Integrals of Functions of A Real Variable

Integrals of Functions
of a
Real Variable

I. The Indefinite Integral

x
2
2 x
x x
e x
) x (ln x
dx
) e x (
) x (ln ] x ln e ) x 1 ( ) e x ( 2 [

A Problem-Solving Approach
with Computer Algebra Support

A Learning Tool
A Reference of Methods and Techniques
A Source of Modern Algorithms
(Hermite-Horowitz, Rothstein-Trager,
Risch, Adamchik-Marichev)

Solomon M. Antoniou

SKEMSYS
Scientific Knowledge Engineering and
Management Systems

2

In memory

of my grandfather Solomon Chattab

In memory

of my grandmother Sarah Chambar

3

Preface

This book is an attempt to systematize the methods of integration of functions of a
real variable.
The book is mainly addressed to the student who wishes an in depth knowledge of
integration techniques.
We have tried to include the following:
Good Taxonomy
Explicit Calculations
Easy to remember tricks
Modern Information Technology Tools, like Computer Algebra Systems
(Symbolic Languages)
Modern Algorithms

In a separate report, we are going to include some other issues concerning
mainly
Learning Lab
Metacognitive Tools like Concept Maps and Vee Diagrams
Questions based on Blooms Taxonomy and Gardners Multiple
Intelligence

The book can be used both as a learning tool and as a reference of methods,
techniques and formulas.
Solomon M. Antoniou

Corinth, May 2012
solomon_antoniou@yahoo.com

4

Bibliography

[1] T. Apostol Calculus
Vol.I, Blaisdel Publishing Company 1962
[2] T. Apostol Mathematical Analysis
Addison-Wesley 1957
[3] F. Ayres and E. Mendelson Theory and Problems of Differential and
Integral Calculus
Third Edition, Schaums Outline Series
[4] R. Bartle and D. Sherbert Introduction to Real Analysis
Wiley 1982
[5] G. N. Berman A Problem Book in Mathematical Analysis
Mir Publishers 1980
[6] R. Ellis and D. Gulick Calculus with Analytic Geometry
Saunders, Fifth Edition 1994
[7] H. Flanders Calculus
W. H. Freeman, 1985
[8] I.S. Gradshteyn and I.M. Ryzhik: Table of Integrals, Series and
Products
Academic Press, 1996. Sixth Edition
[9] G. H. Hardy: A Course of Pure Mathematics
Cambridge University Press, 10th Edition, 1952
[10] G. H. Hardy: The Integration of Functions of a Single Variable
Second Edition, Cambridge University Press, 1916
[11] A. Jeffrey and H-H. Dai: Handbook of Mathematical Formulas and
Integrals
Elsevier 2008. Fourth Edition
5

[12] K. Kuratowski: Introduction to Calculus
Second Edition, Pergamon 1969
[13] N. Piskunov: Differential and Integral Calculus
Mir Publishers, Moscow 1969
[14] W. Rudin Principles of Mathematical Analysis
Second Edition, Mc-Graw Hill 1964
[15] V. I. Smirnov A Course of Higher Mathematics
Vol. I, Vol. III, Pergamon 1964
[16] M. Spivac Calculus
McGraw Hill 1968
[17] A.M. - . .

1988
[18] G. Thomas and R. Finney Calculus
Ninth Edition, Addison-Wesley 1996

6

Web Sites of the Computer Algebra Systems

AXIOM www.open-axiom.org
MATLAB www.mathworks.com
Mathematica www.wolfram.com
Maple www.maplesoft.com
Reduce reduce-algebra.com
SAGE www.sagemath.org
Macsyma www.symbolics-dks.com
Maxima maxima.sourceforge.net
Scientific WorkPlace www.mackichan.com

7

Volume I

The Indefinite Integral

Contents
1. Definition and Properties of the Indefinite Integral 8
2. Elementary Examples of Integration . 12
3. The Method of Substitution 47
4. Integration by Parts . 80
5. Integrals of Polynomial Functions 121
6. Integrals of Rational Functions .. 138
7. Integrals of Exponential Functions 389
8. Integrals of Logarithmic Functions 430
9. Integrals of Trigonometric Functions 474
10. Integrals of Hyperbolic Functions . 640
11. Integrals of Irrational Functions 653
12. Integrals of Inverse Trigonometric Functions . 875
13. Integrals of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions .. 891
14. Elliptic Integrals 900
15. The Risch Algorithm .. 918
16. The Adamchik-Marichev Algorithm . 935

1

Definition and Properties
of the Indefinite Integral

1.1. The Primitive of a Real Function.
Let R I : f be a function defined on an interval I. A function F differentiable
in I such that
I x ) x ( f ) x ( F e = '
is called a primitive of the function f in I.
Example 1. The function
4 x 2 x 3 x ) x ( F
3 4
+ =
is the primitive of the function 2 x 9 x 4 ) x ( f
2 3
+ = , since
) x ( f 2 x 9 x 4 ) x ( F
2 3
= + = ' R xe
Example 2. The function
6 x e 4 x 3 sin
3
2
) x ( F
2 x
+ + =
is the primitive of the function x 2 e 4 x 3 cos 2 ) x ( f
x
+ = , since
) x ( f x 2 e 4 x 3 cos 2 ) x ( F
x
= + = ' R xe
It is obvious that if F is a primitive of the function f, i.e..
Chapter 1-Definition and properties of the indefinite integral
9
I x ) x ( f ) x ( F e = ' ,
then the function C ) x ( F + will also be a primitive of the function ) x ( f , since
I x ) x ( f ) x ( F ) C ) x ( F ( e = ' = ' +
Therefore if F is a primitive of f, then the set of primitives of f will be C F+ .
We have the following basic Theorem:
Theorem 1.
- If ) x ( F is a primitive of the function ) x ( f on I then C ) x ( F + is a
primitive of ) x ( f on I.
- Inversely, every primitive of the function ) x ( f has the form C ) x ( F +
Proof.
- If ) x ( F is a primitive of the function ) x ( f on I then C ) x ( F + is also a
primitive of the function ) x ( f R Ce , since
I x ) x ( f ) x ( F ) C ) x ( F ( e = ' = ' +
- If, other than the function ) x ( F there is another primitive ) x ( G of the
function ) x ( f , then we would have
I x ) x ( f ) x ( G and ) x ( f ) x ( F e = ' = '
from which it follows that ) x ( G ) x ( F ' = ' . This means that the functions
) x ( F and ) x ( G will differ only by a constant: C ) x ( G ) x ( F = from which
we get that C ) x ( G ) x ( F + =

1.2. The Indefinite Integral.
Indefinite integral of a function ) x ( f on an interval I is the set of all the primitive
functions of f, denoted by
}
dx ) x ( f . We would therefore have
C ) x ( F dx ) x ( f + =
}

The function ) x ( f appearing under the integral sign, is called the integrand.
10
We also have the equivalence
R C and I x ) x ( f ) x ( F C ) x ( F dx ) x ( f e e = ' + =
}

It is also obvious that
R C and I x C ) x ( f dx ) x ( f e e + = '
}

1.3. Properties of the Indefinite Integral
The indefinite integral admits the following properties:
[1]
} }
= dx ) x ( f dx ) x ( f , for every non-zero real constant .
[2]
} } }
= dx ) x ( g dx ) x ( f dx )] x ( g ) x ( f [
The above two properties can be written as a single property
= + + +
}
dx )] x ( f ) x ( f ) x ( f [
n n 2 2 1 1
.

} } }
+ + + = dx ) x ( f dx ) x ( f dx ) x ( f
n n 2 2 1 1

for any non-zero real constants
n 2 1
, , , .

We list below a Table of Integrals, which the student should know (preferably to
be remembered). These are the absolutely necessary integrals one must know. In
most of the cases we shall examine below, every integral to be evaluated, using
some appropriate techniques, can in principle be converted into a combination of
integrals appearing in the Table.
The proof of the relations appearing in the Table is based on the equivalence
) x ( f ) x ( F C ) x ( F dx ) x ( f = ' + =
}

For example
C x sin dx x cos + =
}
since x cos ) C x (sin = ' +

11
1.4 Table of Elementary Integrals

1. C x dx + =
}

2. C
1 n
x
dx x
1 n
n
+
+
=
}
+
, 1 n =
3. C | x | ln
x
dx
+ =
}

4. C e dx e
x x
+ =
}

5. C x cos dx x sin + =
}

6. C x sin dx x cos + =
}

7.
}
+ = C x cot
x sin
dx
2

8.
}
+ = C x tan
x cos
dx
2

9.
}
+ =
+
C x arctan
x 1
dx
2

10.
}
+ =
C x arcsin
x 1
dx
2

11.
}
+ + =
C a x x ln
a x
dx
2 2
2 2

2

Elementary Examples
of Integration

Learning Objectives

In this Section the student will learn how to evaluate
elementary integrals.
In this case the integral transforms into a combination of
integrals and then each one is evaluated using the Table.

Trying to evaluate integrals we always use methods which convert them into one
of the forms listed in the Table of Integrals. The procedure will become clearer
through the following examples. The examples we consider make use of the
Properties and the Table.
More complicated cases require special methods and techniques, like substitution,
integration by parts, partial fraction decomposition or even advanced algorithms.
In next sections we introduce a taxonomy of cases and consider a number of
specialized methods.

Chapter 2-Elementary examples of integration
13

2.1 Case I. Integrals of the form
}
dx a .
Example 1. Evaluate the integral
}
= dx 3 I
Solution. C x 3 dx 3 dx 3 I + = = =
} }

General Case. The evaluation of integrals of the form
}
dx a may proceed as
follows:
C x a dx a dx a + = =
} }

2.2 Case II. Integrals of the form
}
dx x a
n
( R a e , 1 n > )
}
= dx x 5 I
3

Solution. In our case we recognize that 5 is a constant factor and therefore can be
factored out of the integral, using the property
} }
= dx ) x ( f dx ) x ( f . We thus
obtain

} }
= = dx x 5 dx x 5 I
3 3

Next, evaluate the integral
}
dx x
3
, which is of the form
}
dx x
n
and appears as
the second case in the Table of Integrals.
We thus have
C x
4
5
C
4
x
5 C
1 3
x
5 dx x 5 dx x 5 I
4
4 1 3
3 3
+ = + = +
+
= = =
+
} }

In practice we usually write
C x
4
5
C
4
x
5 dx x 5 dx x 5 I
4
4
3 3
+ = + = = =
} }

General Case. The evaluation of integrals of the form
}
dx x a
n
( R a e , 1 n > )
may proceed as follows:
14
C x
1 n
a
C
1 n
x
a dx x a dx x a
1 n
1 n
n n
+
+
= +
+
= =
+
+
} }
, e a , 1 n >
2.3 Case III. Integrals of the form dx
x
a
}
( R a e )
Example 1. Evaluate the integral dx
x
2
}

Solution.
C | x | ln 2 dx
x
1
2 dx
x
2
+ = =
} }

General Case. The evaluation of integrals of the form dx
x
a
}
may proceed as
follows:
C | x | ln a dx
x
1
a dx
x
a
+ = =
} }

2.4 Case IV. Integrals of Polynomial Functions
These are integrals of the form
}
= dx ) x ( P I where ) x ( P is an n-th degree
polynomial. In this case we convert the integral into a sum of integrals of the form
dx x a
n
}
( 0 n > )
which are evaluated according to

1 n
x
a dx x a
1 n
n
+
=
+
}
( 1 n > ) and x a dx a =
}

}
+ = dx ) 2 x x 3 x 2 ( I
2 3

Solution. In this case, in order to evaluate the integral, we have to write it in the
form of sum of four integrals, according to the linearity property.
We thus get

}
+ = dx ) 2 x x 3 x 2 ( I
2 3

} } } }
+ = dx 2 dx x dx x 3 dx x 2
2 3

15
C x 2
2
x
3
x
3
4
x
2
2 3 4
+ + =
C x 2 x
2
1
x x
2
1
2 3 4
+ + =
A remark is in order. Instead of using four constants for each one of the particular
integrals, we use just a single constant C.
}
= dx ) 2 x 3 ( I
2

Solution. Since 4 x 12 x 9 ) 2 x 3 (
2 2
+ = , we get
= + = =
} }
dx ) 4 x 12 x 9 ( dx ) 2 x 3 ( I
2 2

= + =
} } }
dx 4 dx x 12 dx x 9
2

C x 4 x 6 x 3 C x 4
2
x
12
3
x
9
2 3
2 3
+ + = + + =
2.5 Case V. Integrals of the form dx
x
a
n
}
( R a e , 2 n > )
}
= dx
x
2
I
3

Solution. In this case we remark that the integral can be expressed as

}

= dx x 2 I
3

making use of the known property
n
n
x
x
1

= . Therefore using the second case
from the Table of Integrals, we get
= +
+
= = =
+

} }
C
1 3
x
2 dx x 2 dx x 2 I
1 3
3 3

C
x
1
C x C
2
x
2
2
2
2
+ = + = +

x
5
4
}

16
Solution.
= +
+
= = =
} } }
C
1 4
x
5 dx x 5 dx
x
1
5 dx
x
5
1 4
4
4 4

C
x
1
3
5
C
3
x
5
3
3
+ = +
=

x
a
n
}
( R a e , 2 n > )
may proceed as follows:
= +
+
= = =
+
} } }
C
1 n
x
a dx x a dx
x
1
a dx
x
a
1 n
n
n n

C
x
1
1 n
a
C x
1 n
a
1 n
1 n
+
= +
=

+
, 2 n >
2.6 Case VI. Integrals of Rational Functions
x
3 x 2 x 5
I
2
}
+
=
Solution. On performing division of the numerator by the denominator, we have
x
3
2 x 5
x
3
x
x 2
x
x 5
x
3 x 2 x 5
2 2
+ = + =
+

Therefore the integral becomes

} }
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
+
= dx
x
3
2 x 5 dx
x
3 x 2 x 5
I
2

which can be further split into three particular integrals, each evaluated separately
=
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
+
=
} }
dx
x
3
2 x 5 dx
x
3 x 2 x 5
I
2

= + =
} } }
dx
x
1
3 dx 2 dx x 5
C | x | ln 3 x 2
2
x
5
2
+ + =
17
C | x | ln 3 x 2 x
2
5
2
+ + =
1 x
3 x
I
2
2
}
+
+
=
Solution. We remark that the integrand can be written as
1 x
2
1
1 x
2
1 x
1 x
1 x
2 ) 1 x (
1 x
3 x
2 2 2
2
2
2
2
2
+
+ =
+
+
+
+
=
+
+ +
=
+
+
.
=
+
+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ =
+
+
=
} } } }
dx
1 x
1
2 dx dx
1 x
2
1 dx
1 x
3 x
I
2 2 2
2

C x arctan 2 x + + =

The integrals in cases 2.7-2.16 and 2.20 can also be evaluated using the method of
substitution, to be explained in next Sections.

2.7 Case VII. Integrals of the form dx x a
}
( R a e )
In this case we use the known property

2
1
x x =
for converting a square root into power with a rational exponent. Therefore we
have
= +
+
= = =
+
} } }
C
1
2
1
x
a dx x a dx x a dx x a
1
2
1
2
1

C x x
3
a 2
C x
3
a 2
C
2
3
x
a
2
3
2
3
+ = + = + =
18
2.8 Case VIII. Integrals of the form: dx x x a
n
}
( R a e , 1 n > )
The evaluation of integrals of the form dx x x a
n
}
( R a e , 1 n > ) may proceed as
follows:
= = =
} } }
dx x x a dx x x a dx x x a
2
1
n n n

= +
+
= +
+ +
= =
+ + + +
+
}
C
2
3 n 2
x
a C
1
2
1
n
x
a dx x a
2
1
1 n 1
2
1
n
2
1
n

C x x
3 n 2
a 2
C
2
3 n 2
x
a
1 n
2
1
1 n
+
+
= +
+
=
+
+ +

Example. Evaluate the integral dx x x 2
2
}

Solution. = = =
} } }
dx x x 2 dx x x 2 dx x x 2
2
1
2 2 2

= + = +
+ +
= =
+ + +
+
}
C
2
7
x
2 C
1
2
1
2
x
2 dx x 2
2
1
3 1
2
1
2
2
1
2

C x x
7
4
3
+ =
2.9 Case IX. Integrals of the form: dx
x
a
}
( R a e )
The evaluation of integrals of the form dx
x
a
}
( R a e ) may proceed as follows:
= +
+
= = =
+
} } }
C
1
2
1
x
a dx x a dx
x
1
a dx
x
a
1
2
1
2
1

19
C x a 2 C
2
1
x
a
2
1
+ = + =
2.10 Case X. Integrals of the form dx
x
x
a
n
}
( R a e , 1 n > )
x
x
a
n
}
follows:
= = =
} } }

dx x a dx
x
x
a dx
x
x
a
2
1
n
2
1
n n

C x x
1 n 2
a 2
C
2
1 n 2
x
a C
1
2
1
n
x
a
n
2
1
n 1
2
1
n
+
+
= +
+
= +
+
=
+ +

Example. Evaluate the integral dx
x
x
) 3 (
3
}

Solution. = = =
} } }

dx x 3 dx
x
x
3 dx
x
x
) 3 (
2
1
3
2
1
3 3

C x x
7
6
C
2
7
x
3 C
1
2
1
3
x
3
3
2
1
3 1
2
1
3
+ = + = +
+
=
+ +

2.11 Case XI. Integrals of the form dx
x
x
a
n
}
( R a e , 1 n > )
x
x
a
n
}
follows:
20
= = =
} } }

dx x a dx
x
x
a dx
x
x
a
n
2
1
n
2
1
n

C
x
x
n 2 3
a 2
C
2
n 2 3
x
a C
1 n
2
1
x
a
1 n
2
1
1 n 1 n
2
1
+
= +
= +
+
=

+ + +

x
x
5
2
}

Solution. = = =
} } }

dx x 5 dx
x
x
5 dx
x
x
5
2
2
1
2
2
1
2

C
x
10
C
2
1
x
5 C
1 2
2
1
x
5
2
1
1 2
2
1
+ = +
= +
+
=
+

2.12 Case XII. Integrals of the form dx x a I
n
m
}
=
Example 5. Evaluate the Integral dx x I
3
2
}
=
Solution. Using the known property
3
2
3
2
x x = , the integral takes the form
dx x dx x I
3
2
3
2
} }
= =
Therefore, using the second case from the Table of Integrals, we get
= + = +
+
= = =
+
} }
C
3
5
x
C
1
3
2
x
dx x dx x I
3
5
1
3
2
3
2
3
2

C x x
5
3
C x
5
3
3
2
3
5
+ = + =
21
General Case. The evaluation of integrals of the form dx x a
n
m
}
may proceed
as follows: Since
n
m
n
m
x x = , we have
= +
+
= = =
+
} }
C
1
n
m
x
a dx x a dx x a I
1
n
m
n
m
n
m

C x x
n m
n a
C
n
n m
x
a
n
m
1
n
m
+
+
= +
+
=
+

2.13 Case XIII. Integrals of the form dx x x a I
n
m p
}
=
General Case. The evaluation of integrals of the form dx x x a
n
m p
}
may
proceed as follows:
= = =
} }
dx x x a dx x x a I
n
m
p
n
m p

= +
+ +
= +
+ +
= =
+ + + +
+
}
C
n
n m pn
x
a C
1
n
m
p
x
a dx x a
n
m
1 p 1
n
m
p
n
m
p

C x x
n m n p
n a
C x x
n m pn
n a n
m 1 p
n
m
1 p
+
+ +
= +
+ +
=
+ +

Example. Evaluate the integral
dx x x 5 I
3
2 3
}
=
Solution. Since
3
2
3
2
x x = , we have
3
11
3
2
3
3
2
3
3
2 3
x x x x x x = = =
+
.
Therefore
22
= +
+
= = =
+
} }
C
1
3
11
x
5 dx x 5 dx x x 5 I
1
3
11
3
11
3
2 3

= + = + = + =
+
C x x
14
15
C x
14
15
C
3
14
x
5
3
2
4
3
2
4 3
14

C x x
14
15 3
2 4
+ =
2.14 Case XIV. Integrals of the form dx
x
x
a I
n
m
p
}
=
x
x
a I
n
m
p
}
= may
proceed as follows:
= = =
} }

dx x x a dx
x
x
a I
n
m
p
n
m
p

= +
+
= +
+
= =
+ +
}
C
n
m n pn
x
a C
n
m
1 p
x
a dx x a
n
m
1 p
n
m
1 p
n
m
p

C
x
x
m n pn
n a
C x x
m n pn
n a
n
m
1 p
n
m
1 p
+
+
= +
+
=
+
+

dx
x
x
) 3 ( I
2
3
4
}
=
Solution. We have
23

3
10
3
2
4
3
2
4
2
3
4
x x
x
x
x
x
= = =

Therefore
= +
+
= = =
+
} }
C
1
3
10
x
3 dx x 3 dx
x
x
) 3 ( I
1
3
10
3
10
2
3
4

= + = + = + =
+
C x x
13
9
C x
13
9
C
3
13
x
3
3
1
4
3
1
4 3
13

C x x
13
9 3
4
+ =
2.15 Case XV. Integrals of the form dx
x
a
I
n
m
}
=
x
a
n
m
}
may proceed as
follows:
= +
+
= = =
+
} }
C
1
n
m
x
a dx x a dx
x
a
I
1
n
m
n
m
n
m

= +
+
= +
+
=

+
C x x
n m
n a
C
n
n m
x
a
n
m
1
n
m

C
x
x
n m
n a
n
m
+
+
=
Example. Evaluate the Integral dx
x
5
I
3
2
}
=
24
Solution. Using the known properties
3
2
3
2 3
2
x
x
1
x
1

= = , the integral takes the
form dx x 5 dx
x
5
I
3
2
3
2
} }

= = . Therefore, using the second case from the Table
of Integrals, we get
C
1
3
2
x
5 dx x 5 dx
x
5
I
1
3
2
3
2
3
2
+
+
= = =
+
} }

C x 15 C
3
1
x
5
3
3
1
+ = + =
2.16 Case XVI. Integrals of the form dx
x
x
a I
p
n
m
}
=
x
x
a I
p
n
m
}
= may
proceed as follows:
= = =
} }

dx x x a dx
x
x
a I
p
n
m
p
n
m

= +
+
= +
+
= =
+ +
}
C
n
n pn m
x
a C
1 p
n
m
x
a dx x a
n
m
p 1 1 p
n
m
p
n
m

C x x
n pn m
n a
C x x
n pn m
n a n
m p 1
n
m
p 1
+
+
= +
+
=

25
dx
x
x
7 I
3
3
2
}
=
Solution. We have

3
7
3
3
2
3
3
2
3
3
2
x x
x
x
x
x

= = =
Therefore
= +
+
= = =
+
} }
C
1
3
7
x
7 dx x 7 dx
x
x
7 I
1
3
7
3
7
3
3
2

= + = +
= +
+
=

+
C x x
4
21
C
3
4
x
7 C
1
3
7
x
7
3
1
1
3
4
1
3
7

C
x x
1
4
21
C
x x
1
4
21
3
3
1
+
= +
=
2.17 Case XVII. Integrals of Trigonometric Functions
}
= dx x tan I
2

Solution. We can convert x tan
2
in a form which can be integrated using the
Table. We see that
1
x cos
1
x cos
x cos
x cos
1
x cos
x cos 1
x cos
x sin
x tan
2 2
2
2 2
2
2
2
2
= =
= =
Therefore
= =
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
} } } }
dx dx
x cos
1
dx 1
x cos
1
dx x tan I
2 2
2

C x x tan + =
26
x sin 3
x sin 2 x sin 5
I
2
}

= .
Solution. Since

3
2
x sin
3
5
x sin 3
x sin 2
x sin 3
x sin 5
x sin 3
x sin 2 x sin 5
2 2
= =

we have
=
|
.
|
\
|
=
=
} }
dx
3
2
x sin
3
5
dx
x sin 3
x sin 2 x sin 5
I
2

= + = =
} }
C x
3
2
) x cos (
3
5
dx
3
2
dx x sin
3
5

C x
3
2
x cos
3
5
+ =
x cos 2
x cos x 2 sin
I
2
}
+
= .
Solution. Since
=
+
=
+
x cos 2
x cos x cos x sin 2
x cos 2
x cos x 2 sin
2 2

x cos
2
1
x sin
x cos 2
x cos
x cos 2
x cos x sin 2
2
+ = + =
we have
=
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
+
=
} }
dx x cos
2
1
x sin dx
x cos 2
x cos x 2 sin
I
2

C x sin
2
1
x cos dx x cos
2
1
dx x sin + + = + =
} }

x cos
x 2 cos
I
2
}
= .
Solution. Since

x cos
1
2
x cos
1
x cos
x cos 2
x cos
1 x cos 2
x cos
x 2 cos
2 2 2
2
2
2
2
= =
=
27
the integral takes the form

= = |
.
|
\
|
= =
} } } }
dx
x cos
1
dx 2 dx
x cos
1
2 dx
x cos
x 2 cos
I
2 2 2

C x tan x 2 + =

2.18 Case XVIII. Integrals of Exponential Functions
e 4
e 3 e 2
I
x
x x 2
}

=
Solution. We can simplify the expression under the integral as

4
3
e
2
1
e 4
e 3
e 4
e 2
e 4
e 3 e 2
x
x
x
x
x 2
x
x x 2
= =

=
|
.
|
\
|
=
=
} }
dx
4
3
e
2
1
dx
e 4
e 3 e 2
I
x
x
x x 2

C x
4
3
e
2
1
dx
4
3
dx e
2
1
x x
+ = =
} }

2.19 Case XIX. More Integrals.
x 1
x 4 x 4 x 1
I
2
3 2
}

+
=
Solution. We have
=
+
=
+
2
2 2
2
3 2
x 1
) x 1 ( x 4 x 1
x 1
x 4 x 4 x 1

x 4
x 1
1
x 1
) x 1 ( x 4
x 1
x 1
2
2
2
2
2
+
=
Therefore

= +
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
} } }
dx x 4 dx
x 1
1
dx x 4
x 1
1
I
2 2

C x 2 x arcsin
2
+ + =
28
}
+
=
5 x
dx
I
2

Solution.
C 5 x x ln
5 x
dx
I
2
2
+ + + =
+
=
}

2 x
3 2 x
I
2
2
}
+
+ +
=
Solution. We have

1 x
3
1 x
1
1 x
3
1 x
1 x
1 x
3 1 x
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
+
+
+
=
+
+
+
+
=
+
+ +

Therefore

=
+
+
+
=
+
+ +
=
} } }
dx
1 x
1
3 dx
1 x
1
dx
1 x
3 1 x
I
2
2
2
2

C x arctan 3 1 x x ln
2
+ + + + =

2.20 More Examples
x 5
7 x x x 4 x 5
I
3
2
2 3
}
+
=
Solution. We simplify the integrand first. We have
= + =
+
3
2
3
2
3
2
2
3
2
3
3
2
2 3
x 5
7
x 5
x x
x 5
x 4
x 5
x 5
x 5
7 x x x 4 x 5

= + =
3
2
3
2
3
2
2
3
2
3
x
1
5
7
x
x x
5
1
x
x
5
4
x
x

3
2
6
5
3
4
3
7
x
5
7
x
5
1
x
5
4
x

+ =
29
= + =
} } } }

dx x
5
7
dx x
5
1
dx x
5
4
dx x I
3
2
6
5
3
4
3
7

= +
+
+
+
+
+
=
+ + + +
C
1
3
2
x
5
7
1
6
5
x
5
1
1
3
4
x
5
4
1
3
7
x
1
3
2
1
6
5
1
3
4
1
3
7

= + + = C
3
1
x
5
7
6
11
x
5
1
3
7
x
5
4
3
10
x
3
1
6
11
3
7
3
10

C x
5
21
x x
55
6
x x
35
12
x x
10
3 3
6
5
3
2
3
3
+ + =

Example 2. Evaluate the integrals
(I) dx x x I
2
1 }
=
(II) dx x x
3
2
I
3
2 }
=
(III) dx
x
x 2
I
3
2
3 }
=
Solution.
(I) We have
2
5
2
1
2
2
1
2 2
x x x x x x = = =
+
. Therefore
C
1
2
5
x
dx x dx x x I
1
2
5
2
5
2
1
+
+
= = =
+
} }

C x x
7
2
C
2
7
x
3
2
7
+ = + =
30
(II) We have
3
4
3
1
1
3
1
3
x x x x x x = = =
+
. Therefore
= = = =
} } }
dx x
3
2
dx x x
3
2
dx x x
3
2
I
3
4
3 3
2

= + = + = +
+
=
+
C x x
7
2
C
3
7
x
3
2
C
1
3
4
x
3
2
3
1
2
3
7
1
3
4

C x x
7
2 3
2
+ =
(III) We have
3
1
3
2
1
3
2 3
2
x 2 x 2
x
x 2
x
x 2
= = =

. Therefore
= +
+
= = =
+
} }
C
1
3
1
x
2 dx x 2 dx
x
x 2
I
1
3
1
3
1
3
2
3

C x x
2
3
C x x
4
6
C
3
4
x
2
3
3
1
3
4
+ = + = + =

31

Computer Algebra Systems

We list below the most important computer algebra systems.

1. Maple.
We list below three examples of integration using Maple.
In the first example, we first define a function which we call f which is
3
x 4 ,
using Maples format.
> f:=4*x^3;
:= f 4 x
3

We then use the command
> int(f,x);
x
4

We may also use

> Int(f,x)=int(f,x);
= d
(
]
(
(
4 x
3
x x
4

In the second example, we define a function g
> g(x):=(1/2)*x^(-1/2);
:= ( ) g x
1
2 x

> int(g(x),x);
x

> Int(g(x),x)=int(g(x),x);
= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
1
2 x
x x

In the third example, we define a function
3
2
x
1
) x ( h = by
> h:=x->x^(-2/3);
32
:= h x
1
x
( ) / 2 3

and then we perform the integration using the command

> int(h(x),x);
3 x
( ) / 1 3

> Int(h(x),x)=int(h(x),x);
= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
(
1
x
( ) / 2 3
x 3 x
( ) / 1 3

In all the previous examples we have first defined the function under integration
using three different ways and then we used the command: int(expr, x). Using the
command Int(expr, x), the program puts the known symbol of integration in front
of the result of integration.
It is obvious that there is not need to define the function first. We may go directly
to the evaluation of the integral:
> int((2*x+a),x);
+ x
2
a x

> int((x^2+a)/(x^1+1),x);
+ +
x
2
2
x ( ) ln + x 1 a ( ) ln + x 1
In the above two examples, the function also contains a parameter.

2. Mathematica.
In the first example, we define the function x 2 x 3 ) x ( f
2
= by
I n[ 1] : = f 3 x^2 2 x
Out [ 1] = 2 x 3 x
2

and then we use the integration command: ] x , f [ Integrate
I n[ 2] : = Integrate f, x
Out [ 2] = x
2
x
3

33
Mathematica contains also a nice interface, which can be used instead of writing
code. The second example performs the integration of the function x 2 x 3
2
:
I n[ 3] : = 3 x
2
2 x x
Out [ 3] = x
2
x
3

The third example defines a function the Mathematical way and then use again the
integration command:

I n[ 4] : = g x_ : x ^ 2 3 x
I n[ 5] : = Integrate g x , x
Out [ 5] =
3 x
2
2
x
3
3

We should also mention that there is an online tool, called The Integrator by
Wolfram Research, which can be used freely for evaluating integrals.
The address of the site is
integrals.wolfram.com

Notes.
It might sometimes appear that an integral we evaluate by hand would give
different result compared to the answer we get using Computer Algebra Systems.
This is due to the fact that many Systems use different integration algorithms. On
the other hand, we will notice that we get different answers using different
Systems. However we may establish that all the answers are equivalent each other.

