Department of Mechanical, Materials & Manufacturing Engineering

APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY: BIOGAS

Design and development of a biogas compression and storage system capable of implementation in the developing world

Michael Andrea (4071774) Jason Aspell (4069642) Peter Epathite (4067979) James Faupel (4065636)

2010/11
Dr. Mike Clifford - Group 5 -

Group Development Report submitted for the Degree of MEng in Mechanical Engineering

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2. ABSTRACT
Low cost and produced from abundantly available natural waste, biogas presents an appropriate alternative to the traditional solid and gas cooking fuels used by developing rural communities in Less Economically Developed Countries (LEDCs). Without an appropriate method of compression, the gas remains of a large and unportable volume, making transport and storage of functional quantities difficult and impractical. This constraint has limited the replacement of dangerous and expensive alternatives with biogas, and remains a problem. The aim of the project was to create a system to compress and store biogas in a manner appropriate to rural communities in the developing world. Research indicated that a manually actuated, single-acting compressor, capable of reducing the volume by a factor of 3 4, would be an appropriate solution. The key design objective was the production of a working prototype, and was achieved by the group over a period of 9 months. Constraints imposed by the customers requirements and resource availability informed the design process. The replicable, safe compression and storage of a substitute gas to 4.5 bar was enabled in an appropriate and sustainable manner, providing the required volume reduction. The low prototype cost of 75 reflects the incorporation of numerous recycled components and appropriate materials selection. Continued system development in the areas of actuation geometry, material selection and component design are recommended to further improve functionality.

Word Count: 6,578

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3. CONTENTS
1. TITLE PAGE 2. ABSTRACT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 3. CONTENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 4. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 5. BACKGROUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 6. DESIGN SOLUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 7. DESIGN DETAIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
7.1. Hydrogen Sulphide Removal 7.2. Compression Unit 7.2.1. Valve System 7.2.2. Compression System 7.3. Actuation 7.3.1. Lever System 7.3.2. Structural Frame 7.4. Storage 7.4.1. Storage Unit 7.4.2. Manifold 7.4.3. Bottle Connection 7.5. Connections & Fixings

8. MANUFACTURING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
8.1. Solution 8.2. Problems Encountered & Improvements

9. PROJECT COMPLIANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
9.1. Testing 9.1.1. System 9.1.2. Robustness & Durability 9.1.3. Storage 9.1.4. Ergonomics

10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 RECOMMENDATIONS & FURTHER WORK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . See Overleaf

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Supplementary Documentation:
14. APPENDICES

Book - A1
14.1. 14.2. 14.3. 14.4. Design History File Project History Calculations, Modelling & Analysis Testing & Demonstration of Compliance

Book - A2
14.5. CAD

Book - A3
14.6. Business Plan

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4. INTRODUCTION
This report details work undertaken by students at the University of Nottingham, in partnership with Engineers Without Borders (EWB), to develop a biogas compression and storage system appropriate for rural India. Having developed a strong interest in international development - and the role of engineering in combating poverty in developing countries the group approached the developmental charity EWB. Together identifying a pressing problem faced by developing communities; the absence of an appropriate method of manageable biogas transportation and storage. While the design solution incorporates advanced engineering science, it is both appropriate and practicable in a rural Indian community. Biogas is already widely used in developing rural communities. It is created by decomposing waste in an anaerobic environment and piped directly into homes for cooking and heating applications. The process converts organic waste into useful energy which is clean, cheap and sustainable an ideal energy source for a growing community. The technology has found widespread uptake and there are estimated to be 3.8 million biogas plants in India alone (20051). The problem exists when there is a disparity between production and consumption of biogas in the rural community. At present, excess biogas is stored at atmospheric pressure in large, inflatable bags; a vessel design susceptible both to leakage and accidental damage. The bags are also difficult to safely tap gas from, or transport. The difficulties in transportation associated with the large volumes mean plant owners are unable to take advantage of the difference in local supply and demand missing an opportunity to create profit. Biogas presents some real advantages in terms of low cost, sustainable energy. However the issues highlighted above mean that when a transportable or storable energy source is required, solid (wood, dung cakes) and liquid (LPG, kerosene) fuels are used instead. These are expensive, inappropriate and often dangerous. A method is required through which biogas is taken at the point of production, and reduced in volume to allow manageable transportation and storage. This decreases reliance on more expensive and polluting alternatives. Following correspondence with an Indian partner organisation, it was proposed that a biogas compression system would overcome many of the current limitations - further accelerating its uptake and adoption as a sustainable, low cost alternative fuel. This report starts by examining the current situation (Section 5) and establishing the capabilities of the communities in rural India. The design is then overviewed (Section 6), followed by a detailed description of all aspects of the system (Section 7). Every decision made over the 9-month development cycle is documented and justified, along with key sponsor and customer correspondence exchanged over the period of the project. Finally, the manufacturing outcomes are detailed (Section 8), compliance assured (Section 9) and conclusions and recommendations drawn (Sections 10 and 11). The accompanying Book A1 contains the Appendices, Book A2 the CAD, and Book A3 the Business Plan.

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5. BACKGROUND
5.1. SITUATION
Biofuels have great potential in the developing world none more so than in rural India. Despite efforts to boost generation, transmission and distribution of electricity, only 56.5% of households in rural Indian villages have access 2. This leaves the majority of the rural population heavily dependent upon inefficient raw biomass and imported fossil fuels such as kerosene and LPG. Decentralised systems, such as the use of woodfuel or organic waste, have received focus in recent years. Due to the considerable cattle population within the country (see Appendix 14.3.1.3.), biomass and biogas systems utilise an abundant supply of animal waste to create fuel through direct burning, and tapping of the fermented gases, respectively. Due to inherent health implications of burning dry biomass indoors, biogas systems are becoming ever more popular.

5.1.1. Biogas
Biogas is a fuel produced through the anaerobic biological breakdown of organic matter (in digesters), such as vegetable matter or cattle dung, at slightly elevated temperatures. Predominantly composed of carbon dioxide and methane (see Table 5.1.), biogas provides a clean cooking and lighting fuel. Its production process produces a slurry that can be used for fertiliser and also kills bacteria, improving community health (for further detail, see Appendix 14.3.1.1.).

Substance Methane (CH4) Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Nitrogen (N2) Oxygen (O2) Water Vapour (H2O) Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S)

Biogas [%] 50 - 60 34 - 38 0-5 0-1 6 Trace

Natural Gas [%] 97 2.6 0.4 -

(Carbon Compounds)

Table 5.1: Detailed composition of biogas3

In the developing world, cost, technology and resource availability are crucial factors in energy production. Renewable energy sources such as biogas are enabling whole communities to improve their way of life through available, appropriate and cheap energy within rural villages.

