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1. STRATEGIC ISSUES
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1. Strategic issues
Tunnels, initially aimed at crossing an obstacle (in general a mountain), have become increasingly complex during recent years, incorporating increasingly complex equipment (including ventilation systems) and methods of operation. Such operation includes the deployment of control and supervision systems that able to handle tens of thousands of items to be controlled, and which can accommodate increasingly sophisticated management scenarios. Following the catastrophes at the Mont Blanc, Tauern and Gothard tunnels in the years 1999 and 2001, the need for recognising all aspects relating to safety as a holistic system was reinforced. This resulted in the integration, from the design of the works onwards, of more constraining provisions, which have an important impact on the required civil engineering and the specified tunnel equipment. Tunnels are in general considered as "expensive and risky" works, both with regards to their Figure 1.0 : St Gothard tunnel fire construction as well as their operation. This "image" makes some countries very reluctant when considering the construction of their first tunnel for their road or railway infrastructure. In order to address such concerns, it is inevitable that the costs of construction and operation, the control of risks (mainly during the construction phase), the minimisation of accidents or fires during the operation and the optimisation of the tunnel facilities at each stage of the design, construction and operation become increasingly necessary.This control of the risks and the costs is reinforced when considering current procurement and financing models for the construction of tunnels, which are increasingly being implemented as "Concession", "Design and Build" or "Private Public Partnership" models. Chapter 1 of this manual has the following aims:
to make the reader aware of the "complex system" that a tunnel comprises; to highlight the importance of the definition of the "function" of the facility for both the upstream
(design) and downstream (operational) aspects of the design; to draw the attention of the tunnel owner to the need for surrounding himself with multidisciplinary competences with skills and in-depth experience to ensure the success of the mission; to make the reader aware that a tunnel is essentially designed to be used in conditions of comfort and safety, and that it must be the subject of continuous and reliable maintenance by the operator. The concept of a tunnel must take into account these safety and operational objectives and constraints; and finally to make the reader understand that the facility itself constitutes only a part of the problems which the owner will have to solve, and that very often it will be necessary to develop in parallel certain external elements which may be outside the tunnel owners authority: regulation, intervention and safety services, procedures, etc. It is not the intention for Chapter 1 to be a detailed handbook of the actions required by tunnel owners, or to specify the technical provisions to be implemented by the designers, or to determine the tasks to be taken by the operators to ensure a safe and comfortable tunnel. In particular, Chapter 1 does not have an objective to be a handbook of design. Its only objective is to make the reader aware of certain issues, in order to facilitate his approach and comprehension of this complex field, to hopefully enable him to avoid the many possible errors in tunnel operations, and to enable him to perceive the possibilities of optimisation.
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Section 1.1 presents the "complex system" that a tunnel is, and lists the main interfaces of the various subsets Civil Engineering, Ventilation and Safety; Section 1.2 presents the major elements which have to be considered when designing a tunnel; Section 1.3 concerns the upgrading and the refurbishment of existing tunnels under operation; Section 1.4 analyses various stages of the cycle of construction and the life cycle, and underlines the key actions of each one of these phases; Section 1.5 explains issues relating to the costs of construction, operation and renovation, as well as the main stakes specific to the modes of financing; Section 1.6 gives a list of the main recommendations, instructions and regulations published by a number of countries in Europe and in the world.
Contributors
This document was compiled by Bernard Falconnat (Egis, France), French representative in the Road Tunnels Operation Committee and member of Working Group 5, which has also translated his French version into the present English version. Its original version in French was revised by Didier Lacroix (France) and Willy De Lathauwer (Belgium ITA representative within the committee). The English version has been reviewed by Lucy Rew (Egis, France) and Fathi Tarada (UK).
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mountain tunnel;
the parameters differ for short and long tunnels, for tunnels passed through by vehicles transporting
Fig. 1.1-1 : Sketch of main subsets of the "complex tunnel system" Note 1: the links are multiple and often reversible - the general concept of the tunnel and the functional section are placed in the centre of the figure. Similar diagrams could be drawn up while placing other factors in the centre of the figure. Note 2 : the first circle represents "technical fields". Some fields represent multiple aspects:
safety: regulation - risk analysis - intervention means - requirement of availability,
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geology: geology - geotechnics - structural dimensioning, civil works: methods - construction schedule - risks and hazards, operation: operation and maintenance (technical aspects), costs: construction - operation - daily maintenance - major repairs, environment: regulation - diagnosis - impact assessment - treatment and mitigation,
Note 3: the second circle represents the "context" in which the project is to be developed. Some elements represent multiple aspects:
human environment: sensitivity - urbanisation - presence of buildings or infrastructure, natural environment: sensitivity - water - fauna - flora - air quality - landscape, nature of the transport: nature and volume of the traffic - typology - types of goods that are
transported - etc. various external constraints: accesses and particular constraints - climatic conditions - avalanches - stability of the ground - socioeconomic context - etc. level of profitability: economic acceptability - capacity of financing - control of the financial costs general economic and political context in case of concession or Public Private Partnership (PPP). The design of a new tunnel (or the refurbishment and upgrading of an old tunnel) requires these numerous parameters to be taken into account. The decision tree relating to these parameters is complex, and requires the input of experienced multidisciplinary parties. They must intervene as early as possible, for the following reasons:
to enable all relevant parameters to be considered from project commencement, and to avoid
numerous potential pitfalls noted in projects in progress or in recently completed tunnels. Such errors include the late consideration of the required equipment for operation and safety, and the development of a supervision system without integrating the results of the risks analyses, the emergency response plan or the operation procedures.As a consequence, the tunnel and its systems and equipment for operation and supervision may be inappropriate for safe and reliable operation. an early intervention contributes to a better optimisation of the project, both from the perspective of safety as well as for construction and operation costs. Recent examples indicate that transverse optimisations (civil engineering - ventilation - safety evacuation) made at early project stages can contribute about 20% towards cost savings. Each tunnel is unique and a specific analysis has to be developed, while taking into account all the specific and particular conditions.This analysis is essential to bring suitable answers and to allow:
optimisation of the project from a technical and financial aspect; reduction of the technical, financial and environmental risks; guaranteeing the required level of safety for tunnel users.
