in the atmosphere X-Rays Absorbed by atoms in the atmosphere UV Rays Mostly absorbed by the molecules in the atmosphere Penetration of Electromagnetic Waves The higher the frequency (that is, the shorter the wavelength), the more energetic and more penetrating the waves and the less they are absorbed. identify methods for the detection of various wavebands in the electromagnetic spectrum

Radio Waves: Can be detected using radio receivers that are connected to the aerial. Microwaves: Can be detected by Microwave ovens and radar. Infrared Waves: Can be detected by our skin and thermometers. Visible Light: It is detected by the retina of the eye and by photographic film. Ultraviolet Light: Certain crystals that fluoresce when they absorb UV can be used to detect UV light. X-Rays: They can be detected by photographic film and special semiconductor detectors (in CAT scans). Gamma Rays: Geiger Counters can detect them.

Module 8.2 The World Communicates

 explain that the relationship between the intensity of electromagnetic radiation and distance from a source is an example of the inverse square law:
I 1 d2

When light waves emanate from a point source of light in the form of a spherical wave, the energy of the light spreads out as the distance from the source increases. The area of a sphere is given by 4r2, which is the area increases as the square of the radius.

The intensity of the light is a measure of the energy per unit area. It follows that the intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the radius this is the inverse square law. The intensity I at a distance d from a source is given by:
I 1 d2

Doubling the distance from the source reduces the intensity to of the original intensity. Halving the distance to the source increases the intensity fourfold.

Module 8.2 The World Communicates

outline how the modulation of amplitude or frequency of visible light, microwaves and/or radio waves can be used to transmit information

Modulation is the alteration of a visual, electronic or acoustic characteristic by another. In a radio wave, the information is transferred between the transmitter and the receiver by means of a high frequency carrier wave. Such a wave has three characteristics: amplitude, frequency and phase. By altering one of these factors, information can be transmitted. Radio Transmission uses Amplitude Modulation (AM Stations) and Frequency Modulation (FM Stations) to transmit radio signals. Here the Amplitude or frequency is varied in accordance with a superimposed signal which represents the information to be conveyed. The amplitude (or frequency) varies with a frequency equal to that of the modulating signal. Visible Light can be used to transmit information through optical fibres. Optical fibres can transmit enormous amounts of information up to 2 billion laser light pulses per second. The light from the laser is modulated by the imposed signal and sent as a series of pulses representing the digital signal. This is termed pulse modulation. Microwaves can be used to communicate using Mobile Phones. They are also used in Satellite communication because they pass through the ionosphere.
discuss problems produced by the limited range of the electromagnetic spectrum available for communication purposes

The electromagnetic spectrum ranges from long wavelength (low frequency) radio waves to the short wavelength (high frequency) gamma rays. Society has made use of some of these components in modern communication technologies. These include: Visible light Infrared Microwaves Radio Waves (includes AM, FM, and TV) Although communication by electromagnetic waves is the fastest, it is not without problems. The major problem is congestion of the frequencies that can be used. As more and more people and services use these bands, they become more and more congested.

Module 8.2 The World Communicates

4. Many communication technologies use applications of reflection and refraction of electromagnetic waves

describe and apply the law of reflection and explain the effect of reflection from a plane surface on waves

Wavefronts and Rays A wavefront is the lone joining points on a wave that are in phase. A ray is a line drawn at right angles to the wavefront.

Reflection When waves, such as water waves, sound and light fall on objects they bounce off the object. This bouncing is called Reflection. Laws of Reflection The angle of Incidence (i) is equal to the angle of reflection (r). A plane surface is a flat surface and sound, water and light waves will reflect off a plane surface.

describe ways in which applications of reflection of light, radio waves and microwaves have assisted in information transfer Light is reflected through optical fibre cables to relay information at a greater speed than copper cables. Radio waves are used to relay information using the ionosphere and satellites to bounce the waves off. Microwaves are used in mobile phones.