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5.1.2. Vigyan Ashram

Through affiliation with EWB, the project team was put into contact with a partner organisation in India. Vigyan Ashram (VA), a centre of the Indian Institute of Education (IIE) located in Pabal (see Figure 5.1.), is a charitable organisation designed to make an impact in the surrounding communities and the developing world as a whole. The project originated from a request by VA (see Appendix 14.2.2.1.) to solve a selection of problems with current sustainable technologies in rural India4. Location With a population of roughly 10,000 and spanning an area of 0.25 km 2, Pabal is representative of a typical Indian village4. An average household consists of around 5 or 6 individuals, totalling roughly 1,750 homes within the village limits.

Figure 5.1: Geographical position of Pabal5 Representative of thousands of similar villages in rural India, it is suggested that should a project be successful in Pabal then its transference to more widespread communities throughout the developing world is possible.

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5.1.3.
Cooking

Capabilities

Each household will possess varying degrees of technology, but it is assumed even the very poorest of families will have access to kerosene or LPG stoves with appropriate gas stove fittings6 (Figure 5.2.). Alternatively, more hazardous biomass burning systems are frequently used indoors, causing over 500,000 deaths each year7 in India alone.

Figure 5.2: The use of kerosene/LPG gas stoves8

Manufacturing & Materials Manufacturing capabilities within the village limits are considerably below those in the western world, however many workshops with basic engineering machinery exist 4. It is assumed that these workshops possess standard equipment such as lathes, saws, drills and milling machines. Material availability is also limited. It can be assumed steel and wood are prevalent, however treated and alloyed metals are difficult and more expensive to acquire. Should more sophisticated technology and material resource be required, Pune the 8th largest city in India, possessing a well-established manufacturing industry is only an hours drive away9.

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5.2. PROBLEMS
Biogas projects face a number of social and technical problems when implemented in the developing world. These are issues that require consideration during the conception of any such future system.

5.2.1.

Social Challenges

Community/Household Plant It is common for biogas programmes to be based upon small, household plants providing for personal use only. In comparison to community plants, these exhibit large losses in economies of scale. Ideally, one or many community plants will exist and the community can contribute and tap biogas as and when possible/required. In theory, it is hoped that systems can be run under the supervision of an organising committee and involve close regulation of usage/contribution. However, research has shown that such organisation can be difficult, causing relations between key contributors to break down 10. Literature states that payment on contributions is one of the key drivers for the sustainability of such a scheme, however this brings additional administration and financial burdens 11.

Technology Appropriateness & Acceptance There is often a resistance to new technology within rural communities in the developing world, where unless the technology is proven, reliable and easy to use then its uptake is almost fatally hindered. The agenda of both the user and the designer must be aligned and can be a major cause of failure in sustainable development projects 2. Lack of insight into how the community conducts itself is avoidable should care be taken into developing a solution appropriate to the implementation environment.

Education One direct cause of the poor technology acceptance is insufficient education of the user by the designer/project team. Difficulties are further complicated if implementing a system into a country with unfamiliar language and attitudes.

Resource Availability Limitations to biogas supply can occur due to insufficient organic matter for fermentation, thus providing a maximum available quantity of biogas. This can be overcome through the use of human faeces (see 5.3. - Feasibility Study) as an organic material source. The obvious social implications must first be surmounted, but it is argued that sanitation benefits can exist through direct linkage of toilets to digesters12.

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5.2.2.
Storage

Technical Challenges

Should the available resources exist, it is suggested that limitations also exist based upon maximum requirements of biogas in the user community. Most digesters will have limited capacity to store the product of their fermentation and, should demand not exceed supply, biogas production will be slowed 11. This is inefficient and occurs due to the lack of safe methods of transportation and storage.

Manageability/Transportation Should supply and demand both be sufficient, the issue of transportation still remains. Generally if biogas is stored, it will be at the digestion site in large impermeable bags (Figure 5.3.). These are impractical to transport and require direct connection to cooking/lighting apparatus. In regions where piping systems are unachievable, biogas systems prove to be unsustainable and such systems may fail.

Figure 5.3: The current biogas storage system in use13

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5.3. FEASIBILITY STUDY

The considerations and challenges discussed previously call for further analysis to determine the feasibility of the project and to establish project requirements.

5.3.1. Cooking Requirements

The establishment of the quantity of uncompressed biogas a person or family will require for their basic cooking needs in any one day is an important starting point. Research into the feasibility of a biogas system is widespread and sources claim a variety of quantities sufficient for cooking (for a specified number of people). Through analysis of these figures, targets can be set on the compression necessary and the storage volume required. Volumes of 0.088 0.4m3/person/day are suggested, however the validity of some sources has been questioned (see Appendix 14.3.1.2.). The higher end of these figures (0.2 0.4 m3/person/day) are theoretical values based upon factors that are possibly slightly out of date (1970s). The lower end are slightly more recent experimental results and are believed to be accurate for the study. The remainder of the feasibility study assumes a value of 0.088m 3/person/day of uncompressed biogas is required (should this fully replace the cooking fuel currently used).

5.3.2. Fermentation Material Availability

The majority of the material will consist of cattle dung and organic waste produced by Pabals population. Based upon the gas yields shown in Table 5.2. and the quantity of cattle typical for a village the size of Pabal (see Appendix 14.3.1.3.), the total producible amount was calculated.

Material Cattle Dung Human Faeces Banana Stems Eucalyptus Leaves

Gas Yield [m3/kg] 0.2 0.45 0.75 0.89

Table 5.2: Gas yields for a selection of organic materials14

The cattle to human ratio for Indian villages is in the range of 0.486:1 to 1:114,15. Given these figures, a hypothetical fermentation material quantity in the range of 62,000 and 126,500kg/day of cattle or its equivalent are available, equating to a biogas yield = 1.24 2.53 m3/person/day given a population of 10,000 (see Appendix).

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5.3.3. Storage Requirements

It is necessary to consider the potential compression requirements and predicted volume reduction achievable. Having found a figure for the daily requirement of uncompressed biogas for one individual, analysis of compression pressures was conducted. The pressure requirement for various reduction factors was found (see Appendix 14.3.1.4.) for a selection of polytropic indices (see Table 5.3.).

Reduction Factor 2 3 4 5 6

Required Pressure (bar)

Polytropic Index, n

1 2 3 4 5 6

1.15 2.2 3.5 4.9 6.4 7.9

1.3 2.5 4.2 6.1 8.1 10.3

Table 5.3: Pressures required to reach certain reduction factors under different heat transfer conditions.