34

2a

Exercises on
Elementary Integration

Case I. Integrals of the form
}
dx a
General Case. C x a dx a dx a + = =
} }

Exercise 1. Evaluate the integrals
(1)
}
dx 4 (2)
}
dx ) 3 (
(3)
}
+ dx ) a 1 ( (4)
}
+ dx ) 6 (
Answers. (1) C x 4 + (2) C x 3 + (3) C x ) a 1 ( + + (4) C x ) 6 ( + +
Case II. Integrals of the form
}
dx x a
n
( R a e , 1 n > )
General Case.
C x
1 n
a
C
1 n
x
a dx x a dx x a
1 n
1 n
n n
+
+
= +
+
= =
+
+
} }

(1)
}
dx x 3
2
(2)
}
dx x ) 2 (
3

(3)
}
dx x 5
4
(4)
}
dx x ) 6 (
3

Answers. (1) C x
3
+ (2) C x
2
1
4
+ (3) C x
5
+ (4) C x
2
3
4
+
Case III. Integrals of the form dx
x
a
}
( R a e )
35
General Case. C | x | ln a dx
x
1
a dx
x
a
+ = =
} }

(1) dx
x
2
}
(2) dx
x
4
}

(3) dx
x
6
}
(4) dx
x
13
}

Answers. (1) C | x | ln 2 + (2) C | x | ln 4 + (3) C | x | ln 6 + (4) C | x | ln 13 +
Case IV. Integrals of Polynomial Functions
These are integrals of the form
}
= dx ) x ( P I where ) x ( P is an n-th degree
polynomial. In this case we convert the integral into a sum of integrals of the form
dx x a
n
}
( 0 n > )
which are evaluated according to the known formulas

1 n
x
a dx x a
1 n
n
+
=
+
}
( 1 n > ) and x a dx a =
}

(1) dx ) 3 x 2 (
}
(2) dx ) x 3 x (
2
}

(3) dx ) 2 x x 3 (
2
}
(4) dx ) 1 x 3 x 2 (
3
}
+
(1) Hint.
} } }
= dx 3 dx x 2 dx ) 3 x 2 ( Answer. C x 3 x
2
+
(2) Hint. dx x 3 dx x dx ) x 3 x (
2 2
} } }
= Answer. C x
2
3
3
x
2
3
+
(3) Hint.
} } } }
= dx 2 dx x dx x 3 dx ) 2 x x 3 (
2 2

Answer. C x 2
2
x
x
2
3
+
(4) Hint.
} } } }
+ = + dx dx x 3 dx x 2 dx ) 1 x 3 x 2 (
3 3

Answer. C x x
2
3
x
2
1
2 4
+ +
36
Case V. Integrals of the form dx
x
a
n
}
( R a e , 2 n > )
General Case.
= +
+
= = =
+
} } }
C
1 n
x
a dx x a dx
x
1
a dx
x
a
1 n
n
n n

C
x
1
1 n
a
C x
1 n
a
1 n
1 n
+
= +
=

+
, 2 n >
(1) dx
x
3
3 }
(2) dx
x
2
2 }

(3) dx
x
5
4 }
(4) dx
x
11
6 }

(1) Hint.
3
3
x 3
x
3

= Answer. C
x 2
3
C x
2
3
2
2
+ = +

(2) Hint.
2
2
x 2
x
2

=
Answer. C
x
2
C x 2
1
+ = +

(3) Hint.
4
4
x 5
x
5

= Answer. C
x 3
5
C x
3
5
3
3
+ = +

(4) Hint.
6
6
x 11
x
11

=
Answer. C
x 5
11
C x
5
11
5
5
+ = +

Case VI. Integrals of Rational Functions
(1) dx
x
1 x 3
}

(2) dx
1 x
2 x
2
2
}
+

(3) dx
x 2
4 x 2 x 3
2
2
}
+
(4) dx
x 3
2 x x 5
3
3
}
+

(1) Hint.
x
1
3
x
1
x
x 3
x
1 x 3
= =
Answer. C | x | ln x 3 +
(2) Hint.
1 x
3
1
1 x
3
1 x
) 1 x (
1 x
3 ) 1 x (
1 x
2 x
2 2 2
2
2
2
2
2
+
=
+
+
+
=
+
+
=
+

Answer. C x arctan 3 x +
37
(3) Hint.
2
2 2 2
2
2
2
x 2
x
1
2
3
x 2
4
x 2
x 2
x 2
x 3
x 2
4 x 2 x 3

+ = + =
+

Answer. C
x
2
| x | ln x
2
3
+
(4) Hint.
3 2
3 3 3
3
3
3
x
3
2
x
3
1
3
5
x 3
2
x 3
x
x 3
x 5
x 3
2 x x 5

+ = + =
+

Answer. C
x 3
1
x 3
1
x
3
5
2
+ +
Case VII. Integrals of the form dx x a
}
( R a e )
In this case we convert the square root into power with a rational exponent using
the property
2
1
x x = . Therefore we have the following general scheme:
= +
+
= = =
+
} } }
C
1
2
1
x
a dx x a dx x a dx x a
1
2
1
2
1

C x x
3
a 2
C x
3
a 2
C
2
3
x
a
2
3
2
3
+ = + = + =
(1) dx x 5
}
(2) dx x ) 2 (
}

(3) dx x ) 7 (
}
(4) dx x 6
}

Answers. (1) x x
3
10
(2) x x
3
4
(3) x x
3
14
(4) x x 4
Case VIII. Integrals of the form dx x x a
n
}
( R a e , 1 n > )
Integrals of this form are evaluated according to the general scheme:
= = =
} } }
dx x x a dx x x a dx x x a
2
1
n n n

38
= +
+
= +
+ +
= =
+ + + +
+
}
C
2
3 n 2
x
a C
1
2
1
n
x
a dx x a
2
1
1 n 1
2
1
n
2
1
n

C x x
3 n 2
a 2
C
2
3 n 2
x
a
1 n
2
1
1 n
+
+
= +
+
=
+
+ +

(1) dx x x 3
2
}
(2) dx x x ) 4 (
}

(3) dx x x 5
3
}
(4) dx x x ) 6 (
4
}

(1) Hint.
2
5
2
1
2
2
1
2 2
x 3 x 3 x x 3 x x 3 = = =
+
Answer. C x x
7
6
C x
7
6
3
2
7
+ = +
(2) Hint.
2
3
x 4 x x ) 4 ( = Answer. C x x
5
8
C x
5
8
2
2
5
+ = +
(3) Hint.
2
7
3
x 5 x x 5 = Answer. C x x
9
10
C x
9
10
4
2
9
+ = +
(4) Hint.
2
9
4
x 6 x x ) 6 ( = Answer. C x x
11
12
C x
11
12
5
2
11
+ = +
Case IX. Integrals of the form dx
x
a
}
( R a e )
= +
+
= = =
+
} } }
C
1
2
1
x
a dx x a dx
x
1
a dx
x
a
1
2
1
2
1

C x a 2 C
2
1
x
a
2
1
+ = + =
39
(1) dx
x
1
}
(2) dx
x
3
}

(3) dx
x
5
}
(4) dx
x
7
}

Answers. (1) C x 2 + (2) C x 6 + (3) C x 10 + (4) C x 14 +
Case X. Integrals of the form dx
x
x
a
n
}
( R a e , 1 n > )
= = =
} } }

dx x a dx
x
x
a dx
x
x
a
2
1
n
2
1
n n

C x x
1 n 2
a 2
C
2
1 n 2
x
a C
1
2
1
n
x
a
n
2
1
n 1
2
1
n
+
+
= +
+
= +
+
=
+ +

(1) dx
x
x
3
3
}
(2) dx
x
x
5
2
}

(3) dx
x
x
) 8 (
}
(4) dx
x
x
6
4
}

(1) Hint.
2
5
3
x 3
x
x
3 = Answer. C x x
7
6
C x
7
6
3
2
7
+ = +
(2) Hint.
2
3
2
x 5
x
x
5 = Answer. C x x 2 C x 2
2
2
5
+ = +
(3) Hint.
2
1
x 8
x
x
) 8 ( = Answer. C x x
3
16
C x
3
16
2
3
+ = +
(4) Hint.
2
7
4
x 6
x
x
6 = Answer. C x x
3
4
C x
3
4
4
2
9
+ = +
40
Case XI. Integrals of the form dx
x
x
a I
n
}
= ( R a e , 1 n > )
= = = =
} } }

dx x a dx
x
x
a dx
x
x
a I
n
2
1
n
2
1
n

C
x
x
n 2 3
a 2
C
2
n 2 3
x
a C
1 n
2
1
x
a
1 n
2
1
1 n 1 n
2
1
+
= +
= +
+
=

+ + +

(1) dx
x
x
6
}
(2) dx
x
x
) 5 (
4 }

(3) dx
x
x
4
5
}
(4) dx
x
x
12
3
}

(1) Hint.
2
1
x 6
x
x
6

= Answer. C x 12 C x 12
2
1
+ = +
(2) Hint.
2
7
4
x 5
x
x
) 5 (

= Answer. C
x x
1
7
10
C x
7
10
2
2
5
+ = +

(3) Hint.
2
9
5
x 4
x
x
4

= Answer. C
x x
1
7
8
C x
7
8
3
2
7
+ = +

(4) Hint.
2
5
3
x 12
x
x
12

= Answer. C
x x
8
C x 8
2
3
+ = +

Case XII. Integrals of the form dx x a
n
m
}

= +
+
= =
+
} }
C
1
n
m
x
a dx x a dx x a
1
n
m
n
m
n
m

41
C x x
n m
n a
C
n
n m
x
a
n
m
1
n
m
+
+
= +
+
=
+

(1) dx x 3
3
2
}
(2) dx x ) 5 (
4
5
}

(3) dx x 11
3
4
}
(4) dx x ) 14 (
5
3
}

(1) Hint.
3
2
3
2
x 3 x 3 = Answer. C x x
5
9
C x
5
9 3
2
3
5
+ = +
(2) Hint.
4
5
4
5
x 5 x ) 5 ( = Answer. C x x
9
20
C x
9
20 4
2
4
9
+ = +
(3) Hint.
3
4
3
4
x 11 x 11 = Answer. C x x
7
33
C x
7
33 3
2
3
7
+ = +
(4) Hint.
5
3
5
3
x 14 x ) 14 ( = Answer. C x x
4
35
C x
4
35 5
3
5
8
+ = +
Case XIII. Integrals of the form dx x x a
n
m p
}

General Case.
= =
} }
dx x x a dx x x a
n
m
p
n
m p

= +
+ +
= +
+ +
= =
+ + + +
+
}
C
n
n m n p
x
a C
1
n
m
p
x
a dx x a
n
m
1 p 1
n
m
p
n
m
p

C x x
n m n p
n a
C x x
n m n p
n a
n
m 1 p
n
m
1 p
+
+ +
= +
+ +
=
+ +

(1) dx x x 5
3
2 2
}
(2) dx x x ) 12 (
4
3 3
}

42
(3) dx x x ) 15 (
4
3 2
}
(4) dx x x
5
2 3
}

(1) Hint.
3
8
3
2 2
x 5 x x 5 = Answer. C x x
11
15
C x
11
15
3
2 3
3
11
+ = +
(1) Hint.
4
15
4
3 3
x 12 x x ) 12 ( = Answer. C x x
19
48
C x
19
48
4
3 4
4
19
+ = +
(1) Hint.
4
11
4
3 2
x 15 x x ) 15 ( = Answer. C x x 4 C x 4
4
3 3
4
15
+ = +
(1) Hint.
4
15
4
3 3
x x x = Answer. C x x
19
4
C x
19
4
4
3 4
4
19
+ = +
Case XIV. Integrals of the form dx
x
x
a
n
m
p
}

General Case.
= =
} }

dx x x a dx
x
x
a
n
m
p
n
m
p

= +
+
= +
+
= =
+ +
}
C
n
m n pn
x
a C
n
m
1 p
x
a dx x a
n
m
1 p
n
m
1 p
n
m
p

C
x
x
m n pn
n a
C x x
m n pn
n a
n
m
1 p
n
m
1 p
+
+
= +
+
=
+
+

(1) dx
x
x
) 4 (
3
2
3
}
(2) dx
x
x
5
4
3
5
}

(3) dx
x
x
12
5
4
4
}
(4) dx
x
x
) 15 (
7
5
2
}

(1) Hint.
3
7
3
2
3
x 4
x
x
5
6
C x
5
6 3
3
3
10
+ = +
43
(2) Hint.
4
17
4
3
5
x 5
x
x
5 = Answer.
4
5
4
21
x x
21
20
C x
21
20
= +
(3) Hint.
5
16
5
4
4
x 12
x
x
12 = Answer. C x x
7
20
C x
7
20 5
4
5
21
+ = +
(4) Hint.
7
9
7
5
2
x 15
x
x
16
105
C x
16
105
7
2 2
7
16
+ = +
Case XV. Integrals of the form dx
x
a
n
m
}

General Case.
= +
+
= =
+
} }
C
1
n
m
x
a dx x a dx
x
a
1
n
m
n
m
n
m

= +
+
= +
+
=

+
C x x
n m
n a
C
n
n m
x
a
n
m
1
n
m

C
x
x
n m
n a
n
m
+
+
=
(1) dx
x
1
4
3
}
(2) dx
x
2
3
2
}

(3) dx
x
12
4
3
}

(4) dx
x
16
5
3
}

(1) Hint.
4
3
4
3
x
x
1

4
4
1
+ = +
(2) Hint.
3
2
3
2
x 2
x
2

3
3
1
+ = +
44
(3) Hint.
4
3
4
3
x 12
x
12

=
Answer. C x 48 C x 48
4
4
1
+ = +
(4) Hint.
5
3
5
3
x 16
x
16

5
2
5
2
+ = +
Case XVI. Integrals of the form dx
x
x
a
p
n
m
}

General Case.
= =
} }

dx x x a dx
x
x
a
p
n
m
p
n
m

= +
+
= +
+
= =
+ +
}
C
n
n pn m
x
a C
1 p
n
m
x
a dx x a
n
m
p 1 1 p
n
m
p
n
m

C x x
n n p m
n a
C x x
n n p m
n a
n
m p 1
n
m
p 1
+
+
= +
+
=

(1) dx
x
x
5
4
3
2
}
(2) dx
x
x
) 6 (
2
4
3
}

(3) dx
x
x
13
2
5
3
}
(4) dx
x
x
) 7 (
3
5
2
}

(1) Hint.
3
10
4
3
2
4
3
2
x 5 x 5
x
x
5

= = . Answer. C
x x
1
7
15
C x
7
15
3
2
3
7
+
= +

(2) Hint.
4
5
2
4
3
2
4
3
x 6 x 6
x
x
6

= = . Answer. C
x
24
C x 24
4
4
1
+ = +

(3) Hint.
5
7
2
5
3
2
5
3
x 13 x 13
x
x
13

= = Answer. C
x
1
2
65
C x
2
65
5
2
5
2
+ = +

45
(4) Hint.
5
13
3
5
2
3
5
2
x 7 x 7
x
x
) 7 (

= = Answer.
5
3
5
8
5
8
x x
1
8
35
x
1
8
35
x
8
35
= =

Case XVII. Integrals of Trigonometric Functions
(1) dx
x sin
3 x cos 2
2
2
}

(2) dx
x cos
2 x sin 3
2
2
}
+

(1) Hint. =

=

=
x sin
1 x sin 2
x sin
3 ) x sin 1 ( 2
x sin
3 x cos 2
2
2
2
2
2
2

x sin
1
2
x sin
1
x sin
x sin 2
2 2 2
2
=
=
Answer. C x cot x 2 + +
(2) Hint. =
+
=
+
=
+
x cos
5 x cos 3
x cos
2 ) x cos 1 ( 3
x cos
2 x sin 3
2
2
2
2
2
2

x cos
5
3
x cos
5
x cos
x cos 3
2 2 2
2
+ = +
=
Answer. C x tan 5 x 3 + +

Case XVIII. Integrals of Exponential Functions
(1) dx
e 3
e 8 e 5
x
x x 2
}
+
(2) dx
e
e 3 e 2
x 2
x 2 x 3
}

(1) Hint.
3
8
e
3
5
e 3
e 8
e 3
e 5
e 3
e 8 e 5
x
x
x
x
x 2
x
x x 2
+ = + =
+

Answer. C x
3
8
e
3
5
x
+ +
(2) Hint. 3 e 2
e
e 3
e
e 2
e
e 3 e 2
x
x 2
x 2
x 2
x 3
x 2
x 2 x 3
= =

Answer. C x 3 e 2
x
+

46
Case XIX. Miscellaneous Cases
(1) dx
x 1
x 4 x 4 x 1
2
3 2
}

+
(2)
}
+ 5 x
dx
2

(3) dx
1 x
3 1 x
2
2
}
+
+ +
(4) dx
x 5
7 x x x 4 x 5
3
2
2 3
}
+

(1) Hint. =
+
+
+
2
3
2
2
2
3 2
x 1
x 4 x 4
x 1
x 1
x 1
x 4 x 4 x 1

x 4
x 1
1
x 1
) x 1 ( x 4
x 1
1
2
2
2
2
+
= Answer. C x 2 x arcsin
2
+ +
(2) Answer. C | 5 x x | ln
2
+ + +
(3) Hint.
1 x
3
1 x
1
1 x
3
1 x
1 x
1 x
3 1 x
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
+
+
+
=
+
+
+
+
=
+
+ +

Answer. C x arctan 3 | 1 x x | ln
2
+ + + +
(4) Hint. = + =
+
3
2
3
2
3
2
2
3
2
3
3
2
2 3
x 5
7
x 5
x x
x 5
x 4
x 5
x 5
x 5
7 x x x 4 x 5

3
2
6
5
3
4
3
7
3
2
3
2
2
3
3
2
2
3
2
3
x
5
7
x
5
1
x
5
4
x x
5
7
x
5
1
x
5
4
x

+ = + =
Answer. = + + C x
5
21
x
55
6
x
35
12
x
10
3
3
1
6
11
3
7
3
10

C x
5
21
x x
55
6
x x
35
12
x x
10
3 3
6
5
3
2
3
3
+ + =

3

The Method
of Substitution

Learning Objectives

integrals using the method of substitution.

Many cases of evaluation of indefinite integrals

}
dx ) x ( f
the function ) x ( f under integration (i.e. the integrand) is a rather complicated
expression. The integral either does not belong to any of the known forms listed in
the Table of Integrals, or cannot be reduced to any of those forms, using simple
algebraic manipulations. Here is where some methods come in. The most method
is the method of substitution.
This method converts the integral into another one, simpler, contained often to the
Table, and thus can easily be evaluated.
In this section we shall introduce the method in its simple, obvious version. More
complicated, special cases of substitution (like trigonometric substitutions,
hyperbolic substitutions, Euler substitutions, Chebyshev substitutions) will be
considered in the next sections.
Chapter 3-The method of substitution
48
The two most common cases are the following:
First Case. Let the integrand be a function Y X : f . We have to evaluate the
integral
}
dx ) x ( f
We substitute the independent variable x by an expression ) u ( :
) u ( x =
where X U : is an 1 1 function, having an inverse U X :
1

.
Considering the composition )) u ( ( f ) u )( f ( = , since du ) u ( dx ' = , we have
du ) u ( )) u ( ( f dx ) x ( f ' =
Therefore the integral transforms into

} } }
= ' = du ) u ( g du ) u ( )) u ( ( f dx ) x ( f
where the new transformed integral
}
du ) u ( g can be evaluated using the Table of
Elementary Integrals. It might also happen to have be converted into a more
simpler integral.
At the end of the calculation, after evaluating the integral
}
du ) u ( g , we have to
substitute u by ) x (
1
:

) x ( u ) x ( u
1 1
du ) u ( g du ) u ( )) u ( ( f dx ) x ( f

= =
} } }
= ' =
}

2
x 1
dx

Solution. Under the substitution u sin x = ( u sin ) u ( = ) we have
du u cos dx = , u cos u sin 1 x 1
2 2
= = and x arcsin u =
Therefore
= = =
=
=
} } }
x arcsin u
x arcsin u
2
du du
u cos
u cos
x 1
dx

49
C x arcsin C u
x arcsin u
+ = + =
=

This formula is already known from the Table of Integrals.
Second Case. In this case we substitute an expression contained in the function
) x ( f under integration by a new variable u:
) x ( u =
We then convert the integral into another one, containing the variable u only,
which can in turn be evaluated. Therefore we suppose that there exists a
differentiable function ) x ( and a function ) u ( g such that the integrand
dx ) x ( f can be written in the form
dx ) x ( )) x ( ( g dx ) x ( f ' =
Introducing the transformation (usually called substitution)
) x ( u = , dx ) x ( du ' =
we can convert the original integral into

) x ( u
du ) u ( g dx ) x ( )) x ( ( g dx ) x ( f
| =
} } }
= ' =
Example. Evaluate the integral dx x 1 x 2
2
}
+
Solution. We consider the substitution
2
x 1 u + = (
2
x 1 ) x ( + = ). We then have
dx x 2 du = and u x 1
2
= +
= + = = +
+ =
+ =
} }
C u u
3
2
du u dx x 1 x 2
2
2
x 1 u
x 1 u
2

C x 1 ) x 1 (
3
2
2 2
+ + + =
Note 1. We should stress the fact that there is not any unique substitution
transformation which can convert an integral into a simpler, easy-to-evaluate
integral. In this section we only consider some obvious forms of substitution. In
50
next sections we are going to consider special forms of substitution, depending on
the form of the integrand.
Note 2. We note that there are
- Special methods of substitution, like trigonometric substitutions, hyperbolic
substitutions, Euler substitutions, Chebyshev substitutions
- Special techniques like integration by parts and partial fraction
decomposition
- Special algorithms, like the Ostrogradsky algorithm, the Hermite-Horowitz
algorithm, the Rothstein-Trager algorithm, the Risch algorithm and the
Adamchik-Marichev algorithm.

We below list some examples of using the method of substitution, classified
according to the type of function under integration.
Case I. Integrals of Polynomial and Rational Functions
}
+ + + = dx ) 7 x 5 x )( 5 x 2 ( I
2

Solution. We see that under the substitution 7 x 5 x u
2
+ + = , we have
dx ) 5 x 2 ( du + =
C
2
u
du u
2
+ =
}

Going back to the original variable, we have the value of the integral
C ) 7 x 5 x (
2
1
dx ) 7 x 5 x )( 5 x 2 ( I
2 2 2
+ + + = + + + =
}

}
+ + = dx ) 1 x x 5 x 4 ( ) 1 x 10 x 12 ( I
3 2 3 2

Solution. We see that under the substitution 1 x x 5 x 4 u
2 3
+ = , we have
dx ) 1 x 10 x 12 ( du
2
+ =
51
C
4
u
du u
4
3
+ =
}

Going back to the original variable, we have the value of the integral
= + + =
}
dx ) 1 x x 5 x 4 ( ) 1 x 10 x 12 ( I
3 2 3 2

C ) 1 x x 5 x 4 (
4
1
4 2 3
+ + =
5 x 3 x
3 x 2
I
2
}
+

=
Solution. We see that under the substitution of the denominator by a new
variable u,
5 x 3 x u
2
+ =
we have dx ) 3 x 2 ( du = . The integral then becomes
}
= du
u
1
I ,which belongs to
one of the known integrals of the Table. Therefore
C | 5 x 3 x | ln C | u | ln du
u
1
dx
5 x 3 x
3 x 2
I
2
2
+ + = + = =
+

=
} }
.
x 1
x
I
3
}
+
=
Solution. Under the substitution x 1 u + = , we have dx du = .
=
+
=
} }
du
u
1 u 3 u 3 u
du
u
) 1 u (
2 3 3

=
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
}
du
u
1
3 u 3 u
2

= + =
} } } }
du
u
1
du 3 du u 3 du u
2

= + + = C | u | ln u 3
2
u
3
3
u
2 3

C | u | ln u 3 u
2
3
u
3
1
2 3
+ + =
52
Going back to the original variable, we obtain the value of the integral
C | x 1 | ln ) x 1 ( 3 ) x 1 (
2
3
) x 1 (
3
1
dx
x 1
x
I
2 3
3
+ + + + + + =
+
=
}

) x 1 (
x
I
3
}
+
=
Solution. Under the substitution x 1 u + = , we have dx du = .
= = =
} } } } }
du
u
1
du
u
1
du
u
1
du
u
u
du
u
1 u
3 2 3 3 3

C
u 2
1
u
1
du u du u
2
3 2
+ + = =
} }

C
) x 1 ( 2
1
x 1
1
dx
) x 1 (
x
I
2 3
+
+
+
+
=
+
=
}

x 1
x 2
I
4
}
+
=
Solution. Under the substitution
2
x u = , we have dx x 2 du = .
Therefore
C ) x arctan( C u arctan
u 1
du
dx
x 1
x 2
I
2
2 4
+ = + =
+
=
+
=
} }

}
+
=
2 2
x a
dx
I
Solution. Under the substitution t a x = , we have dt a dx = .
Therefore, since
) t 1 ( a t a a x a
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
+ = + = + ,
the integral transforms to
C t arctan
a
1
t 1
dx
a
a
) t 1 ( a
dx a
2 2 2 2
+ =
+
=
+
} }

53
Going back to the original variable, we obtain
C
a
x
arctan
a
1
x a
dx
I
2 2
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
=
}

Case II. Integrals of Irrational Functions
Example 1. Evaluate the integral dx 3 x x I
3 2
}
+ =
Solution. We see that under the substitution 3 x u
3
+ = we get dx x 3 du
2
= which
implies dx x du
3
1
2
= . Therefore the integral becomes du u
3
1
I
}
= which can be
evaluated using the Table. We have
= + = +
+
= = =
+
} }
C
2
3
u
3
1
C
1
2
1
u
3
1
du u
3
1
du u
3
1
I
2
3
1
2
1
2
1

C u u
9
2
+ =
Therefore
= + = = + =
} }
C u u
9
2
du u
3
1
dx 3 x x I
3 2

C 3 x ) 3 x (
9
2
3 3
+ + + =
}

=
2 2
x a
dx
I ( 0 a > )
Solution. Under the substitution t a x = , we have dt a dx = .
Therefore, since
) t 1 ( a t a a x a
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
= = ,
the integral transforms into
C t arcsin
t 1
dt
t 1 a
dt a
) t 1 ( a
dt a
2 2 2 2
+ =
} } }

54
Going back to the original variable, since
a
x
t = , we obtain
C
a
x
arcsin
x a
dx
I
2 2
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
=
}

x 1
x 8
I
8
3
}

=
4
x u = , since dx x 4 du
3
= , the integral becomes
C u arcsin 2 du
u 1
2
2
+ =
}

C ) x arcsin( 2 dx
x 1
x 8
I
4
8
3
+ =
=
}

1 x
4 x 3
I
2
}
+
+
=
Solution. We split the integral into a sum of two integrals
=
+
+
+
=
+
+
=
} } }
dx
1 x
4
dx
1 x
x 3
dx
1 x
4 x 3
I
2 2 2

2 1
2 2
I I 3 dx
1 x
1
4 dx
1 x
x
3 + =
+
+
+
=
} }

The integral dx
1 x
x
I
2
1 }
+
= can be evaluated by the substitution 1 x u
2
+ = .
Since dx x 2 du = , the integral transforms into u
u
du
2
1
=
}
. Therefore we obtain
1 x dx
1 x
x
I
2
2
1
+ =
+
=
}

The integral dx
1 x
1
I
2
2 }
+
= is known from the Table with value
55
1 x x ln dx
1 x
1
I
2
2
2
+ + =
+
=
}

Therefore we obtain the value of the integral
C 1 x x ln 4 1 x 3 dx
1 x
4 x 3
I
2 2
2
+ + + + + =
+
+
=
}

Case III. Integrals of Logarithmic Functions
}
=
x ln x
dx
I
Solution. Under the substitution x ln u = , since dx
x
1
du = , the integral transforms
into
C | u | ln
u
du
+ =
}

Going back to the original variable, we obtain as the value of the integral
C | x ln | ln
x ln x
dx
I + = =
}

x
x ln
I
3
}
=
Solution. Under the substitution x ln u = , since dx
x
1
du = , we get
C x ln
4
1
C
4
u
du u dx
x
x ln
I
4
4
3
3
+ = + = = =
} }

) x ln 1 ( x
1
I
2
}
+
=
Solution. Under the substitution x ln u = , we have dx
x
1
du = . Therefore
C ) x arctan(ln C u arctan
u 1
du
dx
) x ln 1 ( x
1
I
2 2
+ = + =
+
=
+
=
} }

Case IV. Integrals of Exponential Functions
56
e 1
e
I
x 2
x
}
+
=
x
e u = , we have dx e du
x
= . Therefore
C ) e arctan( C u arctan
u 1
du
dx
e 1
e
I
x
2 x 2
x
+ = + =
+
=
+
=
} }

e
1 e
I
x
x 2
}

=
Solution. We first split the integral into a sum of two integrals:
= = =
=
} } } } }

dx e dx e dx
e
1
dx
e
e
dx
e
1 e
I
x x
x x
x 2
x
x 2

dx e e
x x
}

=
Under the substitution x u = , we have dx du = . Therefore
x u u x
e e du e dx e

= = =
} }

The value of the integral thus becomes
C e e dx
e
1 e
I
x x
x
x 2
+ + =
=

}

Example 3. Evaluate the integral dx a I
x
}
= , 0 a >
Solution. Using the identity
a ln x x
e a = and the substitution a ln x u = ,
dx ) a (ln du = , we have
C e
a ln
1
du e
a ln
1
dx e dx a I
u u a ln x x
+ = = = =
} } }

C a
a ln
1
C e
a ln
1
x a ln x
+ = + =
2
3 7 2 5
I
x
x x
}
+
=
Solution.
57
=
=
+
=
} } }
dx
2
3 7
dx
2
2 5
dx
2
3 7 2 5
I
x
x
x
x
x
x x

dx
2
3
7 dx 5 dx
2
3
7 dx 5
x x
} } } }
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
C
2
3
2
3
ln
7
x 5
x
+
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
Example 5. Evaluate the integral dx e e 1 I
x x
}
=
x
e 1 u = , we have dx e du
x
= .
C u u
3
2
du u + =
}

C e 1 ) e 1 (
3
2
dx e e 1 I
x x x x
+ = =
}

x
e
I
x
}
=
Solution. Under the substitution x u = , since dx
x 2
1
du = , the integral
transforms into
C e 2 du e 2
u u
+ =
}

C e 2 dx
x
e
I
x
x
+ = =
}

e 1
e
I
x 2
x
}

=
58
x
e u = , we have dx e du
x
= .
Therefore
C ) e arcsin( C u arcsin
u 1
du
dx
e 1
e
I
x
2 x 2
x
+ = + =
=
} }

4 1
2
I
x
x
}

=
x
2 u = , we have
2 x
u 1 4 1 = and
dx 2 ) 2 (ln du
x
= . Therefore the integral becomes
C u arcsin
2 ln
1
u 1
du
2 ln
1
2
+ =
}

Going back to the original variable, the integral has the value
C ) 2 arcsin(
2 ln
1
dx
4 1
2
I
x
x
x
+ =
=
}

Case V. Integrals of Trigonometric Functions
Example 1. Evaluate the integral dx x tan I
}
=
Solution. Since
x cos
x sin
x tan = , we have dx
x cos
x sin
I
}
= . Under the substitution
x cos u = , dx x sin du = , the integral becomes C | u | ln du
u
1
+ =
}
. Going
back to the original variable, we get
C | x cos | ln dx x tan I + = =
}

Example 2. Evaluate the integral dx x cot I
}
=
Solution. Since
x sin
x cos
x cot = , we have dx
x sin
x cos
I
}
= .
Under the substitution x sin u = , dx x cos du = the integral becomes
59
C | u | ln du
u
1
+ =
}
.
Going back to the original variable, we get
C | x sin | ln dx x cot I + = =
}

Example 3. Evaluate the integral dx x cos e I
x sin
}
=
Solution. Under the substitution x sin u = , since dx x cos du = , the integral
transforms into
C e du e
u u
+ =
}

C e dx x cos e I
x sin x sin
+ = =
}

e
x sin
I
x cos
}
=
Solution. Under the substitution x cos u = , since dx x sin du = , the integral
transforms into

} }

= du e
e
du
u
u

Under a second substitution u t = , since du dt = , the above integral takes the
form
C e dt e
t t
+ =
}

Going back to the original variable, since u t = and x cos u = , the value of the
integral is given by
C e dx
e
x sin
I
x cos
x cos
+ = =

}

x
) x ( cos
I
}
=
60
Solution. Under the substitution x u = , since dx
x 2
1
du = , the integral
transforms into
C u sin 2 du u cos 2 + =
}

C ) x ( sin 2 dx
x
) x ( cos
I + = =
}

x sin x cos
x 2 sin
I
4 4
}

=
Solution. We simplify the denominator first. We have
= + = ) x sin x (cos ) x sin x (cos x sin x cos
2 2 2 2 4 4

x 2 cos ) x sin x (cos 1
2 2
= =
dx
x 2 cos
x 2 sin
I
}
=
Under the substitution x 2 cos u = , dx x 2 sin 2 du = , we have
C | u | ln
2
1
u
du
2
1
I + = =
}

C | x 2 cos | ln
2
1
I + =
}
+
=
x tan 1 x cos
dx
I
2

Solution. Using the substitution x tan 1 u + = , we have
dx
x cos
1
du
2
=
61
C u 2
u
du
+ =
}

Going back to the original variable, we find the value of the integral
C x tan 1 2
x tan 1 x cos
dx
I
2
+ + =
+
=
}

Case VI. Integrals of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
x 1
x arctan
I
2
}
+
=
Solution. Under the substitution x arctan u = , we have dx
x 1
1
du
2
+
= .
Therefore
C ) u (arctan
2
1
C
2
u
du u dx
x 1
x arctan
I
2
2
2
+ = + = =
+
=
} }

C )] x tan arctan(arc [
2
1
2
+ =
Case VII. Integrals with two successive substitutions
In evaluating integrals, there might appear the need for more than one substitution.
Let us list some Examples of this kind.
5 e 3
e
I
x 2
x
}
+
=
Solution. Using the substitution
x
e u = , we get dx e du
x
= and the integral
transforms into

} }
+
=
+
3
5
u
du
3
1
5 u 3
du
2
2

Under a new substitution t
3
5
u = , since dt
3
5
du = and
62
) 1 t (
3
5
3
5
t
3
5
3
5
u
2
2
2
+ = +
|
|
.
|
\
|
= + ,
the last integral becomes
C t arctan
15
1
dt
1 t
1
15
1
dt
) 1 t (
3
5
3
5
3
1
2
2
+ =
+
=
+
} }

Since
x
e
5
3
u
5
3
t = = , the value of the integral is
C e
5
3
arctan
15
1
I
x
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
9 x
x 4
I
6
2
}
+
=
Solution. We use the substitution
3
x u = first. We then have dx x 3 du
2
= and
thus du
3
1
dx x
2

}
+ 9 u
du
3
4
2
(1)
Under the further transformation t 3 u = , since
) 1 t ( 9 9 ) t 3 ( 9 u
2 2 2
+ = + = + and dt 3 du =
the integral in (1) transforms into
C t arctan
9
4
1 t
dt
9
4
) 1 t ( 9
dt 3
3
4
2 2
+ =
+
=
+
} }

We now have to go back to the original variable in reverse order.
Since
3
u
t = and
3
x u = , we find the value of the integral to be
C
3
x
arctan
9
4
dx
9 x
x 4
I
3
6
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
=
}

63
) x ln(sin
x cot
I
}
=
Solution. We use the substitution x sin u = first. We then have dx x cos du = and
thus
u ln u
du
dx
) x ln(sin ) x (sin
x cos
dx
) x ln(sin
x cot
= = . Therefore the integral becomes

}
u ln u
du
(1)
Under a second substitution u ln t = , since
u
du
dt = , the integral in (1) becomes
C | t | ln
t
dt
+ =
}

We now have to go back to the original variable in reverse order.
Since u ln t = and x sin u = , we find the value of the integral to be
C | ) x ln(sin | ln dx
) x ln(sin
x cot
I + = =
}

) x ln 3 1 ( x
x ln
I
2
}
+
=
Solution. Under the substitution x ln u = , we have dx
x
1
du = . Therefore the
integral transforms into
du
u 3 1
u
2
}
+

Under a second substitution
2
u 3 1 t + = , since du u 6 dt = , the previous integral
transforms into
C | t | ln
t
dt
6
1
+ =
}