There is no "magic key solution", and a simple "copy and paste" process is almost always unsuitable. The design and optimisation of a tunnel require:
an exhaustive and detailed inventory of all the parameters, an analysis of the interactions between parameters, the evaluation of the degree of flexibility of each parameter, and if necessary of the sensitivity of
- a purely mathematical approach is not possible, owing to the fact that the "system" is too complex, and there is no single answer; - too many parameters are still unspecified or variable during the early stages of a project, but essential choices still have to be made; - the evaluation of the risks, their gravity and their likelihood of occurrence must be taken into account; - many parameters are interdependent and many interactions are circular. Several examples are given in the following paragraphs making it possible to clarify the complexity, the interactivity, as well as the iterative and "circular" character of the analysis.
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These examples are not exhaustive. Their aim is simply to make the reader aware of the issues and make it possible to focus considerations on each specific tunnel.
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The second column of the table indicates the principal subsets of parameters relating to a principal The third column lists a certain number of elementary parameters relating to a subset. The list is not
exhaustive,
The fourth column of the table indicates by set, or subset, the principal outcomes related to the
subset.
parameters resulting from table 1.1-2 above for the subset "ventilation",
The second column concerns the cross section. The parameters result from table 1.1-2, The third column concerns safety.
Table 1.1-3 : Interactions between parameters The figure reveals a certain number of parameters common to several columns (see line connectors), which create circular interactions between the various subsets of parameters. These interactions are linked by complex functions, which make a purely mathematical resolution of the problem nearly impossible. The resolution of the problem requires the definition of a hierarchy between the various parameters, followed by taking into account assumptions for the parameters of higher hierarchy. This hierarchy differs from one project to another, such as for example:
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For a short bored tunnel or a medium-length bored tunnel with one-way traffic, the most probable
ventilation system is "longitudinal ventilation". The jet fans fixed in the crown have indeed usually a very low impact on the dimension of the cross-section. This one could thus be dimensioned initially before designing the ventilation, but by taking into account the other determining parameters. The impact of the ventilation on the cross-section will then be checked afterwards,
Conversely, if the tunnel is very long or the cross-section is rectangular (cut and cover), the
ventilation system and its components (section, number and nature of the possible air ducts dimension of the jet fans if required - etc.) have an essential impact on the cross-section size. The ventilation system will have to be pre-dimensioned at the beginning of the analysis by making preliminary assumptions of the dimension of the cross section. The geometry of the cross-section will then be checked. The process of resolution is then iterative and based on a first set of assumptions, as the previous examples show. This process requires a large transverse multi-technical experience of the engineers, making it possible to take into account the relevant parameters for the project, to better target the successive iterations, and to guarantee the best optimisation of the project, with the required level of service and safety.
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signalling, signage for information, safety or police instructions. Signalling may have sometimes
(rectangular cut and cover) a very important impact on the geometry (distance between roadway and soffit with a possible impact on the vertical alignment and the tunnel length). This may eventually require a more global optimisation, which may concern the position and/or the design of the interchanges outside the tunnel close to the portals. "Operation equipment" constitutes on the other hand essential parameters for the dimensioning of the technical buildings at the portals, of underground M&E sub-stations, and of all underground technical spaces, or various provisions, recesses and niches. They often require particular arrangements concerning temperature, air conditioning, and air quality. They also are important parameters in terms of cost: construction, operation and maintenance. "Operation equipment" constitutes essential parameters regarding tunnel safety. It must be designed, built and maintained in this objective:
availability and reliability, in particular power supply and distribution, as well as all the
communication networks,
protection against fire of all equipment, in particular of the main power supply cables and the cables
safety of the maintenance teams and the users, which requires particular arrangements concerning the design and the accessibility of these facilities, integration of the procedures for operation, and the emergency response plan in the design of the supervision system (SCADA), the ergonomics of the man/machine interfaces, and assistance to the operator in particular during an incident.
organisation, human and material means, the procedures of operation and intervention, training of operating staff, the emergency services' equipment with efficient material and training of their staff, communication with users.
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Columns 2 and 3 indicate the degree of influence on the tunnel project (civil engineering -
Fig. 1.1-7 : Main impacts on the project due to intervention conditions and the organisation of the operation
Fig. 1.1-9 : Main impacts on the project due to the tunnel users
1.1.6. Synthesis
A tunnel is a "complex system" which means in particular that: approaching the design of a tunnel from the point of view of only the alignment, the geology or the civil engineering, leads to serious design deficiencies, which are likely to make the tunnel less safe (possibly even dangerous) and difficult to operate (perhaps impossible to be operated under reasonable conditions).
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in the same way, to approach the design of a tunnel from the point of view of only the operating equipment without integrating an upstream analysis of risks and safety, intervention and operation, will also lead to deficiencies that will very quickly appear as soon as the tunnel is open to traffic, not taking into account, from the preliminary design stage, all the objectives and constraints relating to the operation and to the maintenance, will inevitably lead to increased operational costs and to reduced overall reliability. Partial treatment of problems is unfortunately still rather frequent, due to lack of sufficient "tunnel culture" of the various actors involved in the design. Control of this complex system is difficult but essential in order to:
find the appropriate solution to each problem, ensure the users have an essential level of safety, and to offer them a service of quality and good
comfort. In a parallel way the control of this complex system very often contributes to the technical and economical optimisation of the project, by a clear and early definition of the functions to be ensured and by using a value engineering process. Taking into account, from the start of the project, the major issues relative to:
horizontal and vertical alignments, geology, civil engineering construction provisions and methods, ventilation, safety (by a preliminary analysis of risks and danger and a preliminary emergency plan), operation and maintenance conditions,
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can be improved, in particular in zones of instability or active landslides, or subject to severe climatic conditions, environmental impact is significantly reduced, the level of service for the users is improved, and the operating conditions, in particular in winter (in countries subject to snowfall) are made reliable by the reduction of the gradients required by passages along ridges. The assistance of an external assessor makes it possible to mitigate the insufficiency or the lack of "tunnel culture", and to improve the project significantly.