Assuming the design exhibits some (but not complete) heat transfer, an intermediate polytropic index (n = 1.15) was assumed as practical. Given the allowable levels of system complexity to remain appropriate for use in the developing world, it was reasoned that achieving pressures over 5 bar was unlikely (see Appendix 14.3.3.1.). Volume reduction factors of 2 or less do not sufficiently reduce the volume of biogas required for improved transport and manageability. Reduction factors of 3-4 reduce the required storage volume to around 10 litres for one individuals meal requirement, and 50 litres for a whole familys (see Section 7.4.1.). Such reduction factors require pressure in the region of 3-5 bar an achievable target using appropriate technology.

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5.4.

PROJECT REQUIREMENTS

From the research conducted, a set of design requirements have been formulated. These are summarised in Table 5.4. (see Appendix 14.1.1.).

Statement of Requirements NEED 1 Appropriate Technology Cost Effectiveness DESCRIPTION The design must utilise technology appropriate for the location and infrastructure of the user. The system must be producible at a realistic cost to the customer. The system must offer a safe service which adheres to appropriate regulations. The system must be designed in such a way that facilitates practical maintainability with resources available. Users with varying abilities must be able to operate the system fully. Must be a convenient method of transporting biogas. The system's component parts must be easily transportable to remote locations. The system must offer an efficient method of transporting biogas from A to B. The system must be supplied with all the necessary educational resources to provide the user with all relevant operational and maintenance procedures. The system must withstand regular use, providing a longterm solution. The system must be made from materials available within reasonable cost constraints - taking into consideration maintainability. The system must be made using appropriate methods within reasonable cost constraints - taking into consideration maintainability. To a lesser extent, the system must deliver biogas from A to B in a timely manner. The flexibility of the system in place, whereby if alterations were necessary they could be accommodated.

Safety

Maintainability

Ease of Use Ease of System Transport Ease of Gas Transport

Education Robustness & Durability Materials Availability Manufacturing Availability Speed

10

11

12

13

Flexibility

Table 5.4: Statement of Requirements

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6. DESIGN SOLUTION
Throughout the project a modular approach was taken to ensure flexibility and simplicity of design. A schematic of each of the sub systems can be seen in Figure 6.1. showing the interactions between each of the individual modules.

Figure 6.1: Modular Schematic of Design

1. Hydrogen Sulphide Removal (Scrubbing) Post treatment occurs as biogas is fed from a digester through a scrubbing system which removes hydrogen sulphide. Flow is then channelled into the valve system (DHF: Appendix 14.1.2.3.).

2. Valve System The valve system channels flow into the compression system through the inlet valve, which is returned through the outlet valve into the manifold (DHF: Appendix 14.1.2.4.).

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3. Compression System Through force transmission from the actuation system, a piston inhales and exhales fluid through a valve system (DHF: Appendix 14.1.2.4.).

4. Actuation A lever transmits force exerted by the user, in turn actuating a reciprocating piston in the compression system (DHF: Appendix 14.1.2.5.).

5. Manifold Regulates flow from the compression system to the storage vessels and from the storage vessels back out to a cooking stove when required (DHF: Appendix 14.1.2.6.).

6. Storage Plastic bottles store the biogas at 5 bar until the manifold regulates the flow for cooking (DHF: Appendix 14.1.2.6.).

7. Structural Frame Houses and supports the actuation, compression and valve systems (DHF: Appendix 14.1.2.5.).

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7. DESIGN DETAIL
7.1. HYDROGEN SULPHIDE REMOVAL
Raw biogas contains undesirable impurities such as carbon-dioxide, hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and water-vapour. As the gas will be used for cooking, only H2S needs to be treated16. Hydrogen sulphide is a poisonous and flammable chemical compound. It can cause material corrosion as well as having serious health implications, including irritation of the respiratory system, breathing problems, and sudden death (see Table 7.1.).

Physiological or Regulatory Benchmark Odour Detection Threshold (Rotten Egg Smell) TLV-TWA = Recommended Exposure Limit TLV-STEL = Recommended 15-minute Exposure Limit Offensive Odour Slight Conjunctivitis and Respiratory Tract Irritation Coughing, Eye Irritation, Loss of Sense of Smell Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health Loss of Consciousness Rapid Respiratory Arrest (Death in 1 - 3 Breaths)

Parts Per Million (ppm) 0.13 10.0 15.0 27.0 50.0-100.0 100.0 100.0+ 500.0-700.0 1000.0-2000.0

TLV = Threshold Limit Values TWA = Time Weighted Average STEL = Short Term Exposure Level Table 7.1: Benchmarks for conditions in relation to hydrogen sulphide exposure17. As shown in Table 7.1, the recommended exposure is 10ppm over an 8 hour period . This was a requirement throughout the project and various methods of removal were considered (see Appendix 14.1.2.3.). Simple and cost effective, the most suitable solution for small scale use was a dry sorption method18. The preferred catalyst is iron oxide, capturing H2S through the formation of iron sulphide. This is then oxidised to form elemental sulphur, while also regenerating the iron oxide for reuse. This can be achieved effectively a few times before its disposal. The chemical equations are as follows:

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A prototype was designed utilising a glass jar filled with oxidised steel wool as a source of iron oxide (see Figure 7.1.). Adapting the system to a larger scale would require the use of an iron sponge method, whereby allowing more effective H2S removal (see Appendix).

Figure 7.1: Scrubber schematic

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7.2. COMPRESSOR UNIT

Overview: The volume of biogas is reduced by the compressor unit, which is mounted in the structural frame and actuated via a lever connection. The unit consists of a valve system and a compression system (as shown in Figure 7.2.1.). The two systems have been developed as separate modules which are bolted together and mounted onto a support plank (see Section 7.3.2.).

Fig 7.2.1: Compressor unit assembly

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7.2.1. Valve System

The valve system was designed as a single hub (see Figure 7.2.2.); housing an inlet, outlet and safety valve. The hub consisted of a top plate, valve fixing and bottom plate with reed valves sitting between each layer. This made the design easy to manufacture and assemble (see Appendix 14.1.2.4.1.). The material used for the plates is mild steel, chosen because it could be acquired in the dimensions set by the original design.

Figure 7.2.2: Valve system

Flow Valves The inlet and outlet are controlled by neoprene reed valves, which open into chambers created by a centre plate (see Figure 7.2.3.). Reed valves were selected for their simplicity and robustness, while neoprene was chosen for its flexibility in comparison to trials with other materials (see Appendix 14.1.2.4.1.). Due to this flexibility, the reed valves are very responsive, opening and closing as the stroke starts; thus maximising flow rate into the containers (see Appendix 14.1.2.4.1. and 14.3.2.1.). Flow is channelled through the valve system to adjacent systems through PVC hosing connected via threaded barbs.