Module 8.2 The World Communicates

 describe one application of reflection for each of the following: plane surfaces concave surfaces convex surfaces

- radio waves being reflected by the ionosphere Plane Surfaces are used in many human endeavours including household mirrors, in submarine periscopes and in sextants. Concave Surfaces are used to magnify an image such as Make Up mirrors and Dentist Mirrors. They are also used in Optical and radio reflecting telescopes to collect faint electromagnetic waves. Convex Mirrors are used in driving mirrors as it gives a wider field of view. They are also used on blind corners and hairpin bends to allow the driver to see any oncoming traffic. Radio Waves being reflected by the ionosphere Radio waves are bounced off the ionosphere and around the curvature of the Earth. The amount of reflection is dependant on the frequency. Low frequency (long wavelength) waves used by AM radio stations reflect well. High frequency (short wavelength) used by FM radio stations and TV stations do not reflect well but pass through the ionosphere. These waves require either a line of sight relationship between the transmitter and the receiver or they are sent to communication satellites and are relayed to another point on the Earth. Multiple reflections the ground and satellite stations allow the signal to travel around the Earth.
explain that refraction is related to the velocities of a wave in different media and outline how this may result in the bending of a wavefront

When a wave travels from one media to another, its velocity changes. This phenomenon is called refraction. As a result of the velocity change, the wave undergoes a change in direction.

(a) Light travelling from a less dense medium e.g. air to a more dense medium e.g. water bends towards the normal.

(b) Light travelling from a more dense medium e.g. water to a less dense medium e.g. air bends away from the normal.

Module 8.2 The World Communicates

As a wave travels from one medium to another, its velocity and wavelength change but its Frequency stays the same.

define refractive index in terms of changes in the velocity of a wave in passing from one medium to another The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence (i) to the sine of the angle of refraction (r) is a constant. Sin i/Sin r = constant This constant is called the Refractive Index (n). The table below shows the refractive indices of various materials relative to air (which has a refractive index of 1). Material Refractive Index (n) Water 1.33 Paraffin 1.44 Perspex 1.49 Glass 1.5 Diamond 2.42 define Snells Law: v1 sin i v2 sin r The refractive index is equal to the ratio of Sin i/Sin r = constant. It is also equal to the ratio of wavelengths and velocities of the wave in two media. When a wave goes from medium 1 to medium 2. 1n2 = constant = sin i/sin r = v1/v2 = 1/ 2

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 identify the conditions necessary for total internal reflection with reference to the critical angle

Critical Angle When a wave travels from a denser medium to a less dense medium it bends away from the normal. The angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction is 90 is called the critical angle. Anglers greater than the critical angle cause the ray to be Totally Internally Reflected. If the angle of incidence for light going from a denser medium into a less dense medium exceeds the critical angle, no light enters the less dense medium. The light is totally internally reflected. outline how total internal reflection is used in optical fibres Total Internal Reflection is used to transmit light from a laser through a glass material called Optical Fibres. Fibre optics relies on the principal of Total Internal Reflection to bounce light along the fibre regardless of bends in the fibre. Optical fibres transmit signals at the speed of light (3x108 m.s-1) and because they use light, they are unaffected by electrical interference.

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5. Electromagnetic waves have potential for future communication technologies and data storage technologies identify types of communication data that are stored or transmitted in digital form

Digital Data is data that can be represented by numbers. Binary digital data is data that is represented by a series of 1s and 0s. Analogue Data represents continuous variations in some quantity such as volume of sound or the intensity of light etc. Computers use digital data to do complex tasks and the most complex information can be stored in digital form be it text, pictures or sound. The analogue data is sampled thousands of times per second and the continuously varying amplitude is converted into digital data. This is known as analogue digital converter. CDs can hold about 650Mb of data and it is stored on only one side of the disk. DVDs faster CD with a bigger capacity. LASERs They are used to read CDs and DVDs and to cut CDs and DVDs. GPS system is a means of locating your position on Earth with a high degree of accuracy.

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