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the general geology and hydrogeology of the area (with the available level of knowledge) as well as
preliminary appreciation of the geological difficulties and the potential risks concerning the methods, costs and construction duration,
the potential geomechanical, hydro-geological, hydrographical conditions at the tunnel portals and
particular: - the risks of avalanche or formation of snow-drifts and the possibilities of protecting the access roads and the portals against these risks, - the maintenance conditions of access roads in case of significant snowfalls to guarantee the reliability of the route. This provision may condition the altitude of the tunnel portals, the maximum slopes of the access roads, and if necessary the place available to arrange surfaces for chaining and unchaining in the vicinity of the portals,
the environmental conditions at the tunnel portals and on the access roads. The impact can be
significant in urban environments (in particular because of the noise and the discharge of polluted air), as well as for interurban tunnels,
the gradient of the approach ramps:
- the least expensive tunnel is not always the shortest tunnel, - the suppression of a special lane for slow vehicles is difficult to manage in the vicinity of a tunnel portal, and keeping such a lane in a tunnel is generally very expensive, - the gradient of the access roads can have a very strong impact on the capacity of the route in terms of traffic volume and winter reliability.
the possibility of incorporating adits as lateral accesses (ventilation - evacuation and safety -
reduction of the construction works schedule), or as vertical or inclined shafts (ventilation evacuation and safety), - these particular access points, their impact on the surface (in particular in urban environments: available space - sensitivity to the discharge of polluted air - etc), their year-round accessibility (e.g., exposure to avalanches) may constitute important constraints for the design of the horizontal and vertical alignment. Conversely they very often contribute to the optimisation of the construction and operation costs, - these particular access points may have a major impact on the construction and operation costs, and on the size of the cross section (potential optimisation of the ventilation and the evacuation facilities),
the methods of construction which may have a major impact on the design of the horizontal and
vertical alignment, for example: - crossing under a river with a bored tunnel constitutes an essentially different project to that of a solution by immersed prefabricated boxes, - interfaces with a viaduct at the tunnel portal, - the imposed construction deadline may have a direct impact on the layout, in particular to allow driving from both tunnel portals as well as intermediate drives, using adits,
the geometrical characteristics of the layout and the longitudinal profile of the tunnel for which it is
also necessary to integrate the following elements: - limitation of gradients, which have a major impact on the sizing of the ventilation system and on the reduction of the traffic volume capacity of the tunnel, - the hydraulic conditions of underground drainage during the construction and the operation period, which affect the vertical alignment, - reduced lateral clearance (construction of additional widths is very expensive) which require particular analysis of the visibility conditions and particular vigilance in the choice of the radii of the curves for the horizontal alignment, - the best choice of the radii in order to avoid alternating cross-fall slopes, and their major impact on water collecting and drainage systems from the carriageways, interfaces with sleeves for the
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installation of cables, water pipes for fire fighting, which can even lead to an increase in the dimension of the cross section,
all usual constraints related to the occupation of the underground space, in particular in urban
- the least expensive tunnel is not necessarily the shortest one, - an additional investment in civil engineering can be overall more economic over the tunnel lifetime if it enables a reduction of the costs for construction, operation, maintenance and heavy repairs (in particular ventilation), or if it makes it possible to postpone for several years the date of traffic capacity saturation (impact of the gradient in the tunnel and on the accesses),
the coordination between the horizontal and the vertical alignments must be carefully studied in a
tunnel in order to support the level of comfort and safety of the users. The visual effect of the changes of slopes in the vertical alignment, in particular in high points, is highlighted by the limited visual field of the tunnel and by the lighting,
the conditions of operating with uni- or bidirectional traffic have to be taken into account in the
design of the layout, in particular: - the usual conditions of visibility and legibility, - the possibility of arranging lateral accesses (adits) or vertical accesses (shafts), in particular for: optimisation of ventilation and the cross-section, improvement of safety (evacuation of the users and access of the emergency teams by avoiding the construction of an expensive parallel gallery),
the layout in the vicinity of the portals:
- the tunnel portals constitute singular points of transition, and it is necessary to take into account human behaviour and the physiological conditions. It is essential to preserve a geometrical continuity to make it possible for the user to preserve his instinctive trajectory, - a rectilinear tunnel is not desirable, in particular along the approach of the exit portal. It may be necessary to reinforce the exit lighting over a long distance,
underground junctions at or very close to the tunnel portals:
- interchanges inside a tunnel or outside in the immediate vicinity of the portals are to be avoided, - if they are unavoidable, a very detailed analysis must be made to determine all the constraints and particular consequences to be taken into account (layout - cross-section - exit or merging lanes - risk of backward traffic flow - evacuation - ventilation - lighting - etc) to ensure safety in all circumstances.
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The examples quoted in paragraph 1.2.1 above illustrate that the provisions of the "functional transverse profile" can have a major impact on the design of the horizontal and vertical alignments. Experience shows that the analysis of the "functional transverse profile" is very often incomplete and limited to the sole provisions of civil engineering, which leads inevitably to: in the best case, a project that is not optimised from the functional, operational and financial points of view. Experience shows that potential optimisations can reach in exceptional cases 20% of the construction costs, in the most frequent case, an inadequate consideration of the functions, their constraints and their impacts on the project. These functions will have to be integrated in the following stages of the project by implementing late and often very expensive solutions, in the worst case, fundamental design errors with an irremediable and permanent impact on the tunnel, on its conditions of operation and safety, as well as on its construction and operation costs.