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Figure 7.2.3: Cross-sections of inlet valve (left) and oulet valve (right)

Safety Valve The safety valve provides a means of alerting the user once a critical pressure has been reached, preventing over-pressurisation. Through the use of a ball valve and specially machined barb (see Figure 7.2.4.), the activation pressure can be adjusted by tightening a spring (see Appendix 14.3.2.3.). Upon the valve opening, gas flows through the outlet, limiting the pressure in the container. Flow from the safety valve is then directed into a water bucket, which bubbles, alerting the user the pre-set limit has been achieved.

Figure 7.2.4: Cross-sections of safety valve (left) and threaded barb (right)

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The specially machined barb was threaded at the top to allow the compression of the spring to be adjusted (see Appendix 14.1.2.4.1.). An extruded lip ensures that the spring sits concentrically in its chamber. Calculations showed the spring needed to be compressed by 4.45mm to pre-set the safety valve to 5 bar (see Appendix 14.3.2.3.). Aluminium was selected for ease of manufacture. This was important due to the components size. The steel ball and spring were bought-in (see Appendix 14.1.2.4.1.).

7.2.2.

Compression System

The compression of biogas occurs within this system, the gas inflow and outflow being regulated by the valve system (see Section 7.2.1.). A sufficiently large stroke and small diameter were designed to reduce the compression force, while maximising the swept volume. This reduces the number of pumps required to fill a 2 litre pressure vessel (see Appendix 14.3.3.1. and 14.1.2.4.2.). The compression system is capable of compressing a 2 litre bottle to 4.5 bar in 193 pumps producing a volume flow rate of 0.589m3/s. Compressing the gas to 5 bar will increase the temperature by 159K (under maximum adiabatic conditions, see Appendix 14.3.2.1.). Even under hot base conditions the temperature will not reach the autoignition point of biogas or the melting points of any of the materials in the system.

Figure 7.2.5: Compression system overview

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The piston fixes to the connecting rod through a centrally bored hole with a recess at one end to allow the threaded end of the connecting rod to fit flush (see Figure 7.2.6.). The piston sealing was achieved through the use of a quad ring; offering tight sealing during reciprocating motion, as well as the friction reducing qualities needed to minimise the work required. To allow insertion of the quad ring, the top of the cylinder is chamfered (see Appendix 14.1.2.4.2.).

Figure 7.2.6: Piston of Compression System; cross-section view (left) and standard orientation (right)

Connecting Rod The connecting rod links the compression system with the lever system through the use a slider pin (see Lever System - Section 7.3.1.). This fits through the hole at the top of the connecting rod. The buckling load of the connecting rod is 49,616N. At maximum pressure, the load is 1000N, therefore the connecting rod will not fail through buckling (see Appendix 14.3.2.2.).

Valve System Interface The compression system integrates with the valve system through a welded end plate (see Appendix 14.1.2.4.2.). A gasket was employed between the end plate and valve system to ensure sufficient sealing. The connecting rod is guided through contact against the inner surface of a bushing (see Figure 7.2.7.). The bushing is made from brass, as it is a soft, sacrificial material, reducing the wear on the connecting rod due to friction during operation (see Appendix). The bushing is welded to a cylinder cap which fixes to the cylinder through two tapped holes either side of the cap. The combination of the two parts ensure the rigidity of the surface guiding the connection rod.

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Figure 7.2.7: Cylinder Cap and Bushing; cross section view (left) and standard orientation view (right)

All parts (except the bushing) are made from mild steel, selected for its cost effectiveness, strength and availability of appropriately dimensioned stock (see Appendix)

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7.3. ACTUATION
Overview: The compressors actuation system consists of two sub-systems; the lever system and the structural frame (see Figure 7.3.1.). The lever system forms the interface between the user(s) and the compressor, while the structural frame provides support for the lever and compression systems.

Figure 7.3.1: Overall actuation system as designed

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7.3.1. Lever System

Lever The lever was designed as a hollow, single-beam (see Figure 7.3.2.) made with external handles welded into each end, both of which are made of mild steel. This was the result of preliminary design analysis proving an internal handle and connecting rod system as susceptible to unacceptable levels of bending (see Appendix 14.1.2.5.1. and 14.3.3.3.). Maximum deflections of under 0.1mm were judged as adequate throughout the lever system, an amount that was unachievable in an internal handle system unless handles and cross beams with diameters were used (see Appendix 14.1.2.5.1.). The cross sectional dimensions of the beam were to allow space for a pivot hole, slider pin grooves (housing the connecting rod pins) and a handle. Stress analysis showed weak points of only 113 MPa, well below the minimum yield strength of 440 MPa (See Appendix 14.3.3.2.).

Figure 7.3.2: Lever system as mounted on structural frame Connecting Rod Linkage The decision was made to use a pin-guided system for the connecting rod attachment. This was the result of conceptual analysis (see Appendix 14.1.2.5.1.) of the possible configurations in relation to the compression cylinder and the necessary motion path of the lever. The proposed system uses slider pins mounted into slots in the beam to allow horizontal and vertical movement of the connecting rod attachment, relative to the lever position (see Figure 7.3.3.).

Figure 7.3.3: Fixed-pin-guided connection

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The sliding pins (see Figure 7.3.4.) were also cleared through bending analysis. Two bought-in circlips were fixed on the outer ends to secure the pin in position.

Figure 7.3.4: Connecting rod attached via slider pin in lever slot housing

Pivot Rod The pivot rod on which the lever is mounted to the support structure also holds two bushings to position the lever beam centrally (see Figure 7.3.5.). These bushings, made from nylatron, also reduce the wear between the lever beam and the support structure. The thickness of the pivot rod was based upon deflection calculations (see Appendix 14.3.3.3.). A diameter of 16mm reduced deflection to below the 0.1mm threshold limit.

Figure 7.3.5: Pivot rod as assembled

The pivot rod is located via two brass bushings welded into the support structure (see Section 7.3.2.) and held in place using circlips on the outer ends.

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7.3.2. Structural Frame

Pivot Supports The primary function of the structural frame was to support the actuating lever. It comprised of a welded steel beam structure based upon its ease of transport, stability and efficient use of materials. Development from a simple base and upright structur e resulted in an A-frame design as shown in Figure 7.3.6. Iterative structural analysis, based upon compressor/lever geometries and both physical and theoretical modelling techniques (see Appendix 14.1.2.5.2. and 14.3.3.3.), resulted in the development of a capable structure providing the support necessary for the lever pivot rod discussed previously (Section 7.3.1.).