2
u 3 1 t + = and x ln u = , we obtain the
value of the integral
64
C ) x ln 3 1 ( ln
6
1
dx
) x ln 3 1 ( x
x ln
I
2
2
+ + =
+
=
}

x a
x
I
4 2
}

= ( 0 a > )
2
x u = , we have dx x 2 du = .
Therefore, since
2 2 4 2
u a x a = ,

}

2 2
u a
du
2
1

Under a further substitution t a u = , since dt a du = and ) t 1 ( a u a
2 2 2 2
= , the
last integral transforms into
C t arctan
2
1
t 1
dt
2
1
) t 1 ( a
dt a
2
1
2 2 2
+ =
} }

a
u
t = and
2
x u = , we obtain
C
a
x
arcsin
2
1
dx
x a
x
I
2
4 2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
=
}

Case VIII. Integrals with two different substitutions
x 1
x arcsin x 2
I
2
}

=
Solution. The integral can be split into

2 1
2 2 2
I I dx
x 1
x arcsin
dx
x 1
x 2
dx
x 1
x arcsin x 2
I =
=
} } }

65
For the integral dx
x 1
x 2
I
2
1 }

= we make the substitution
2
x 1 u = . Therefore,
since dx x 2 du = , the integral becomes u 2
u
du
=
}
. Going back to the
original variable, we find

2
2
1
x 1 2 dx
x 1
x 2
I =
=
}

For the integral dx
x 1
x arcsin
I
2
2 }

= we make the substitution x arcsin t = .
Therefore, since dx
x 1
1
dt
2

t t
3
2
dt t =
}

Going back to the original variable, we find that
x arcsin ) x (arcsin
3
2
dx
x 1
x arcsin
I
2
2
=
=
}

We thus find that the original integral has the value
C x arcsin ) x (arcsin
3
2
x 1 2 dx
x 1
x arcsin x 2
I
2
2
+ + =
=
}

Case VIII. Advanced Examples
) 1 x (
x
I
2 4
7
}
+
=
Solution. We use the substitution 1 x u
4
+ = . We then have 1 u x
4
= ,
dx x 4 du
3
= and thus du
4
1
) 1 u ( ) dx x ( x dx x
3 4 7
= = . Therefore the integral
transforms into
= =
} } }
du
u
1
4
1
du
u
u
4
1
du
u
1 u
4
1
2 2 2

66
C
u
1
4
1
| u | ln
4
1
du
u
1
4
1
u
du
4
1
2
+ + = =
} }

Going back to the original variable, we obtain the value of the integral:
C
) 1 x ( 4
1
| 1 x | ln
4
1
dx
) 1 x (
x
I
4
4
2 4
7
+
+
+ + =
+
=
}

x 2 1
x
I
2
3
}
+
=
2
x 2 1 u + = , we find
2
1 u
x
2

= and then
du
4
1
dx x = . The term dx x
3
thus becomes du
8
1 u
du
4
1
2
1 u
) dx x ( x
2

=
|
.
|
\
|

= .
= =
} } }
du
u
1
8
1
du
u
u
8
1
du
u
1 u
8
1

C u
4
1
u u
12
1
du
u
1
8
1
du u
8
1
+ = =
} }

Going back to the original variable, we find the following value of the integral:
C x 2 1
4
1
x 2 1 ) x 2 1 (
12
1
dx
x 2 1
x
I
2 2 2
2
3
+ + + + =
+
=
}

2 x
1 x
I
2
3
}
+
+
=
Solution. We split the integral into a sum of two integrals:

2 1
2 2
3
2
3
I I dx
2 x
1
dx
2 x
x
dx
2 x
1 x
I + =
+
+
+
=
+
+
=
} } }

For the integral
1
I , under the substitution 2 x u
2
+ = , we find 2 u x
2
= and then
du
2
1
dx x = . The term dx x
3
thus becomes du
2
2 u
du
2
1
) 2 u ( ) dx x ( x
2

= = .
67
Therefore the integral
1
I transforms into
= =
} } }
du
u
1
du
u
u
2
1
du
u
2 u
2
1

u 2 u u
3
1
du
u
1
du u
2
1
= =
} }

2 x 2 2 x ) 2 x (
3
1
dx
2 x
x
I
2 2 2
2
3
1
+ + + =
+
=
}

The integral
1
I is elementary, giving the value

|
.
|
\
|
+ + =
+
=
}
2 x x ln dx
2 x
1
I
2
2
2

Therefore we find for the original integral
= + =
+
+
=
} 2 1
2
3
I I dx
2 x
1 x
I
C 2 x x ln 2 x 2 2 x ) 2 x (
3
1
2 2 2 2
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ + + + + + =
Example 4. Evaluate the integral dx e 1 I
x
}
=
Solution. We try to get rid of the square root. Therefore we consider the
substitution
1 e u
x
=
Squaring both members of the previous relation and solving with respect to
x
e ,
we find

2 x
u 1 e + =
Inverting the above equation, we find
) u 1 ln( x
2
+ =
Therefore
68
du
u 1
u 2
dx
2
+
=
The integral thus transforms into
=
+
+
=
+
=
+
} } }
du
u 1
1 ) u 1 (
2 du
u 1
u
2 du
u 1
u 2
u
2
2
2
2
2

=
+
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
} } }
du
u 1
1
2 du 2 du
u 1
1
1 2
2 2

C u arctan 2 u 2 + =
C e 1 arctan 2 e 1 2 dx e 1 I
x x x
+ = =
}

69

3a

Exercises
on the
Method of Substitution

I) Integrals of Polynomial and Rational Functions
(1)
}
+ dx ) 1 x 3 x 5 )( 3 x 10 (
2

(2)
}
+ + dx ) 4 x 5 x 2 )( 10 x 8 (
2

(3)
}
+ + dx ) 8 x 7 x 3 )( 7 x 6 (
3 2

(4)
}
+ + + dx ) 5 x 2 x 4 x 2 ( ) 2 x 8 x 6 (
4 2 3 2

(1) Hint. Let 1 x 3 x 5 u
2
+ = . Then dx ) 3 x 10 ( du = . The integral transforms
into C
2
u
du u
2
+ =
}
. Answer. C ) 1 x 3 x 5 (
2
1
2 2
+ +
2
+ = . Then dx ) 5 x 4 ( du + = .
Therefore dx ) 10 x 8 ( du 2 + = . The integral becomes C u du u 2
2
+ =
}

Answer. C ) 4 x 5 x 2 (
2 2
+ +
2
+ + = . Then dx ) 7 x 6 ( du + = and thus
dx ) 7 x 6 ( du = . The integral becomes C
4
u
du u
4
3
+ =
}
.
70
Answer. C ) 8 x 7 x 3 (
4
1
4 2
+ + +
(4) Hint. Let 5 x 2 x 4 x 2 u
2 3
+ + = . Then dx ) 2 x 8 x 6 ( du
2
+ = . Therefore
dx ) 2 x 8 x 6 ( du
2
+ = . The integral takes the form C
5
u
du u
5
4
+ =
}
.
Answer. C ) 5 x 2 x 4 x 2 (
5
1
5 2 3
+ + +
(1) dx
3 x 5 x 2
5 x 4
2 }
+
(2) dx
x 1
x
3
}

(3) dx
) x 1 (
x 2
2 }

(4) dx
x 1
x 3
6
2
}
+

2
+ = . Then dx ) 5 x 4 ( du = . The integral becomes
C | u | ln
u
du
+ =
}
. Answer. C | 3 x 5 x 2 | ln
2
+ +
(2) Hint. Let x 1 u = . Then u 1 x = . Therefore du dx = and
3 3
) u 1 ( x = .
The integral becomes =
+
=
} }
du
u
u u 3 u 3 1
du
u
) u 1 (
3 2 3

C u
3
1
u
2
3
u 3 | u | ln du u du u 3 du 3
u
du
3 2 2
+ + + = + + =
} } } }
.
Answer. C ) x 1 (
3
1
) x 1 (
2
3
) x 1 ( 3 | x 1 | ln
3 2
+ + +
(3) Hint. Let x 1 u = . Then u 1 x = . Therefore du dx = . The integral
becomes
C | u | ln 2
u
2
u
du
2
u
du
2 du
u
) u 1 ( 2
2 2
+ + = + =
} } }
.
Answer. C | x 1 | ln 2
x 1
2
+ +

(4) Hint. Let
3
x u = . Then dx x 3 du
2
= . The integral becomes
71
C u arctan
u 1
du
2
+ =
+
}
. Answer. C ) x arctan(
3
+
II) Integrals of Irrational Functions
(1) dx 4 x x 5
3 2
}
+ (2) dx x 2 x 5 ) 1 x 10 (
4 3
}

(3)
}

=
2
x 9
dx
I (4) dx
x 1
x 5
I
6
2
}

=
(5) dx
3 x
5 x 4
I
2
}

= (6) dx
5 x
7 x 8
I
2
}
+
+
=
(1) Hint. Let 4 x u
3
+ = . Then dx x 3 du
2
= . The integral takes the form
C u u
3
2
3
5
du u
3
5
+ =
}
. Answer. C 4 x ) 4 x (
9
10
3 3
+ + +
(2) Hint. Let x 2 x 5 u
4
= . Then dx ) 1 x 10 ( 2 du
3
C u u
3
2
2
1
du u
2
1
+ =
}
. Answer. C x 2 x 5 ) x 2 x 5 (
3
1
4 4
+
(3) Hint. Let u 3 x = . Then du 3 dx = and ) u 1 ( 9 ) u 3 ( 9 x 9
2 2 2
= = . The
integral becomes C u arcsin
u 1
du
) u 1 ( 9
du 3
2 2
+ =
} }
.
Answer. C
3
x
arcsin +
|
.
|
\
|

(4) Hint. Let
3
x u = . Then dx x 3 du
2
C u arcsin
3
5
u 1
du
3
5
2
+ =
}
. Answer. C ) x arcsin(
3
5
3
+
(5) Hint. We have
2 1
2 2 2
I I dx
3 x
5
dx
3 x
x 4
dx
3 x
5 x 4
=
} } }

72
For the integral
1
I we use the substitution 3 x u
2
= . We then have dx x 2 du = .
The integral becomes u 4
u
du
2 =
}
. The integral
2
I is elementary (it is the
number 11 appearing in the Table). Answer. C | 3 x x | ln 5 3 x 4
2 2
+ +
(6) Hint. We have
2 1
2 2 2
I I dx
5 x
7
dx
5 x
x 8
dx
5 x
7 x 8
+ =
+
+
+
=
+
+
} } }
.
For the integral
1
I we use the substitution 5 x u
2
+ = . We then have dx x 2 du = .
The integral transforms into u 8
u
du
4 =
}
. The integral
2
I is elementary.
Answer. C | 5 x x | ln 7 5 x 8
2 2
+ + + + + .

III) Integrals of Logarithmic Functions
(1)
}
=
2
) x (ln x
dx
I (2) dx
x
) x (ln
I
4
}
=
(3) dx
x ln 1 x
1
I
2
}
+
= (4) dx
x ln 1 x
3
I
2
}

=
(1) Hint. We use the substitution x ln u = . Since dx
x
1
du = , the integral
transforms into C
u
1
u
du
2
+ =
}
. Answer. C
x ln
1
+
x
1
du = , the integral
transforms into C
5
u
du u
5
4
+ =
}
. Answer. C ) x (ln
5
1
5
+ .
73
x
1
du = , the integral
transforms into C | u 1 u | ln
u 1
du
I
2
2
+ + + =
+
=
}

Answer. C | ) x (ln 1 x ln | ln
2
+ + +
x
1
du = , the integral
transforms into C u arcsin 3
u 1
du
3
2
+ =
}
. Answer. C ) x arcsin(ln 3 +
IV) Integrals of Exponential Functions
(1) dx
e 1
e
I
x 2
x
}
+
= (2) dx
e
3 e 2 e
I
x
x x 2
}
+
=
(3) dx 5 I
x
}
= (4) dx
2
3 4 2 3
I
x
x x
}

=
(1) Hint. We use the substitution
x
e u = . Since dx e du
x
= and
2 x 2
u 1 e 1 + = + ,
the integral transforms into C | u 1 u | ln
u 1
du
2
2
+ + + =
+
}
.
Answer. C | e 1 e | ln
x 2 x
+ + + .
(2) Hint. Since = |
.
|
\
|
+ =
+
} }
dx
e
3
2 e dx
e
3 e 2 e
x
x
x
x x 2

dx e 3 dx 2 dx e
x x
} } }

+ = . The last integral is evaluated using x u = .
Answer. C e 3 x 2 e
x x
+ + +

(3) Hint. Since
5 ln x x
e 5 = , we use the substitution 5 ln x u = . Therefore
dx ) 5 (ln du = . The integral then becomes C
5 ln
e
du e
5 ln
1
u
u
+ =
}
.
74
Answer. C
5 ln
5
x
+ . In general C
a ln
a
dx a
x
x
+ =
}
, 0 a > .
(4) Hint. We have dx
2
3
4 dx 3 dx
2
3
4 3 dx
2
3 4 2 3
x
x
x
x
x x
} } } }
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

.
Answer. C
2
3
) 2 / 3 ln(
4
x 3
x
+
|
.
|
\
|

(1) dx e e 2 3 I
x x
}
= (2) dx
x 2
e
I
x
}

=
(3) dx
e 4
e
I
x 2
x
}

= (4) dx
9 1
3
I
x
x
}
+
=
x
e 2 3 u = . Since dx e 2 du
x
= , the integral
transforms into C u u
3
2
2
1
du u
2
1
+ =
}
.
Answer. C e 2 3 ) e 2 3 (
3
1
x x
+
(2) Hint. We use the substitution x u = . Since
x 2
dx
du = , the integral
transforms into C e du e
u u
+ =
}
. Answer. C e
x
+

.
x
x
= and
2 x 2
u 4 e 4 =
}

2
u 4
du
. Using a second substitution t 2 u = , the
last integral transforms into C t arcsin
) t 1 ( 4
dt 2
2
+ =
}
. Going back to the original
variable, we get the following Answer. C
2
e
arcsin
x
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
.
x
3 u = . Since dx 3 ) 3 (ln du
x
= and
75
2 x
u 1 9 1 + = + , the integral transforms into
C
3 ln
| u 1 u | ln
u 1
du
3 ln
1
2
2
+
+ +
=
+
}
. Answer. C
3 ln
| 9 1 3 | ln
x x
+
+ +
.
V) Integrals of Trigonometric Functions
(1) dx x sin e
x cos
}
(2) dx
e
x cos
x sin }

(3) dx
x 3
) x 2 ( sin
}
(4) dx
x cos 5
x sin
2
}
+

(5)
}
x cot 3 2 x sin
dx
2
(6) dx x sin x cos
5
}

(1) Hint. We use the substitution x cos u = . Since dx x sin du = , the integral
u u
+ =
}
. Answer. C e
x cos
+
(2) Hint. We use the substitution x sin u = . Since dx x cos du = , the integral
u u
+ =
}
. Answer. C e
x sin
+
(3) Hint. We use the substitution x 2 u = . Since dx
x
1
du = , the integral
transforms into C u cos
3
1
du u sin
3
1
+ =
}
. Answer. C ) x 2 ( cos
3
1
+
(4) Hint. We use the substitution x cos u = . Since dx x sin du = , the integral
transforms into C | u 5 u | ln
u 5
du
2
2
+ + + =
+
}
.
Answer. C | x cos 5 x cos | ln
2
+ + +
(5) Hint. We use the substitution x cot 3 2 u = . Since dx
x sin
3
du
2
= , the integral
transform into C u
3
2
u
du
3
1
+ =
}
. Answer. C x cot 3 2
3
2
+
76
(6) Hint. We use the substitution x sin u = . Since dx x cos du = , the integral
transforms into C
6
u
du u
6
5
+ =
}
. Answer. C
6
x sin
6
+
VI) Integrals of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
(1) dx
x 1
x arcsin
I
2
}

= (2) dx
x 1
) x (arctan
2
3
}
+

(1) Hint. We use the substitution x arcsin u = . Since dx
x 1
1
du
2
= , the
integral transforms into C
2
u
du u I
2
+ = =
}
. Answer. C
2
) x (arcsin
2
+
(2) Hint. We use the substitution x arctan u = . Since dx
x 1
1
du
2
+
= , the integral
transforms into C
4
u
du u I
4
3
+ = =
}
. Answer. C
4
) x (arcsin
4
+
VII) Integrals with two successive substitutions
(1) dx
4 e
e
I
x 2
x
}
+
= (2) dx
16 x
x 5
I
6
2
}
+
=
(3) dx
) x ln(cos
x tan
I
}
= (4) dx
) x ln 3 2 ( x
x ln 5
I
2 }
+
=
x
x
= , the integral
transforms into
}
+ 4 u
du
2
. Under a second substitution t 2 u = , the integral
transforms into C t arctan
2
1
) 1 t ( 4
dt 2
2
+ =
+
}
. Going back to the original variable,
we get the following Answer. C
2
e
arctan
2
1
x
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
.
77
3
x u = . Since dx x 3 du
2
= , the integral
transforms into
}
+16 u
du
3
5
2
. Under a second transformation t 4 u = , the previous
integral transforms into C t arctan
12
5
) 1 t ( 16
dt 4
3
5
2
+ =
+
}
.
Answer. C
4
x
arctan
12
5
3
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
.
(3) Hint. We use the substitution ) x ln(cos u = . Since dx x tan du = , the integral
transforms into C | u | ln
u
du
+ =
}
. Answer. C | ) x ln(cos | ln + .
(4) Hint. We use the substitution x ln u = . Since
x
dx
du = , the integral transforms
into du
u 3 2
u 5
2
}
+
. Under a second transformation
2
u 3 2 t + = , since du u 6 dt = ,
the last integral transforms into C | t | ln
6
5
t
dt
6
5
+ =
}
. Answer. C ) x ln 3 2 ( ln
6
5
2
+ + .
VIII) Integrals with two different substitutions
(1) dx
x 1
x arcsin 2 x 3
2
}

(2) dx
x 1
x arctan 6 x 5
2 }
+
+

(1) Hint. We have

2 1
2 2 2
I I dx
x 1
x arcsin 2
dx
x 1
x 3
dx
x 1
x arcsin 2 x 3
=
} } }

For the integral
1
I we use the substitution
2
x 1 u = . Since dx x 2 du = , this
integral transforms into u 3
u
du
2
3
=
}
. For the integral
2
I we use the
substitution x arcsin t = . Since dx
x 1
1
dt
2
= , this integral transforms into

78
2
t dt t 2 =
}
. Going back to the original variables, we get the following
Answer. C ) x (arcsin x 1 3
2 2
+
(2) Hint. We have

2 1
2 2 2
I I dx
x 1
x arctan 6
dx
x 1
x 5
dx
x 1
x arctan 6 x 5
+ =
+
+
+
=
+
+
} } }

For the integral
1
I we use the substitution
2
x 1 u + = . Since dx x 2 du = , this
integral transforms into | u | ln
2
5
u
du
2
5
=
}
. For the integral
2
I we use the
substitution x arctan t = . Since dx
x 1
1
dt
2
+
= , this integral transforms into
t t 4 dt t 6 =
}
. Going back to the original variable, we obtain the following
Answer. C x arctan x arctan 4 ) x 1 ln(
2
5
2
+ + +
VIII) Supplementary Examples
(1) dx
) 1 x (
x
4 5
9
}
+
(2) dx
x 4 1
x 2
2
3
}
+

(1) Hint. We use the substitution 1 x u
5
+ = . Since dx x 5 du
4
= , we have the
following transformation du
5
1
) 1 u ( ) dx x ( x dx x
4 5 9
= . Therefore the integral
becomes C
u
1
15
1
u
1
10
1
u
du
5
1
du
u
du
5
1
du
u
) 1 u (
5
1
3 2 4 3 4
+ + = =
} } }

Answer. C
) 1 x (
1
15
1
) 1 x (
1
10
1
3 5 2 5
+
+
+
+

2
x 4 1 u + = . We then get dx x 8 du = and
4
1 u
x
2

= . Since we have the transformation
79
du ) 1 u (
16
1
du
8
1
4
1 u
2 ) dx x ( x 2 dx x 2
2 3
=
|
.
|
\
|
=
C u
4
1
u u
12
1
u
du
8
1
du u
8
1
du
u
1 u
8
1
+ = =
} } }

Answer. C x 4 1
4
1
x 4 1 ) x 4 1 (
12
1
2 2 2
+ + + +

4

Integration by Parts

Learning Objectives

integrals using the integration by parts method.

In applying the method of integration by parts, we shall use the following
Theorem:
Theorem 4.1. If ) x ( f and ) x ( g are integrable functions, then

} }
' = ' dx ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g ) x ( f dx ) x ( g ) x ( f (1)
Proof. We start from the formula (Leibnitz rule)
) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g ) x ( f ] ) x ( g ) x ( f [ ' + ' = '
Integrating the above formula, we get

} } }
' + ' = ' dx ) x ( g ) x ( f dx ) x ( g ) x ( f dx ] ) x ( g ) x ( f [
which is equivalent to

} }
' + ' = dx ) x ( g ) x ( f dx ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g ) x ( f
from which we get relation (1).
Note. Formula (1) can also be written as

} }
= ) x ( dg ) x ( f ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( df ) x ( g (2)

Chapter 4-Integration by parts
81
4.1. Examples
Example 1. Evaluate the Integral dx e x I
x
}
=
Solution. In applying formula (1), it is instructive to form the table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

x
e
x

x
e
1

Using formula (1) and the above table, we get
C e e x dx e e x dx e x I
x x x x x
+ = = =
} }

Maple support:
> f:=x*exp(x);
:= f x e
x

> int(f,x);
( ) + 1 x e
x

= d
(
]
(
(
x e
x
x ( ) + 1 x e
x

Example 2. Evaluate the Integral dx x ln x I
3
}
=
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

3
x
x ln

4
x
4

x
1

= = = =
} } }
dx x
4
1
x ln
4
x
dx
x
1
4
x
x ln
4
x
dx x ln x I
3
4 4 4
3

C x
16
1
x ln
4
x
C
4
x
4
1
x ln
4
x
4
4 4 4
+ = + =
Maple support:

82
> f:=x^3*log(x);
:= f x
3
( ) ln x

> int(f,x);

1
4
x
4
( ) ln x
x
4
16

= d
(
]
(
(
x
3
( ) ln x x
1
4
x
4
( ) ln x
x
4
16

Example 3. Evaluate the Integral dx x ln I
}
=
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'
1 x ln x

x
1

C x x ln x dx x ln x dx
x
1
x x ln x dx x ln I + = = = =
} } }

Maple support:
> f:=log(x);
:= f ( ) ln x

> int(f,x);
x ( ) ln x x

= d
(
]
(
( ) ln x x x ( ) ln x x
Example 4. Evaluate the Integral dx x arctan I
}
=
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'
1 x arctan x

2
x 1
1
+

Using formula (1) and the above table, we have
83
=
+
= =
} }
dx
x 1
1
x x arctan x dx x arctan I
2

C ) x 1 ln(
2
1
x arctan x dx
x 1
x 2
2
1
x arctan x
2
2
+ + =
+
=
}

Note. The integral dx
x 1
1
x
2
}
+
was written in the form dx
x 1
x 2
2
1
2
}
+
and then
was evaluated using the substitution
2
x 1 u + = , converting it to
C ) x 1 ln(
2
1
C | u | ln
2
1
u
du
2
1
2
+ + = + =
}
.
Maple support:
> f:=arctan(x);
:= f ( ) arctan x

> int(f,x);
x ( ) arctan x
1
2
( ) ln + 1 x
2

= d
(
]
(
( ) arctan x x x ( ) arctan x
1
2
( ) ln + 1 x
2

Example 5. Evaluate the integral dx x arcsin I
}
=
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'
1 x arcsin x
2
x 1
1

Using formula (1) and the above table, we have
=
= =
} }
dx
x 1
1
x x arcsin x dx x arcsin I
2

C x 1 x arcsin x dx
x 1
x 2
2
1
x arcsin x
2
2
+ + =
+ =
}

84
x 1
1
x
2
}

was written in the form dx
x 1
x 2
2
1
2
}

and
then was evaluated using the substitution
2
x 1 u = , converting it into

2
x 1 C u
u
du
2
1
= + =
}
.
Maple support:
> f:=arcsin(x);
:= f ( ) arcsin x

> int(f,x);
+ x ( ) arcsin x 1 x
2

= d
(
]
(
( ) arcsin x x + x ( ) arcsin x 1 x
2

dx x sin x I
}
= and dx x cos x J
}
=
Solution. Using formula (1) and the table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'
x sin x x cos 1
we have
dx x cos x cos x dx x sin x I
} }
+ = =
C x sin x cos x + + =
. Using formula (1) and the table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'
x cos x x sin 1
we have
dx x sin x sin x dx x cos x J
} }
+ = =
C x cos x sin x + =
Maple support:
85
> f:=x*sin(x);
:= f x ( ) sin x

> int(f,x);
( ) sin x x ( ) cos x

= d
(
]
(
x ( ) sin x x ( ) sin x x ( ) cos x
> g:=x*cos(x);
:= g x ( ) cos x

> int(g,x);
+ ( ) cos x x ( ) sin x

> Int(g,x)=int(g,x);
= d
(
]
(
x ( ) cos x x + ( ) cos x x ( ) sin x
dx x sin e I
x
}
= and dx x cos e J
x
}
=
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

x
e
x sin

x
e
x cos
we have
J x sin e dx x cos e x sin e dx x sin e I
x x x x
= = =
} }

or
x sin e J I
x
= +
Using formula (1) and the table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

x
e
x cos

x
e
x sin
we have
I x cos e dx x sin e x cos e dx x cos e J
x x x x
+ = + = =
} }

or
x cos e J I
x
= +
86
Solving the system
x sin e J I
x
= + and x cos e J I
x
= +
we obtain
) x cos e x sin e (
2
1
I
x x
= and ) x cos e x sin e (
2
1
J
x x
+ =
A generalization of this example is given in 9.21.
Maple support:
> f:=exp(x)*sin(x);
:= f e
x
( ) sin x

> int(f,x);
+
1
2
e
x
( ) cos x
1
2
e
x
( ) sin x

= d
(
]
(
(
e
x
( ) sin x x +
1
2
e
x
( ) cos x
1
2
e
x
( ) sin x

> g:=exp(x)*cos(x);
:= g e
x
( ) cos x

> int(g,x);
+
1
2
e
x
( ) cos x
1
2
e
x
( ) sin x

= d
(
]
(
(
e
x
( ) cos x x +
1
2
e
x
( ) cos x
1
2
e
x
( ) sin x

dx
x sin
x
I
2
}
= and dx
x cos
x
J
2
}
=
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

x sin
1
2

x x cot 1
we obtain
87
= + = + = =
} } }
dx
x sin
x cos
x cot x dx x cot x cot x dx
x sin
x
I
2

C | x sin | ln x cot x dx
x sin
) x (sin
x cot x + + =
'
+ =
}

Using formula (1) and the table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

x cos
1
2

x x tan 1
we obtain
= + = = =
} } }
dx
x cos
x sin
x tan x dx x tan x tan x dx
x cos
x
J
2

C | x cos | ln x tan x dx
x cos
) x (cos
x tan x + =
'
=
}

Maple support:
> f:=x/sin(x)^2;
:= f
x
( ) sin x
2

> int(f,x);
+ x ( ) cot x ( ) ln ( ) sin x

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
x
( ) sin x
2
x + x ( ) cot x ( ) ln ( ) sin x
> g:=x/cos(x)^2;
:= g
x
( ) cos x
2

> int(g,x);
+ x ( ) tan x ( ) ln ( ) cos x

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
x
( ) cos x
2
x + x ( ) tan x ( ) ln ( ) cos x

88
dx x tan x I
2
}
= and dx x cot x J
2
}
=
Solution. We have the formula: 1
x cos
1
x tan
2
2
= . Therefore
=
|
.
|
\
|
= =
} }
dx 1
x cos
1
x dx x tan x I
2
2

C
2
x
| x cos | ln x tan x dx x dx
x cos
x
2
2
+ = =
} }

where we have used the value of the integral dx
x cos
x
2 }
we have found in the
previous Example.
We have the formula: 1
x sin
1
x cot
2
2
= . Therefore
=
|
.
|
\
|
= =
} }
dx 1
x sin
1
x dx x cot x J
2
2

C
2
x
| x sin | ln x cot x dx x dx
x sin
x
2
2
+ + = =
} }

where we have used the value of the integral dx
x sin
x
2 }
we have found in the
previous Example.
Maple support:
> f:=x*tan(x)^2;
:= f x ( ) tan x
2

> int(f,x);
x ( ) tan x
x
2
2
1
2
( ) ln + 1 ( ) tan x
2

= d
(
]
(
(
x ( ) tan x
2
x x ( ) tan x
x
2
2
1
2
( ) ln + 1 ( ) tan x
2

> g:=x*cot(x)^2;
:= g x ( ) cot x
2

89
> int(g,x);
+
x
1
2
x
2
( ) tan x
( ) tan x
( ) ln ( ) tan x
1
2
( ) ln + 1 ( ) tan x
2

= d
(
]
(
(
x ( ) cot x
2
x +
x
1
2
x
2
( ) tan x
( ) tan x
( ) ln ( ) tan x
1
2
( ) ln + 1 ( ) tan x
2

dx
) x 1 (
x
I
2 2
2
}
+
=
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

2 2
) x 1 (
x
+

x
) x 1 ( 2
1
2
+

1
we obtain
=
+
+
+
=
+
=
} }
dx
x 1
1
2
1
) x 1 ( 2
x
dx
) x 1 (
x
I
2 2 2 2
2

C x arctan
2
1
) x 1 ( 2
x
2
+ +
+
=
Maple support:
> f:=x^2/(1+x^2)^2;
:= f
x
2
( ) + 1 x
2
2

> int(f,x);

1
2
( ) arctan x
x
2 ( ) + 1 x
2

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
((
x
2
( ) + 1 x
2
2
x
1
2
( ) arctan x
x
2 ( ) + 1 x
2

90

dx ) x (arctan x I
2
}
=
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'
x
2
) x (arctan

2
x
2
) x (arctan
x 1
2
2
+

we obtain
=
+
= =
} }
dx ) x (arctan
x 1
2
2
x
) x (arctan
2
x
dx ) x (arctan x I
2
2
2
2
2

J ) x (arctan
2
x
dx ) x (arctan
x 1
x
) x (arctan
2
x
2
2
2
2
2
2
=
+
=
}

The integral
dx ) x (arctan
x 1
x
J
2
2
}
+
=
can be written as
= |
.
|
\
|
+
=
}
dx ) x (arctan
x 1
1
1 J
2

L K dx ) x (arctan
x 1
1
dx ) x (arctan
2
=
+
=
} }

The integral dx ) x (arctan K
}
= was evaluated above in Example 4:
) x 1 ln(
2
1
x arctan x dx ) x (arctan K
2
+ = =
}

The integral
dx ) x (arctan
x 1
1
L
2 }
+
=
can be evaluated using the substitution x arctan u = .
Since dx
x 1
1
du
2
+
= , we find
91

2
2
2
) x (arctan
2
1
2
u
du u dx ) x (arctan
x 1
1
L = = =
+
=
} }

Collecting everything together, we obtain
= = = ) L K ( ) x (arctan
2
x
J ) x (arctan
2
x
I
2
2
2
2

C ) x (arctan
2
1
) x 1 ln(
2
1
x arctan x ) x (arctan
2
x
2 2 2
2
+ + + + =
Maple support:
> f:=x*arctan(x)^2;
:= f x ( ) arctan x
2

> int(f,x);
+ +
1
2
( ) arctan x
2
1
2
( ) arctan x
2
x
2
x ( ) arctan x
1
2
( ) ln + 1 x
2

= d
(
]
(
(
x ( ) arctan x
2
x + +
1
2
( ) arctan x
2
1
2
( ) arctan x
2
x
2
x ( ) arctan x
1
2
( ) ln + 1 x
2

dx ) x (arctan x I
2
}
=
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

2
x
x arctan

3
x
3

2
x 1
1
+

we obtain
=
+
= =
} }
dx
x 1
x
3
1
) x (arctan
3
x
dx ) x (arctan x I
2
3 3
2

J
3
1
) x (arctan
3
x
3
=
The integral dx
x 1
x
J
2
3
}
+
= can be evaluated as follows
92
=
+
=
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+
=
} } } }
dx
x 1
x
dx x dx
x 1
x
x dx
x 1
x
J
2 2 2
3

) x 1 ( ln
2
1
2
x
dx
x 1
x 2
2
1
2
x
2
2
2
2
+ =
+
=
}

Therefore we obtain the value of the integral
= = =
}
J
3
1
) x (arctan
3
x
dx ) x (arctan x I
3
2

C ) x 1 ( ln
2
1
2
x
3
1
) x (arctan
3
x
2
2 3
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
or
C ) x 1 ln(
6
1
x
6
1
) x (arctan
3
x
dx ) x (arctan x I
2 2
3
2
+ + + = =
}

Maple support:
> f:=x^2*arctan(x);
:= f ( ) arctan x x
2

> int(f,x);
+
1
3
x
3
( ) arctan x
x
2
6
1
6
( ) ln + 1 x
2

= d
(
]
(
(
( ) arctan x x
2
x +
1
3
x
3
( ) arctan x
x
2
6
1
6
( ) ln + 1 x
2

4.2. Reduction Formulas.
(1) dx e x I
x
1 }
= (2) dx e x I
x 2
2 }
= (3) dx e x I
x 3
3 }
=
Solution.
(1) This integral was evaluated previously in 4.1, Example 1:
C e e x dx e x I
x x x
1
+ = =
}
(1)
(2) Using the formula
93

} }
' = ' dx ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g ) x ( f dx ) x ( g ) x ( f
and the table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

x
e

2
x

x
e
x 2
we have

1
x 2 x x 2 x 2
2
I 2 e x dx e x 2 e x dx e x I = = =
} }
(2)
where
1
I is given by (1).
(3) Using the formula

} }
and the table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

x
e

3
x

x
e

2
x 3
we have

2
x 3 x 2 x 3 x 3
3
I 3 e x dx e x 3 e x dx e x I = = =
} }
(3)
where
2
I is given by (2).
We see from the above Examples that we need to repeat integration so many times
as long as the exponent of x becomes higher and higher. It is further observed
that each integral is being expressed in terms of the integral having exponent of x
less by one:

0
x x
1
I e x dx e x I = =
}

1
x 2 x 2
2
I 2 e x dx e x I = =
}

2
x 3 x 3
3
I 3 e x dx e x I = =
}

Therefore considering the integral dx e x I
x n
n }
= , one expects that

1 n
x n x n
n
I n e x dx e x I

= =
}
( 1 n > ) (4)
94
This is indeed the case by considering the following table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

x
e
n
x
x
e
1 n
x n

Using the table above we establish the formula

1 n
x n x 1 n x n x n
n
I n e x dx e x n e x dx e x I

= = =
} }

Therefore

1 n
x n
n
I n e x I

= , 1 n >
The above formula is a reduction formula for the integral dx e x I
x n
n }
= .
It is sometimes called iteration formula or recurrence relation.
It means that the evaluation of dx e x I
x n
n }
= is reduced to the evaluation of
1 n
I

, the evaluation of
1 n
I

is reduced to the evaluation of
2 n
I

, etc using
successively formula (3).
Using the above formula we can evaluate for example dx e x
x 4
}
without using
four times integration by parts.
For 4 n = we have from (4):
3
x 4
4
I 4 e x I =
2
x 3
3
I 3 e x I =
1
x 2
2
I 2 e x I =
0
x
1
I e x I =
where it is obvious that

x x
0
e dx e I = =
}

Going from the last equation to the first one, we get
-
x x
0
x
1
e e x I e x I = =
-
x x x 2 x x x 2
1
x 2
2
e 2 e x 2 e x ) e e x ( 2 e x I 2 e x I + = = =
95
- = + = = ) e 2 e x 2 e x ( 3 e x I 3 e x I
x x x 2 x 3
2
x 3
3

x x x 2 x 3
e 6 e x 6 e x 3 e x + =
- = + = = ) e 6 e x 6 e x 3 e x ( 4 e x I 4 e x I
x x x 2 x 3 x 4
3
x 4
4

x x x 2 x 3 x 4
e 24 e x 24 e x 12 e x 4 e x + + =
(an arbitrary constant has been omitted).
Some remarks are now in order:
- No all reduction formulas can be established using the integration by parts
method.
- There are reduction formulas depending on two (or more) indices.
See for example reduction formulas for integration of trigonometric
functions (
- Computer Algebra Systems evaluate immediately integrals which are
evaluated by hand using reduction formulas.
Maple support:
> f:=x^4*exp(x);
:= f x
4
e
x

> int(f,x);
( ) + + 24 24 x 12 x
2
4 x
3
x
4
e
x

= d
(
]
(
(
x
4
e
x
x ( ) + + 24 24 x 12 x
2
4 x
3
x
4
e
x

4.3. Integrals in which integration by parts follows a
substitution.
In many cases we have to make a substitution first and then integrate by parts.
}
= dx
x
) x ln(ln
I
96
Solution. Using the substitution x ln u = , since
x
dx
du = , the integral becomes

}
= du u ln I
which was evaluated before (Example 3, 4.1):
C u u ln u du u ln + =
}

C ) x (ln ) x ln(ln ) x (ln dx
x
) x ln(ln
I + = =
}

Maple support:
> f:=log(log(x))/x;
:= f
( ) ln ( ) ln x
x

> int(f,x);
( ) ln ( ) ln x ( ) ln x ( ) ln x

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
( ) ln ( ) ln x
x
x ( ) ln ( ) ln x ( ) ln x ( ) ln x

dx e x I
2
x 3
}

=
2
x u = , since dx x 2 du = and
du u
2
1
du
2
1
) u ( dx x x dx x
2 3
=
|
.
|
\
|
= =
the integral transforms into du e u
2
1
u
}
. The last integral was evaluated in 4.1,
Example 1:

u u u
e e u du e u =
}

Going back to the original variable, we find
97
C e
2
1
e ) x (
2
1
dx e x I
2 2 2
x x 2 x 3
+ = =

}

Maple support:
> f:=x^3*exp(-x^2);
:= f x
3
e
( ) x
2

> int(f,x);
1
2
( ) + 1 x
2
e
( ) x
2

= d
(
]
(
(
(
x
3
e
( ) x
2
x
1
2
( ) + 1 x
2
e
( ) x
2

dx e I
x
}
=
Solution. Using the substitution u x = ,
2
u x = and du u 2 dx = , the integral
transforms into du e u 2
u
}
. The last integral was evaluated in 4.1, Example 1:

u u u
e e u du e u =
}

C e 2 e x 2 dx e I
x x x
+ = =
}

Maple support:
> f:=exp(sqrt(x));
:= f e
( ) x

> int(f,x);
2 e
( ) x
x 2 e
( ) x

= d
(
]
(
((
e
( ) x
x 2 e
( ) x
x 2 e
( ) x

dx ) x cos(ln I
}
= and dx ) x sin(ln J
}
=
98
Solution. Under the substitution x ln u = , since
u
e x = and du e dx
u
= , the
integral I transforms into du e ) u (cos
u
}
, which was evaluated before (in 4.1,
Example 7):
) u cos e u sin e (
2
1
du e ) u (cos
u u u
+ =
}

Therefore going back to the original variable, we find
C )] x cos(ln x ) x sin(ln x [
2
1
dx ) x cos(ln I + + = =
}

Similarly, under the substitution x ln u = , since
u
e x = and du e dx
u
= , the
integral J transforms into du e ) u (sin
u
}
, which was evaluated before (in 4.1,
Example 7):
) u cos e u sin e (
2
1
du e ) u (sin
u u u
=
}

Therefore going back to the original variable, we find
C )] x cos(ln x ) x sin(ln x [
2
1
dx ) x sin(ln I + = =
}

Maple support:
> f:=cos(log(x));
:= f ( ) cos ( ) ln x

> int(f,x);
+
1
2
( ) cos ( ) ln x x
1
2
( ) sin ( ) ln x x

= d
(
]
(
( ) cos ( ) ln x x +
1
2
( ) cos ( ) ln x x
1
2
( ) sin ( ) ln x x

> g:=sin(log(x));
:= g ( ) sin ( ) ln x

> int(g,x);
+
1
2
( ) cos ( ) ln x x
1
2
( ) sin ( ) ln x x

99
= d
(
]
(
( ) sin ( ) ln x x +
1
2
( ) cos ( ) ln x x
1
2
( ) sin ( ) ln x x

Example 5. Evaluate the integral dx x sin I
}
=
Solution. We make the substitution
x sin u = (1)
Inverting the sine function, we find
u arcsin x =
Squaring both members of the previous relation, we obtain

2
) u (arcsin x = (2)
from which we calculate the differential:
du ) u (arcsin
u 1
2
dx
2
=
The integral thus becomes

}

du ) u (arcsin
u 1
2
u
2
(3)
Using the formula

} }
' = ' du ) u ( g ) u ( f ) u ( g ) u ( f du ) u ( g ) u ( f
and the table
) u ( f ' ) u ( g ) u ( f ) u ( g'

2
u 1
u

u arcsin 2
u 1
2
u 1
1

we get for the integral in (3):
du
u 1
1
) u 1 ( 2 ) u (arcsin u 1 2
2
2 2

}

or
C u 2 ) u (arcsin u 1 2 du 2 ) u (arcsin u 1 2
2 2
+ + = +
}

Going back to the original variable, we get the following value of the integral:
100
C x sin 2 x ) x sin ( 1 2 dx x sin I
2
+ + = =
}

C x sin 2 x ) x (cos 2 + + =
Maple support:
> f:=sin(sqrt(x));
:= f ( ) sin x

> int(f,x);
2 ( ) sin x 2 x ( ) cos x

= d
(
]
(
(
( ) sin x x 2 ( ) sin x 2 x ( ) cos x
4.4. Supplementary Exercises.
Exercise 1. Evaluate the integral
}
= dx
x
x ln
I
3
2

Solution. Using the formula

} }
and the table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

3
2
x
1

x ln

3
x 3

x
1

we have
= = =
} }
dx
x
x
3 ) x (ln x 3 dx
x
x ln
I
3
3
3
2

C x 9 ) x (ln x 3 dx x 3 ) x (ln x 3
3 3
3
2
3
+ = =
}

Maple support:
> f:=log(x)/x^(2/3);
:= f
( ) ln x
x
( ) / 2 3

> int(f,x);
101
3 ( ) ln x x
( ) / 1 3
9 x
( ) / 1 3

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
(
( ) ln x
x
( ) / 2 3
x 3 ( ) ln x x
( ) / 1 3
9 x
( ) / 1 3

}
= dx
x
) x (ln
I
2
2


} }
and the table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

2
x
1

2
) x (ln

x
1

x
1
) x (ln 2
we have
J 2 ) x (ln
x
1
dx
x
x ln
2 ) x (ln
x
1
dx
x
) x (ln
I
2
2
2
2
2
+ = + = =
} }

For the integral
}
= dx
x
x ln
J
2
, using the table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

2
x
1

x ln

x
1

x
1

we have

x
1
x
x ln
dx
x
1
x
x ln
dx
x
x ln
J
2 2
= + = =
} }

C
x
) x ln 1 ( 2
) x (ln
x
1
dx
x
) x (ln
I
2
2
2
+
+
= =
}

Maple support:
> f:=log(x)^2/x^2;
102
:= f
( ) ln x
2
x
2

> int(f,x);

( ) ln x
2
x
2 ( ) ln x
x
2
x

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
(
( ) ln x
2
x
2
x
( ) ln x
2
x
2 ( ) ln x
x
2
x

}
= dx x cos x sin x I
Solution. Since x 2 sin
2
1
) x cos x sin 2 (
2
1
x cos x sin = = , the integral takes
the form

} }
= = dx x 2 sin x
2
1
dx x cos x sin x I
Using the table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'
x 2 sin x
2
x 2 cos

1
we have

} }
= = dx x 2 sin x
2
1
dx x cos x sin x I
C
2
x 2 sin
4
1
2
x 2 cos x
dx x 2 cos
4
1
2
x 2 cos x
+ + = + =
}

C x 2 sin
8
1
) x 2 cos x (
2
1
+ + =
Maple support:
> f:=x*sin(x)*cos(x);
:= f x ( ) sin x ( ) cos x

> int(f,x);
+ +
1
2
x ( ) cos x
2
1
4
( ) sin x ( ) cos x
x
4

103
= d
(
]
(
x ( ) sin x ( ) cos x x + +
1
2
x ( ) cos x
2
1
4
( ) sin x ( ) cos x
x
4

}
= dx
x sin
x cos x
I
3

Solution. Using the table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

x sin
x cos
3

x
x sin 2
1
2

1
and the integration by parts formula, we find
C x cot
2
1
x sin 2
x
x sin
dx
2
1
x sin 2
x
dx
x sin
x cos x
I
2 2 2 3
+ = + = =
} }

Maple support:
> f:=x*cos(x)/sin(x)^3;
:= f
x ( ) cos x
( ) sin x
3

> int(f,x);

1
2
x
( ) sin x
2
1
2
( ) cos x
( ) sin x

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
x ( ) cos x
( ) sin x
3
x
1
2
x
( ) sin x
2
1
2
( ) cos x
( ) sin x

}
= dx
e
) 2 / x ( cos
I
x
2

Solution. We have the formula

2
x cos 1
) 2 / x ( cos
2
+
=
= + =
+
=
} } }
dx
e
x cos
2
1
dx
e
1
2
1
dx
e
x cos 1
2
1
I
x x x

104
J
2
1
e
2
1
dx x cos e
2
1
dx e
2
1
x x x
+ = + =

} }

Using the table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

x
e

x cos

x
e

x sin
we have
dx x sin e x cos e dx x cos e J
x x x
} }

= =
We now have to calculate the integral dx x sin e
x
}

.
Using the table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

x
e

x sin

x
e

x cos
we have
J x sin e dx x cos e x sin e dx x sin e
x x x x
+ = + =

} }

Therefore
) J x sin e ( x cos e dx x cos e J
x x x
+ = =

}

from which we obtain
) x cos x (sin e
2
1
J
x
=

Collecting everything together, we find
C ) x cos x (sin e
4
1
e
2
1
I
x x
+ + =

Maple support:
> f:=cos(x/2)^2/exp(x);
:= f
|
\
|
.
|
|
cos
x
2
2
e
x

> int(f,x);
105
+
1
2
1
e
x
1
4
e
( ) x
( ) cos x
1
4
e
( ) x
( ) sin x

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
|
\
|
.
|
|
cos
x
2
2
e
x
x +
1
2
1
e
x
1
4
e
( ) x
( ) cos x
1
4
e
( ) x
( ) sin x

dx e I
x arcsin
}
=
} }
and the table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'
1
x arcsin
e
x
x arcsin
2
e
x 1
1

we obtain
dx e
x 1
x
e x dx e I
x arcsin
2
x arcsin x arcsin
} }

= =
The last integral under the substitution x arcsin u = , since dx
x 1
1
du
2
= and
u sin x = , transforms into du e ) u (sin
u
}
, which was evaluated in 4.1, Example 7:
) u cos u (sin e
2
1
du e ) u (sin
u u
=
}

Therefore
} x 1 x { e
2
1
dx e
x 1
x
2 x arcsin x arcsin
2
=
}

where we have used the fact that x u sin = and
2
x 1 u cos = .
106
C } x 1 x { e
2
1
e x dx e I
2 x arcsin x arcsin x arcsin
+ = =
}

or
C } x 1 x { e
2
1
dx e I
2 x arcsin x arcsin
+ + = =
}

Maple support: Maple cannot evaluate this integral.
> f:=exp(arcsin(x));
:= f e
( ) arcsin x

> int(f,x);
d
(
]
(
(
e
( ) arcsin x
x
Mathematica support:
Mathematica has been able to evaluate the integral.

I n [ 1 ] : = Exp ArcSin x x
O u t [ 1 ] =
1
2
ArcSin x
x 1 x
2

}

= dx
x 1
) x ( arcsin
I ( 1 x 0 < < )
} }
and the table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

x 1
1

x arcsin x 1 2

x 1
1
x 2
1

we obtain
= + =
=
} }
dx
x
1
) x ( arcsin x 1 2 dx
x 1
) x ( arcsin
I
C x 2 ) x ( arcsin x 1 2 + + =
107
Maple support:
> f:=arcsin(sqrt(x))/sqrt(1-x);
:= f
( ) arcsin x
1 x

> int(f,x);
2 x 2 ( ) arcsin x 1 x

= d
(
]
(
(
(
((
( ) arcsin x
1 x
x 2 x 2 ( ) arcsin x 1 x
}
+ = dx ) a x log( I
2 2

Solution. Using formula

} }
and the table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'
1
) a x log(
2 2
+
x
2 2
a x
x 2
+

and the integration by parts formula, we find
dx
a x
x 2
x ) a x log( x dx ) a x log( I
2 2
2 2 2 2
} }
+
+ = + =
dx
a x
x
2 ) a x log( x
2 2
2
2 2
}
+
+ =
For the last integral we have
=
+
+
=
+
=
} }
dx
a x
a ) a x (
dx
a x
x
J
2 2
2 2 2
2 2
2

=
+
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
} } }
dx
a x
1
a dx dx
a x
a
1
2 2
2
2 2
2

|
.
|
\
|
=
|
.
|
\
|
=
a
x
arctan a x
a
x
arctan
a
1
a x
2

108
Therefore
C
a
x
arctan a x 2 ) a x ( log x I
2 2
+ |
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
Maple support:
> f:=log(x^2+a^2);
:= f ( ) ln + x
2
a
2

> int(f,x);
+ x ( ) ln + x
2
a
2
2 x 2 a
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
x
a

= d
(
]
(
(
( ) ln + x
2
a
2
x + x ( ) ln + x
2
a
2
2 x 2 a
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
x
a

Exercise 9. Prove the relation dy ) y ( f ) x ( f x dx ) x ( f
1 1
} }
=

where ) y ( f x = .
Solution. Using formula
} }
and the table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'
1
) x ( f
1

x
)) x ( f ( f
1
1
'

we obtain
dx
)) x ( f ( f
x
) x ( f x dx ) x ( f
1
1 1
} }

'
= (1)
Introducing the substitution ) x ( f y
1
= , we find
) y ( f x = and dx
)) x ( f ( f
1
dy
1
'
= (2)
Therefore

} }
=
'

dy ) y ( f dx
)) x ( f ( f
x
1
(3)
The integral in (1) thus takes on the form
109
dy ) y ( f ) x ( f x dx ) x ( f
1 1
} }
=

(4)
where ) y ( f x = .
Application. Evaluate the integral
}
dx x arctan .
We have, according to the above formula
} }
= dy y tan x arctan x dx x arctan where ) y ( f x = .
Since
| y cos | ln dy y tan =
}

and
) x arctan( y y tan x = =
we find
| ) x cos(arctan | ln | y cos | ln dy y tan = =
}

Therefore
C | ) x cos(arctan | ln x arctan x dx x arctan + + =
}
(5)
In Example 5 we have found the following result:
C ) x 1 ln(
2
1
x arctan x dx x arctan
2
+ + =
}
(6)
We now have to prove the equivalence of the two formulas (5) and (6).
The proof goes as follows:
= = | ) x (arctan cos | ln
2
1
| ) x cos(arctan | ln
2

) x 1 ln(
2
1
x 1
1
ln
2
1
) x (arctan tan 1
1
ln
2
1
2
2 2
+ = |
.
|
\
|
+
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=

110

4a

Exercises on
111
Integration by Parts

In applying the method of integration by parts, we shall use the following formula

} }
proved in Theorem 4.1.
The previous formula can also be written as

} }
= ) x ( dg ) x ( f ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( df ) x ( g
Applying the above formulas, it is also instructive to use a Table, indicating which
functions have been assigned to ) x ( f and ) x ( g respectively.
(1) dx e x
x 2
}
(2) dx e x
x
}

(3) dx e x
x 2 2
}

(4) dx e x
x a 2
}

(1) Hint. Use the table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

x 2
e
x

x 2
e
2
1

1
We then get
dx e
2
1
e x
2
1
dx e x
x 2 x 2 x 2
} }
=
Answer. C e
4
1
e x
2
1
x 2 x 2
+

) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

x
e

x

x
e

1
We then get
112
dx e e x dx e x
x x x
} }

+ =
Answer. C e e x
x x
+

) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

x 2
e

2
x

x 2
e
2
1

x 2
We then get
dx e x e x
2
1
dx e x
x 2 x 2 2 x 2 2
} }

+ =
The last integral is evaluated using the table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

x 2
e

x

x 2
e
2
1

1
We then get
dx e
2
1
e x
2
1
dx e x
x 2 x 2 x 2
} }

+ =
Answer. C e
4
1
e x
2
1
e x
2
1
x 2 x 2 x 2
+

) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

x a
e
2
x

x a
e
a
1

x 2
We then get
dx e x
a
2
e x
a
1
dx e x
x a x a 2 x a 2
} }
+ =
The last integral is evaluated using the table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

x a
e
x

x a
e
a
1

1
113
We then get
dx e
a
1
e x
a
1
dx e x
x a x a x a
} }
+ =
Answer. C e
a
1
e x
a
1
a
2
e x
a
1
x a
2
x a x a 2
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ +
(1) dx x ln x I
5
}
= (2) dx x ln x I
}
=
(3) dx
x
x ln
I
}
= (4) dx x ln x I
3
2
}
=
(5) dx ) x (ln x I
2 2
}
= (6) dx
x
) x (ln
I
4
3
2
}
=
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

5
x
x ln

6
x
6

x
1

We then get
dx x
6
1
x ln
6
x
dx
x
1
6
x
x ln
6
x
dx x ln x
5
6 6 6
5
} } }
= =
Answer. C
36
x
x ln
6
x
6 6
+
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'
x
x ln
x x
3
2

x
1

We then get
dx x
3
2
x ln x x
3
2
dx x ln x
} }
=
Answer. C x x
9
4
x ln x x
3
2
+
114
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

x
1

x ln
x 2

x
1

We then get
} }
=
x
dx
2 x ln x 2 dx
x
x ln

Answer. C x 4 x ln x 2 +
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

3
2
x
x ln

3
2
x x
5
3

x
1

We then get
dx x
5
3
x x
5
3
dx x ln x
3
2
3
2
3
2
} }
=
Answer. C x x
25
9
x ln x x
5
3 3
2
3
2
+
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

2
x
2
) x (ln

3
x
3

x
x ln 2

We then get
dx x ln x
3
2
) x (ln
3
x
dx ) x (ln x
2 2
3
2 2
} }
=
For the last integral we use the table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

2
x
x ln

3
x
3

x
1

We then get
115
dx x
3
1
) x (ln
3
x
dx x ln x
2
3
2
} }
=
Answer. C x
27
2
) x (ln x
9
2
) x (ln x
3
1
3 3 2 3
+ +
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

4
3
x
1

2
) x (ln

4
x 4

x
x ln 2

We then get
dx
x
x ln
8 ) x (ln x 4 dx
x
) x (ln
4
3
2
4
4
3
2
} }
=
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

4
3
x
1

x ln

4
x 4

x
1

We then get
dx
x
1
4 ) x (ln x 4 dx
x
x ln
4
3
2
4
4
3
} }
=
Answer. ] 32 ) x (ln 8 ) x (ln [ x 4
2
4
+
(1) dx x arctan x
}
(2) dx x arcsin x
}

(1) Hint. We use the table

) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'
x x arctan

2
x
2

2
x 1
1
+

We then have
116
dx
x 1
x
2
1
) x (arctan
2
x
dx x arctan x
2
2 2
} }
+
=
and since dx
x 1
1
1 dx
x 1
1 ) x 1 (
dx
x 1
x
2 2
2
2
2
} } }
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+
+
=
+
, we obtain the
following
Answer. C
2
x
x arctan
2
1
x arctan x
2
1
2
+ +
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'
x x arcsin

2
x
2

2
x 1
1

We then have
dx
x 1
x
2
1
) x (arcsin
2
x
dx x arcsin x
2
2 2
} }

=
For the last integral, since dx
x 1
x
x dx
x 1
x
2 2
2
} }

=
, using the table

) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

2
x 1
x

x

2
x 1
1
We then have
dx x 1 x 1 x dx
x 1
x
2 2
2
2
} }
+ =

and since x arcsin
2
1
x 1 x
2
1
dx x 1
2 2
+ =
}
(11.8, Case 2, Example 2,
Method 4), we obtain the following
Answer. C
4
x 1 x
x arcsin
4
1
x arcsin x
2
1
2
2
+
+
117
(1) dx x 2 sin x I
}
= (2) dx x 3 cos x I
}
=
(3) dx x 3 sin x I
2
}
= (4) dx x 2 cos x I
2
}
=
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'
x 2 sin x

2
x 2 cos

1
we have
dx x 2 cos
2
1
x 2 cos x
2
1
dx x 2 sin x
} }
+ =
Answer. C x 2 sin
4
1
x 2 cos x
2
1
+ +
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'
x 3 cos x

3
x 3 sin

1
we have
dx x 3 sin
3
1
x 3 sin x
3
1
dx x 3 cos x
} }
+ =
Answer. C x 3 cos
9
1
x 3 sin x
3
1
+
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'
x 3 sin

2
x

3
x 3 cos

x 2
we have
dx x 3 cos x
3
2
x 3 cos x
3
1
dx x 3 sin x
2 2
} }
+ =
The last integral was evaluated previously.
118
Answer. C x 3 cos
27
2
x 3 sin x
9
2
x 3 cos x
3
1
2
+ + +
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'
x 2 cos

2
x

2
x 2 sin

x 2
we have
dx x 2 sin x x 2 sin x
2
1
dx x 2 cos x
2 2
} }
+ =
The last integral was evaluated previously.
Answer. C x 2 sin
4
1
x 2 cos x
2
1
x 2 sin x
2
1
2
+ +
(1) dx x 2 sin e I
x
}

= (2) dx x cos e I
x 2
}
=
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

x
e

x 2 sin

x
e

x 2 cos 2
we have
dx x 2 cos e 2 x 2 sin e dx x 2 sin e I
x x x
} }

+ = =
or J 2 x 2 sin e I
x
+ =

(1). For the last integral, we use the table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

x
e

x 2 cos

x
e

x 2 sin 2
we have
dx x 2 sin e 2 x 2 cos e dx x 2 cos e J
x x x
} }

= =
or I 2 x 2 cos e J
x
=

(2). From (1), using (2), we get
) I 2 x 2 cos e ( 2 x 2 sin e I
x x
+ =

We solve the previous equation with respect to I and we obtain the following
119
Answer. C ) x 2 cos 2 x 2 (sin e
5
1
I
x
+ + =

) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

x 2
e
x cos

x 2
e
2
1

x sin
we have
dx x sin e
2
1
x cos e
2
1
dx x cos e I
x 2 x 2 x 2
} }
+ = =
or J
2
1
x cos e
2
1
I
x 2
+ = (1). For the last integral we use the table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

x 2
e
x sin

x 2
e
2
1

x cos
and we have
dx x cos e
2
1
x sin e
2
1
dx x sin e J
x 2 x 2 x 2
} }
= =
or I
2
1
x sin e
2
1
J
x 2
= (2). Using (2), we obtain from (1) the equation
|
.
|
\
|
+ = I
2
1
x sin e
2
1
2
1
x cos e
2
1
I
x 2 x 2
. Solving this equation with respect to I we
obtain the following
Answer. C ) x sin x cos 2 ( e
5
1
I
x 2
+ + =
(1)
}
=
x sin
dx
I
2
(2)
}
=
x cos
dx
I
2

(3) dx x tan I
2
}
= (4) dx x cot I
2
}
=
120
(1) Hint. Let u x = . Then
2
u x = and du u 2 dx = . The integral transforms into
du
u sin
u 2
I
2
}
= . We have | u sin | ln u cot u du
u sin
u
2
+ =
}
(4, Example 8).
Answer. C | x sin | ln 2 x cot x 2 + +
(2) Hint. Let u x = . Then
2
u x = and du u 2 dx = . The integral transforms into
du
u cos
u 2
I
2
}
= . Since | u cos | ln u tan u du
u cos
u
2
=
}
(4, Example 8),
Answer. C | x cos | ln 2 x tan x 2 +
(3) Hint. We have 1
x cos
1
x tan
2
2
= . Then
dx 1
x cos
1
dx x tan
2
2
} } |
|
.
|
\
|
= and use the previous result.
Answer. C x | x cos | ln 2 x tan x 2 +
(4) Hint. We have 1
x sin
1
x cot
2
2
= . Then
dx 1
x sin
1
dx x cot
2
2
} } |
|
.
|
\
|
= and use the previous result.
Answer. C x | x sin | ln 2 x cot x 2 + +

5

Integrals of
Polynomial Functions

Learning Objectives

integrals involving polynomial functions.
The classification involves five cases.

Contents and Taxonomy
- First Category. This Category includes integrals of the form

}
dx ) x ( P
where ) x ( P is an th n degree ( 1 n > ) polynomial
- Second Category. This Category includes integrals of the form
dx ) b x a ( I
n
}
+ =
- Third Category. This Category includes integrals of the form
dx ) b x a ( I
n m
}
+ =

Chapter 5-Integrals of polynomial functions
122

- Fourth Category. Integrals of the form
}
' = dx ) x ( P ) x ( P I and
}
' = dx ) x ( P )] x ( P [ J
m

- Fifth Category. Integrals of the form
}
dx ) x ( P ) x ( P ) x ( P
k 2 1
,
}
dx )] x ( P [
m

}
dx )] x ( P [ )] x ( P [ )] x ( P [
k 2 1
m
k
m
2
m
1

5.1 First Category. This Category includes integrals of the form

}
dx ) x ( P
where ) x ( P is an th n degree ( 1 n > ) polynomial:

n 1 n
2 n
2
1 n
1
n
0
A x A x A x A x A ) x ( P + + + + + =

=

=
n
0 k
k n
k
x A ) x ( P
In this case we apply the linearity property of the integral and then integrate term
by term using the formula
C
1 n
x
dx x
1 n
n
+
+
=
+
}
( 1 n > )
Therefore we have
= + + + + + =
} }

dx ) A x A x A x A x A ( dx ) x ( P
n 1 n
2 n
2
1 n
1
n
0

= + + + + =
} } } }
dx A dx x A dx x A dx x A
n 1 n
1 n
1
n
0

= + + + + +
+
=

+
C x A
2
x
A
n
x
A
1 n
x
A
n
2
1 n
n
1
1 n
0

C x A x
2
A
x
n
A
x
1 n
A
n
2 1 n n 1 1 n 0
+ + + + +
+
=
+

or, using the summation symbol,
123
= =
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
}
}

}

= =

dx x A dx x A dx ) x ( P
k n
n
0 k
k
n
0 k
k n
k

C x
1 k n
A
C
1 k n
x
A
1 k n
n
0 k
k
1 k n n
0 k
k
+
+
= +
+
=
+
=
+
=

}
+ + = dx ) 5 x 3 x 4 x 5 ( I
2 3

Solution.
= + + =
}
dx ) 5 x 3 x 4 x 5 ( I
2 3

= + + =
} } } }
dx 5 dx x 3 dx x 4 dx x 5
2 3

= + + + = C x 5
2
x
3
3
x
4
4
x
5
2 3 4

C x 5 x
2
3
x
3
4
x
4
5
2 3 4
+ + + =
Maple support:
> f:=5*x^3-4*x^2+3*x+5;
:= f + + 5 x
3
4 x
2
3 x 5

> int(f,x);
+ +
5
4
x
4
4
3
x
3
3
2
x
2
5 x

= d
(
]
(
(
+ + 5 x
3
4 x
2
3 x 5 x + +
5
4
x
4
4
3
x
3
3
2
x
2
5 x

5.2 Second Category. This Category includes integrals of the form
dx ) b x a ( I
n
}
+ =
In this case there is no need of expanding the binomial, since we can use the
substitution b x a u + = , dx a du = , du
a
1
dx = .
Therefore
124
= = = + =
} } }
du u
a
1
du
a
1
u dx ) b x a ( I
n n n

C u
a ) 1 n (
1
C
1 n
u
a
1
1 n
1 n
+
+
= +
+
=
+
+

and going back to the original variable,
C ) b x a (
a ) 1 n (
1
I
1 n
+ +
+
=
+

Maple support:
> f:=(a*x+b)^n;
:= f ( ) + a x b
n

> int(f,x);
( ) + a x b
( ) + n 1
a ( ) + n 1

= d
(
]
(
(
( ) + a x b
n
x
( ) + a x b
( ) + n 1
a ( ) + n 1

Example 1. Evaluate the integral dx ) 5 x 3 ( I
4
}
=
Solution. Using the substitution 5 x 3 u = , we have dx 3 du = .
Therefore
C ) 5 x 3 (
15
1
C
5
u
3
1
du u
3
1
I
5
5
4
+ = + = =
}

Maple support:
> f:=(3*x-5)^4;
:= f ( ) 3 x 5
4

> int(f,x);
( ) 3 x 5
5
15

= d
(
]
(
(
( ) 3 x 5
4
x
( ) 3 x 5
5
15

125

8
}
+ =
Solution. Using the substitution 3 x 5 u + = , we have dx 5 du = .
Therefore
C ) 3 x 5 (
45
1
C
9
u
5
1
du u
5
1
I
9
9
8
+ + = + = =
}

Maple support:
> f:=(5*x+3)^8;
:= f ( ) + 5 x 3
8

> int(f,x);
( ) + 5 x 3
9
45

= d
(
]
(
(
( ) + 5 x 3
8
x
( ) + 5 x 3
9
45

5.3 Third Category. This Category includes integrals of the form
dx ) b x a ( I
n m
}
+ =
In this case we have to use the binomial expansion

=

= +
n
0 k
k k n m n m
b ) x a ( ) b x a (
and then integrate term by term:
= = + =
}

}
=

dx b ) x a ( dx ) b x a ( I
n
0 k
k k n m n m

}
=

=

= = =
n
0 k
) k n ( m k k n
n
0 k
k k n m
dx x b a dx b ) x a (

=
+
= +
+
=
n
0 k
1 ) k n ( m
k k n
C
1 ) k n ( m
x
b a
126

=
+
+
+
=
n
0 k
1 ) k n ( m
k k n
C x
1 ) k n ( m
b a

3 2
}
+ =
Solution. Expanding the binomial we find
= + + + = +
3 2 2 2 2 3 2 3 2
2 2 ) x 3 ( 3 2 ) x 3 ( 3 ) x 3 ( ) 2 x 3 (
8 x 36 x 54 x 27
2 4 6
+ + + =
Therefore
= + + + = + =
} }
dx ) 8 x 36 x 54 x 27 ( dx ) 2 x 3 ( I
2 4 6 3 2

= + + + =
} } } }
dx 8 dx x 36 dx x 54 dx x 27
2 4 6

C x 8
3
x
36
5
x
54
7
x
27
3 5 7
+ + + + =
C x 8 x 12 x
5
54
x
7
27
3 5 7
+ + + + =
Maple support:
> f:=(3*x^2+2)^3;
:= f ( ) + 3 x
2
2
3

> int(f,x);
+ + + 8 x
27
7
x
7
54
5
x
5
12 x
3

= d
(
]
(
(
(
( ) + 3 x
2
2
3
x + + + 8 x
27
7
x
7
54
5
x
5
12 x
3

5.4 Fourth Category.
Integrals of the form
}
' = dx ) x ( P ) x ( P I and
}
' = dx ) x ( P )] x ( P [ J
m

In this case we make use of the substitution ) x ( P u = , dx ) x ( P du ' = .
Therefore we have
127
C )) x ( P (
2
1
C
u
du u dx ) x ( P ) x ( P I
2
2
2
+ = + = = ' =
} }

and

} }
= +
+
= = ' =
+
C
1 m
u
du u dx ) x ( P )] x ( P [ J
1 m
m m

C )] x ( P [
1 m
1
1 m
+
+
=
+

}
+ + = dx ) 7 x 10 x 6 ( ) 1 x 7 x 5 x 2 ( I
2 2 3

Solution. Using the substitution 1 x 7 x 5 x 2 u
2 3
+ = , we find
dx ) 7 x 10 x 6 ( du
2
+ = . Therefore
C
2
u
du u I
2
+ = =
}