to determine: - the number and width of the lanes, according to the traffic and the type of vehicles admitted to the tunnel, - the headroom (according to the type of vehicle), - the hard shoulder, emergency stopping lane or lay-by, according to the volume of traffic, the mode of operation, i.e. uni- or bidirectional, the statistical rate of breakdowns, - a possible central separator and its width in the event of bidirectional operation,
Ventilation has a major impact which depends on:
- the selected system of ventilation, itself depending on many other parameters (see Paragraph 8.5), - the space required for the ventilation ducts, for the installation of axial fans, jet fans, secondary ducts, and all the other ventilation equipment,
Evacuation of the users and the access of the emergency and rescue teams which depend on the
dimensioning of the functional cross section, taking into account their number, the space they require, the essential protection associated with them to guarantee the operational safety of the tunnel, and the relatively limited space under the walkways and hard shoulders to locate them. The following networks are in particular concerned, which have a dimensional impact: - separated or combined sewer system(s) - collection of polluted liquids from the roadways and associated siphons. The absence of variation in the crossfall, associated with the conditions of the alignment (see 1.2.1.2) allow a simplification and an optimisation of the functional transversal profile, - water supply network for the fire fighting system, fire hydrants, and if necessary their protection against freezing, - all networks of cables of high and medium voltage, as well as low voltage currents. It is essential to take into account on the one hand, the cables necessary at the time of the tunnel opening and their protection against fire, as well as the provisions allowing their partial or total replacement, and on the other hand the provisionsfor the inevitable addition of other networks throughout the tunnel's life, - the particular needs in the short or medium term for external networks likely to pass through the tunnel, - all interactions between networks and needs (technical or legal) for spacing between some networks,
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- all of the signalling for operation: signalling and signage - lane signals - panels with variable messages - regulation indications - safety indications - directional indications,
Localised functional interfaces: underground sub-stations - underground ventilation plant - safety
recesses - shelters - etc. It is essential to take into account the provisions for operation and the maintenance, and in particular the construction of lay-bys for maintenance interventions and the safety of the operating teams,
Construction methods and geological conditions have an impact on the functional transverse section
(independently of the dimensioning of the civil engineering structures), for example: - the underwater crossing mentioned in section 1.2.1.2 above. The solution with immersed precast boxes enables a very different design and arrangement of the ventilation system, the evacuation galleries or the access of the emergency teams, in comparison with the arrangement for the same equipment in the case of a bored tunnel, - a tunnel bored with a TBM (tunnel boring machine) makes surfaces available under the roadway which can be used for example for ventilation, for the users' evacuation, or for the access of the emergency services. This can allow optimisations (removal of connection galleries or a parallel gallery) which can be financially very important if the tunnel is located under groundwater level in permeable materials.
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the nature of the traffic, the type of vehicles and their distribution affect the evacuation concept
(cross-passages, evacuation galleries, their dimensioning, their spacing) according to the volume of people to be evacuated, tunnels dedicated to particular categories of vehicle relate to the width of the lanes, headroom and ventilation, the passage or not of dangerous goods has an important impact on the ventilation system, the "functional cross-section", fluid collection and dewatering measures, diversion routes, the environment of the tunnel portals or ventilation stacks, the protection of the structures against the consequences of a major fire, as well as on evacuation and the organisation of the emergency services and the provision of the fire brigade in specific means and material.
1.2.3.4 Ventilation
Ventilation facilities designed as a pure "longitudinal ventilation" system have little impact on the "functional cross section" or on the "alignment". This is not the case for "longitudinal ventilation" facilities equipped with a smoke extraction duct, or for "transverse ventilation" systems, "semi-transverse" or "semi-longitudinal" systems, "mixed" systems, or for ventilation systems including shafts or intermediate galleries permitting to draw or to discharge air outside other than at the tunnel portals. All these facilities have a very important impact on the "functional cross section", the "alignment" and all the additional underground structures. The ventilation facilities of the traffic space are essentially designed in order to : provide healthy conditions inside the tunnel by the dilution of air pollution in order to keep the concentrations to a level lower than those required by the recommendations of national regulations, ensure the safety of the users in case of fire inside the tunnel, until their evacuation outside of the traffic space, by providing efficient smoke extraction, The ventilation facilities may also provide additional functions: limitation of air pollution at the tunnel portals, by improved dispersal of the polluted air, or by cleaning the air prior to its discharge outside the tunnel, underground plants for cleaning the polluted air in order to reuse it within the tunnel. These facilities exist in urban tunnels or in very long non-urban tunnels. They are complex and expensive technologies, requiring a lot of space and considerable maintenance, in case of fire, to contribute to limiting the temperature inside the tunnel in order to reduce the deterioration of the structure by thermal effects. The ventilation facilities do not only concern the traffic space. They also concern: the connection galleries between the tubes, the evacuation galleries or the shelters used by the users in case of fire,
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the technical rooms or plants situated inside the tunnel or outside near the tunnel portals that may
require air renewal, or management and control of the temperature level (air heating or conditioning according to the geographical conditions). The ventilation facilities have to be designed in order to be able to:
adapt in a dynamic and fast way to the numerous conditions and capacities in which they are
operated in order to face : - climatic constraints, in particular significant and fluctuating differentials of pressure between the portals for long tunnels in mountainous areas, - variable operating rates for smoke management in case of fire, according in particular to the development of the fire, then its regression, as well as throughout the fire period in order to be suited to the evolution of the fire fighting strategies at each stage of evacuation, of fire fighting, of preservation of the structures, etc.
present enough development capacity in order to be able to adapt throughout the tunnel's life to the
evolution of the traffic (volume - nature), lowering of the admissible pollution levels and various conditions of operation.
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juxtaposition or the abuse of gadgets is also useless. The facilities must be suited, complementary, sometimes redundant (for the essential functions of safety), and have to form a coherent whole. The facilities of operation are "living":
They require a rigorous care and maintenance regime, recurrent and suited to their level of
technology. This maintenance has a cost and requires skilled human resources, as well as recurrent financial investment throughout the tunnel's life. Lack of maintenance (or insufficient maintenance) leads to major dysfunctions, to the failing of the facilities, and as a consequence to the calling into question of the tunnel's function and the users' safety. Maintenance of the facilities under traffic conditions is often difficult and very restricted. Arrangements must be considered from the design of the facilities. For this reason the "architecture" of the systems, their design and their installation have to be thought out in order to limit the impact of the dysfunctions on the availability and the safety of the tunnel, as well as the impact of the maintenance interventions or the renovation of the facilities, Their "life span" is variable: about ten to thirty years according to their nature, their hardiness, the conditions to which they are exposed, as well as the organisation and the quality of the maintenance. They must therefore be replaced regularly, which requires adequate financing, Technological evolution often makes essential the replacement of facilities that include advanced technologies, because of technological obsolescence and the impossibility of obtaining spare parts, The facilities must show evidence of adaptability to take into account the evolution of the tunnel and its environment. All these considerations lead to strategic choices of which the main ones are:
To define the necessary facilities according to the real needs of the tunnel, without yielding to the
temptation of accumulating gadgets. Risk analysis combined with value engineering is a powerful tool allowing the rationality of the choice of the necessary facilities. This approach also allows to better master the complexity of the systems, that is often a source of delays, cost over-runs and major dysfunctions if this complexity has not been managed by a rigorous and competent organisation,
To give priority to the quality and the hardiness of the equipment in order to reduce the need and
frequency of maintenance and the difficulties of intervention under traffic conditions. This can result in a higher investment cost but is compensated very extensively during the operation period,
To verify the quality and the performance of the facilities at each stage of the design, manufacture,
factory acceptance tests, installation on site and then site acceptance tests. Experience shows that numerous facilities are deficient and do not satisfy the objectives because of lack of rigorous organisation and efficient controls,
To choose technologies suitable to the climatic and environmental conditions, which the facilities
will have to face, as well as to the socio-cultural conditions (deficiency of the maintenance concept in some countries), and to technological and technical conditions, as well as to the organisation of the services,
To take into account, from the design of the facilities and the choice of the equipment, the operation
costs and in particular energy costs. These costs are recurrent throughout the tunnel's life. Ventilation and lighting facilities are in general the highest consumers of energy. Particular attention must be drawn to this aspect from the preliminary design stages,
To take into account from the preliminary stages of design and financing analysis:
-the necessity to implement, to organise, to learn and to train teams dedicated to operation and intervention on the one hand, and on the other hand to cleaning and maintenance, -the constraints of intervention under traffic conditions for maintenance,resulting operation, maintenance and refurbishment costs,
To take into account in the general organisation and scheduling of a new tunnel project, the time
required to recruit the teams and to train them, for tests, as well as the "dry run" of all the facilities and systems (period of 2 to 3 months), for practices and manoeuvres on site with all the external
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intervening parties (in particular emergency services - fire brigade) in order to familiarise them with the particularities of the tunnel.