Figure 7.3.6: Structural frame as assembled Further stress analysis confirmed the frames ability to withstand the forces exerted upon it through both the lever pivot and the compressor support. Maximum stress levels of only 288 kPa were seen in only a selection of weak points such as sharp corners and cut-outs (Appendix 14.3.3.3.). Brass housings were used to spread the load of the pivot rod (see Figure 7.3.7.).

PIVOT HOUSINGS

RESTRICTOR BAR

Figure 7.3.7: Restrictor bars and pivot housings as assembled

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Lever geometry evaluation (Appendix 14.3.3.1.), enabled the precise positioning of the compression system to be established. Calculations showed that the compression cylinder needed to be raised off of the ground to allow for full mechanical advantage. This required the incorporation of a support platform for the compression system into the structural frame design. In conjunction with the pivot support iterations, cross beams were installed and a support plank conceived (shown in Figure 7.3.8.).

CYLINDER SUPPORT

SUPPORT PLANK

Figure 7.3.8: Structural frame with support plank

In addition to this platform, support higher up the cylinder was required to stabilise the compression system. This was achieved through cross supports (with holes to guide the cylinder) welded into place on the A-frame (see drawings for dimensional detail).

Lever Motion Restriction Left unrestricted, the motion of the lever becomes dangerous and creates a risk of system malfunction or cylinder-lever collision. Strain or damage to the connecting rod can occur, due to the guiding pins reaching the limits of their slots, potentially resulting in system failure. This was prevented through the implementation of lever restriction bars (see Figure 7.3.7). These prevent lever misuse through blocking its motion path. Additional padding hose is used to reduce damage and wear to the lever beam.

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To ease transportation and storage of the system, the structural frame has been designed in two parts (Figure 7.3.9.). The base frame and the support structure are independent components and are fastened temporarily through welded bolt plates (Figure 7.3.10. for further detail, see Appendix 14.1.2.5.2.). This allows the structure to be disassembled to fit into a smaller space envelope (approximately 1m x 0.8m x 0.2m) for storage and transportation requirements.

1: A-FRAME STRUCTURE

2. BASE STRUCTURE

Figure 7.3.9: Assembly of structural frame

CUT-OUT SECTIONS

Figure 7.3.10: Cut-out sections showing bolt attachment

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7.4. STORAGE
Overview: The development of the storage system resulted in the use of reused plastic bottles as storage vessels for the compressed biogas, a schematic of which is shown in Figure 7.4.1. The system consists of three main components; the PET storage bottles, a fourway manifold unit and the threaded attachments for individual bottle fastening. The function of the manifold (Figure 7.4.2.) is to regulate the flow of biogas from the compressor into bottles arrays for storage and, when required, out again to the gas stove for cooking. The bottle attachments (Figure 7.4.3.) facilitate the link between the manifold and the pressure vessels, allowing direct attachment to the standard threads found on common beverage containers.

TO OTHER BOTTLES

BOTTLE ATTACHMENT

FROM COMPRESSOR

MANIFOLD

Figure 7.4.1: Schematic of storage system

Figure 7.4.2: Manifold

Figure 7.4.3: Bottle Connection

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7.4.1. Storage Vessel

Gas cylinders are commonly found in India, a result of the dependence on LPG as cooking fuel. Through investigation (see Appendix 14.1.2.6.1.), it was decided that a simpler, cheaper, lighter and more flexible system could be achieved through the use of PET drinks bottles as biogas pressure vessels.

Pressure Capability Feasibility research (see Appendix 14.3.1.4.) established that volume reduction factors of 3-4 were desirable. The 3-5 bar required to achieve such a target represents the everyday pressure capacity required from the selected vessels. Testing of PET bottles (see Appendix 14.4.2.) revealed this was possible with a safety factor of 2-3, proving the concept valid.

Biogas Requirement for One Meal Uncompressed [litres] One Person Family (5-6) 29.3 150 Compressed [litres] 7.33 37.5

Table 7.4.1: Requirement volumes for cooking one meal Bottle Sizing For the two major usage scenarios, i.e. individual and family use, 7.33 and 37.5 litres of biogas are required respectively (Table 7.4.1. - see Appendix 14.3.1.4. and 14.3.4.2.). PET bottles are widely available in a range of sizes (0.5l to 20l), with far larger sizes existent in other materials, such as HDPE (see Appendix 14.1.2.6.1.).

Bottle Size [Litres] 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 2 5 10 20

Number of Bottles Required Single Person (7.33 Litres) 15 10 8 6 5 4 2 1 1 Family (37.5 Litres) 75 50 38 30 25 19 8 4 2

Common Thread Size

Unique Thread Sizes

Table 7.4.2: Quantity of bottles required depending on bottle size

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Thread sizes on the larger bottles are non-uniform, whereas bottles with lower capacities almost always possess a global standard thread size (see Table 7.4.2.) - eliminating potential connection issues (detailed in Section 7.4.3.). Table 7.4.2. also shows the quantity of storage vessels required to satisfy requirements for the two scenarios. 2 litre bottles were chosen as a design point as they reduce this quantity without complicating attachment to the system through possession of non-uniform thread sizes.

Permeation PET is a polymer, commonly used in the drinks and containment industry, capable of keeping carbonated drinks at pressure over long shelf lives (3-9 months19). This is due to the use of stretch blow moulding during their manufacture (see Appendix 14.1.2.6.1.) to produce shapes with few areas of weakness. Despite the proven functionality of PET bottles for the storage of carbonated drinks, calculations were performed proving permeation of common gases through the material are at acceptable levels for the usage scenarios (see Table 7.4.3.). Biogas consists of both carbon dioxide and methane and it can be assumed that if these two gases show sufficiently low gas transmission rates, biogas will be similar.

Gas Hydrogen (H2) Nitrogen (N2) Oxygen (O2) Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Gas Transmission [litres/day] 0.0231 0.0002 0.0021 0.0056

Table 7.4.3: Transmission of various gases through PET

Gas permeation rates for methane specifically through PET are hard to find, however literature20 shows a trend in the diameter of the molecules and their permeability (Figure 7.4.4.). On average, carbon dioxide possesses a higher permeability than methane (based on the two polymers indicated). Therefore, Table 7.4.3. provides an assumed maximum gas transmission rate of 0.0056 litres/day. Given the requirement of the biogas storage to provide for only one meal, containment should not be required for periods as long as a full day. Therefore, gas transmission out of the PET bottle will be less than the calculated figures.