C ) 1 x 7 x 5 x 2 (
2
1
I
2 2 3
+ + =
Maple support:
> f:=(2*x^3-5*x^2+7*x-1)*(6*x^2-10*x+7);
:= f ( ) + 2 x
3
5 x
2
7 x 1 ( ) + 6 x
2
10 x 7

> int(f,x);
+ + + 7 x 2 x
6
10 x
5
53
2
x
4
37 x
3
59
2
x
2

= d
(
]
(
(
( ) + 2 x
3
5 x
2
7 x 1 ( ) + 6 x
2
10 x 7 x + + + 7 x 2 x
6
10 x
5
53
2
x
4
37 x
3
59
2
x
2

}
+ + = dx ) 7 x 10 x 6 ( ) 1 x 7 x 5 x 2 ( I
2 5 2 3

Solution. Using the substitution 1 x 7 x 5 x 2 u
2 3
+ = , we find
128
dx ) 7 x 10 x 6 ( du
2
+ = . Therefore
C
6
u
du u I
6
5
+ = =
}

C ) 1 x 7 x 5 x 2 (
6
1
I
6 2 3
+ + =
Maple support:
> f:=(2*x^3-5*x^2+7*x-1)^5*(6*x^2-10*x+7);
:= f ( ) + 2 x
3
5 x
2
7 x 1
5
( ) + 6 x
2
10 x 7
> int(f,x);
7 x
32
3
x
18
160 x
17
1224 x
16
18496
3
x
15
22610 x
14
63410 x
13
837845
6
x
12
244545 x
11
683315
2
x
10
+ + + + +
1136365
3
x
9
328729 x
8
218025 x
7
640169
6
x
6
36737 x
5
8585 x
4
3961
3
x
3
255
2
x
2
+ + + +

d
(
]
(
(
(
( ) + 2 x
3
5 x
2
7 x 1
5
( ) + 6 x
2
10 x 7 x 7 x
32
3
x
18
160 x
17
1224 x
16
18496
3
x
15
22610 x
14
63410 x
13
+ + + =
837845
6
x
12
244545 x
11
683315
2
x
10
1136365
3
x
9
328729 x
8
218025 x
7
640169
6
x
6
36737 x
5
+ + + +
8585 x
4
3961
3
x
3
255
2
x
2
+ +

> -7*x+32/3*x^18-160*x^17+1224*x^16-18496/3*x^15+22610*x^14-
63410*x^13+837845/6*x^12-244545*x^11+683315/2*x^10-
1136365/3*x^9+328729*x^8-218025*x^7+640169/6*x^6-
36737*x^5+8585*x^4-3961/3*x^3+255/2*x^2;
7 x
32
3
x
18
160 x
17
1224 x
16
18496
3
x
15
22610 x
14
63410 x
13
837845
6
x
12
244545 x
11
683315
2
x
10
+ + + + +
1136365
3
x
9
328729 x
8
218025 x
7
640169
6
x
6
36737 x
5
8585 x
4
3961
3
x
3
255
2
x
2
+ + + +

> factor(%);
x ( ) + 2 x
2
5 x 7 ( ) + 2 x
3
5 x
2
7 x 2 ( ) + + + 4 x
6
20 x
5
53 x
4
72 x
3
54 x
2
7 x 1
( ) + + + 4 x
6
20 x
5
53 x
4
76 x
3
64 x
2
21 x 3 6 /

129
I n[ 2] : = 2 x
3
5 x
2
7 x 1
5
6 x
2
10 x 7 x
Out [ 2] = 7 x
255 x
2
2
3961 x
3
3
8585 x
4
36 737 x
5
640 169 x
6
6
218 025 x
7
328 729 x
8
1 136 365 x
9
3
683 315 x
10
2
244 545 x
11
837 845 x
12
6
63 410 x
13
22 610 x
14
18 496 x
15
3
1224 x
16
160 x
17
32 x
18
3

I n[ 3] : = Factor
Out [ 3] =
1
6
x 7 5 x 2 x
2
2 7 x 5 x
2
2 x
3
3 21 x 64 x
2
76 x
3
53 x
4
20 x
5
4 x
6
1 7 x 54 x
2
72 x
3
53 x
4
20 x
5
4 x
6

dx x ) b x a ( I
1 m n m
}
+ = , 2 m> , 2 n >
Solution. Using the substitution b x a u
m
+ = , we find dx x m a du
1 m
= .
C
1 n
u
m a
1
du u
m a
1
1 n
n
+
+
=
+
}

C ) b x a (
) 1 n ( m a
1
dx x ) b x a ( I
1 n m 1 m n m
+ +
+
= + =
+
}

Maple support:
> f:=(a*x^m+b)^n*x^(m-1);
:= f ( ) + a x
m
b
n
x
( ) m 1

> int(f,x);
( ) + a x
m
b ( ) + a x
m
b
n
a ( ) + 1 n m

130
= d
(
]
(
(
(
( ) + a x
m
b
n
x
( ) m 1
x
( ) + a x
m
b ( ) + a x
m
b
n
a ( ) + 1 n m

5.5 Fifth Category
}
dx ) x ( P ) x ( P ) x ( P
k 2 1

}
dx )] x ( P [
m

}
dx )] x ( P [ )] x ( P [ )] x ( P [
k 2 1
m
k
m
2
m
1

can be evaluated by first performing the indicated operations, collecting all terms
together, and then integrating term by term.
Example 1. Evaluate the integral dx ) 2 x 3 ( ) 4 x 3 x 2 ( I
3 2 2
+ =
}

Solution. Performing the operations we find
+ = +
5 6 7 3 2 2
x 1467 x 540 x 108 ) 2 x 3 ( ) 4 x 3 x 2 (
128 x 768 x 1928 x 2724 x 2462
2 3 4
+ +
Therefore
+ + =
} } } }
dx x 2462 dx x 1467 dx x 540 dx x 108 I
4 5 6 7

= + +
} } } }
dx 128 dx x 768 dx x 1928 dx x 2724
2 3

+ + =
5
x
2462
6
x
1467
7
x
540
8
x
108
5 6 7 8

= + + + C x 128
2
x
768
3
x
1928
4
x
2724
2 3 4

+ + =
5 6 7 8
x
5
2462
x
2
489
x
7
540
x
2
27

C x 128 x 384 x
3
1928
x 681
2 3 4
+ + +
131
Maple support:
> f:=(2*x^2-3*x+4)^2*(3*x-2)^3;
:= f ( ) + 2 x
2
3 x 4
2
( ) 3 x 2
3

> int(f,x);
+ + + + 128 x
27
2
x
8
540
7
x
7
489
2
x
6
2462
5
x
5
681 x
4
1928
3
x
3
384 x
2

132

5a

Exercises on Integrals of
Polynomial Functions

5.1 First Category. Integrals of the form
}
dx ) x ( P where ) x ( P is an th n
degree ( 1 n > ) polynomial:

n 1 n
2 n
2
1 n
1
n
0
A x A x A x A x A ) x ( P + + + + + =

=

=
n
0 k
k n
k
x A ) x ( P
In this case we apply the linearity property of the integral and then integrate term
by term using the formula
C
1 n
x
dx x
1 n
n
+
+
=
+
}
( 1 n > )
Therefore we have
= + + + + + =
} }

dx ) A x A x A x A x A ( dx ) x ( P
n 1 n
2 n
2
1 n
1
n
0

= + + + + =
} } } }
dx A dx x A dx x A dx x A
n 1 n
1 n
1
n
0

= + + + + +
+
=

+
C x A
2
x
A
n
x
A
1 n
x
A
n
2
1 n
n
1
1 n
0

C x A x
2
A
x
n
A
x
1 n
A
n
2 1 n n 1 1 n 0
+ + + + +
+
=
+

or, using the summation symbol,
133
= =
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
}
}

}

= =

dx x A dx x A dx ) x ( P
k n
n
0 k
k
n
0 k
k n
k

C x
1 k n
A
C
1 k n
x
A
1 k n
n
0 k
k
1 k n n
0 k
k
+
+
= +
+
=
+
=
+
=

(1)
}
+ = dx ) 7 x 6 x 3 ( I
2

(2)
}
+ + = dx ) 3 x 2 x 7 x 4 ( I
2 3

(3)
}
+ + = dx ) 3 x 7 x 5 x 15 ( I
2 4

(1) Hint. The integral transforms into a sum of integrals

} } }
+ dx 7 dx x 6 dx x 3
2

Answer. C x 7 x 3 x
2 3
+ +

} } } }
+ + dx 3 dx x 2 dx x 7 dx x 4
2 3

Answer. C x 3 x x
3
7
x
2 3 4
+ + +
} } } }
+ + dx 3 dx x 7 dx x 5 dx x 15
2 4

Answer. C x 3 x
2
7
x
3
5
x 3
2 3 5
+ + +
dx ) b x a ( I
n
}
+ =
In this case there is no need of expanding the binomial, since we can use the
substitution b x a u + = , dx a du = , du
a
1
dx = .
Therefore
134
= = = + =
} } }
du u
a
1
du
a
1
u dx ) b x a ( I
n n n

C u
a ) 1 n (
1
C
1 n
u
a
1
1 n
1 n
+
+
= +
+
=
+
+

C ) b x a (
a ) 1 n (
1
I
1 n
+ +
+
=
+

(1) dx ) 7 x 2 (
3
}
+ (2) dx ) 5 x 8 (
5
}

(1) Hint. Use the substitution 7 x 2 u + = . Since dx 2 du = , the integral transforms
into C u
8
1
du u
2
1
4 3
+ =
}
.
Answer. C ) 7 x 2 (
8
1
4
+ +
(2) Hint. Use the substitution 5 x 8 u = . Since dx 8 du = , the integral transforms
into C u
48
1
du u
8
1
6 5
+ =
}
.
Answer. C ) 5 x 8 (
48
1
6
+
dx ) b x a ( I
n m
}
+ =
In this case we have to use the binomial expansion

=

= +
n
0 k
k k n m n m
b ) x a ( ) b x a (
and then integrate term by term:
= = + =
}

}
=

dx b ) x a ( dx ) b x a ( I
n
0 k
k k n m n m

135

}
=

=

= = =
n
0 k
) k n ( m k k n
n
0 k
k k n m
dx x b a dx b ) x a (

=
+
= +
+
=
n
0 k
1 ) k n ( m
k k n
C
1 ) k n ( m
x
b a

=
+
+
+
=
n
0 k
1 ) k n ( m
k k n
C x
1 ) k n ( m
b a

(1) dx ) 1 x 5 ( I
3 2
}
= (2) dx ) 5 x 2 ( I
4 3
}
+ =
(1) Hint. Expanding we get 1 x 15 x 75 x 125 ) 1 x 5 (
2 4 6 3 2
+ = . The integral
then is transformed into a sum of integrals and each one is evaluated separately.
Answer. C x x 5 x 15 x
7
125
3 5 7
+ +
(2) Hint. Expanding we get
625 x 1000 x 600 x 160 x 16 ) 5 x 2 (
3 6 9 12 4 3
+ + + + = +
The integral then is transformed into a sum of integrals and each one is evaluated
separately.
Answer. C x 625 x 250 x
7
600
x 16 x
13
16
4 7 10 13
+ + + + +
}
' = dx ) x ( P ) x ( P I and
}
' = dx ) x ( P )] x ( P [ J
m

In this case we make use of the substitution ) x ( P u = , dx ) x ( P du ' = .
Therefore we have
C )) x ( P (
2
1
C
u
du u dx ) x ( P ) x ( P I
2
2
2
+ = + = = ' =
} }

and
136

} }
= +
+
= = ' =
+
C
1 m
u
du u dx ) x ( P )] x ( P [ J
1 m
m m

C )] x ( P [
1 m
1
1 m
+
+
=
+

(1)
}
+ + = dx ) 5 x 4 x 9 ( ) 7 x 5 x 2 x 3 ( I
2 2 3

(2)
}
+ + + = dx ) 6 x 2 x 12 ( ) 2 x 6 x x 4 ( I
2 4 2 3

(1) Hint. Use the substitution 7 x 5 x 2 x 3 u
2 3
+ = . Since
dx ) 5 x 4 x 9 ( du
2
+ = , the integral transforms into C
2
u
du u
2
+ =
}

Answer. C ) 7 x 5 x 2 x 3 (
2
1
2 2 3
+ +
(2) Hint. Use the substitution 2 x 6 x x 4 u
2 3
+ + = . Since
dx ) 6 x 2 x 12 ( du
2
+ = , the integral transforms into C
5
u
du u
5
4
+ =
}

Answer. C ) 2 x 6 x x 4 (
5
1
5 2 3
+ + +
5.5 Fifth Category
}
dx ) x ( P ) x ( P ) x ( P
k 2 1

}
dx )] x ( P [
m

}
dx )] x ( P [ )] x ( P [ )] x ( P [
k 2 1
m
k
m
2
m
1

can be evaluated by first performing the indicated operations, collecting all terms
together, and then integrating term by term.
Exercise 5. Evaluate the integral dx ) 1 x 2 ( ) 3 x 2 x (
3 2 2
+ +
}

Hint. Expanding we get
137
9 x 42 x 46 x 16 x x 38 x 20 x 8 ) 1 x 2 ( ) 3 x 2 x (
2 3 4 5 6 7 3 2 2
+ + + + + = + +
The integral then is transformed into a sum of integrals and each one is evaluated
separately.
Answer. C x 9 x 21 x
3
46
x 4 x
5
1
x
3
19
x
7
20
x
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
+ + + + + +

6

Integrals of
Rational Functions

Learning Objectives

In this Chapter the student will learn how to integrate
rational functions.
A rational function is any function of the form

) x ( Q
) x ( P
) x ( f =
where ) x ( P and ) x ( Q are integral polynomials of degrees m
and n respectively:

m 1 m
2 m
2
1 m
1
m
0
A x A x A x A x A ) x ( P + + + + + =

n 1 n
2 n
2
1 n
1
n
0
B x B x B x B x B ) x ( Q + + + + + =

The chapter contains a classification of cases into twelve
categories.

Chapter 6- Integrals of rational functions
139

6.1. First Category. Evaluation of integrals of the form

}
+
dx
b x a
A
and
}
+
+
dx
b x a
B x A

6.2. Second Category. Evaluation of integrals of the form
}
+
dx
) b x a (
A
n
and
}
+
+
dx
) b x a (
B x A
n
, 2 n >
6.3. Third Category. Evaluation of integrals of the form

}
+ +
dx
c x b x a
1
2

6.4. Fourth Category. Evaluation of integrals of the form
dx
c x b x a
B x A
2
}
+ +
+

6.5. Fifth Category. Evaluation of integrals of the form

}
+ +
= dx
) c x b x a (
1
I
n 2
n
, 2 n >
6.6. Sixth Category Evaluation of integrals of the form
dx
) c x b x a (
B x A
J
n 2
n }
+ +
+
= , 2 n >
6.7. Seventh Category Evaluation of integrals of the form

}
+
dx
) a x (
1
n 2 2
, 2 n >
6.8. Eighth Category Evaluation of integrals of the form
dx
) a x (
B x A
n 2 2
}
+
+
, 2 n >
140
6.9. Ninth Category. Evaluation of integrals of the form

}
dx
) x ( Q
) x ( P

where ) x ( P and ) x ( Q are integral polynomials of any degree.
6.10. Tenth Category. The Ostrogradsky Method.
6.11. Eleventh Category. The Hermite Reduction
6.12. The Rothstein-Trager Method

141


}
+
dx
b x a
A
and
}
+
+
dx
b x a
B x A

Case I. The integral
}
+
= dx
b x a
A
I can be evaluated using the substitution
b x a u + = , dx a du = ( dx du
a
1
= )
C | b x a | ln
a
A
C | u | ln
a
A
u
du
a
A
dx
b x a
A
I + + = + = =
+
=
} }

}
+
= dx
3 x 4
4
I
Solution. Under the substitution 3 x 4 u + = , since dx 4 du = , we find
C | 3 x 4 | ln C | u | ln
u
du
dx
3 x 4
4
I + + = + = =
+
=
} }

Maple support:
> f:=4/(4*x+3);
:= f
4
+ 4 x 3

> int(f,x);
( ) ln + 4 x 3

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
4
+ 4 x 3
x ( ) ln + 4 x 3
}
+
= dx
1 x 3
2
I
Solution. Under the substitution 1 x 3 u + = , since dx 3 du = and dx du
3
1
= , we
have
142
= =
+
=
+
=
} } }
du
3
1
u
1
2 dx
1 x 3
1
2 dx
1 x 3
2
I
C | 1 x 3 | ln
3
2
C | u | ln
3
2
du
u
1
3
2
+ + = + = =
}

Maple support:
> f:=2/(3*x+1);
:= f
2
+ 3 x 1

> int(f,x);
2
3
( ) ln + 3 x 1

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
2
+ 3 x 1
x
2
3
( ) ln + 3 x 1

Note1. The integral
}
+
dx
b x a
a
has the form C | ) x ( f | ln dx
) x ( f
) x ( f
+ =
'
}
with
b x a ) x ( f + = . Therefore we can write immediately that
C | b x a | ln dx
b x a
a
+ + =
+
}

Note2. The integral
}
+
dx
b x a
A
can be evaluated, using the following series of
transformations and the previous Note:
=
+
=
+
=
+
} } }
dx
b x a
a
a
1
A dx
b x a
1
A dx
b x a
A

C | b x a | ln
a
A
+ + =
Case II. The integral
}
+
+
= dx
b x a
B x A
J can be evaluated using the identity

b x a
1
a
A b
B
a
A
b x a
B x A
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
+
+
(1)
143
The previous identity can be proved very easily, by performing the division
b x a
B x A
+
+
, according to the following scheme.

B x A +
a
bA
x A
a
A
a
bA
B
b x a +

We remind the reader that we have the known identity of the Euclidian division
+ = , from which we get
+ = . Therefore, using the setup of the

Euclidian division, where B x A + = , b x a + = ,
a
A
= and
a
bA
B = , we
obtain identity (1).
Using now identity (1), we may evaluate the integral. We have

} } |
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
+
+
= dx
b x a
1
a
ba
B
a
A
dx
b x a
B x A
J
=
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
} }
dx
b x a
1
a
ba
B dx
a
A

C | b x a | ln
a
ba
B
a
1
x
a
A
+ +
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
}
+
= dx
5 x 3
1 x 2
I
Solution. Performing the division
5 x 3
1 x 2
+
we find
5 x 3
1
3
13
3
2
5 x 3
1 x 2
+
=
+
.
Therefore we have
144
=
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+
=
} }
dx
5 x 3
1
3
13
3
2
dx
5 x 3
1 x 2
I
=
+
=
+
=
} } } }
dx
5 x 3
3
9
13
dx
3
2
dx
5 x 3
1
3
13
dx
3
2

C | 5 x 3 | ln
9
13
x
3
2
+ + =
Maple support:
> f:=(2*x-1)/(3*x+5);
:= f
2 x 1
+ 3 x 5

> int(f,x);

2 x
3
13
9
( ) ln + 3 x 5

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
2 x 1
+ 3 x 5
x
2 x
3
13
9
( ) ln + 3 x 5
Note 1. The integral
}
+
dx
b x a
x
can be evaluated through the following series of
transformations
=
+
+
=
+
=
+
} } }
dx
b x a
b ) b x a (
a
1
dx
b x a
x a
a
1
dx
b x a
x

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
=
} }
dx
b x a
b
1
a
1
dx
b x a
b
b x a
b x a
a
1

=
+
=
+
=
} } }
dx
b x a
a
a
b
x
a
1
dx
b x a
b
a
1
dx
a
1
2

C | b x a | ln
a
b
x
a
1
2
+ + =
6.2 Second Category
145
}
+
dx
) b x a (
A
n
and
}
+
+
dx
) b x a (
B x A
n
, 2 n >
Case I. For the integral
}
+
= dx
) b x a (
A
I
n

we use the substitution b x a u + = . We then have dx a du = and therefore
du
a
1
dx = . The integral then becomes
= = =
+
=
} } }
du
u
1
a
A
du
a
1
u
A
dx
) b x a (
A
I
n n n

C
1 n
u
a
A
du u
a
A
1 n
n
+
+
= =
+
}

C
) b x a (
1
) 1 n ( a
A
C
u
1
) 1 n ( a
A
1 n 1 n
+
+
= +
=

Case II. For the integral

}
+
+
= dx
) b x a (
B x A
J
n

since

|
.
|
\
|
+ + = +
a
Ab
B ) b x a (
a
A
B x A
we have
=
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
=
+
+
=
} }
dx
) b x a (
a
Ab
B ) b x a (
a
A
dx
) b x a (
B x A
J
n n

=
+
+
+
+
=
} }
dx
) b x a (
a
Ab
B
dx
) b x a (
) b x a (
a
A
n n

146
=
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
=
} }
dx
) b x a (
1
a
Ab
B dx
) b x a (
) b x a (
a
A
n n

} }
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=

dx
) b x a (
1
a
Ab
B dx
) b x a (
1
a
A
n 1 n

Therefore we have derived the following formula

} } }
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=
+
+
dx
) b x a (
1
a
Ab
B dx
) b x a (
1
a
A
dx
) b x a (
B x A
n 1 n n

The last two integrals are calculated either using the first integral of this Category
or the integrals of the First Category.
}
+
= dx
) 2 x 5 (
3
I
3

Solution. Using the substitution 2 x 5 u + = , since dx 5 du = ( dx du
5
1
= )
the integral becomes
= +
+
= = =
+
} } }
C
1 3
u
5
3
du u
5
3
du
u
1
5
3
du
5
1
u
3
1 3
3
3 3

C
u
1
10
3
2
+ =
Going back to the original variable, we derive
C
) 2 x 5 (
1
10
3
dx
) 2 x 5 (
3
I
2 3
+
+
=
+
=
}

Maple support:
> f:=3/(5*x+2)^3;
:= f
3
( ) + 5 x 2
3

> int(f,x);
3
10 ( ) + 5 x 2
2

147
= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
3
( ) + 5 x 2
3
x
3
10 ( ) + 5 x 2
2

}
+
+
= dx
) 3 x 2 (
7 x 5
I
3

Solution. We find easily that
2
1
) 3 x 2 (
2
5
7 x 5 + = + . Therefore
=
+
+
=
+
+
} }
dx
) 3 x 2 (
2
1
) 3 x 2 (
2
5
dx
) 3 x 2 (
7 x 5
3 3

=
+
+
+
=
} }
dx
) 3 x 2 (
2
1
dx
) 3 x 2 (
) 3 x 2 (
2
5
3 3

} }
+
+
= dx
) 3 x 2 (
1
2
1
dx
) 3 x 2 (
1
2
5
3 2

Under the substitution 3 x 2 u + = , since dx 2 du = , we get
= +
|
|
.
|
\
|

|
.
|
\
|
= =
} }
C
u 2
1
4
1
u
1
4
5
du
u
1
2
1
2
1
du
u
1
2
1
2
5
I
2 3 2

C
) 3 x 2 (
1
8
1
3 x 2
1
4
5
C
u
1
8
1
u
1
4
5
2 2
+
+
+
+
= + + =
Second Method.
The substitution 3 x 2 u + = , gives us
2
3 u
x

= . Since du
2
1
dx = , we find
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
=
+
=
} } }
du
u
1
u
5
4
1
du
u
1 u 5
4
1
du
2
1
u
7
2
3 u
5
I
3 2 3 3

= +
|
|
.
|
\
|

|
.
|
\
|
= =
} }
C
u 2
1
4
1
u
1
4
5
du
u
1
4
1
du
u
1
4
5
2 3 2

C
u
1
8
1
u
1
4
5
2
+ + =
148
Going back to the original variable, we find that
C
) 3 x 2 (
1
8
1
3 x 2
1
4
5
I
2
+
+
+
+
=
as before.
Maple support:
> f:=(5*x+7)/(2*x+3)^3;
:= f
+ 5 x 7
( ) + 2 x 3
3

> int(f,x);

1
8 ( ) + 2 x 3
2
5
4 ( ) + 2 x 3

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
+ 5 x 7
( ) + 2 x 3
3
x
1
8 ( ) + 2 x 3
2
5
4 ( ) + 2 x 3

6.3 Third Category.
In this category we shall consider the following type of integrals:

}
+ +
dx
c x b x a
1
2

We distinguish the following three cases:
0 D > , 0 D = and 0 D <
where c a 4 b D
2
is the discriminant of the trinomial c x b x a
2
+ + .
6.3.1 Case I. Positive Discriminant.
Suppose 0 D > . In this case the trinomial admits two distinct real roots
1
and
2

given by the formula

a 2
D b
2 , 1

=
The trinomial then takes the form
) x ( ) x ( a c x b x a
2 1
2
= + +
149
dx
) x ( ) x ( a
1
dx
c x b x a
1
I
2 1
2
} }

=
+ +
=
which can further be written as
dx
) x ( ) x (
1
a
1
I
2 1
}

=
We transform the integrand
) x ( ) x (
1
2 1

into the form
2 1
x
B
x
A
:

2 1 2 1
x
B
x
A
) x ( ) x (
1
=

(1)
where A and B are constants to be determined.
The analysis in the form of (1) is called partial fraction decomposition. It also
applies to any rational function, as it is going to be explained later on.
The constants A and B are calculated as follows:
We multiply (1) by ) x ( ) x (
2 1
and then it takes the form
) x ( B ) x ( A 1
1 2
+ =
which can be written as

1 2
B x B A x A 1 + =
or collecting the x-terms together,

1 2
B A x ) B A ( 1 + = (2)
Relation (2) holds identically for every x, provided that
0 B A = + and 1 B A
1 2
=
The previous two simultaneous equations can be solved with respect to A and B
and determine the constants:
150

2 1

1
A
= and
2 1

1
B
=
Therefore (1) becomes

2 2 1 1 2 1 2 1
x
1

1
x
1

1
) x ( ) x (
1

=

which can further be written as

|
|
.
|
\
|

=

2 1 2 1 2 1
x
1
x
1

1
) x ( ) x (
1

We are now in a position to evaluate the integral:
dx
) x ( ) x (
1
a
1
I
2 1
}

=
dx
x
1
x
1

1
a
1
2 1 2 1
} |
|
.
|
\
|

=

|
|
.
|
\
|

=
} }
dx
x
1
dx
x
1
) ( a
1
2 1 2 1

C ] | x | ln | x | ln [
) ( a
1
2 1
2 1
+
=
C
x
x
ln
) ( a
1
2
1
2 1
+
=
The previous procedure may serve as a guide to the calculations and not as a final
to use formula.
Second method of evaluation integrals
}
+ + c x b x a
dx
2
when 0 D > .
If 0 D > , the trinomial can be written as

|
.
|
\
|
+ = + +
2
2
2
a 4
D
a 2
b
x a c x b x a
Using the substitution u
a 2
D
a 2
b
x = + , the integral transforms into
151
1 u
1 u
ln
D
1
1 u
du
D
2
) 1 u (
a 4
D
du
a 2
D
2
2 +
} }

Since
D
b x a 2
u
+
= , we obtain the following result:
C
1
D
b x a 2
1
D
b x a 2
ln
D
1
c x b x a
dx
2
+
+
+
+
=
+ +
}

or in a more simplified form:
C
D b x a 2
D b x a 2
ln
D
1
c x b x a
dx
2
+
+ +
+
=
+ +
}
, 0 D >
Using on the other hand the following formula (10 and 13)
x tanh
x 1
dx
1
2

=
}

where x tanh
1
is the inverse hyperbolic tangent function, we can express the
integral into the form
= + =
=
+ +

} }
C u tanh
D
2
1 u
du
D
2
c x b x a
dx
1
2 2

C
D
b x a 2
tanh
D
2
1
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=

The above algorithm is used by Maple (see below, Example 4).
6 x 5 x
1
I
2
}
+
=
Solution. The discriminant of the trinomial is
0 1 24 25 6 1 4 ) 5 ( D
2
> = = =
The roots are 2
1
= and 3
2
= . Therefore ) 3 x )( 2 x ( 6 x 5 x
2
= + .
152
We consider the partial fraction decomposition

3 x
B
2 x
A
6 x 5 x
1
2

+
=
+
or
3 x
B
2 x
A
) 3 x )( 2 x (
1
=

From the last identity, after multiplying by ) 3 x ( ) 2 x ( we get
) 2 x ( B ) 3 x ( A 1 + =
B 2 A 3 x ) B A ( 1 + =
Equating the coefficients of the similar powers of the variable x, we get the system
0 B A = + and 1 B 2 A 3 =
From these equations we determine the values of A and B:
1 A = and 1 B=
Therefore

3 x
1
2 x
1
) 3 x )( 2 x (
1
=

The integral then becomes

} } }
=
=
+
=
3 x
dx
2 x
dx
dx
6 x 5 x
1
I
2

C
2 x
3 x
ln C | 3 x | ln | 2 x | ln +
= + + =
Using Maple, we have
> f:=1/(x^2-5*x+6);
:= f
1
+ x
2
5 x 6

> convert(f,parfrac,x);

1
x 3
1
x 2

> int(f,x);
( ) ln x 3 ( ) ln x 2

153
The second command performs the partial fraction decomposition. It is obvious
that the integration command evaluates directly the integral, without taking into
account the partial fraction decomposition.
Using Mathematica, we have
I n[ 1] : = f 1 x
2
5 x 6
Out [ 1] =
1
6 5 x x
2

The previous command defines the function under integration. The next command
performs the partial fraction decomposition
I n[ 2] : = Apart f, x
Out [ 2] =
1
3 x
1
2 x

and the following command performs the integration
Out [ 3] = Log 2 3 x Log 2 2 x

The reader has already noticed the difference in the results provided by the two
computer algebra systems.
1 x 3 x 2
1
I
2
}
+
=
0 1 8 9 1 2 4 ) 3 ( D
2
> = = =
The roots are
2
1
1
= and 1
2
= . Therefore
) 1 x ( ) 1 x 2 ( ) 1 x (
2
1
x 2 1 x 3 x 2
2
=
|
.
|
\
|
= + .