the distribution networks - transformers in parallel - cables located inside sleeves and in manholes protected against the fire. Every tunnel is specific and has to be subjected to a specific analysis according to its geographical position, the context of the existing electrical networks, the energy supply conditions (priority or not priority), the possibility of increasing or not the power and the reliability of the existing public networks, the risks peculiar to the tunnel, as well as the conditions of intervention of the emergency services. The facilities must be then designed consequently, and the operating procedures must be implemented according to the reliability of the system and the choices that have been taken during the design period. The objectives concerning safety, in case of a power supply cut are:
immediate emergency supply without interruption of all of the following safety equipment during a
period of about half to one hour (according to the tunnel and the evacuation conditions) : - minimal lighting level - signalling - CCTV monitoring - telecommunications - data transmission and SCADA - sensors and various detectors (pollution - fire - incidents - etc.), - power supplies to safety niches, evacuation routes and shelters, - this function is usually ensured by UPS systems, or diesel generators immediately able to supply energy,
varying from tunnel to tunnel, its urban or rural location and the risks incurred, additional objectives
of MOC (Minimal Operation Conditions) can be set to assure the electrical supply of the following equipment, as long as specific procedures are implemented during the whole duration of the power cut. For example: emergency power supply of the ventilation system (by generators or a partial external supply) permitting the tackling of light vehicle fires, but not truck fires: the passage of trucks is then temporarily forbidden. The arrangements usually implemented for the electrical power supply are as follows:
Emergency power supply from the public network:
- 2 to possibly 3 supplies from the public network grid with connections to independent segments of the high voltage or middle voltage network. Automatic switching between "normal supply" and "emergency supply" inside the tunnel power substation with, if required, interruption of the power supply to some of the equipment, if the emergency external power supply is insufficient, - no diesel generators, - installation of a UPS emergency power supply.
No external emergency power supply:
- a single external power supply from the public network, - diesel generators able to provide a part of the power in case of interruption of the main external power supply, and setting up of MOC and particular operating procedures, - installation of a UPS emergency power supply.
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- the public network is not able to provide the required power, or does not have the required reliability. The tunnel is then in complete autonomy. The energy is entirely provided by a set of diesel generators working simultaneously. An additional generator is installed as "back up" in case one of the generators should fail, - possible installation of a UPS emergency power supply, if the level of reliability of the generators is considered insufficient, or for safety reasons. 1.2.4.2.b Ventilation PIARC recommendations are numerous in this field and constitute the essential international references for the conception and the design of ventilation facilities.In addition to section 1.2.3.4 above, the reader should refer to Section 8.5. However, it must be remembered that even if the ventilation equipment constitutes one of the essential facilities in assuring the health, comfort and safety of the users in a tunnel, it is only one of the links of the system, in which the users, the operators and the emergency and rescue teams constitute the most important elements by their behaviour, their expertise and their capacity to act. The ventilation facilities alone cannot deal with all scenarios, nor satisfy all the functions that might be assumed, especially concerning air cleaning and the protection of the environment. The relevance of the choice of a ventilation system and its dimensioning requires lengthy experience, the understanding of the complex phenomena of fluid mechanics in an enclosed environment, associated with the successive stages of the development of a fire, the propagation, radiation and thermal exchanges, as well as the development and the propagation of toxic gases and smoke. The ventilation facilities are in general energy-consuming and particular attention must be paid to the optimisation of their dimensioning and their operation, by using for example expert systems. The ventilation facilities may be very complex, and their relevant management in case of fire may require the implementation of automated systems that allow to manage and master the situation more efficiently than an operator under stress. As indicated in section 1.2.3.4 above, the ventilation facilities must above all satisfy the requirements for health and hygiene during normal conditions of operation, and to the objectives of safety in case of fire. Hardiness, reliability, adaptability, longevity and optimisation of energy consumption constitute major quality criteria that the ventilation facilities must satisfy. 1.2.4.2.c Additional equipment to the ventilation facilities Two types of additional equipment for ventilation are often the subject of pressing demands from stakeholders, resident associations or lobbies:
Air treatment or air cleaning facilities, Fixed fire suppression systems.
A. Air cleaning facilities. Section 5.1 deals with this question and the reader is invited to refer to it. The implementation of air cleaning facilities is a recurrent demand of resident protection associations in urban areas. These facilities, usually installed underground, are very expensive to construct as well as to operate and maintain. They are also high consumers of energy. Results to date are far from convincing, due in particular to important emission reductions from the vehicles, and to the difficulty for these systems to clean the very low concentrations of pollutants that are in the tunnel, contained in large volumes of air. Consequently, many systems installed in the last ten years are no longer operational. The future of air cleaning facilities is very uncertain in countries where there is more coercive regulation, imposing more and more rigorous reductions of polluting emissions at the source. B. Fixed fire suppression system (FFSS). Section 8.7 deals with this issue, and the reader is invited to refer to it.