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Figure 7.4.4: Gas permeability co-efficient based upon the size of various gases 20.

Transport of Storage Vessels The required quantity of stored biogas varies greatly between individuals and households. As previously shown in Table 7.4.2., four and nineteen 2 litre bottles are required for each respectively. It will be considerably easier for the user(s) to carry the compressed gas collectively as one entity, therefore it is suggested that crates and other such containers be used to facilitate transportation. Figure 7.4.5. shows two examples; one assisting the transport of an individuals requirement, the other a whole household s. Taking the compressed gas into consideration, the bottle arrays will weigh 0.22kg and 1.04kg; suitable for manual transportation.

Figure 7.4.5: Transportation means for different quantity requirements21,22

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Should the bottles suffer damage, there is little danger to the user. Biogas will only ignite if a lighting source is extremely close and there is low ventilation. Risk of ignition is extremely low if outdoors, such as during the compression cycle, or inside with good air circulation23. Pressure vessels begin at atmospheric pressure full of air. However, after 3 cycles the vessel is filled with over 90% biogas concentration (see Appendix 14.3.4.3.).

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7.4.2. Manifold

The manifold was designed to channel and regulate the flow of biogas to and from the storage containers. Machined from a single aluminium block, it is easy to manufacture and assemble, as well as displaying good overall sealing and corrosion resistance. Globe Valve The gas flow through the manifold is controlled by a globe valve, chosen for its functionality and simplicity (see Appendix 14.1.2.6.2.). A rubber tip was used as its material characteristics are suited for sealing and continued functionality after wearing. The valve shaft is fixed by a top-plate and attached to a cross-hatched knob for ease of operation. One of the main design considerations was sealing to minimise pressure losses within the system (see Figure 7.4.6. and Appendix). This was especially important around the globe valve, where an o-ring, gasket and shaft seal were used, all of which are made from neoprene rubber.

Inlet and Outlets There is one interchangeable inlet/outlet required, where the hose attachment can be unscrewed without damage occurring during the frequent swapping from the compressor to the cooking stove. There are four outlets leading to storage vessels, these channels can be sealed with plugs if not required (see Appendix). Bought-in hose attachments are used at each inlet/outlet connection (see Appendix).

Figure 7.4.6: Manifold system overview; manifold with hose attachments (top left) cross-section of manifold (bottom left), detailed model of the globe valve system (right)

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7.4.3. Bottle Attachment

The design stemmed from an initial concept developed for testing the feasibility of using PET plastic bottles as pressure vessels (see Appendix 14.1.2.6.3.).The bottle attachment consists of 3 components; a top section, bottom section and bought-in hose attachment (see Figure 7.4.7.). Rubber sealing was provided above and below the bottle cap, held in position by the top and bottom section.

Top Section The steel top section has a threaded hole on the top face to house the hose attachment. On the underside there is a threaded shaft for the bottom section to attach to (see Appendix).

Bottom Section This is manufactured from a hexagonal brass rod selected for its corrosion resistance and functionality for tightening purposes. There is a threaded hole though the component which attaches the top section (see Appendix).

Figure 7.4.7: Bottle attachment overview; Bottle attachment designed for testing (left), final bottle attachment design (right)

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7.5. CONNECTIONS & FIXINGS

The system required numerous connections for PVC hosing. These could have been manufactured on site, however through consideration of cost and availability requirements (see Appendix 14.1.2.7.), buying in the parts was the preferred option. As the product is designed for use in Pabal it was also essential to source parts which could be acquired in India. In total four different components were bought-in; all supplied by RS components24. Figure 7.5. breaks down the location of each component in the system. Many suppliers in India sell similar components that can be found on trade websites at similar costs, such as alibaba.com, validating their use in the system.

Figure 7.5: Detail of the connections used in each sub-system

The total cost per component is shown in Table 7.5. Although the costs for the system seem high, this is a one off expenditure and over time would provide savings on gas used. All components are brass due to its corrosion resistance and cost effectiveness in comparison to other materials (see Appendix for additional detail).

Qty required 10 3 2 4

Description Brass hose tail,3/8 BSPP male 3/8in ID Brass hose tail w/nut,3/8in BSPx3/8in ID Brass hose tail,1/4 BSPP male 3/8in ID Brass plug,3/8in BSPT TOTAL

Total price 10.90 9.20 2.90 8.70 31.70

Total unit price 10.90 6.90 2.90 3.48 24.18

Table 7.5: Total cost of a system with 4 bottles attached

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8. MANUFACTURING
8.1. Solution
The complete system can be seen in Figure 8.1, each component was manufactured in the University of Nottingham L2 workshop. The system took approximately 7 days to manufacture and assemble, utilising 4 hours technician for welding.

Figure 8.1: Complete assembled system

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8.2.

Problems Encountered & Alterations

Structural Frame

Figure 8.2: Structural frame

Summary Cut-out section size increased to allow bolt welding. Lever restriction bars added to prevent system damage.

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Compression system

Figure 8.3: Compression unit

Summary Cylinder internal weld lines had to be ground down. Reed valves initially failed to function, inlet/outlet hole size increased and chamfers added to valve fixing. Thread depth decreased for bought-in attachments due to plate size.

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Manifold

Figure 8.4: Manifold system Summary Globe valve shaft was increased to M16, a more standardised size. Thread depth increased for attachments. Threaded connection manufactured from hexagonal brass rod.

Bottle attachment

Figure 8.5: Manufactured Bottle attachment Summary Manufactured for testing and used for the prototype. Would be changed for future manufacture (see Appendix 14.1.2.6.3.).

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9. PROJECT COMPLIANCE
9.1. TESTING
Various experiments were conducted to test the system compliance against the statement of requirements (see Section 5.4).

9.1.1. System
Pressure Capability of Compressor [Requirements 2, 3, 5 & 7] The maximum pressure capability of the system was tested to be 4.5 bar. Functionality of the safety mechanism proven (see Appendix 14.4.1). Speed of Delivery [Requirements 5 & 12] A pressure of 4.5 bar was successfully achieved between a range of 133 - 170 pumps, taking an average time of 3 minutes 13 seconds (see Appendix 14.4.1.). System Transportation [Requirement 6] The system can be easily disassembled, detaching the sub-systems and structural frame for easy transportation (see Figure 9.1.).

Figure 9.1: Disassembled structural frame

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Materials & Manufacturing Availability [Requirements 10 & 11] At each stage of the design process investigation was conducted into the resource availability in India. The system was designed around the findings.

Robustness & Durability [Requirement 9] Protective coating on the system to increase durability (not shown in Figures). Tests for fatigue and creep have not been conducted, but will be conducted in the future (see Section 11).