1 x
B
1 x 2
A
) 1 x )( 1 x 2 (
1
=

From the last identity, after multiplying by ) 1 x ( ) 1 x 2 ( we get
154
) 1 x 2 ( B ) 1 x ( A 1 + =
B A x ) B 2 A ( 1 + =
0 B 2 A = + and 1 B A =
2 A = and 1 B=
Therefore

1 x
1
1 x 2
2
) 1 x )( 1 x 2 (
1
=

The integral then is
=
=
+
=
} } }
dx
1 x
1
dx
1 x 2
2
dx
1 x 3 x 2
1
I
2

C
1 x 2
1 x
ln C | 1 x | ln | 1 x 2 | ln +
= + + =
Maple support:
> f:=1/(2*x^2-3*x+1);
:= f
1
+ 2 x
2
3 x 1

+
2
2 x 1
1
x 1

> int(f,x);
+ ( ) ln 2 x 1 ( ) ln x 1

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
1
+ 2 x
2
3 x 1
x + ( ) ln 2 x 1 ( ) ln x 1
I n[ 4] : = f 1 2 x
2
3 x 1
Out [ 4] =
1
1 3 x 2 x
2

155
Out [ 5] =
1
1 x
2
1 2 x

Out [ 6] = Log 4 1 x Log 2 1 2 x

2 x 5 x 2
1
I
2
}
+
=
0 9 16 25 2 2 4 ) 5 ( D
2
> = = =
The roots are
2
1
1
= and 2
2
= . Therefore
) 2 x ( ) 1 x 2 ( ) 2 x (
2
1
x 2 2 x 5 x 2
2
=
|
.
|
\
|
= +

2 x
B
1 x 2
A
) 2 x )( 1 x 2 (
1
=

From the last identity, after multiplying by ) 2 x )( 1 x 2 ( we get
) 1 x 2 ( B ) 2 x ( A 1 + =
B A 2 x ) B 2 A ( 1 + =
0 B 2 A = + and 1 B A 2 =

3
2
A = and
3
1
B =
Therefore

2 x
1
3
1
1 x 2
1
3
2
2 x
3
1
1 x 2
3
2
) 2 x )( 1 x 2 (
1
=

156
=
=
+
=
} } }
dx
2 x
1
3
1
dx
1 x 2
2
3
1
dx
2 x 5 x 2
1
I
2

C
1 x 2
2 x
ln
3
1
C | 2 x | ln
3
1
| 1 x 2 | ln
3
1
+
= + + =
Maple support:
> f:=1/(2*x^2-5*x+2);
:= f
1
+ 2 x
2
5 x 2


1
3 ( ) x 2
2
3 ( ) 2 x 1

> int(f,x);
+
1
3
( ) ln 2 x 1
1
3
( ) ln x 2

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
1
+ 2 x
2
5 x 2
x +
1
3
( ) ln 2 x 1
1
3
( ) ln x 2
2 x 8 x 5
1
I
2
}
+
=
0 4 60 64 2 5 4 ) 8 ( D
2
> = = =
The roots are
5
3
1
= and 1
2
= . Therefore
) 1 x ( ) 3 x 5 ( ) 1 x (
5
3
x 5 2 x 8 x 5
2
=
|
.
|
\
|
= +

1 x
B
3 x 5
A
) 1 x )( 3 x 5 (
1
=

From the last identity, after multiplying by ) 1 x )( 3 x 5 ( we get
) 3 x 5 ( B ) 1 x ( A 1 + =
157
B 3 A x ) B 5 A ( 1 + =
0 B 5 A = + and 1 B 3 A =

2
5
A = and
2
1
B =
Therefore

1 x
1
2
1
3 x 5
1
2
5
1 x
2
1
3 x 5
2
5
) 1 x )( 3 x 5 (
1
=

=
=
+
=
} } }
dx
1 x
1
2
1
dx
3 x 5
5
2
1
dx
3 x 8 x 5
1
I
2

C
3 x 5
1 x
ln
2
1
C | 1 x | ln
2
1
| 3 x 5 | ln
2
1
+
= + + =
Maple support:
> f:=1/(5*x^2-8*x+2);
:= f
1
+ 5 x
2
8 x 2

1
+ 5 x
2
8 x 2

> int(f,x);
1
6
6
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctanh
( ) 10 x 8 6
12

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
1
+ 5 x
2
8 x 2
x
1
6
6
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctanh
( ) 10 x 8 6
12

Note. Maple has not been able to perform the partial fraction decomposition the
way we have done before by hand. On the other hand, the final answer is not given
158
in terms of logarithm(s), but rather in terms of the () h arctan function (the inverse
of the hyperbolic tangent function). In the above result, Maple is using obviously
one of the formulas (see section 10 and/or section 13):
C x tanh
x 1
dx
1
2
+ =

}
or C
a
x
tanh
a
1
x a
dx
1
2 2
+
|
.
|
\
|
=

}

Maple converts obviously the trinomial into a difference of squares
|
.
|
\
|
= +
25
6
5
4
x 5 3 x 8 x 5
2
2

and the uses the substitution u
5
6
5
4
x = , converting the integral into

} } }

=
=

=
+
u tanh
6
6
1 u
du
6
6
) 1 u (
25
6
5
du
5
6
dx
3 x 8 x 5
1
1
2
2
2

and then substituting u by the original variable x:
6
4 x 5
u

= .
I n[ 1] : = f 1 5 x
2
8 x 3
Out [ 1] =
1
3 8 x 5 x
2

Out [ 2] =
1
2 1 x
5
2 3 5 x

Out [ 3] =
1
2
Log 5 1 x
1
2
Log 3 5 x

We see that Mathematica does the job the way we have performed the operations
by hand.
5 x 5 x
1
I
2
}
+
=
159
0 5 20 25 5 1 4 ) 5 ( D
2
> = = =
The roots are
2
5 5
1
+
= and
2
5 5
2

= . Therefore
) x ( ) x ( 5 x 5 x
2 1
2
= +
dx
) x ( ) x (
1
dx
5 x 5 x
1
I
2 1
2
} }

=
+
=
Using partial fraction decomposition, we have

|
|
.
|
\
|

=

2 1 2 1 2 1
x
1
x
1

1
) x ( ) x (
1

=

=
}
dx
) x ( ) x (
1
I
2 1

=
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
}
dx
x
1
x
1

1
2 1 2 1

C } | x | ln | x | ln {

1
2 1
2 1
+
=
C
x
x
ln

1
2
1
2 1
+
=
Substituting the values
2
5 5
1
+
= and
2
5 5
2

= we obtain the value of the
integral:
=
+
=
}
dx
5 x 5 x
1
I
2

160
C
5 5 x 2
5 5 x 2
ln
5
5
C
2
5 5
x
2
5 5
x
ln
5
1
+
+

= +
=
Maple support:
> f:=1/(x^2-5*x+5);
:= f
1
+ x
2
5 x 5

1
+ x
2
5 x 5

> int(f,x);
2
5
5
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctanh
( ) 2 x 5 5
5

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
1
+ x
2
5 x 5
x
2
5
5
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctanh
( ) 2 x 5 5
5

The answer is given again in terms of the inverse hyperbolic tangent.
I n[ 1] : = f 1 x
2
5 x 5
Out [ 1] =
1
5 5 x x
2

Out [ 2] =
1
5 5 x x
2

Out [ 3] =
Log 5 5 2 x Log 5 5 2 x
5

Mathematica expresses the final answer in terms of logarithms.
3 x 7 x 3
1
I
2
}
+
=
161
0 13 36 49 3 3 4 ) 7 ( D
2
> = = =
The roots are
6
13 7
1
+
= and
6
13 7
2

= . Therefore
) x ( ) x ( 3 3 x 7 x 3
2 1
2
= +
dx
) x ( ) x (
1
3
1
dx
3 x 7 x 3
1
I
2 1
2
} }

=
+
=

|
|
.
|
\
|

=

2 1 2 1 2 1
x
1
x
1

1
) x ( ) x (
1

=

=
}
dx
) x ( ) x (
1
3
1
I
2 1

=
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
}
dx
x
1
x
1
) ( 3
1
2 1 2 1

C } | x | ln | x | ln {
) ( 3
1
2 1
2 1
+

=
C
x
x
ln
) ( 3
1
2
1
2 1
+

=
6
13 7
1
+
= and
6
13 7
2

= , we obtain the value of
the integral:
=
+
=
}
dx
3 x 7 x 3
1
I
2

C
13 7 x 6
13 7 x 6
ln
13
13
C
6
13 7
x
6
13 7
x
ln
13
1
+
+

= +
=
162
Maple support:
> f:=1/(3*x^2-7*x+3);
:= f
1
+ 3 x
2
7 x 3

1
+ 3 x
2
7 x 3

> int(f,x);
2
13
13
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctanh
( ) 6 x 7 13
13

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
1
+ 3 x
2
7 x 3
x
2
13
13
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctanh
( ) 6 x 7 13
13

I n[ 1] : = f 1 3 x
2
7 x 3
Out [ 1] =
1
3 7 x 3 x
2

Out [ 2] =
1
3 7 x 3 x
2

Out [ 3] =
Log 7 13 6 x Log 7 13 6 x
13

2 x 7 x 4
1
I
2
}
+
=
0 17 32 49 2 4 4 ) 7 ( D
2
> = = =
The roots are
8
17 7
1
+
= and
8
17 7
2

= . Therefore
) x ( ) x ( 4 2 x 7 x 4
2 1
2
= +
163
dx
) x ( ) x (
1
4
1
dx
2 x 7 x 4
1
I
2 1
2
} }

=
+
=

|
|
.
|
\
|

=

2 1 2 1 2 1
x
1
x
1

1
) x ( ) x (
1

=

=
}
dx
) x ( ) x (
1
4
1
I
2 1

=
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
}
dx
x
1
x
1
) ( 4
1
2 1 2 1

C } | x | ln | x | ln {
) ( 4
1
2 1
2 1
+
=
C
x
x
ln
) ( 4
1
2
1
2 1
+
=
8
17 7
1
+
= and
8
17 7
2

=
we obtain the value of the integral:
=
+
=
}
dx
2 x 7 x 4
1
I
2

C
17 7 x 8
17 7 x 8
ln
17
17
C
8
17 7
x
8
17 7
x
ln
17
1
+
+

= +
=
Maple support:
> f:=1/(4*x^2-7*x+2);
:= f
1
+ 4 x
2
7 x 2

164
1
+ 4 x
2
7 x 2

> int(f,x);
2
17
17
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctanh
( ) 8 x 7 17
17

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
1
+ 4 x
2
7 x 2
x
2
17
17
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctanh
( ) 8 x 7 17
17

I n[ 1] : = f 1 4 x
2
7 x 2
Out [ 1] =
1
2 7 x 4 x
2

Out [ 2] =
1
2 7 x 4 x
2

Out [ 3] =
Log 7 17 8 x Log 7 17 8 x
17

6.3.1a Special Cases.
Case 1. The integral
}
+
dx
x b x a
1
2

For this integral, since ) b x a ( x x b x a
2
+ = + , we have the partial fraction
decomposition

b x a
B
x
A
x b x a
1
2
+
+ =
+

Multiplying through by x b x a
2
+ we get the identity
x B ) b x a ( A 1 + + =
For 0 x = we have b A 1= . Therefore
b
1
A =
165
For
a
b
x = we have
|
.
|
\
|
=
a
b
B 1 . Therefore
b
a
B =
We thus obtain the partial fraction decomposition

b x a
1
b
a
x
1
b
1
x b x a
1
2
+
=
+

We then evaluate the integral
=
+
=
+
} } }
dx
b x a
a
b
1
dx
x
1
b
1
dx
x b x a
1
2

C
b x a
x
ln
b
1
C | b ax | ln
b
1
| x | ln
b
1
+
+
= + + =
}
+ x 3 x 2
dx
2

Solution. Since ) 3 x 2 ( x x 3 x 2
2
+ = + , we have the partial fraction decomposition
3 x 2
B
x
A
x 3 x 2
1
2
+
+ =
+

Multiplying through by x 3 x 2
2
x B ) 3 x 2 ( A 1 + + =
For 0 x = we have 3 A 1 = . Therefore
3
1
A =
For
2
3
x = we have
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
3
B 1 . Therefore
3
2
B =
We thus obtain the partial fraction decomposition
3 x 2
1
3
2
x
1
3
1
x 3 x 2
1
2
+
=
+

Therefore
=
+
=
+
} } }
dx
3 x 2
2
3
1
x
dx
3
1
x 3 x 2
dx
2

166
= + + = C | 3 x 2 | ln
3
1
| x | ln
3
1

C
3 x 2
x
ln
3
1
+
+
=
}

dx
a x
1
2 2

Since ) a x )( a x ( a x
2 2
+ = , we have the partial fraction decomposition
a x
B
a x
A
a x
1
2 2
+
+

Multiplying by ) a x )( a x ( + we obtain
) a x ( B ) a x ( A 1 + + =
For a x = we get ) a 2 ( A 1= . Therefore
a 2
1
A =
For a x = we get ) a 2 ( B 1 = . Therefore
a 2
1
B =
The partial fraction decomposition thus takes the form

a x
1
a 2
1
a x
1
a 2
1
a x
1
2 2
+

The integral can now be evaluated. We obtain
=
+
} } }
dx
a x
1
a 2
1
dx
a x
1
a 2
1
dx
a x
1
2 2

= + + = C | a x | ln
a 2
1
| a x | ln
a 2
1

C
a x
a x
ln
a 2
1
+
+
=
Note. For 1 a = we have C
1 x
1 x
ln
2
1
1 x
dx
2
+
+
}

}
9 x
dx
2

167
Solution. Since ) 3 x )( 3 x ( 9 x
2
3 x
B
3 x
A
9 x
1
2
+
+

Multiplying by ) 3 x )( 3 x ( + we obtain
) 3 x ( B ) 3 x ( A 1 + + =
For 3 x = we get 6 A 1 = . Therefore
6
1
A =
For 3 x = we get ) 6 ( B 1 = . Therefore
6
1
B =

3 x
1
6
1
3 x
1
6
1
9 x
1
2
+

=
+
} } }
dx
3 x
1
6
1
dx
3 x
1
6
1
dx
9 x
1
2

= + + = C | 3 x | ln
6
1
| 3 x | ln
6
1

C
3 x
3 x
ln
6
1
+
+
=
}

dx
1 x a
1
2 2

Since ) 1 x a )( 1 x a ( 1 x a
2 2
1 x a
B
1 x a
A
1 x a
1
2 2
+
+

Multiplying by ) 1 x a )( 1 x a ( + we obtain
) 1 x a ( B ) 1 x a ( A 1 + + =
For
a
1
x = we get 2 A 1 = . Therefore
2
1
A =
168
For
a
1
x = we get ) 2 ( B 1 = . Therefore
2
1
B =

1 x a
1
2
1
1 x a
1
2
1
1 x a
1
2 2
+

=
+
} } }
dx
1 x a
1
2
1
dx
1 x a
1
2
1
dx
1 x a
1
2 2

=
+
=
} }
dx
1 x a
a
a 2
1
dx
1 x a
a
a 2
1

= + + = C | 1 x a | ln
a 2
1
| 1 x a | ln
a 2
1

C
1 x a
1 x a
ln
a 2
1
+
+
=
}

dx
1 x 4
1
2

Solution. Since ) 1 x 2 )( 1 x 2 ( 1 x 4
2
+ = , we have the partial fraction
decomposition
1 x 2
B
1 x 2
A
1 x 4
1
2
+
+

Multiplying by ) 1 x a )( 1 x a ( + we obtain
) 1 x 2 ( B ) 1 x 2 ( A 1 + + =
For
2
1
x = we get 2 A 1 = . Therefore
2
1
A =
For
2
1
x = we get ) 2 ( B 1 = . Therefore
2
1
B =
169

1 x 2
1
2
1
1 x 2
1
2
1
1 x 4
1
2
+

=
+
} } }
dx
1 x 2
1
2
1
dx
1 x 2
1
2
1
dx
1 x 4
1
2

=
+
=
} }
dx
1 x 2
2
4
1
dx
1 x 2
2
4
1

= + + = C | 1 x 2 | ln
4
1
| 1 x 2 | ln
4
1

C
1 x 2
1 x 2
ln
4
1
+
+
=
}

dx
p x a
1
2 2 2
, ( 0 a > , 0 p > )
Since ) p x a )( p x a ( p x a
2 2 2
+ = , we have the partial fraction expansion

p x a
B
p x a
A
p x a
1
2 2 2
+
+

Multiplying by ) p x a )( p x a ( + we get the identity
) p x a ( B ) p x a ( A 1 + + =
) B A ( p x ) B A ( a 1 + + =
Since the above identity should be true for any value of x, we should have
0 B A = + and 1 ) B A ( p =
The two previous equations provide the values of A and B:

p 2
1
A = and
p 2
1
B =
Therefore we have the partial fraction expansion

p x a
1
p 2
1
p x a
1
p 2
1
p x a
1
2 2 2
+

170
We can evaluate now the integral
=
+
} } }
dx
p x a
1
p 2
1
dx
p x a
1
p 2
1
dx
p x a
1
2 2 2

=
+
=
} }
dx
p x a
a
pa 2
1
dx
p x a
a
pa 2
1

= + + = C | p x a | ln
pa 2
1
| p x a | ln
pa 2
1

C
p x a
p x a
ln
a p 2
1
+
+
=
}

dx
16 x 9
1
2

Solution. Since ) 4 x 3 )( 4 x 3 ( 16 x 9
2
expansion

4 x 3
B
4 x 3
A
16 x 9
1
2
+
+

Multiplying by ) 4 x 3 )( 4 x 3 ( + we get the identity
) 4 x 3 ( B ) 4 x 3 ( A 1 + + =
) B A ( 4 x ) B A ( 3 1 + + =
Since the above identity should be true for any value of x, we should have
0 B A = + and 1 ) B A ( 4 =
The two previous equations provide the values of A and B:

8
1
A = and
8
1
B =
Therefore we have the partial fraction expansion

4 x 3
1
8
1
4 x 3
1
8
1
16 x 9
1
2
+

We can evaluate now the integral
171
=
+
} } }
dx
4 x 3
1
8
1
dx
4 x 3
1
8
1
dx
16 x 9
1
2

=
+
=
} }
dx
4 x 3
3
24
1
dx
4 x 3
3
24
1

= + + = C | 4 x 3 | ln
24
1
| 4 x 3 | ln
24
1

C
4 x 3
4 x 3
ln
24
1
+
+
=
}

dx
a x
1
2
, 0 a >
Since ) a x ( ) a x ( a x
2
a x
B
a x
A
a x
1
2
+
+

Multiplying by ) a x ( ) a x ( + , we obtain the identity
) a x ( B ) a x ( A 1 + + =
From the above identity
For a x = we find ) a 2 ( A 1 = . Therefore
a 2
1
A =
For a x = we find ) a 2 ( B 1 = . Therefore
a 2
1
B =
Therefore we get the partial fraction

a x
1
a 2
1
a x
1
a 2
1
5 x
1
2
+

=
+
} } }
dx
a x
1
a 2
1
dx
a x
1
a 2
1
dx
a x
1
2

= + + = C | a x | ln
a 2
1
| a x | ln
a 2
1

172
C
a x
a x
ln
a 2
1
+
+
=
}

dx
5 x
1
2

Solution. Since ) 5 x ( ) 5 x ( 5 x
2
+ = , we have the partial fraction analysis
5 x
B
5 x
A
5 x
1
2
+
+

Multiplying by ) 5 x ( ) 5 x ( + , we obtain the identity
) 5 x ( B ) 5 x ( A 1 + + =
From the above identity
For 5 x = we find ) 5 2 ( A 1 = . Therefore
5 2
1
A =
For 5 x = we find ) 5 2 ( B 1 = . Therefore
5 2
1
B =
Therefore we get the partial fraction

5 x
1
5 2
1
5 x
1
5 2
1
5 x
1
2
+

=
+
} } }
dx
5 x
1
5 2
1
dx
5 x
1
5 2
1
dx
5 x
1
2

= + + = C | 5 x | ln
5 2
1
| 5 x | ln
5 2
1

C
5 x
5 x
ln
5 2
1
+
+
=
}

dx
1 x a
1
2
, ( 0 a > )
Since ) 1 x a ( ) 1 x a ( 1 x a
2
+ = , we have the partial fraction analysis
173
1 x a
B
1 x a
A
1 x a
1
2
+
+

Multiplying through by ) 1 x a ( ) 1 x a ( + we obtain the identity
) 1 x a ( B ) 1 x a ( A 1 + + =
From the previous identity we get
For
a
1
x = , 2 A 1 = and then
2
1
A =
For
a
1
x = , ) 2 ( B 1 = and then
2
1
B =
Therefore we have the partial fraction decomposition

1 x a
1
2
1
1 x a
1
2
1
1 x a
1
2
+

The value of the integral becomes
=
+
} } }
dx
1 x a
1
2
1
dx
1 x a
1
2
1
dx
1 x a
1
2

=
+
=
} }
dx
1 x a
a
a 2
1
dx
1 x a
a
a 2
1

= + + = C | 1 x a | ln
a 2
1
| 1 x a | ln
a 2
1

C
1 x a
1 x a
ln
a 2
1
+
+
=
}

dx
1 x 3
1
2

Solution. Since ) 1 x 3 ( ) 1 x 3 ( 1 x 3
2
analysis
1 x 3
B
1 x 3
A
1 x 3
1
2
+
+

174
Multiplying through by ) 1 x 3 ( ) 1 x 3 ( + we obtain the identity
) 1 x 3 ( B ) 1 x 3 ( A 1 + + =
For
3
1
x = , 2 A 1 = and then
2
1
A =
For
3
1
x = , ) 2 ( B 1 = and then
2
1
B =

1 x 3
1
2
1
1 x 3
1
2
1
1 x 3
1
2
+

The value of the integral becomes
=
+
} } }
dx
1 x 3
1
2
1
dx
1 x 3
1
2
1
dx
1 x 3
1
2

=
+
=
} }
dx
1 x 3
3
3 2
1
dx
1 x 3
3
3 2
1

= + + = C | 1 x 3 | ln
3 2
1
| 1 x 3 | ln
3 2
1

C
1 x 3
1 x 3
ln
3 2
1
+
+
=
}

dx
p x a
1
2
( 0 a > , 0 p > )
Since ) p x a ( ) p x a ( p x a
2

p x a
B
p x a
A
p x a
1
2
+
+

Multiplying by ) p x a ( ) p x a ( + , we obtain the identity
) p x a ( B ) p x a ( A 1 + + =
175
) B A ( p x ) B A ( a 1 + + =
Since the previous identity is true for every x, we should have the two equations
0 B A = + and ) B A ( p 1 =
from which we obtain the values of A and B:

p 2
1
A = and
p 2
1
B =

p x a
1
p 2
1
p x a
1
p 2
1
p x a
1
2
+

=
+
} } }
dx
p x a
1
p 2
1
dx
p x a
1
p 2
1
dx
p x a
1
2

=
+
=
} }
dx
p x a
a
pa 2
1
dx
p x a
a
pa 2
1

= + + = C | p x a | ln
pa 2
1
| p x a | ln
pa 2
1

C
p x a
p x a
ln
a p 2
1
+
+
=
}

dx
7 x 2
1
2

Solution. The denominator can be factorized, since
) 7 x 2 ( ) 7 x 2 ( 7 x 2
2
+ = ,
We thus have the partial fraction expansion

7 x 2
B
7 x 2
A
7 x 2
1
2
+
+

Multiplying by ) 7 x 2 ( ) 7 x 2 ( + , we obtain the identity
) 7 x 2 ( B ) 7 x 2 ( A 1 + + =
176
) B A ( 7 x ) B A ( 2 1 + + =
0 B A = + and ) B A ( 7 1 =

7 2
1
A = and
7 2
1
B =

7 x 2
1
7 2
1
7 x 2
1
7 2
1
7 x 2
1
2
+

=
+
} } }
dx
7 x 2
1
7 2
1
dx
7 x 2
1
7 2
1
dx
7 x 2
1
2

=
+
=
} }
dx
7 x 2
2
14 2
1
dx
7 x 2
2
14 2
1

= + + = C | 7 x 2 | ln
14 2
1
| 7 x 2 | ln
14 2
1

C
14 x 2
14 x 2
ln
14 2
1
C
7 x 2
7 x 2
ln
14 2
1
+
+
= +
+
=
}

dx
5 x 12
1
2

Solution. Since ) 5 x 3 2 ( ) 5 x 3 2 ( 5 x 12
2
+ = , we have the partial
fraction expansion

5 x 3 2
B
5 x 3 2
A
5 x 12
1
2
+
+

Multiplying by ) 5 x 3 2 ( ) 5 x 3 2 ( + , we obtain the identity
) 5 x 3 2 ( B ) 5 x 3 2 ( A 1 + + =
177
) B A ( 5 x ) B A ( 3 2 1 + + =
0 B A = + and ) B A ( 5 1 =

5 2
1
A = and
5 2
1
B =

5 x 3 2
1
5 2
1
5 x 3 2
1
5 2
1
5 x 12
1
2
+

=
+
} } }
dx
5 x 3 2
1
5 2
1
dx
5 x 3 2
1
5 2
1
dx
5 x 12
1
2

=
+
=
} }
dx
5 x 3 2
3 2
3 2
1
5 2
1
dx
5 x 3 2
3 2
3 2
1
5 2
1

= + + = C | 5 x 3 2 | ln
15 4
1
| 5 x 3 2 | ln
15 4
1

C
15 x 6
15 x 6
ln
15 4
1
C
5 x 3 2
5 x 3 2
ln
15 4
1
+
+
= +
+
=
}
9 x 5
dx
2

Solution. Since ) 3 x 5 ( ) 3 x 5 ( 9 x 5
2
expansion

3 x 5
B
3 x 5
A
9 x 5
1
2
+
+

Multiplying by ) 3 x 5 ( ) 3 x 5 ( + , we obtain the identity
) 3 x 5 ( B ) 3 x 5 ( A 1 + + =
178
) B A ( 3 x ) B A ( 5 1 + + =
0 B A = + and ) B A ( 3 1 =

6
1
A = and
6
1
B =

3 x 5
1
6
1
3 x 5
1
6
1
9 x 5
1
2
+

=
+
} } }
dx
3 x 5
1
6
1
dx
3 x 5
1
6
1
dx
9 x 5
1
2

=
+
=
} }
dx
3 x 5
5
5 6
1
dx
3 x 5
5
5 6
1

= + + = C | 3 x 5 | ln
5 6
1
| 3 x 5 | ln
5 6
1

C
5 3 x 5
5 3 x 5
ln
5 6
1
C
3 x 5
3 x 5
ln
5 6
1
+
+
= +
+
=
6.3.2 Case II. Zero Discriminant. Suppose 0 ac 4 b D
2
= . In this case the
trinomial has a double real root given by
a 2
b
= and takes the form

2 2
) x ( a c x b x a = + +
dx
) x ( a
1
dx
c x b x a
1
I
2 2
} }

=
+ +
=
Introducing the substitution
179
x u = , dx du =
C
x
1
a
1
C
u
1
a
1
du
u a
1
I
2
+
= +
|
.
|
\
|
= =
}

The previous procedure may serve as a guide to the calculations and not as a final
to use formula.
}
+
=
9 x 6 x
dx
I
2

Solution. The discriminant ac 4 b D
2
of the trinomial 9 x 6 x
2
+
( 9 c , 6 b , 1 a = = = ) is 0 36 36 9 1 4 ) 6 ( D
2
= = = .
Therefore it admits a double root 3
1 2
6
=
= and then

2 2
) 3 x ( 9 x 6 x = +
which can also be recognized by the usual identity
2 2 2
) b a ( b ab 2 a = + .
We thus have

} }

=
+
=
2 2
) 3 x (
dx
9 x 6 x
dx
I
Using the substitution 3 x u = , dx du = , we find
C
u
1
u
du
) 3 x (
dx
9 x 6 x
dx
I
2 2 2
+ = =
=
+
=
} } }

C
3 x
1
+
=
Maple support:
> f:=1/(x^2-6*x+9);
:= f
1
+ x
2
6 x 9

1
( ) x 3
2

180
> int(f,x);
1
x 3

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
1
+ x
2
6 x 9
x
1
x 3

I n[ 1] : = f 1 x
2
6 x 9
Out [ 1] =
1
9 6 x x
2

Out [ 2] =
1
3 x
2

Out [ 3] =
1
3 x

}
+
=
1 x 4 x 4
dx
I
2

Solution. The discriminant ac 4 b D
2
of the trinomial 1 x 4 x 4
2
+
( 1 c , 4 b , 4 a = = = ) is 0 16 16 1 4 4 ) 4 ( D
2
= =
Therefore it admits a double root
2
1
4 2
4
=
= and takes on the form

2
2
2
) 1 x 2 (
2
1
x 4 1 x 4 x 4 =
|
.
|
\
|
= +
which can also be recognized by the usual identity
2 2 2
) b a ( b ab 2 a = + .
We thus have

} }

=
+
=
2 2
) 1 x 2 (
dx
1 x 4 x 4
dx
I
181
Using the substitution 1 x 2 u = , dx 2 du = (i.e. dx du
2
1
= ), we find
= =
=
+
=
} } }
2 2 2
u
du
2
1
) 1 x 2 (
dx
1 x 4 x 4
dx
I
C
) 1 x 2 ( 2
1
C
1 x 2
1
2
1
C
u
1
2
1
+
= +
= +
|
.
|
\
|
=
Maple support:
> f:=1/(4*x^2-4*x+1);
:= f
1
+ 4 x
2
4 x 1

1
( ) 2 x 1
2

> int(f,x);
1
2 ( ) 2 x 1

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
1
+ 4 x
2
4 x 1
x
1
2 ( ) 2 x 1

6.3.3 Case III. Negative Discriminant
Suppose 0 ac 4 b D
2
< . In this case the trinomial does not have real roots and
can take the form

(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|

+
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + +
2
2
2
a 2
D
a 2
b
x a c x b x a
Using the substitution
u
a 2
D
a 2
b
x

= + , du
a 2
D
dx

= ,
D
b ax 2
u
+
=
we get
182
=
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|

+
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + +
2
2
2
a 2
D
a 2
b
x a c x b x a
=
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|

+
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
2 2
a 2
D
u
a 2
D
a
=
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|

+
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
2
2
2
a 2
D
u
a 2
D
a
) 1 u (
a 2
D
a
2
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
=
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
+ +
=
} }
du
) 1 u (
a 2
D
a
a 2
D
dx
c x b x a
1
I
2
2 2

=
+
=
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
} }
du
1 u
1
D
2
du
) 1 u (
a 2
D
a
1
2
2

C
D
b ax 2
arctan
D
2
C u arctan
D
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
= +
=
The previous procedure may serve as a guide to the calculations and not as a ready
to used formula.
1 x x
1
I
2
}
+ +
=
Solution. We have
2
2
2
2
3
2
1
x 1 x x
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + + .
Under the substitution t
2
3
2
1
x = + we have
183
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + +
2 2 2
2
2
2
3
t
2
3
2
3
2
1
x 1 x x
) 1 t (
4
3
4
3
t
4
3
2 2
+ = + =
and
dt
2
3
dx =
The integral in terms of the new variable t becomes
C t arctan
3
3 2
1 t
dt
3
3 2
) 1 t (
4
3
dt
2
3
2
2
+ =
+
=
+
} }

Since
3
1 x 2
t
+
= , going back to the original variable, we get
C
3
1 x 2
arctan
3
3 2
dx
1 x x
1
I
2
+ |
.
|
\
| +
=
+ +
=
}

Maple support:
> f:=1/(x^2+x+1);
:= f
1
+ + x
2
x 1

> int(f,x);
2
3
3
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) + 2 x 1 3
3

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
1
+ + x
2
x 1
x
2
3
3
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) + 2 x 1 3
3

1 x x
1
I
2
}
+
=
184
Solution. We have
2
2
2
2
3
2
1
x 1 x x
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= + .
2
3
2
1
x = we have
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= +
2 2 2
2
2
2
3
t
2
3
2
3
2
1
x 1 x x
) 1 t (
4
3
4
3
t
4
3
2 2
+ = + =
and
dt
2
3
dx =
The integral in terms of the new variable t, becomes
C t arctan
3
3 2
1 t
dt
3
3 2
) 1 t (
4
3
dt
2
3
2
2
+ =
+
=
+
} }

Since
3
1 x 2
t

C
3
1 x 2
arctan
3
3 2
dx
1 x x
1
I
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
=
+
=
}

Maple support:
> f:=1/(x^2-x+1);
:= f
1
+ x
2
x 1

> int(f,x);
2
3
3
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) 2 x 1 3
3

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
1
+ x
2
x 1
x
2
3
3
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) 2 x 1 3
3

185

1 x 2 x
1
I
2
}
+ +
=
Solution. We have
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
x 1 x 2 x
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + + .
2
2
2
2
x = + we have
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + +
2 2 2 2
2
2
2
t
2
2
2
2
2
2
x 1 x 2 x
) 1 t (
2
1
2
1
t
2
1
2 2
+ = + =
and
dt
2
2
dx =
C t arctan 2
1 t
dt
2
) 1 t (
2
1
dt
2
2
2
2
+ =
+
=
+
} }

Since
2
2 x 2
t
+
C
2
2 x 2
arctan 2 dx
1 x 2 x
1
I
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+ +
=
}

Maple support:
> f:=1/(x^2+sqrt(2)*x+1);
:= f
1
+ + x
2
2 x 1

> int(f,x);
2
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) + 2 x 2 2
2

186
= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
1
+ + x
2
2 x 1
x 2
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) + 2 x 2 2
2

1 x 2 x
1
I
2
}
+
=
Solution. We have
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
x 1 x 2 x
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
= + .
2
2
2
2
x = we have
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
= +
2 2 2 2
2
2
2
t
2
2
2
2
2
2
x 1 x 2 x
) 1 t (
2
1
2
1
t
2
1
2 2
+ = + =
and
dt
2
2
dx =
C t arctan 2
1 t
dt
2
) 1 t (
2
1
dt
2
2
2
2
+ =
+
=
+
} }

Since
2
2 x 2
t

C
2
2 x 2
arctan 2 dx
1 x 2 x
1
I
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
+
=
}

Maple support:
> f:=1/(x^2-sqrt(2)*x+1);
187
:= f
1
+ x
2
2 x 1

> int(f,x);
2
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) 2 x 2 2
2

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
1
+ x
2
2 x 1
x 2
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) 2 x 2 2
2

7 x 4 x
1
I
2
}
+
=
Solution. We have

2 2 2
) 3 ( ) 2 x ( 7 x 4 x + = +
Using the substitution t 3 2 x = , we get
= + = + = +
2 2 2 2 2
) 3 ( ) t 3 ( ) 3 ( ) 2 x ( 7 x 4 x
) 1 t ( 3 3 t 3
2 2
+ = + =
We also have dt 3 dx = . Therefore the integral becomes
C t arctan
3
3
1 t
dt
3
3
) 1 t ( 3
dt 3
2 2
+ =
+
=
+
} }

C
3
2 x
arctan
3
3
dx
7 x 4 x
1
I
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
=
+
=
}

Maple support:
> f:=1/(x^2-4*x+7);
:= f
1
+ x
2
4 x 7

> int(f,x);
1
3
3
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) 2 x 4 3
6

188
= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
1
+ x
2
4 x 7
x
1
3
3
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) 2 x 4 3
6

4 x 3 x
1
I
2
}
+
=
Solution. We have

2
2
2
2
7
2
3
x 4 x 3 x
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= +
Using the substitution t
2
7
2
3
x = , we have
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= +
2 2 2
2
2
2
7
t
2
7
2
7
2
3
x 4 x 3 x
) 1 t (
4
7
4
7
t
4
7
2 2
+ = + =
We also have dt
2
7
dx = . Therefore the integral becomes
C t arctan
7
7 2
1 t
dt
7
7 2
) 1 t (
4
7
dt
2
7
2
2
+ =
+
=
+
} }

C
7
3 x 2
arctan
7
7 2
dx
4 x 3 x
1
I
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
=
+
=
}

Maple support:
> f:=1/(x^2-3*x+4);
:= f
1
+ x
2
3 x 4

> int(f,x);
2
7
7
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) 2 x 3 7
7

189
= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
1
+ x
2
3 x 4
x
2
7
7
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) 2 x 3 7
7

5 x x 2
1
I
2
}
+
=
Solution. We have
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
.
|
\
|
+ = +
2
2
2 2
4
39
4
1
x 2
2
5
2
x
x 2 5 x x 2
4
39
4
1
x = , we have
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= +
2 2 2
2
2
4
39
t
4
39
2
4
39
4
1
x 2 5 x x 2
) 1 t (
8
39
16
39
t
16
39
2
2 2
+ =
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
We also have dt
4
39
C t arctan
39
39 2
1 t
dt
39
39 2
) 1 t (
8
39
dt
4
39
2
2
+ =
+
=
+
} }

C
39
1 x 4
arctan
39
39 2
dx
5 x x 2
1
I
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
+
=
}

Maple support:
> f:=1/(2*x^2-x+5);
:= f
1
+ 2 x
2
x 5

190
> int(f,x);
2
39
39
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) 4 x 1 39
39

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
1
+ 2 x
2
x 5
x
2
39
39
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) 4 x 1 39
39

5 x 3 x 2
1
I
2
}
+
=
Solution. We have
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
.
|
\
|
+ = +
2
2
2 2
4
31
4
3
x 2
2
5
2
x 3
x 2 5 x 3 x 2
4
31
4
3
x = , we have
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= +
2 2 2
2
2
4
31
t
4
31
2
4
31
4
3
x 2 5 x x 2
) 1 t (
8
31
16
31
t
16
31
2
2 2
+ =
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
We also have dt
4
31
C t arctan
31
31 2
1 t
dt
31
31 2
) 1 t (
8
31
dt
4
31
2
2
+ =
+
=
+
} }

C
31
3 x 4
arctan
31
31 2
dx
5 x 3 x 2
1
I
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
=
+
=
}

Maple support:
191
> f:=1/(2*x^2-3*x+5);
:= f
1
+ 2 x
2
3 x 5

> int(f,x);
2
31
31
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) 4 x 3 31
31

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
1
+ 2 x
2
3 x 5
x
2
31
31
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) 4 x 3 31
31