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The technologies are numerous and answer to varied criteria: fire fighting - containment of the fire reduction of thermal radiation and temperature for the users situated in the vicinity of the fire preservation of the tunnel structure against damage due to high temperature, etc. These systems, even though presenting positive aspects, also present negative aspects related in particular to the deterioration of the conditions of visibility if they are activated from the start of the fire. The use of an FFSS requires a coherent approach to all aspects of the users' safety, as well as to ventilation and evacuation strategy. The decision concerning the implementation or not of such systems is complex and has important consequences. It must be subject to a thorough reflection relating to the particular conditions of safety of the work concerned and to the added value obtained by the implementation of the system. It should not be taken under the influence of fashion or a lobby. The FFSS requires the implementation of important maintenance measures, the carrying out of regular and frequent tests, without which its reliability cannot be assured. 1.2.4.2.d Lighting The recommendations of the CIE (International Commission for Lighting) have been criticised by PIARC because of the high levels of lighting to which they often lead. The reader is invited to refer to the technical report published by the European Committee of Normalization that presents several methods including the CIE's. Lighting is a fundamental tool to ensure the comfort and safety of the users in a tunnel. The objectives of the lighting level must be adapted to the geographical location of the tunnel (urban or not), its features (short or very long), to the volume and nature of the traffic. Lighting equipment consumes a lot of power and developments are in progress to optimise their features and performance. 1.2.4.2.e Data transmission - Supervision - SCADA SCADA is the "nervous system" and the "brain" of the tunnel, permitting the compilation, transmission and treatment of information, and then the transmission of the equipment's operating instructions. This system requires a meticulous analysis according to the specific conditions inside the tunnel, its facilities, the organisation and the mode of operation, the context of risks in which the tunnel is placed, as well as the arrangements and procedures implemented for interventions. The organisation of the supervision and control centre has to be analysed very carefully, according to the specific context of the tunnel (or of the group of tunnels), the necessary human and material means, the missions to be assumed, the essential aid brought by the automatic devices or the expert systems to the operators in event of an incident, allowing the operators to reduce and simplify their tasks and to make them more efficient. The detailed design of these systems is long, delicate and requires a very rigorous methodology of developing, of controlling by successive stages (in particular during factory tests), of testing, of globally controlling after integration of all the systems on site. Experience shows that the numerous errors noted on these systems come from the following gaps:
badly defined specifications, insufficient functional analysis, or ignorance of operational conditions
and procedures,
late systems development, which does not allow the time necessary for detailed analyses, transverse
integration, or to take into account the peculiar conditions of operation of the tunnel,
lack of rigour in the development, testing, control and integration of all of the systems, lack of taking into account human behaviour and general ergonomics, lack of experience in tunnel operation, in the hierarchy of the decisions that are to be integrated and
the logical sequences of these decisions in the event of a serious incident. Section 8.2 of the manual sums up these different aspects.
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emergency phone network, radio network for the operation teams and the emergency services. Radio channels for tunnel users,
through which it is possible to transmit information and instructions related to safety, numerous sensors destined for taking measurements and detection, CCTV network. an AID system (Automatic Incident Detection) is usually associated with a CCTV system. The AID system requires an increased number of cameras in order to make detection more reliable and more relevant. 1.2.4.2.g Signalling Signalling refers to Section 8.9. Even more than for the other facilities, an overabundance of signalling is detrimental to its relevance and objectives. The legibility, the consistency, the homogeneity and the hierarchy of signalling (priority to evacuation signalling and information for users) have to be a priority of the signalling design inside the tunnel and on its approaches. Fixed signage panels, traffic lanes signals, variable messages signals, traffic lights and stopping lights, signalling to emergency exits, the specific signalling of these exits, signalling of safety niches, physical devices for closing the lanes (removable barriers),horizontal markings and horizontal rumble strips are all part of the signalling devices. They assure a part of the communication with the users. 1.2.4.2.h Devices for fire fighting The devices for fire detection are either localised (detection of fire in the underground substations or the technical rooms), or linear (thermal sensing cable) inside the traffic space. There are various devices for fire fighting:
automatic facilities in the technical rooms and underground substations, powder extinguishers for use by drivers, facilities for firemen: water pipe and hydrants - foam pipe in some countries. The volume of the
water tanks is variable. It depends on the local regulations and the particular conditions of the tunnel. Some tunnels have an FFSS (see 1.2.4.2.c above). 1.2.4.2.i Miscellaneous equipment Other equipment may be installed according to the objectives and needs concerningsafety, comfort and protection of the structure. Some examples are:
luminous beacons inserted in the side walls or walkway kerbs, a hand rail or a "life-line" fixed on the side wall permitting the movement in safety of firemen in a
smoke-filled atmosphere,
painting of the side walls or the installation of prefabricated panels on the side walls, devices for the protection of the structures against damage resulting from a fire. Such protective
arrangements have to be taken into account from the origin of the project. Thermal exchanges (with the concrete lining or with the ground) are indeed modified during a fire, as well as air characteristics, which must be designed for when dimensioning the ventilation facilities, management and treatment of water collected on the road pavement inside the tunnel before discharge outside in the natural environment, arrangements for the measurement of environmental conditions at the tunnel portals, associated with particular operational procedures if the limits defined by the regulations are exceeded.