9.1.2. Storage
Pressure Capability of the Bottles [Requirements 1, 3, 7 & 10] PET bottles for carbonated drinks were found to start deforming at pressures in the range of 8 - 11.5 bar and catastrophic failure occurred between 13 - 19.5 bar. In contrast, PET bottles for still drinks were found to start deforming at pressures of 8-9 bar and catastrophic failure occurred between 12 -17 bar. Both sets of results represent bottles of varying volumes between 500ml and 2000ml. For 2000ml bottles specifically, the yield pressure was found to be 9 bar and catastrophic failure at 12 bar (see Appendix 14.4.2.).

Figure 9.2: Water pump used for testing the pressure capability of PET plastic bottles

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Manifold Functionality [Requirements 2, 12 & 13] The globe valve effectively shut off the air flow in the system with minimal leakage (see Appendix 14.4.2.).

Pressure Capacity Test [Requirements 4, 7] A pressure of 4.5 bar was achieved and held in the storage vessel. After 5 minutes the pressure had dropped to 4 bar before dropping again to 3.5 bar after a 30 minute period. The pressure was maintained for 5 hours, during which time it decreased to 3 bar. After 8 hours it was observed that the pressure in the bottle was 2 bar, staying constant through the remaining 12 hour test period (see Appendix 14.4.2.).

9.1.3. Ergonomics
Rapid Upper Limb Assessment (RULA) [Requirements 3 & 5] RULA conducted on the system resulted in an action level assessment of 2 out of a possible 5, indicating that further investigation is required if prolonged use is envisioned. The system is designed for use twice a day, and therefore is not a major issue (see Appendix 14.4.2.).

Figure 9.3: Ergonomic features of the lever actuation

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10. CONCLUSION
The project culminated in the successful full-scale prototype build of the designed system. Only one of the two compression cylinders were manufactured to validate the concept and design geometries. The aim of producing a working biogas compression and storage system for use in rural India has been fulfilled. The solution exceeded many of the system requirements, and the use of PET bottles as storage vessels was an innovation the team is particularly proud of. The system successfully compressed the test fluid (air) to a pressure of 4.5 bar, allowed through deactivation of the safety valve, a value within the 3 - 5 bar target range. The compression is safe and controlled, with the safety mechanism working effectively to vent pressure when 4 bar is reached. Lengthening the threaded section will allow adjustment of the initiating pressure to the intended 5 bar requirement. The PET pressure vessels were confirmed as being a suitable method of storing the gas and are appropriate for the environment of end use. The lever actuation and structural frame operate as designed; showing minimal wear. The primary design objective was to create a system that was appropriate and implementable in the developing world. The materials and components used are readily available in India and are sufficiently appropriate to justify their inclusion in the project. This is further highlighted through the low prototype cost of only 75 an expenditure that will decrease through the exploitation of economies of scale. The prototype did have some flaws, most prominently in the attachment of the connecting rod to the lever. The fixed-guided-pin connection was found to fall short of expectations due to substantial friction in the slider pin slots. This was found to increase the wear and risk of bending on the connecting rod. The issue was solved through the addition of restriction bars to limit the range of lever motion. However, the extension height of the connecting rod was reduced resulting in a shortened stroke. During testing the support plank exhibited slight bending during operation. The plywood survived testing, however a strengthened replacement has been considered (Future Work). Finally, the absence of the second compression cylinder means the interaction of the two units during actuation has not been tested. The system provides an appropriate solution to the problems of transport and compression discussed in the preliminary stages of the report . Additionally, interest has been shown by a number of engineering organisations during the design process, including Shell and EWB. The research grant awarded by the latter (November 2010) has provided full funding of the systems development to date. Recommendations and future work have been outlined (see Section 11) and will be pursued prior to handover to EWB, and subsequently our partner organisation Vigyan Ashram.

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11. FUTURE WORK & RECOMMENDATIONS

Primary recommendations focus on: a) Overcoming the weaknesses of design highlighted during testing. b) Further validation of the design. a) Second Cylinder Build The prototype was manufactured with a single compression assembly as proof of concept. Although sufficient for testing and design refinement purposes, the second cylinder manufacture should be completed to ensure that there are no unpredicted interactions when both are mounted on the structural frame. Safety Refinements The safety valve adjustment mechanism is controlled through tension of the spring. Calibration is via the tightening of a threaded barb which alters the springs length, in doing so varying the tension and activation pressure of the safety valve. The original threaded barb was of insufficient length to compress the spring to the required level and gas was released below the target of 5 bar. An increase in the thread length from 7.5mm to 12.5mm allows the pressure at which the safety valve is activated to be raised. Cylinder fixings The fixed-guided-pin connection from the connecting rod to the lever is an area of weakness. While theoretically sound, when tested the high friction between the pin and the slot, combined with the long effective length of the rod, results in a significant risk of bending on the down stroke. This is due to the absence of an x-component constraint (see Figure 11.1.).

BENDING POTENTIAL

RESTRICTION OF LEVER

Figure 11.1: Bending potential of fixed-guided-pin connection

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The initial solution selected to overcome this was the addition of movement-restricting bars to the A-frame. The bars stop the rod reaching full extension, preventing the geometries at which bending occurs, but reducing the stroke length significantly (38%). Further optimisation of this design would involve the addition of a vertical slot parallel to the slider pin, constraining movement in the x-direction. The proposed optimised solution is to pivot the cylinder at its base, to implement a fixed-pin connection between the lever and connecting rod (Figure 11.2.), enabling the integration of plain bearings to reduce friction. This modification would necessitate structural frame redesign and cause a minor increase in cost, but will reduce the effective length coefficient by 0.699 to 0.5 increasing the buckling load significantly.

Figure 11.2: Recommended alteration to cylinder fixation system

Support Structure Further evaluation of the materials used in the support structures manufacture is recommended. The prototype highlighted the insufficient rigidity of the plywood originally used as the support plank - exhibiting bending when the system was operated (see Figure 11.3.). Replacement with another timber or metal should be considered. The supporting frame has a significant load-bearing redundancy, and is over-engineered. The group lacked the woodworking capability to explore manufacture using other materials. Alternatives to steel such as wood or brickwork should be explored to reduce cost and increase the flexibility of the system.