3 x 2 x 4
1
I
2
}
+
=
Solution. We have
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
.
|
\
|
+ = +
2
2
2 2
4
11
4
1
x 4
4
3
2
x
x 4 3 x 2 x 4
4
11
4
1
x = , we have
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= +
2 2 2
2
2
4
11
t
4
11
4
4
11
4
1
x 4 3 x 2 x 4
) 1 t (
4
11
16
11
t
16
11
4
2 2
+ =
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
We also have dt
4
11
C t arctan
11
11
1 t
dt
11
11
) 1 t (
4
11
dt
4
11
2
2
+ =
+
=
+
} }

C
11
1 x 4
arctan
11
11
dx
3 x 2 x 4
1
I
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
=
+
=
}

192
Maple support:
> f:=1/(4*x^2-2*x+3);
:= f
1
+ 4 x
2
2 x 3

> int(f,x);
1
11
11
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) 8 x 2 11
22

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
1
+ 4 x
2
2 x 3
x
1
11
11
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) 8 x 2 11
22

1 x 2 x 3
1
I
2
}
+
=
Solution. We have
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
.
|
\
|
+ = +
2
2
2 2
3
2
3
1
x 3
3
1
3
x 2
x 3 1 x 2 x 3
3
2
3
1
x = , we have
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= +
2 2 2
2
2
3
2
t
3
2
3
3
2
3
1
x 3 1 x 2 x 3
) 1 t (
3
2
9
2
t
9
2
3
2 2
+ =
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
We also have dt
3
2
C t arctan
2
2
1 t
dt
2
2
) 1 t (
3
2
dt
3
2
2
2
+ =
+
=
+
} }

193
C
2
1 x 3
arctan
2
2
dx
1 x 2 x 3
1
I
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
=
+
=
}

Maple support:
> f:=1/(3*x^2-2*x+1);
:= f
1
+ 3 x
2
2 x 1

> int(f,x);
1
2
2
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) 6 x 2 2
4

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
1
+ 3 x
2
2 x 1
x
1
2
2
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) 6 x 2 2
4

6.3.3a Special Cases.
}
+
dx
a x
1
2 2
, 0 a >
In this case we use the substitution u a x = . We then have
) 1 u ( a a u a a ) u a ( a x
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
+ = + = + = +
and
du a dx =
=
+
=
+
=
+
} } }
du
1 u
1
a
1
du a
) 1 u ( a
1
dx
a x
1
2 2 2 2 2

C u arctan
a
1
+ =
C
a
x
arctan
a
1
dx
a x
1
2 2
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
}

194
}
+ 9 x
dx
2

Solution. Using the substitution u 3 x = , we have
) 1 u ( 9 9 u 9 9 ) u 3 ( 9 x
2 2 2 2
+ = + = + = +
and
du 3 dx =
The integral then takes the form
C u arctan
3
1
1 u
du
3
1
) 1 u ( 9
du 3
2 2
+ =
+
=
+
} }

C
3
x
arctan
3
1
9 x
dx
2
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
}

Maple support:
> f:=1/(x^2+9);
:= f
1
+ x
2
9

> int(f,x);
1
3
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
x
3

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
1
+ x
2
9
x
1
3
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
x
3

}
+
dx
1 x a
1
2 2

In this case we use the substitution u x a = , i.e.
a
u
x = .
The integrand then becomes
1 u 1 ) x a ( 1 x a
2 2 2 2
+ = + = +
195
We also have
du
a
1
dx =
Therefore
=
+
=
+
=
+
} } }
du
1 u
1
a
1
du
a
1
1 u
1
dx
1 x a
1
2 2 2 2

C ) ax arctan(
a
1
C u arctan
a
1
+ = + =
}
+
dx
1 x 4
1
2

Solution. We use the substitution u x 2 = , i.e.
2
u
x = .
The integrand then becomes
1 u 1 ) x 2 ( 1 x 4
2 2 2
+ = + = +
We also have
du
2
1
dx =
Therefore
=
+
=
+
=
+
} } }
du
1 u
1
2
1
du
2
1
1 u
1
dx
1 x 4
1
2 2 2

C ) x 2 arctan(
2
1
C u arctan
2
1
+ = + =
Maple support:
> f:=1/(4*x^2+1);
:= f
1
+ 4 x
2
1

> int(f,x);
1
2
( ) arctan 2 x

196
= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
1
+ 4 x
2
1
x
1
2
( ) arctan 2 x

}
+
dx
p x a
1
2 2 2
, ( 0 a > , 0 p > )
For this integral we use the substitution
u p x a =
Therefore
) 1 u ( p p u p p x a
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
+ = + = +
and
du
a
p
dx =
=
+
=
+
=
} }
du
1 u
1
pa
1
du
a
p
) 1 u ( p
1
I
2 2 2

C
p
x a
arctan
pa
1
C u arctan
pa
1
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
= + =
}
+
dx
16 x 9
1
2

Solution. Using the substitution u 4 x 3 = , i.e.
3
u 4
x = , we have
= + = + = + 16 ) u 4 ( 16 ) x 3 ( 16 x 9
2 2 2

) 1 u ( 16 16 u 16
2 2
+ = + =
and
du
3
4
dx =
197
C u arctan
12
1
du
1 u
1
12
1
du
3
4
) 1 u ( 16
1
2 2
+ =
+
=
+
} }

C
4
x 3
arctan
12
1
dx
16 x 9
1
2
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
}

Maple support:
> f:=1/(9*x^2+16);
:= f
1
+ 9 x
2
16

> int(f,x);
1
12
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
3 x
4

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
1
+ 9 x
2
16
x
1
12
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
3 x
4

}
+
dx
a x
1
2
, 0 a >
In this case we use the substitution u a x = . Therefore we obtain
) 1 u ( a a u a a ) u a ( a x
2 2 2 2
+ = + = + = +
and
du a dx =
C u arctan
a
a
du
1 u
1
a
a
du a
) 1 u ( a
1
2 2
+ =
+
=
+
} }

C
a
x
arctan
a
a
dx
a x
1
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
=
+
}

198
}
+
dx
5 x
1
2

Solution. Under the substitution u 5 x = , we obtain
) 1 u ( 5 5 u 5 5 ) u 5 ( 5 x
2 2 2 2
+ = + = + = +
and
du 5 dx =
C u arctan
5
5
du
1 u
1
5
5
du 5
) 1 u ( 5
1
2 2
+ =
+
=
+
} }

C
5
x
arctan
5
5
dx
5 x
1
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
=
+
}

Maple support:
> f:=1/(x^2+5);
:= f
1
+ x
2
5

> int(f,x);
1
5
5
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
x 5
5

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
1
+ x
2
5
x
1
5
5
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
x 5
5

}
+
dx
1 x a
1
2
, ( 0 a > )
In this case we use the substitution u x a = , i.e.
a
u
x = .
Therefore we have
1 u 1 ) x a ( 1 x a
2 2 2
+ = + = +
199
and
du
a
1
dx =

} } }
=
+
=
+
=
+
du
1 u
1
a
1
du
a
1
1 u
1
dx
1 x a
1
2 2 2

C u arctan
a
1
+ =
C ) x a arctan(
a
1
dx
1 x a
1
2
+ =
+
}

}
+
dx
1 x 3
1
2

Solution. Using the substitution u x 3 = , i.e.
3
u
x = , we have
1 u 1 ) x 3 ( 1 x 3
2 2 2
+ = + = +
and
du
3
1
dx =

} } }
=
+
=
+
=
+
du
1 u
1
3
1
du
3
1
1 u
1
dx
1 x 3
1
2 2 2

C u arctan
3
1
+ =
C ) x 3 arctan(
3
1
dx
1 x 3
1
2
+ =
+
}

Maple support:
200
> f:=1/(3*x^2+1);
:= f
1
+ 3 x
2
1

> int(f,x);
1
3
3 ( ) arctan x 3

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
1
+ 3 x
2
1
x
1
3
3 ( ) arctan x 3

}
+
dx
p x a
1
2
( 0 a > , 0 p > )
For this integral we use the substitution
u p x a =
Therefore
) 1 u ( p p u p p x a
2 2 2
+ = + = +
and
du
a
p
dx =
=
+
=
+
} }
du
1 u
1
pa
1
du
a
p
) 1 u ( p
1
2 2

C u arctan
pa
1
+ =
C x
p
a
arctan
pa
1
dx
p x a
1
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
}

201
}
+
dx
7 x 2
1
2

Solution. Using the substitution u 7 x 2 = , i.e. u
2
7
x = , we obtain
= + = + = + 7 ) u 7 ( 7 ) x 2 ( 7 x 2
2 2 2

) 1 u ( 7 7 u 7
2 2
+ = + =
and
du
2
7
dx =
=
+
=
+
} }
du
1 u
1
2
7
7
1
du
) 1 u ( 7
1
2 2

C u arctan
14
1
+ =
Going back to the original variable x, we obtain the value of the integral:
C x
7
2
arctan
14
1
dx
7 x 2
1
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
}

Maple support:
> f:=1/(2*x^2+7);
:= f
1
+ 2 x
2
7

> int(f,x);
1
14
14
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
x 14
7

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
1
+ 2 x
2
7
x
1
14
14
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
x 14
7

202
}
+
dx
5 x 12
1
2

12
5
x = , we get
= + = + = + 5 ) u 5 ( 5 ) x 12 ( 5 x 12
2 2 2

) 1 u ( 5 5 u 5
2 2
+ = + =
and
du
12
5
dx =
=
+
=
+
} }
du
1 u
1
12
5
5
1
du
12
5
) 1 u ( 5
1
2 2

C u arctan
15 2
1
+ =
Going back to the original variable x, we obtain the value of the integral
C x
5
15 2
arctan
15 2
1
dx
5 x 12
1
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
}

Maple support:
> f:=1/(12*x^2+5);
:= f
1
+ 12 x
2
5

> int(f,x);
1
30
15
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
2 x 15
5

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
1
+ 12 x
2
5
x
1
30
15
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
2 x 15
5

203
}
+ 9 x 5
dx
2

5
3
x = , we obtain
= + = + = + 9 ) u 3 ( 9 ) x 5 ( 9 x 5
2 2 2

) 1 u ( 9 9 u 9
2 2
+ = + =
and
du
5
3
dx =
=
+
=
+
} }
du
1 u
1
5 3
1
du
5
3
) 1 u ( 9
1
2 2

C u arctan
5 3
1
+ =
C x
3
5
arctan
5 3
1
9 x 5
dx
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
}

Maple support:
> f:=1/(5*x^2+9);
:= f
1
+ 5 x
2
9

> int(f,x);
1
15
5
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
x 5
3

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
1
+ 5 x
2
9
x
1
15
5
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
x 5
3

204
Conclusions. The value of the integral
}
+ +
dx
c x b x a
1
2
depends on
the sign of the discriminant c a 4 b D
2
of the trinomial
c x b x a
2
+ + .

We distinguish the following three cases:

I) If 0 D > then C
x
x
ln
) ( a
1
c x b x a
dx
2
1
2 1
2
+
=
+ +
}

where
2 1
, are the two real roots of the trinomial:

a 2
D b
2 , 1

=
II) If 0 D = then C
x
1
a
1
c x b x a
dx
2
+
=
+ +
}

where is the double root of the trinomial:
a 2
b
=
III) If 0 D < then C
D
b ax 2
arctan
D
2
c bx ax
dx
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+ +
}

Algorithm for the
Evaluation of the Integral
}
+ + c x b x a
dx
2

In evaluating the integral
}
+ + c x b x a
dx
2

we first calculate the discriminant c a 4 b D
2
of the trinomial c x b x a
2
+ + .
(I) If 0 D > , then we follow the next steps
205
Step 1. Calculate the two real roots of the trinomial:

a 2
D b
2 , 1

=
Step 2. Factorize the trinomial
) x ( ) x ( a c x b x a
2 1
2
= + +

Step 3. Perform the partial fraction decomposition

2 1 2 1
x
B
x
A
) x ( ) x (
1
=

and determine the constants A and B:

2 1

1
A
= and
2 1

1
B
=
Step 4. Write the integral as

)
`

=
+ +
} } }
2 1 2 1
2
x
dx
x
dx
) ( a
1
c x b x a
dx

Step 5. Perform the integration
=
+ +
}
c x b x a
dx
2

C ] | x | ln | x | ln [
) ( a
1
2 1
2 1
+
=
C
x
x
ln
) ( a
1
2
1
2 1
+
=
(II) If 0 D = , then we follow the next steps
Step 1. Calculate the double root of the trinomial:

a 2
b
=
Step 2. Write the trinomial as a perfect square:
206

2 2
) x ( a c x b x a = + +
Step 3. Express the integral as
} }

=
+ +
2 2
) x (
dx
a
1
c x b x a
dx

Step 4. Use the substitution x u = and transform the integral to

}
2
u
du
a
1

C
u
1
a
1
u
du
a
1
2
+ =
}

Step 6. Go back to the original variable x:
C
x
1
a
1
c x b x a
dx
2
+
=
+ +
}

(III) If 0 D < , then we follow the next steps
Step 1. Transform the trinomial into a sum of squares:

|
|
.
|
\
|

+
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + +
2
2
2
a 2
D
a 2
b
x a c x b x a

Step 2. Use the substitution

u
a 2
D
a 2
b
x
= +
,
du
a 2
D
dx
=

Step 3. Transform the trinomial into

) 1 u (
a 2
D
a c x b x a
2
2
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

= + +

207

} }
+
=
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

1 u
du
D
2
du
1 u
a 2
D
a 2
D
a
1
2 2 2

Step 5. Perform the integration:
C u arctan
D
2
1 u
du
D
2
2
+
=
+
}

Step 6. Go back to the original variable, using the relation
D
b ax 2
u
+
= :
C
D
b x a 2
arctan
D
2
c x b x a
dx
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
=
+ +
}

208

In this category we shall consider the following type of integrals:
dx
c x b x a
B x A
2
}
+ +
+

In integrals of this form we consider three distinct cases:
0 D > , 0 D = and 0 D <
where c a 4 b D
2
is the discriminant of the trinomial c x b x a
2
+ + .
6.4.1. Case I. Positive Discriminant. Suppose 0 D > . In this case the trinomial
admits two distinct real roots
1
and
2

a 2
D b
2 , 1

=
The trinomial then takes the form
) x ( ) x ( a c x b x a
2 1
2
= + +
For the integral dx
c x b x a
B x A
2
}
+ +
+
we have similarly the partial fraction
decomposition

2 1 2 1
x
L
x
K
) x ( ) x (
B Ax
=

+

The above identity is equivalent to
) x ( L ) x ( K B Ax
1 2
+ = +
For
1
x = we find ) ( K B A
2 1 1
= + and then
2 1
1

B A
K
+
=
For
2
x = we find ) ( L B A
1 2 2
= + and then
2 1
2

B A
L
+
=
Therefore
209

2 2 1
2
1 2 1
1
2 1
x
1

B A
x
1

B A
) x ( ) x (
B x A
+
=

+

The integral then can be evaluated as follows
=

+
=
+ +
+
} }
dx
) x ( ) x (
B x A
a
1
dx
c x b x a
B x A
2 1
2

} }

+

+
= dx
x
1
) ( a
B A
dx
x
1
) ( a
B A
2 2 1
2
1 2 1
1

C | x | ln
) ( a
B A
| x | ln
) ( a
B A
2
2 1
2
1
2 1
1
+
+
=
1 x 3 x 2
4 x 3
I
2
}
+
+
=
Solution. Since ) 1 x )( 1 x 2 ( 1 x 3 x 2
2
= + , we have the partial fraction
decomposition

1 x
B
1 x 2
A
1 x 3 x 2
4 x 3
2

+
=
+
+

from which we get
) 1 x 2 ( B ) 1 x ( A 4 x 3 + = +
For 1 x = we get 7 B ) 1 1 2 ( B 4 1 3 = = +
For
2
1
x = we get 11 A 1
2
1
A 4
2
1
3 =
|
.
|
\
|
= +
Therefore

1 x
7
1 x 2
11
1 x 3 x 2
4 x 3
2

+
=
+
+

The integral is then calculated to be
=
=
+
+
=
} } }
dx
1 x
1
7 dx
1 x 2
2
2
11
dx
1 x 3 x 2
4 x 3
I
2

C | 1 x | ln 7 | 1 x 2 | ln
2
11
+ + =
210
Maple support:
> f:=(3*x+4)/(2*x^2-3*x+1);
:= f
+ 3 x 4
+ 2 x
2
3 x 1

> int(f,x);
7 ( ) ln x 1
11
2
( ) ln 2 x 1

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
+ 3 x 4
+ 2 x
2
3 x 1
x 7 ( ) ln x 1
11
2
( ) ln 2 x 1

6.4.2. Case II. Zero Discriminant. Suppose 0 ac 4 b D
2
= . In this case the
trinomial has a double real root given by
a 2
b

2 2
) x ( a c x b x a = + +
For the integral
dx
) x (
B Ax
a
1
dx
c x b x a
B x A
2 2
} }

+
=
+ +
+

we have the partial fraction decomposition

2 2
) x (
L
x
K
) x (
B Ax
+

from which we get
L ) x ( K B Ax + = +
For x = we find B A L L B A + = = +
For 0 x = we find A K L ) ( K B = + =
Therefore

2 2
) x (
B A
x
A
) x (
B Ax
+
+
+

211
=
+
+
=
+ +
+
} } }
dx
) x (
B A
a
1
dx
x
A
a
1
dx
c x b x a
B x A
2 2

=
+
+
=
} }
dx
) x (
1
a
B A
dx
x
1
a
A
2

= +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ = C
x
1
a
B A
| x | ln
a
A

C
x
1
a
B A
| x | ln
a
A
+
+
=
Second Method. Using the substitution
x u = ( u x + = )
we have
=
+ +
=
+
=
+ +
+
} } }
du
u
B ) u ( A
a
1
dx
) x (
B Ax
a
1
dx
c x b x a
B x A
2 2 2

=
+
+ =
+ +
=
} } }
du
u
B A
a
1
du
u
u A
a
1
du
u
) B A ( u A
a
1
2 2 2

C
u
1
a
B A
| u | ln
a
A
du
u
1
a
B A
du
u
1
a
A
2
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ =
+
+ =
} }

C
x
1
a
B A
| x | ln
a
A
+
+
=
}
+
+
= dx
4 x 4 x
1 x 3
I
2

Solution. Since

2 2
) 2 x ( 4 x 4 x = +

2 2
) 2 x (
B
2 x
A
4 x 4 x
1 x 3
=
+
+

B ) 2 x ( A 1 x 3 + = +
212
- For 2 x = we get 7 B B 1 2 3 = = +
- For 0 x = we get 3 A 7 ) 2 ( A 1 = + =
Therefore

2 2
) 2 x (
7
2 x
3
4 x 4 x
1 x 3
=
+
+

=
=
+
+
=
} } }
dx
) 2 x (
7
dx
2 x
3
dx
4 x 4 x
1 x 3
I
2 2

= +
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
=
} }
C
2 x
1
7 | 2 x | ln 3 dx
) 2 x (
1
7 dx
2 x
1
3
2

C
2 x
7
| 2 x | ln 3 +
=
Second Method. Using the substitution 2 x u = ( 2 u x + = ) we have
=
+ +
=
+
=
+
+
=
} } }
du
u
1 ) 2 u ( 3
dx
) 2 x (
1 x 3
dx
4 x 4 x
1 x 3
I
2 2 2

= + = + =
+
=
} } } } }
du
u
1
7 du
u
1
3 du
u
7
du
u
u 3
du
u
7 u 3
2 2 2 2

C
2 x
7
| 2 x | ln 3 C
u
1
7 | u | ln 3 +
= +
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
Maple support:
> f:=(3*x+1)/(x^2-4*x+4);
:= f
+ 3 x 1
+ x
2
4 x 4

> int(f,x);
+
7
x 2
3 ( ) ln x 2

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
+ 3 x 1
+ x
2
4 x 4
x +
7
x 2
3 ( ) ln x 2

213

1 x 6 x 9
3 x 5
I
2
}
+
+
=
Solution. Since
2 2
) 1 x 3 ( 1 x 6 x 9 = + , we have the partial fraction
decomposition

2 2
) 1 x 3 (
B
1 x 3
A
1 x 6 x 9
3 x 5
=
+
+

B ) 1 x 3 ( A 3 x 5 + = +
For
3
1
x = we find
3
14
B B 3
3
1
5 = = +
For 0 x = we find
3
5
A B A 3 = + =
Therefore

2 2
) 1 x 3 (
1
3
14
1 x 3
1
3
5
1 x 6 x 9
3 x 5
=
+
+


} } }

+
=
+
+
=
2 2
) 1 x 3 (
dx
3
14
1 x 3
dx
3
5
dx
1 x 6 x 9
3 x 5
I
Under the substitution 1 x 3 u = , dx 3 du = ( du
3
1
dx = ) the above integrals
transform into
= + = +
} } } }
2 2
u
du
9
14
u
du
9
5
u
du
3
1
3
14
u
du
3
1
3
5

C
u
1
9
14
| u | ln
9
5
C
u
1
9
14
| u | ln
9
5
+ = +
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
214
3
1 u
x
+
= , we obtain the value of the
integral:
C
1 x 3
1
9
14
| 1 x 3 | ln
9
5
dx
1 x 6 x 9
3 x 5
I
2
+
=
+
+
=
}

Maple support:
> f:=(5*x+3)/(9*x^2-6*x+1);
:= f
+ 5 x 3
+ 9 x
2
6 x 1

> int(f,x);
+
14
9 ( ) 3 x 1
5
9
( ) ln 3 x 1

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
+ 5 x 3
+ 9 x
2
6 x 1
x +
14
9 ( ) 3 x 1
5
9
( ) ln 3 x 1

6.4.3. Case III. Negative Discriminant. Suppose that 0 D < .
First Method.
For the integral dx
c x b x a
B x A
2
}
+ +
+
we first prove the identity

|
.
|
\
|
+ + = +
a 2
Ab
B ) b ax 2 (
a 2
A
B Ax
We have
=
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
|
.
|
\
|
+ = +
A
B
x a 2
a 2
1
A
A
B
x A B Ax
=
|
.
|
\
|
+ + + =
|
.
|
\
|
+ + =
A
B
a 2
b
A ) b ax 2 (
a 2
1
A
A
B
a 2
b
) b ax 2 (
a 2
1
A

|
.
|
\
|
+ + + = B
a 2
Ab
) b ax 2 (
a 2
A

215
=
+ +
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
=
+ +
+
} }
dx
c x b x a
a 2
Ab
B ) b ax 2 (
a 2
A
dx
c x b x a
B x A
2 2

=
+ +
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ +
+
=
} }
dx
c x b x a
1
a 2
Ab
B dx
c x b x a
b ax 2
a 2
A
2 2

I
a 2
Ab
B | c x b x a | ln
a 2
A
2
|
.
|
\
|
+ + + =
where I is the integral
dx
c x b x a
1
I
2
}
+ +
=
which is known how to be evaluated.
(i) dx
1 x x
x
I
2
}
+ +
=
(ii) dx
1 x x
1 x
J
2
}
+ +
=
Solution.
(i) We have
=
+ +
+
=
+ +
=
+ + 1 x x
1 1 x 2
2
1
1 x x
x 2
2
1
1 x x
x
2 2 2

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
+ +
+
=
1 x x
1
1 x x
1 x 2
2
1
2 2

1 x x
1
2
1
1 x x
1 x 2
2
1
2 2
+ +
+ +
+
=
Therefore
=
+ +
+ +
+
=
+ +
=
} } }
dx
1 x x
1
2
1
dx
1 x x
1 x 2
2
1
dx
1 x x
x
I
2 2 2

C
3
1 x 2
arctan
3
3
| 1 x x | ln
2
1
2
+ |
.
|
\
| +
+ + =
216
where we have used that (6.3.3 Example 1)
|
.
|
\
| +
=
+ +
}
3
1 x 2
arctan
3
3 2
dx
1 x x
1
2

(ii) Since
2
3
) 1 x 2 (
2
1
1 x + = , we have

1 x x
1
2
3
1 x x
1 x 2
2
1
1 x x
1 x
2 2 2
+ +
+ +
+
=
+ +

Therefore
=
+ +
+ +
+
=
+ +
=
} } }
dx
1 x x
1
2
3
dx
1 x x
1 x 2
2
1
dx
1 x x
1 x
J
2 2 2

= + |
.
|
\
| +
+ + = C
3
1 x 2
arctan
3
3 2
2
3
| 1 x x | ln
2
1
2

C
3
1 x 2
arctan 3 | 1 x x | ln
2
1
2
+ |
.
|
\
| +
+ + =
Maple support:
> f:=x/(x^2+x+1);
:= f
x
+ + x
2
x 1

> int(f,x);

1
2
( ) ln + + x
2
x 1
1
3
3
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) + 2 x 1 3
3

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
x
+ + x
2
x 1
x
1
2
( ) ln + + x
2
x 1
1
3
3
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) + 2 x 1 3
3

> g:=(x-1)/(x^2+x+1);
:= g
x 1
+ + x
2
x 1

> int(g,x);

1
2
( ) ln + + x
2
x 1 3
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) + 2 x 1 3
3

217
= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
x 1
+ + x
2
x 1
x
1
2
( ) ln + + x
2
x 1 3
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) + 2 x 1 3
3

(i) dx
1 x x
x
I
2
}
+
=
(ii) dx
1 x x
1 x
J
2
}
+
+
=
Solution.
(i) We have
=
+ +
+
=
+
=
+ 1 x x
1 1 x 2
2
1
1 x x
x 2
2
1
1 x x
x
2 2 2

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
+
+ +
=
1 x x
1
1 x x
1 x 2
2
1
2 2

1 x x
1
2
1
1 x x
1 x 2
2
1
2 2
+ +
+
+ +
=
Therefore
=
+
+
+
=
+
=
} } }
dx
1 x x
1
2
1
dx
1 x x
1 x 2
2
1
dx
1 x x
x
I
2 2 2

C
3
1 x 2
arctan
3
3
| 1 x x | ln
2
1
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ + =
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
}
3
1 x 2
arctan
3
3 2
dx
1 x x
1
2

(ii) Since
2
3
) 1 x 2 (
2
1
1 x + = + , we have

1 x x
1
2
3
1 x x
1 x 2
2
1
1 x x
1 x
2 2 2
+ +
+
+
=
+
+

218
Therefore
=
+
+
+
=
+
+
=
} } }
dx
1 x x
1
2
3
dx
1 x x
1 x 2
2
1
dx
1 x x
1 x
J
2 2 2

= + |
.
|
\
|
+ + = C
3
1 x 2
arctan
3
3 2
2
3
| 1 x x | ln
2
1
2

C
3
1 x 2
2
1
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ + =
Maple support:
> f:=x/(x^2-x+1);
:= f
x
+ x
2
x 1

> int(f,x);
+
1
2
( ) ln + x
2
x 1
1
3
3
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) 2 x 1 3
3

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
x
+ x
2
x 1
x +
1
2
( ) ln + x
2
x 1
1
3
3
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) 2 x 1 3
3

> g:=(x+1)/(x^2-x+1);
:= g
+ x 1
+ x
2
x 1

> int(g,x);
+
1
2
( ) ln + x
2
x 1 3
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) 2 x 1 3
3

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
+ x 1
+ x
2
x 1
x +
1
2
( ) ln + x
2
x 1 3
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) 2 x 1 3
3

(i) dx
1 x 2 x
x
I
2
}
+ +
= (ii) dx
1 x 2 x
2 x
J
2
}
+ +
+
=
Solution.
219
(i) We have
=
+ +
+
=
+ +
=
+ + 1 x 2 x
2 2 x 2
2
1
1 x 2 x
x 2
2
1
1 x 2 x
x
2 2 2

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
+ +
+
=
1 x 2 x
2
1 x 2 x
2 x 2
2
1
2 2

1 x 2 x
1
2
2
1 x 2 x
2 x 2
2
1
2 2
+ +
+ +
+
=
Therefore
=
+ +
=
}
dx
1 x 2 x
x
I
2

=
+ +
+ +
+
=
} }
dx
1 x 2 x
1
2
2
dx
1 x 2 x
2 x 2
2
1
2 2

= +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ + = C
2
2 x 2
arctan 2
2
2
| 1 x 2 x | ln
2
1
2

C
2
2 x 2
arctan | 1 x 2 x | ln
2
1
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ + =

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+ +
}
2
2 x 2
arctan 2 dx
1 x 2 x
1
2
(1)
(ii) We have
=
+ +
+
=
+ +
+
1 x 2 x
) 2 x ( 2
2
1
1 x 2 x
2 x
2 2

(
(
+ +
+
+ +
+
=
(
(
+ +
+ +
=
1 x 2 x
2
1 x 2 x
) 2 x 2 (
2
1
1 x 2 x
2 ) 2 x 2 (
2
1
2 2 2

220
=
+ +
+
=
}
dx
1 x 2 x
2 x
J
2

=
+ +
+
+ +
+
=
} }
dx
1 x 2 x
1
2
2
dx
1 x 2 x
2 x 2
2
1
2 2

C
2
2 x 2
2
1
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ + + =
where we have used again relation (1).
Maple support:
> f:=x/(x^2+sqrt(2)*x+1);
:= f
x
+ + x
2
2 x 1

> int(f,x);

1
2
( ) ln + + x
2
2 x 1
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) + 2 x 2 2
2

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
x
+ + x
2
2 x 1
x
1
2
( ) ln + + x
2
2 x 1
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) + 2 x 2 2
2

> g:=(x+sqrt(2))/(x^2+sqrt(2)*x+1);
:= g
+ x 2
+ + x
2
2 x 1

> int(g,x);
+
1
2
( ) ln + + x
2
2 x 1
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) + 2 x 2 2
2

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
(
+ x 2
+ + x
2
2 x 1
x +
1
2
( ) ln + + x
2
2 x 1
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) + 2 x 2 2
2

(i) dx
1 x 2 x
x
I
2
}
+
=
221
(ii) dx
1 x 2 x
2 x
J
2
}
+
=
Solution.
(i) We have
=
+ +
+
=
+
=
+ 1 x 2 x
2 2 x 2
2
1
1 x 2 x
x 2
2
1
1 x 2 x
x
2 2 2

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+

=
1 x 2 x
2
1 x 2 x
2 x 2
2
1
2 2

1 x 2 x
1
2
2
1 x 2 x
2 x 2
2
1
2 2
+
+
+

=
Therefore
=
+
=
}
dx
1 x 2 x
x
I
2

=
+
+
+

=
} }
dx
1 x 2 x
1
2
2
dx
1 x 2 x
2 x 2
2
1
2 2

= +
|
|
.
|
\
|

+ + = C
2
2 x 2
arctan 2
2
2
| 1 x 2 x | ln
2
1
2

C
2
2 x 2
2
1
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

+ + =

|
|
.
|
\
|

=
+
}
2
2 x 2
arctan 2 dx
1 x 2 x
1
2
(1)
(ii) We have
=
+

=
+
1 x 2 x
) 2 x ( 2
2
1
1 x 2 x
2 x
2 2

222

(
(
+ +
+

=
(
(
+

=
1 x 2 x
2
1 x 2 x
) 2 x 2 (
2
1
1 x 2 x
2 ) 2 x 2 (
2
1
2 2 2

=
+
=
}
dx
1 x 2 x
2 x
J
2

=
+
+
+

=
} }
dx
1 x 2 x
1
2
2
dx
1 x 2 x
2 x 2
2
1
2 2

C
2
2 x 2
2
1
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

+ + =
where we have used again relation (1).
Maple support:
> f:=x/(x^2-sqrt(2)*x+1);
:= f
x
+ x
2
2 x 1

> int(f,x);
+
1
2
( ) ln + x
2
2 x 1
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) 2 x 2 2
2

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
x
+ x
2
2 x 1
x +
1
2
( ) ln + x
2
2 x 1
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) 2 x 2 2
2

> g:=(x-sqrt(2))/(x^2-sqrt(2)*x+1);
:= g
x 2
+ x
2
2 x 1

> int(g,x);

1
2
( ) ln + x
2
2 x 1
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) 2 x 2 2
2

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
(
x 2
+ x
2
2 x 1
x
1
2
( ) ln + x
2
2 x 1
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) 2 x 2 2
2

223
Second Method. We use the same substitution
u
a 2
D
a 2
b
x

= + , i.e. u
a 2
D
a 2
b
x

+ =
and
du
a 2
D
dx

= ,
D
b x a 2
u
+
=
for both numerator and denominator.
7 x 4 x
5 x 4
I
2
}
+

=
Solution. We have

2 2 2
) 3 ( ) 2 x ( 7 x 4 x + = +
Using the substitution t 3 2 x = , we get
) 1 t ( 3 ) 3 ( ) t 3 ( ) 3 ( ) 2 x ( 7 x 4 x
2 2 2 2 2 2
+ = + = + = +
3 t 3 4 5 ) 2 t 3 ( 4 5 x 4 + = + =
and
dt 3 dx =
=
+
+
+
=
+
+
} } }
dt 3
) 1 t ( 3
3
dt 3
) 1 t ( 3
t 3 4
dt 3
) 1 t ( 3
3 t 3 4
2 2 2

C t arctan 3 ) 1 t ln( 2 dt
1 t
1
3 dt
1 t
t 2
2
2
2 2
+ + + =
+
+
+
=
} }

3
2 x
t

integral:
C
3
2 x
arctan 3 1
3
2 x
ln 2 dx
7 x 4 x
5 x 4
I
2
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
+
+ |
.
|
\
|
=
+

=
}

or
224
C
3
2 x
arctan 3
3
7 x 4 x
ln 2 dx
7 x 4 x
5 x 4
I
2
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+

=
}

or
C
3
2 x
arctan 3 ) 7 x 4 x ( ln 2 dx
7 x 4 x
5 x 4
I
2
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ + =
+

=
}

Maple support:
> f:=(4*x-5)/(x^2-4*x+7);
:= f
4 x 5
+ x
2
4 x 7

> int(f,x);
+ 2 ( ) ln + x
2
4 x 7 3
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) 2 x 4 3
6

= d
(
]
(
(
(
(
4 x 5
+ x
2
4 x 7
x + 2 ( ) ln + x
2
4 x 7 3
|
\
|
.
|
|
arctan
( ) 2 x 4 3
6