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1.3.1. Diagnosis
Detailed and rigorous diagnosis of a tunnel is an essential stage in the process of its upgrading or renovation. Unfortunately this stage is often neglected. The physical diagnosis of a tunnel requires:
to establish in detail and to describe in a precise manner the functions and the geometry of the
structure, to establish a detailed condition statement of the structure. To evaluate in particular fire resistance, uncertainties and potential risks, and to list the tests that would be needed in order to provide a solid basis for the detailed design, to list all existing equipment, their functions, their condition, their technology, their actual features (tests or measurements will be required) and the stock of spare parts that might be available, to evaluate the remaining life span of the aforementioned equipment before their replacement, and to identify the availability or not of spare parts on the market (notably because of the technological obsolescence), to identify maintenance and inspection reports, equipment malfunctions and the rate of breakdowns. This physical diagnosis must be supplemented by a diagnosis concerning the organisation, maintenance and operation procedures, as well as by a specific diagnosis concerning all documents relating to the organisation of safety and rescue interventions. This stage of diagnosis may eventually lead to the setting up of actions for the training of the various intervention parties in order to improve the global conditions of safety of the tunnel in its initial state prior to renovation. The diagnosis must be followed by a risk analysis of the tunnel based on its actual state. This analysis has a double objective:
to assess if the tunnel can continue to be operated in its present state prior to renovation, or if it is
necessary to take temporary transitional arrangements: restriction of access to some vehicles only strengthening of the arrangements for surveillance and intervention - additional equipment - etc., to constitute a referential of the existing state from the point of view of safety in order to refine the definition of the renovation programme. The diagnosis has to identify (without running the risk of late discoveries during the works period) if the existing facilities, supposedly in working condition, can be modified, be added to or integrated in the
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future updated facilities (technological compatibility - performance in particular for data collection and transmission, automatic functioning devices and SCADA).
the new arrangements introduced by the programme. This analysis has to be established with the same methodology that the one used for the prior analysis based on the initial state. It also enables a search for optimisations, detailed examination of the feasibility of the works to be carried out for the improvement or the renovation under the requisite conditions of operation: for example, banning of tunnel closure or of temporary traffic restrictions. In case of incompatibility between the objectives of the programme and the works required for its application, iteration is necessary. This iteration may concern : - the programme itself, insofar as adaptation of the programme is compatible on the one hand with the safety objectives, and on the other hand with its implementation in the required conditions of operation, - the required conditions of operation that it may necessary to modify in order to be physically able to carry out the works resulting from the upgrading programme. The upgrading or improvement programme does not necessarily require physical works. It may only consist in a modification of the functions of the tunnel, or of the operating arrangements, for example:
modification of the category of the vehicles authorised to access the tunnel: no access to trucks no
traffic,
tunnel operated initially in bi-directional traffic, transformed for the implementation of
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the successive stages of construction, the content of each of these stages, the logical and priority
sequences of the works, safety conditions inside the tunnel at each construction stage. This requires partial risk analyses and the implementation if necessary of mitigation arrangements: traffic regulation traffic restrictions patrol strengthening of the intervention means - etc. traffic conditions inside the tunnel and on its approaches, with partial and temporary restrictions according to the various stages of works (different arrangements for daytime and night-time, for normal periods and vacation periods), of the potential diversions, of the global impact on the traffic and safety conditions in the areas concerned by the works, the constraints and subjections, the partial and global contractual deadlines for the works, in order to be able on the one hand to define the contractual specifications for the contactor, and on the other hand to implement all necessary temporary arrangements, and to proceed to an information campaign for the users and residents.
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1.4.1. Design
This is the most important stage of the life of a new tunnel. It is decisive in terms of construction and operation costs, safety, as well as management of the technical and financial risks. This stage requires a transverse integration of all interfaces of the complex system" that constitutes a tunnel. This integration has to start from the earliest stage of the design (see paragraphs above). Experience testifies to the fact that this is unfortunately rarely the case and that often the design of a tunnel results from a succession of stages considered as independent. Albeit caricaturising, we can note that:
the function is not always clearly defined, the alignment is designed without any integration of the tunnel, of its constraints, or of the whole set
of optimisation possibilities,
the civil engineering manages with the set horizontal and vertical alignments, with all the
consequences that can result concerning the construction costs and risks,
the equipment, safety level and operation fit in somehow and not always harmoniously or optimally
1.4.2. Construction
For what concerns Civil engineering, the most important aspect is the management of technical risks (in particular geological) and of all the resulting consequences concerning construction costs and duration. Considerations relating to risk management for the construction have to be taken into account from the design. These considerations must be detailed and shared with the owner of the tunnel. Decisions concerning the risks must be developed and clearly documented. The decision to take some risks does not necessarily constitute a mistake and must not necessarily be forbidden, because as a result some imperatives may be met, for example concerning a tight schedule, which would be incompatible with the implementation of all the investigations that would be required to eliminate all uncertainties. However the decision to take a risk must result from a very detailed reflection concerning:
consequences that may result, which must be clearly identified, analysed and consigned: delays -
costs - human and environmental impacts safety schedule etc., the real issues of this decision, its probability of success and its real interest. Taking of a risk must not be the result of carelessness or incompetence on the behalf of the various parties. For what concerns Operational facilities, the readers attention is drawn to:
all aspects likely to optimise the life span of the equipment, its reliability and ease of maintenance, the need of rigorous process and continuous control of the functionality, performances and quality
of the equipment throughout the manufacture of the components, their assembly, their installation on the site, then at the time of partial and global testing after integration, the added bonus to quality concerning the choice of the equipment and the contractor, even though the construction costs may be a somewhat higher. Possible savings due to reduced initial costs are often quickly compensated for by higher maintenance costs, difficulties of intervention under traffic, and the additional constraints that would be suffered by the users.
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1.4.3. Commissioning
This stage of "tunnel life" is often under-estimated and taken into account tardily. It requires taking time that is not often granted, and leads to the commissioning of the tunnel under unsatisfactory conditions, or even under conditions that are highly exposed in terms of safety. This stage includes:
the organisation of the operation and maintenance, development and adjusting of all procedures of operation, maintenance, intervention and safety
under the normal conditions of tunnel operation, as well as under MOC (Minimal Operation Conditions), recruitment and training of the staff, the dry run" of all the facilities, that cannot take place before the equipment has been fully completed, tested and delivered (possibly with provisions requiring only minor corrective interventions), the practice, training and manoeuvres involving all the intervention teams and services before commissioning the tunnel.
1.4.4. Operation
The main mission is to ensure:
the management of all facilities, their maintenance, their restoration, the safety and the comfort of the users.