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Figure 11.3: Bending of the support plank during operation b) Testing Health and safety limitations prevented fully exhaustive testing of the system. Having only tested with air, it is imperative that a range of tests with biogas be conducted before further development takes place, verifying air as a representative substitute during testing. The relationship between compression cycles and creep in the PET bottle, at ambient and elevated temperatures, should be investigated through both physical and computer modelling. These tests will allow prediction of PET bottle lifetime (as a factor of compression cycling), and allow prediction of the effect of stress concentration factors (SCF) on the predicted life. This would enable the group to advise users which bottles to select as pressure vessels based on a visual examination, knowing where on the bottle SCFs are unacceptable. The potential also exists for rigorous optimisation of the system using a Design of Experiments (DoE) approach. The final primary recommendation is for the build and test of the system in India, a goal the group hope the partnership with EWB will facilitate.

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Secondary recommendations focus on the improvement of the embodied design beyond the original specification:

Pressure vessels The limiting factor on the volume reduction achievable lies in the PET pressure vessels, yielding at 8 bar. Utilising PET bottles is favourable in terms of availability, price and weight - but at the cost of a reduction in the maximum storable pressure. Whilst the most efficient approach to increasing the volume of gas compressed is through an increase in the number of PET bottles attached to the system (because of the disproportionate energy increase required to compress to higher pressures) there is a case for raising the pressure capacity of the PET bottles. Enabling pressures of 6 - 8 bar to be reached safely in the storage vessels will result in a volume reduction factor of between 5 - 6. Should this be achievable, an individual would only require 2 - 3 bottles of compressed gas per meal, and a family only 12 - 15 to fully replace LPG - significantly increasing the functionality of the system. Preliminary destructive testing showed good agreement with theory and confirmed the vessels consistent failure when the nominal hoop stress is exceeded. Through circumferential reinforcement it is predicted that a significant increase in the pressure at which plastic deformation onsets can be achieved. Further work is recommended to assess the effect of reinforcement using tape wrapping, or natural resin coating.

Manifold The current manifold design incorporates 4 outlets, with a single inlet. By doubling the number of intake points, the functionality of the manifold is increased at minimal cost. Furthermore, the addition of a second intake and non return valve system would allow both compression cylinders to be attached to a single manifold increasing efficiency of the whole system. Both recommendations increase functionality at low cost and are worthy of further development.

Attachments The development of a snap-on/snap-off attachment component with an integrated nonreturn valve would enable easy and safe connections to be made between different parts of the system. Wear on the hoses would be reduced and system flexibility increased. Achieving this through appropriate, suitable design is a recommended future development.

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12. ACKNOWLDEGEMENTS
Throughout the project, the group was supervised by Dr. Mike Clifford and received excellent design guidance from John Prentice. Input and support from both has been invaluable and we would like to take this opportunity to sincerely thank them for their assistance. Special thanks goes to the organisation EWB for providing part funding of the project, and for giving us the forum to display and discuss our work. Additionally, we would like to acknowledge the assistance from the following members of the faculty;

DR. STEVE MATHER DR. DON GIDDINGS DR. SARAH JEWITT SIMON HARRISON DR. KAY BOND PROF. GEOFF KIRK PROF. SEAMUS GARVEY ROGER SMITH IAN BRENNAN ANDY MATTHEWS PAUL JOHNS

The assistance of the following organisations is also gratefully acknowledged;

WILLOW JOINERY AND SHOPFITTING LTD. VIGYAN ASHRAM INDIA SHELL UK

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13. REFERENCES
1. HEDON House Energy Network (2006), Biogas Promotion India, Available at [www.hedon.info/docs/20060406_Biogas_promotion_India.pdf] Accessed Online: 12/02/2011 2. Romijn, H. et al. (2010), Biomass energy experiments in rural India: Insights from learning-based development approaches and lessons for Strategic Niche Management, Environ. Sci. Policy, 788 3. Biogas Renewable Energy (2009), Biogas Composition, Available at [www.biogas-renewable-energy.info/biogas_composition.html] Accessed Online: 02/10/2010 4. Joshi, A. - Vigyan Ashram (2010) Personal Communication (Appendix 14.2.2.1.) 5. Google Maps (2010), Pabal Geographic Location, Available at [http://maps.google.co.uk/maps?hl=en&q=google%20maps%20pabal%20india& um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=N&tab=wl] Accessed Online: 18/09/2010 6. Clifford, M. (2010) Private Communication 7. Philips (2009), Chulha, healthy indoor cooking, Available at [www.design.philips.com/shared/assets/design_assets/downloads/portfolio/Chulh a.pdf] Accessed Online: 12/04/2011 8. Practical Action (2007), Biogas Technical Brief, Available at [www.practicalaction.org] Accessed Online: 18/09/2010 9. Pune Online (2011), Pune: Economy, Available at [www.puneonline.in/Profile/Economy/] Accessed Online: 02/04/2011 10. Krishnaswamy et al. (1988), The Pura community biogas plant, Department of Management Studies - Indian Institute of Bangalore 11. Reddy, A. et al. (1995), Community Biogas Plants Supply Rural Energy and Water: The Pura Village Case Study Energy as an Instrument for Socio-Economic Development 12. Jewitt, S. (2010) Private Communication 13. Persson, S., Bartlett, H., Branding, A. and Regan, R. (1979), Agricultural Anaerobic Digesters Design and Operation 1st ed. Northeast Regional Agricultural Eng. Service 14. Litchman, R. (1983), Biogas Systems in India, VITA Renewable Energy Series

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15. Freed, S. & Freed, R. (1972), Cattle in a North Indian Village, Ethnology, 11(4), pp.399-408 16. Wellinger & Linberg (2000), Task 24: Energy from biological conversion of organic waste Biogas Upgrading and Utilisation 17. OSHA (1995), Occupational Safety and Health Administration Available at [www.osha.gov] Accessed Online: 29/01/2011 18. Kohl, A. & Nielsen, R. (1997), Gas Purification pp.1-35 19. Boyer, Renee & McKinney, J. (2009), Food Storage Guidelines for Consumers, Virginia Cooperative Extension 20. Stark, T. & Choi, H. (2004), Methane gas migration through geomembranes, Geosynthetics International 12(1) 21. Artisanti (2010), Metal Wine Racks, Available at [http://www.artisanti.com/metal-wine-racks-169-c.asp] Accessed Online: 26/04/2011 22. Plastic2go (2005), Plastic Crates, Available at [http://www.plastic2go.com.au/images/c2g6424u_grey.jpg] Accessed Online: 26/04/2011 23. Pace Project (2007), Biogas Action Sheet, Available at [www.paceproject.net/UserFiles/File/Energy/biogas.pdf] Accessed Online: 09/10/2010 24. RS Components (2011), Hose, Ducting & Fittings, Available at [http://uk.rsonline.com/web/] Accessed Online: 28/02/2011

For further references, see also: SUPPLEMENTARY APPENDICES (Books A1- A3)

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