It is also necessary to be able to look at the situation objectively with a distance to the daily routines in order to:
establish feedback from experience, adapt the procedures, the conditions of intervention, the
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which must be integrated into the various stages of the risk analysis, detailed analysis and monitoring of the potential risks in the design and construction stages. These potential risks are related to: - technical uncertainties relating in particular to the complexity of the ground (geological and geotechnical uncertainties), - uncertainties of traffic volume forecasts, that constitute an important risk concerning earnings in the case of construction and financing by concession", - uncertainties and risks concerning the financial environment, in particular changes in interest rates and conditions of financing and refinancing. This aspect constitutes an important risk in the case of construction and financing by "concession" or by PPP (Private Public Partnership) with a financial contribution. This process will enable the optimisation of the project (construction and operation costs) and an improved management of the technical and financial risks, as well as the schedule.
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1.5.2.2. Breakdown of the construction costs The construction cost of a tunnel may be broken down into three types of cost:
the cost of the civil engineering structures, the cost of the operation facilities, including the supervision centre and the energy supply from
public networks,
various costs including in particular: owners costs for the development of the project project
management design and site supervision survey and ground investigations - environmental studies and mitigation measures land acquisitions - various procedures - etc. The two diagrams below show examples of the breakdown of construction costs, on the one hand for tunnels for which the conditions of the civil engineering works are not complex, and on the other hand for tunnels for which the conditions of the civil engineering works are less favourable.
n o p a rtic u la r c o m p le xity fo r c ivil e n g in e e rin g
b r e a kd o w n o f th e c o n str u c tio n c o sts
o p e ra t io n fa c ilit ie s va rio u s
70%
84%
Fig. 1.5.1: Breakdown of construction costs Note: these two diagrams show how important the costs are of the civil works and illustrate the consequences of an almost doubling the costs of civil works (right-hand diagram).
span and its state during the tunnel life. These costs are not recurrent and depend on the equipment, its quality and the conditions of maintenance, from the tenth or twelfth year after the start of the operation period. The two diagrams below represent examples of breakdown (with constant economic conditions) of the construction costs (civil works, operation facilities, various costs) and of the global operation costs (accumulated over a duration of thirty years after the start of the operation period). Note: these diagrams show how important the operation and maintenance costs are and how it is necessary to choose from the first stages of the tunnel design the arrangements that enable the optimisation of the recurrent operation and maintenance costs.
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n o p a rt ic u la r c o m p le x it y f o r c iv il e n g in e e rin g
12%
d if f ic u lt c o n d it io n s f o r c ivil e n g in e e rin g
8,5% 6 ,0 % c o n s t ru c t io n o p e ra t io n
9%
c o n s t ru c t io n o p e ra t io n
5,5%
8% m a in t e n a n c e
m a in t e n a n c e h e a vy re p a irs
h e a vy re p a irs 71%
80,0%
operation of the tunnel during a contractual period of time. This body is in charge of the financing (often partly by loan), which is offset by a toll paid by the users, that reimburses the costs of the construction and the operation, as well as the risks and the financial expenses. This type of "concession" can be granted by the financial involvement of the grantor or by particular guarantees (example: guarantee of a minimal traffic volume with the payment of a financial compensation if this minimal traffic volume is not reached), mixed mode of PPP (Public Private Partnership) or similar, that may concern: - only the construction or the construction and the operation, - construction under a turnkey scheme in the case of a design and build process, - partial or whole financing. The present manual does not intend detailing these various modes of financing, or presenting their mechanisms, their advantages or disadvantages. However it is interesting to present some main guidelines found from experience, which give a preliminary illustration.
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whose financing could not be achieved by a concession (by lack of sufficient income from toll collection), or when there is political will to avoid a toll. It requires however that the public authority has the financial capacity to ensure this financing, or that it has the capacity to borrow money and to support a debt. The financial resources essentially come from public taxation or fuel taxes and sometimes partially from toll collection. b) Financing by concession tunnel part of a global infrastructure The financing of a non-freestanding tunnel by a concession (with or without financial involvement of the grantor) is the general case for a tunnel that is part of a new interurban highway with toll collection. The costs (construction and operation) of the tunnel are shared out among the tunnel and the linear infrastructure above ground. Experience shows that the over-cost of the average toll ratio per kilometre is accepted by the users as long as the new infrastructure brings sufficient added value concerning time savings, better or more reliable service, comfort and safety. c) Financing by "concession" - isolated tunnel Two main categories of isolated tunnels exist.
Tunnels corresponding to a major improvement of the traffic conditions. This is in particular the
case of urban tunnels aiming to alleviate traffic and to reduce travel times. Experience shows that financing by concession is only really foreseeable when the following conditions are met: - high traffic volumes, - country with high standard of living and revenues, enabling substantial toll rates, which are essential to ensure the financial balance, - Significant time gains for the users so that they will accept in return a relatively high toll rate, - duration of the concession of about fifty years at least. Regional development tunnels, intended to cross a major natural obstacle (chain of mountains estuary). These obstacles constitute an important handicap for trade. The initial traffic volume is usually relatively low. The new link with the tunnel will enable the growth of traffic, but such a development is often very difficult to predict in advance, and it constitutes an essential parameter of financial risk for the funding of the concession. Experience shows that financing by "concession" is then only realistic when the following conditions are met: - The natural obstacle is significant and the tunnel is sufficiently attractive (gain of time, level of service, delivered service, reliability of the link) in order to attract all existing traffic in spite of the toll, - Financial involvement of the grantor (possibly also the stakeholders), either with a financial contribution or direct involvement in the construction and the financing of a part of the works (for example construction of the access roads), - Guarantee of a minimal traffic volume by the grantor, with the payment of a contractual financial contribution if the minimal traffic volume is not reached, - Contractual arrangements for sharing major risks can put the financial model at risk if they over-run limits or conditions defined by the contract, - Very long concession duration: often 70 years or more, - Financial guarantee brought by the grantor, in order to enable the concession body to benefit from more favourable conditions of loans on the financial market, which may better ensure the feasibility of the financial plan. d) Financing by PPP or similar
The range of contents of a PPP mode is very wide, and it is difficult to establish guidelines because
Detailed analysis is necessary to evaluate the real advantage of this mode of financing compared to traditional financing. Indeed, this mode of financing very often contributes to increasing the global
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cost of the project (with equal functionality and quality) because of the compensation of the risk assumed by the developer. Public authorities have to carefully define the required functions of the tunnel, as well as objectives concerning quality, comfort, safety, level of service, life span, rate of availability, penalties etc. in order to prevent any ambiguity that may result in important misunderstandings and financial overruns in the development of the project.
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