4 x 3 x
8 x 5
I
2
}
+
+
=
Solution. We have

2
2
2
2
7
2
3
x 4 x 3 x
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= +
Using the substitution t
2
7
2
3
x = , we have
) 1 t (
4
7
2
7
t
2
7
2
7
2
3
x 4 x 3 x
2
2 2 2
2
2
+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= +
2
31
t
2
7 5
8
2
3
t
2
7
5 8 x 5 + = +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = +
dt
2
7
dx =
225
=
+
+
+
=
+
+
} } }
dt
2
7
) 1 t (
4
7
2
31
dt
2
7
) 1 t (
4
7
t
2
7 5
dt
2
7
) 1 t (
4
7
2
31
t
2
7 5
2 2 2

C t arctan
7
7 31
) 1 t ln(
2
5
dt
1 t
1
7
7 31
dt
1 t
t 2
2
5
2
2 2
+ + + =
+
+
+
=
} }

7
3 x 2
t

integral:
C
7
3 x 2
arctan
7
7 31
1
7
3 x 2
ln
2
5
dx
4 x 3 x
8 x 5
I
2
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
+
+ |
.
|
\
|
=
+
+
=
}

or
C
7
3 x 2
arctan
7
7 31
7
16 x 12 x 4
ln
2
5
dx
4 x 3 x
8 x 5
I
2
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+
+
=
}

or
C
7
3 x 2
arctan
7
7 31
) 4 x 3 x ln(
2
5
dx
4 x 3 x
8 x 5
I
2
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ + =
+
+
=
}

5 x x 2
2 x 3
I
2
}
+
=
Solution. We have
=
(
(
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
.
|
\
|
+ = +
16
1
2
5
4
1
x 2
2
5
x
2
1
x 2 5 x x 2
2
2 2

(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
(
(
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
2 2
4
39
4
1
x 2
16
39
4
1
x 2
Under the substitution
226
t
4
39
4
1
x =
we have
=
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= +
2 2 2
2
2
4
39
t
4
39
2
4
39
4
1
x 2 5 x x 2
) 1 t (
8
39
) 1 t (
16
39
2
2 2
+ =
(
+ =
4
5
t
4
39 3
2
4
1
t
4
39
3 2 x 3 =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
and
dt
4
39
dx =
=
+
+
=
+
} } }
dt
4
39
) 1 t (
8
39
4
5
dt
4
39
) 1 t (
8
39
t
4
39 3
dt
4
39
) 1 t (
8
39
4
5
t
4
39 3
2 2 2

C t arctan
78
39 5
) 1 t ln(
4
3
dt
1 t
1
78
39 5
dt
1 t
t 2
4
3
2
2 2
+ + =
+
+
=
} }

39
1 x 4
t

integral:
C
39
1 x 4
arctan
78
39 5
1
39
1 x 4
ln
4
3
dx
5 x x 2
2 x 3
I
2
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

+
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
+
=
}

or
C
39
1 x 4
arctan
78
39 5
39
40 x 8 x 16
ln
4
3
dx
5 x x 2
2 x 3
I
2
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+
=
}

227
or
C
39
1 x 4
arctan
78
39 5
) 5 x x 2 ln(
4
3
dx
5 x x 2
2 x 3
I
2
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

+ =
+
=
}

5 x 3 x 2
11 x 7
I
2
}
+
=
Solution. We have
=
(
(
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
.
|
\
|
+ = +
16
9
2
5
4
3
x 2
2
5
x
2
3
x 2 5 x 3 x 2
2
2 2

(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
(
(
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
2 2
4
31
4
3
x 2
16
31
4
3
x 2
t
4
31
4
3
x =
we find
=
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= +
2 2 2
2
2
4
31
t
4
31
2
4
31
4
3
x 2 5 x 3 x 2
) 1 t (
8
31
) 1 t (
16
31
2
2 2
+ =
(
+ =

4
23
t
4
31 7
11
4
3
t
4
31
7 11 x 7 =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
and
dt
4
31
dx =
228
=
+
+
=
+
} } }
dt
4
31
) 1 t (
8
31
4
23
dt
4
31
) 1 t (
8
31
t
4
31 7
dt
4
31
) 1 t (
8
31
4
23
t
4
31 7
2 2 2

C t arctan
62
31 23
) 1 t ln(
4
7
dt
1 t
1
62
31 23
dt
1 t
t 2
4
7
2
2 2
+ + =
+
+
=
} }

31
3 x 4
t

integral:
C
31
3 x 4
arctan
62
31 23
1
31
3 x 4
ln
4
7
dx
5 x 3 x 2
11 x 7
I
2
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

+
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
+
=
}

or
C
31
3 x 4
arctan
62
31 23
31
40 x 24 x 16
ln
4
7
dx
5 x 3 x 2
11 x 7
I
2
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+
=
}

or
C
31
3 x 4
arctan
62
31 23
) 5 x 3 x 2 ln(
4
7
dx
5 x 3 x 2
11 x 7
I
2
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

+ =
+
=
}

3 x 2 x 4
8 x 13
I
2
}
+
+
=
Solution. We have
=
(
(
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
.
|
\
|
+ = +
16
1
4
3
4
1
x 4
4
3
x
2
1
x 4 3 x 2 x 4
2
2 2

(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
(
(
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
2 2
4
11
4
1
x 4
16
11
4
1
x 4
4
11
4
1
x = , we find
229
=
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= +
2 2 2
2
2
4
11
t
4
11
4
4
11
4
1
x 4 3 x 2 x 4
) 1 t (
4
11
) 1 t (
16
11
4
2 2
+ =
(
+ =

4
45
t
4
11 13
8
4
1
t
4
11
13 8 x 13 + = +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = +
and
dt
4
11
dx =
=
+
+
+
=
+
+
} } }
dt
4
11
) 1 t (
8
11
4
45
dt
4
11
) 1 t (
8
11
t
4
11 13
dt
4
11
) 1 t (
8
11
4
45
t
4
11 13
2 2 2

C t arctan
22
11 45
) 1 t ln(
4
13
dt
1 t
1
22
11 45
dt
1 t
t 2
4
13
2
2 2
+ + + =
+
+
+
=
} }

11
1 x 4
t

integral:
C
11
1 x 4
arctan
22
11 45
1
11
1 x 4
ln
4
13
dx
3 x 2 x 4
8 x 13
I
2
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
+
+
=
}

or
C
11
1 x 4
arctan
22
11 45
11
12 x 8 x 16
ln
4
13
dx
3 x 2 x 4
8 x 13
I
2
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+
+
=
}

or
C
11
1 x 4
arctan
22
11 45
) 3 x 2 x 4 ln(
4
13
dx
3 x 2 x 4
8 x 13
I
2
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

+ + =
+
+
=
}

230
1 x 2 x 3
7 x 11
I
2
}
+

=
Solution. We have
=
(
(
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
.
|
\
|
+ = +
9
1
3
1
3
1
x 3
3
1
x
3
2
x 3 1 x 2 x 3
2
2 2

(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
(
(
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
2 2
3
2
3
1
x 3
9
2
3
1
x 3
t
3
2
3
1
x =
we find
=
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= +
2 2 2
2
2
3
2
t
3
2
3
3
2
3
1
x 3 1 x 2 x 3
) 1 t (
3
2
) 1 t (
9
2
3
2 2
+ =
(
+ =

3
10
t
3
2 11
7
3
1
t
3
2
11 7 x 11 =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
and
dt
3
2
dx =
=
+
+
=
+
} } }
dt
3
2
) 1 t (
3
2
3
10
dt
3
2
) 1 t (
3
2
t
3
2 11
dt
3
2
) 1 t (
3
2
3
10
t
3
2 11
2 2 2

C t arctan
6
2 10
) 1 t ln(
6
11
dt
1 t
1
6
2 10
dt
1 t
t 2
6
11
2
2 2
+ + =
+
+
=
} }

231
2
1 x 3
t

integral:
C
2
1 x 3
arctan
6
2 10
1
2
1 x 3
ln
6
11
dx
1 x 2 x 3
7 x 11
I
2
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ |
.
|
\
|
=
+

=
}

or
C
2
1 x 3
arctan
6
2 10
2
3 x 6 x 9
ln
6
11
dx
1 x 2 x 3
7 x 11
I
2
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+

=
}

or
C
2
1 x 3
arctan
6
2 10
) 1 x 2 x 3 ln(
6
11
dx
1 x 2 x 3
7 x 11
I
2
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ =
+

=
}

2 x x
3 x 4
I
2
}
+
+
=
Solution. We have
= +
|
.
|
\
|
= +
|
.
|
\
|
= +
4
7
2
1
x
4
1
2
2
1
x 2 x x
2 2
2

2
2
2
7
2
1
x
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
t
2
7
2
1
x =
we find
) 1 t (
4
7
2
7
t
2
7
2
7
2
1
x 2 x x
2
2 2 2
2
2
+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= +
5 t 7 2 3
2
1
t
2
7
4 3 x 4 + = +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = +
and
232
dt
2
7
dx =
=
+
+
+
=
+
+
} } }
dt
2
7
) 1 t (
4
7
5
dt
2
7
) 1 t (
4
7
t 7 2
dt
2
7
) 1 t (
4
7
5 t 7 2
2 2 2

C t arctan
7
7 10
) 1 t ln( 2 dt
1 t
1
7
7 10
dt
1 t
t 2
2
2
2 2
+ + + =
+
+
+
=
} }

7
1 x 2
t

integral:
C
7
1 x 2
arctan
7
7 10
1
7
1 x 2
ln 2 dx
2 x x
3 x 4
I
2
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
+
+ |
.
|
\
|
=
+
+
=
}

or
C
7
1 x 2
arctan
7
7 10
7
8 x 4 x 4
ln 2 dx
2 x x
3 x 4
I
2
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+
+
=
}

or
C
7
1 x 2
arctan
7
7 10
) 2 x x ln( 2 dx
2 x x
3 x 4
I
2
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ + =
+
+
=
}

233

Conclusions. The value of the integral
}
+ +
+
dx
c bx ax
B Ax
2
depends on
the sign of the discriminant c a 4 b D
2
of the trinomial
c x b x a
2
+ +

I)
+
=
+ +
+
>
}
| x | ln
) ( a
B A
dx
c bx ax
B Ax
0 D
1
2 1
1
2

C | x | ln
) ( a
B A
2
2 1
2
+
+

where
2 1
, are the two real roots of the trinomial:

a 2
D b
2 , 1

=
II) C
x
1
a
B A
| x | ln
a
A
dx
c bx ax
B Ax
0 D
2
+
+
=
+ +
+
=
}

a 2
b
=
234
III)
}
+ + + =
+ +
+
< | c bx ax | ln
a 2
A
dx
c bx ax
B Ax
0 D
2
2

C
D
b x a 2
arctan
D
2
a 2
Ab
B +
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
IV) Special Case: a 2 A = and b B= .

C | c x b x a | ln dx
c x b x a
b x a 2
2
2
+ + + =
+ +
+
}

6.5 Fifth Category.
In this category we shall consider the following type of integral:

}
+ +
= dx
) c x b x a (
1
I
n 2
n
, 2 n >
We shall consider two cases: 0 D = and 0 D = .
Case I. If 0 D = , using the identity

a 4
D
a 2
b
x a c bx ax
2
2

|
.
|
\
|
+ = + +
we have

2
2
a 2
b
x a ) c bx ax (
a 4
D
|
.
|
\
|
+ + + + =
Therefore we get
=
+ +
=
+ +
=
} }
dx
) c x b x a (
a 4
D
D
a 4
dx
) c x b x a (
1
I
n 2 n 2
n

=
+ +
|
.
|
\
|
+ + + +
=
}
dx
) c x b x a (
a 2
b
x a ) c x b x a (
D
a 4
n 2
2
2

235
=
+ +
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+ +
+ +
=
} }
dx
) c x b x a (
a 2
b
x a
D
a 4
dx
) c x b x a (
) c x b x a (
D
a 4
n 2
2
n 2
2

=
+ +
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+ +
=
} }

dx
) c x b x a (
a 2
b
x a 4
D
1
dx
) c x b x a (
1
D
a 4
n 2
2
2
1 n 2

=
+ +
+
+ =
}
dx
) c x b x a (
) b x a 2 (
D
1
I
D
a 4
n 2
2
1 n

or
J
D
1
I
D
a 4
I
1 n n
+ =

(1)
where

}
+ +
+
= dx
) c x b x a (
) b x a 2 (
J
n 2
2
(2)
The integral J can be evaluated using integration by parts. In fact we have

} }
+ +
+
+ =
+ +
+
= dx
) c x b x a (
b x a 2
) b x a 2 ( dx
) c x b x a (
) b x a 2 (
J
n 2 n 2
2

Using the formula

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f ) x ( g'
n 2
) c bx x a (
b ax 2
+ +
+

b ax 2 +
1 n 2
) c bx ax (
1
) 1 n (
1
+ +

a 2

we find
+
+ +
+
=
+ +
+
=

}
1 n 2 n 2
2
) c x b x a (
b ax 2
) 1 n (
1
dx
) c x b x a (
) b x a 2 (
J
236

}

+ +
+ dx
) c x b x a (
a 2
) 1 n (
1
1 n 2

or

1 n
1 n 2 n 2
2
I
1 n
a 2
) c x b x a (
b ax 2
) 1 n (
1
dx
) c x b x a (
) b x a 2 (
J

+
+ +
+
=
+ +
+
=
}
(3)
Using (1) and (3) we get

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ +
+
+ =

1 n
1 n 2
1 n n
I
1 n
a 2
) c x b x a (
b ax 2
) 1 n (
1
D
1
I
D
a 4
I

1 n
1 n 2
n
I
D ) 1 n (
a ) 3 n 2 ( 2
) c x b x a (
b x a 2
D ) 1 n (
1
I

+ +
+
= , 2 n >
This is the reduction formula for the integral
n
I , where

}
+ +
= dx
) c x b x a (
1
I
n 2
n

}
+
=
2 2
) 2 x 3 x (
x d
I
Solution. The discriminant of the trinomial 2 x 3 x
2
+ is 1 D= .
We have

4
1
2
3
x 2 x 3 x
2
2

|
.
|
\
|
= +
from which, multiplying by 4, we get
1 ) 3 x 2 ( ) 2 x 3 x ( 4
2 2
= +
and then
) 2 x 3 x ( 4 ) 3 x 2 ( 1
2 2
+ =
Because of the previous identity, the integral becomes
=
+
+
=
+
=
} }
x d
) 2 x 3 x (
) 2 x 3 x ( 4 ) 3 x 2 (
) 2 x 3 x (
x d
I
2 2
2 2
2 2

237
=
+
+
+

=
} }
dx
) 2 x 3 x (
) 2 x 3 x (
4 dx
) 2 x 3 x (
) 3 x 2 (
2 2
2
2 2
2

=
+
+

=
} }
dx
2 x 3 x
1
4 dx
) 2 x 3 x (
) 3 x 2 (
2 2 2
2

2 1
I 4 I =
Since
dx
) 2 x 3 x (
3 x 2
) 3 x 2 ( dx
) 2 x 3 x (
) 3 x 2 (
I
2 2 2 2
2
1 } }
+

=
+

=
using the formula (integration by parts)

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f ) x ( g'
2 2
) 2 x 3 x (
3 x 2
+

3 x 2

2 x 3 x
1
2
+

2

we find
dx
2 x 3 x
1
2
2 x 3 x
3 x 2
dx
) 2 x 3 x (
) 3 x 2 (
I
2 2 2 2
2
1 } }
+
+
+

=
+

=

2
2
I 2
2 x 3 x
3 x 2
+
+

=
Therefore

2
2
I 2
2 x 3 x
3 x 2
I
+

=
For the integral dx
2 x 3 x
1
I
2
2 }
+
= , using partial fraction decomposition,

2 x
1
1 x
1
) 2 x )( 1 x (
1
2 x 3 x
1
2

+
=

=
+

238
we have
=
=
+
=
} } }
dx
2 x
1
dx
1 x
1
dx
2 x 3 x
1
I
2
2

C
1 x
2 x
ln C | 2 x | ln | 1 x | ln +
= + + =
Therefore
C
1 x
2 x
ln 2
2 x 3 x
3 x 2
) 2 x 3 x (
x d
I
2 2 2
+
+

=
+
=
}

Note. We can use the reduction formula

1 n
1 n 2
n
I
D ) 1 n (
a ) 3 n 2 ( 2
) c x b x a (
b x a 2
D ) 1 n (
1
I

+ +
+
=
for 2 n = , 1 a = , 3 b = , 2 c = and 1 D= . We thus find

1
2
2
I 2
2 x 3 x
3 x 2
I I
+

=
where
1
I can be evaluated as before.
}
+
=
3 2
) 1 x x 2 (
x d
I
Solution. The discriminant of the trinomial 1 x x 2
2
+ is 7 D = .
We use the reduction formula

1 n
1 n 2
n
I
D ) 1 n (
a ) 3 n 2 ( 2
) c x b x a (
b x a 2
D ) 1 n (
1
I

+ +
+
=
for 3 n = , 2 n = , and 2 a = , 1 b = , 1 c = . We find that
For 3 n = ,
2
2 2
3
I
7
6
) 1 x x 2 (
1 x 4
14
1
I +
+

=
For 2 n = ,
1
2
2
I
7
4
1 x x 2
1 x 4
7
1
I +
+
=
Therefore
239
= +
+

=
2
2 2
3
I
7
6
) 1 x x 2 (
1 x 4
14
1
I I
=
+
+
+
+

=
1
2 2 2
I
7
4
1 x x 2
1 x 4
7
1
7
6
) 1 x x 2 (
1 x 4
14
1

1
2 2 2
I
49
24
1 x x 2
1 x 4
49
6
) 1 x x 2 (
1 x 4
14
1
+
+
+
+

=
The integral
}
+
=
1 x x 2
x d
I
2
1
can be evaluated using the identity

(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= +
2
2
2
4
7
4
1
x 2 1 x x 2
and the substitution
u
4
7
4
1
x =
We thus have
) 1 u (
8
7
) 1 u (
4
7
2 1 x x 2
2 2
2
2
+ = +
|
|
.
|
\
|
= +
and
du
4
7
dx =
Therefore
1
I becomes
C u arctan
7
7 2
1 u
du
7
7 2
) 1 u (
8
7
du
4
7
2
2
+ =
+
=
+
} }

Going back to the original variables, we get
C
7
1 x 4
arctan
7
7 2
1 x x 2
x d
I
2
1
+
=
+
=
}

We thus obtain
240
=
+
=
}
3 2
) 1 x x 2 (
x d
I
C
7
1 x 4
arctan
343
7 48
1 x x 2
1 x 4
49
6
) 1 x x 2 (
1 x 4
14
1
2 2 2
+
+
+
+
+

=
Case II. If 0 D = , then

2 2
) x ( a c bx ax = + + where
a 2
b
=
Therefore

} }

=
+ +
n 2 n n 2
) x ( a
dx
) c x b x a (
dx

Using the substitution = x u , the integral becomes
= =

=
+ +
} } }
n 2 n n 2 n n 2
u
du
a
1
) x ( a
dx
) c x b x a (
dx

C
) x (
1
a ) 1 n 2 (
1
C
u
1
a ) 1 n 2 (
1
1 n 2 n 1 n 2 n
+

= +
=

}
+
=
3 2
) 9 x 6 x (
x d
I
2
+ is 0 D = .
The double root of the trinomial is 3 = . Therefore we have

2 2
) 3 x ( 9 x 6 x = +

} }

=
+
=
6 3 2
) 3 x (
x d
) 9 x 6 x (
x d
I
Under the substitution 3 x u = , we obtain
= =
=
+
=
} } }
6 6 3 2
u
u d
) 3 x (
x d
) 9 x 6 x (
x d
I
C
) 3 x (
1
5
1
C
u
1
5
1
5 5
+
= + =
241

6.6 Sixth Category
In this case we consider the integral
dx
) c x b x a (
B x A
J
n 2
n }
+ +
+
= , 2 n >
Since

|
.
|
\
|
+ + = +
a 2
b A
B ) b x a 2 (
a 2
A
B Ax
=
+ +
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
=
+ +
+
=
} }
dx
) c x b x a (
a 2
b A
B ) b x a 2 (
a 2
A
dx
) c x b x a (
B x A
J
n 2 n 2
n

=
+ +
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ +
+
=
} }
dx
) c x b x a (
1
a 2
b A
B dx
) c x b x a (
b x a 2
a 2
A
n 2 n 2

or

n
1 n 2
n
I
a 2
b A
B
) c x b x a (
1
) 1 n ( a 2
A
J
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ +
=

, 2 n >
where
dx
) c x b x a (
1
I
n 2
n }
+ +
=
) 2 x 3 x (
2 x 3
I
2 2
}
+
+
=
Solution. Since
2
13
) 3 x 2 (
2
3
2 x 3 + = + , the integral becomes
=
+
+
=
+
+
=
} }
dx
) 2 x 3 x (
2
13
) 3 x 2 (
2
3
dx
) 2 x 3 x (
2 x 3
I
2 2 2 2

dx
) 2 x 3 x (
1
2
13
dx
) 2 x 3 x (
3 x 2
2
3
2 2 2 2
} }
+
+
+

=
242
We now have

2 x 3 x
1
dx
) 2 x 3 x (
3 x 2
2 2 2
+
=
+

}

using the substitution 2 x 3 x u
2
+ = and Example 1, 6.5
C
1 x
2 x
ln 2
2 x 3 x
3 x 2
dx
) 2 x 3 x (
1
2 2 2
+
+

=
+
}

Therefore

+
=
+
+
=
}
2 x 3 x
1
2
3
dx
) 2 x 3 x (
2 x 3
I
2 2 2

C
1 x
2 x
ln 2
2 x 3 x
3 x 2
2
13
2
+
+
+

) 1 x x 2 (
3 x
I
3 2
}
+
+
=
Solution. Since

4
13
) 1 x 4 (
4
1
3 x + = +
=
+
+
=
+
+
=
} }
dx
) 1 x x 2 (
4
13
) 1 x 4 (
4
1
dx
) 1 x x 2 (
3 x
I
3 2 3 2

dx
) 1 x x 2 (
1
4
13
dx
) 1 x x 2 (
1 x 4
4
1
3 2 3 2
} }
+
+
+
=
We now have

2 2 3 2
) 1 x x 2 (
1
2
1
dx
) 1 x x 2 (
1 x 4
+
=
+
}

(using the substitution 1 x x 2 u
2
+ = )
and
243
=
+
}
dx
) 1 x x 2 (
1
3 2

7
1 x 4
arctan
343
7 48
1 x x 2
1 x 4
49
6
) 1 x x 2 (
1 x 4
14
1
2 2 2

+
+
+
+

=
(6.5, Example 2)
Therefore
+
+
=
+
+
=
}
2 2 3 2
) 1 x x 2 (
1
8
1
dx
) 1 x x 2 (
3 x
I
C
7
1 x 4
arctan
343
7 48
1 x x 2
1 x 4
49
6
) 1 x x 2 (
1 x 4
14
1
4
13
2 2 2
+

+
+
+
+
+

244
6.7 Seventh Category
In this category we shall consider the following type of integral:

}
+
dx
) a x (
1
n 2 2
2 n >
We put
}
+
= dx
) a x (
1
I
n 2 2
n
.
We have
=
+
+
=
+
=
} }
dx
) a x (
x ) a x (
a
1
dx
) a x (
a
a
1
I
n 2 2
2 2 2
2 n 2 2
2
2
n

=
+
+
+
=
} }
dx
) a x (
x
a
1
dx
) a x (
) a x (
a
1
n 2 2
2
2 n 2 2
2 2
2

=
+
+
=
} }

dx
) a x (
x
a
1
dx
) a x (
1
a
1
n 2 2
2
2 1 n 2 2 2

J
a
1
I
a
1
2
1 n
2
=

where

}
+
= dx
) a x (
x
J
n 2 2
2

The previous integral can be calculated using integration by parts. In fact using the
obvious relation

}
+
= dx
) a x (
x
x J
n 2 2

and the table

) x ( f ' ) x ( g

) x ( f ) x ( g'
n 2 2
) a x (
x
+

x
1 n 2 2
) a x (
1
) 1 n ( 2
1

1
we find
245

+
=
+
=

}
1 n 2 2 n 2 2
2
) a x (
x
) 1 n ( 2
1
dx
) a x (
x
J
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+

}

dx
) a x (
1
) 1 n ( 2
1
1 n 2 2

=
+
+
+
=
}

dx
) a x (
1
) 1 n ( 2
1
) a x (
x
) 1 n ( 2
1
1 n 2 2 1 n 2 2

1 n
1 n 2 2
I
) 1 n ( 2
1
) a x (
x
) 1 n ( 2
1

+
+
=
Therefore
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
1 n
1 n 2 2 2
1 n
2
n
I
) 1 n ( 2
1
) a x (
x
) 1 n ( 2
1
a
1
I
a
1
I
=
+
+ =

1 n
2 1 n 2 2 2
1 n
2
I
a ) 1 n ( 2
1
) a x (
x
a ) 1 n ( 2
1
I
a
1

=
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
1 n 2 2 2
1 n
2
) a x (
x
a ) 1 n ( 2
1
I
) 1 n ( 2
1
1
a
1

1 n 2 2 2
1 n
2
) a x (
x
a ) 1 n ( 2
1
I
a ) 1 n ( 2
3 n 2
+
+
=
We thus have derived the reduction formula

1 n 2 2 2
1 n
2
n
) a x (
x
a ) 1 n ( 2
1
I
a ) 1 n ( 2
3 n 2
I

+
+
=

}
+
= dx
) a x (
1
I
n 2 2
n

Note. In completing the previous Table, the transition from f ' to f is being made
by integration:
=
+
=
+
= ' =
} } }
dx
) a x (
x 2
2
1
dx
) a x (
x
dx ) x ( f ) x ( f
n 2 2 n 2 2

246
=
+
= = =
+
} }
1 n
u
2
1
du u
2
1
u
du
2
1
1 n
n
n

1 n 2 2 1 n
) a x (
1
) 1 n ( 2
1
u
1
) 1 n ( 2
1

+
=
where we have used the substitution
2 2
a x u + = ( dx x 2 du = ).
}
+
= dx
) 4 x (
1
I
3 2


1 n 2 2 2
1 n
2
n
) a x (
x
a ) 1 n ( 2
1
I
a ) 1 n ( 2
3 n 2
I

+
+
=
successively for 3 n = and 2 n = , where
}
+
= dx
) 4 x (
1
I I
3 2
3

we have ( 4 a
2
= )
i) 3 n = ,
2 2
2 3
) 4 x (
x
16
1
I
16
3
I
+
+ =
ii) 2 n = ,
4 x
x
8
1
I
8
1
I
2
1 2
+
+ =
where
}
+
= dx
4 x
1
I
2
1
.
Using the substitution u 2 x = we find that
1
I becomes
u arctan
2
1
du
1 u
1
2
1
du
) 1 u ( 4
2
2 2
=
+
=
+
} }

Therefore

|
.
|
\
|
=
2
x
arctan
2
1
I
1

Collecting everything together, we have
247
=
+
+ =
2 2
2 3
) 4 x (
x
16
1
I
16
3
I I
=
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ =
2 2 2
1
) 4 x (
x
16
1
4 x
x
8
1
I
8
1
16
3

2 2 2
) 4 x (
x
16
1
4 x
x
128
3
2
x
arctan
256
1
+
+
+
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
6.8 Eighth Category
The integral
dx
) a x (
B x A
J
n 2 2
n }
+
+
= , 2 n >
can be calculated very easily, since
=
+
+
+
=
+
+
=
} } }
dx
) a x (
B
dx
) a x (
x A
dx
) a x (
B x A
J
n 2 2 n 2 2 n 2 2
n

=
+
+
+
=
} }
dx
) a x (
1
B dx
) a x (
x 2
2
A
n 2 2 n 2 2

n
1 n 2 2
I B
) a x (
1
1 n
1
2
A
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=

n
1 n 2 2
I B
) a x (
1
) 1 n ( 2
A
+
+
=

where dx
) a x (
1
I
n 2 2
n }
+
= , considered previously.
Therefore we have derived the formula

n
1 n 2 2
n
I B
) a x (
1
) 1 n ( 2
A
J +
+
=

Analogous procedures can be applied to the integrals of the form

}

dx
) a x (
1
n 2 2
and dx
) a x (
B x A
n 2 2 }

+

248
}
+
+
= dx
) 4 x (
5 x 3
J
3 2

Solution. We have
=
+
+
+
=
+
+
=
} } }
dx
) 4 x (
5
dx
) 4 x (
x 3
dx
) 4 x (
5 x 3
J
3 2 3 2 3 2

} }
+
+
+
= dx
) 4 x (
1
5 dx
) 4 x (
x 2
2
3
3 2 3 2

The first of the above integrals can be evaluated using the substitution
4 x u
2
+ = . We thus find
2 2 3 2
) 4 x (
1
2
1
dx
) 4 x (
x 2
+
=
+
}
.
The second integral has been evaluated in the previous Example (6.7, Example 1)
Putting everything together, we find
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
2 2
) 4 x (
1
2
1
2
3
J
C
) 4 x (
x
16
1
4 x
x
128
3
2
x
arctan
256
1
5
2 2 2
+
)
`
+
+
+
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
or
+
+
+
+
+
+
=
2 2 2 2 2
) 4 x (
x
16
5
4 x
x
128
15
) 4 x (
1
4
3
J
C
2
x
arctan
256
5
+
|
.
|
\
|
+

6.9 Ninth Category.
In this case we shall consider the following type of integrals:

}
dx
) x ( Q
) x ( P

where ) x ( P and ) x ( Q are integral polynomials.
We consider the following two cases:
249
Case 1. The numerator has greater or equal degree compared to that of the
denominator:
) x ( Q deg ) x ( P deg >
In this case we perform the Euclidean division
) x ( Q
) x ( P
and then go to Case 2. We
have however to remind that if ) x ( is the quotient and ) x ( Y the remainder of
the division
) x ( Q
) x ( P
, then we have the following identity
) x ( Y ) x ( ) x ( Q ) x ( P + = , ) x ( Q deg ) x ( Y deg <
Therefore

) x ( Q
) x ( Y
) x (
) x ( Q
) x ( P
+ = , ) x ( Q deg ) x ( Y deg <
Case 2. The numerator has lower degree than the denominator:
) x ( Q deg ) x ( P deg <
The denominator in this case is factorized in prime factors and then the fraction is
being written as a sum of partial fractions. The procedure is called partial fraction
decomposition and can be performed very easily.
We should remind the reader that any polynomial could be factorized in a product
containing only first degree polynomials and second degree polynomials (with
negative discriminant).

Examples:
I) ) 3 x )( 2 x ( 6 x x
2
+ =
II) ) 1 x ( ) 2 x ( 4 x 3 x
2 2 3
+ = +
III) = + 12 x 44 x 59 x 32 x 2 x 4 x
2 3 4 5 6

) 3 x ( ) 2 x ( ) 1 x (
2 3
+ + =
IV) ) 1 x )( 1 x ( 1 x x x
2 2 3
+ + = + + +
250
V) ) 3 x x )( 2 x ( 6 x x x
2 2 3
+ + = + + +
VI)
2 2 2 3 4 5
) 1 x )( 2 x ( 2 x x 4 x 2 x 2 x + + = + + + + +
VII) = + + + + + + 3 x 2 x 2 x 7 x 4 x 4 x 5 x 2 x 2 x
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

3 2 3
) 1 x x )( 3 x ( ) 1 x ( + + + =
Therefore any polynomial can be factorized. The factorized form will only contain
factors of the form
m
) b x a ( + and factors of the form
n 2
) c x b x a ( + + where
0 D < ( ac 4 b D
2
) and m, n positive integers ( 1 m> , 1 n > ). It never contains
factors of any other form. The factors of this kind of factorization are called
irreducible factors.
It is sometimes rather hard a polynomial to be factorized. There are however some
very powerful packages, which can do the job for you.
In a partial fraction decomposition
- If the denominator contains a single factor of the form b x a + then the
partial fraction will contain a term of the form
b x a
A
+
where A is a
constant to be determined.
- If the denominator contains a single factor of the form
m
) b x a ( + then the
partial fraction will contain all the terms of the form
m
m
2
2 1
) b x a (
A
) b x a (
A
b x a
A
+
+ +
+
+
+

where
m 2 1
A , , A , A are constants to be determined
- If the denominator contains a single factor of the form c x b x a
2
+ +
( 0 D < ) then the partial fraction will contain a term of the form
c x b x a
B Ax
2
+ +
+
where A and B are constants to be determined.
251
- If the denominator contains a single factor of the form
n 2
) c x b x a ( + +
( 0 D < ) then the partial fraction will contain all the terms of the form
n 2
n n
2 2
2 2
2
1 1
) c x b x a (
B x A
) c x b x a (
B x A
c x b x a
B x A
+ +
+
+ +
+ +
+
+
+ +
+

where
n 2 1
A , , A , A and
n 2 1
B , , B , B are constants to be determined

We list below some examples of partial fraction decompositions.

6.9.1 Examples of Partial Fraction Decomposition
We come now to the point of determining the constants appearing in the partial
fractions. The Examples are listed in increasing complexity. In the most
complicated cases we use Computer Algebra Systems (Symbolic Languages).
Example 1. Convert into partial fractions the rational function
) 3 x )( 2 x (
5 x 2
+

Solution. The partial fraction expansion reads

3 x
B
2 x
A
) 3 x )( 2 x (
5 x 2
+
+
=
+

(1)
We have now to determine the constants A and B in the partial fraction
decomposition.

Multiplying the previous equation by ) 3 x )( 2 x ( + we get
) 2 x ( B ) 3 x ( A 5 x 2 + + = (2)
B 2 x B A 3 x A 5 x 2 + + =
and this to
B 2 A 3 x ) B A ( 5 x 2 + + = (3)
252
Since the previous equation is an identity with respect to x (it is true for every x),
we should have

+ =
+ =
B 2 A 3 5
B A 2
(4)
Solving the simultaneous equations we find
5
9
A = and
5
1
B = . Therefore relation
(1) becomes

3 x
1
5
1
2 x
1
5
9
) 3 x )( 2 x (
5 x 2
+
+
=
+

Second Method. Since (2) is true for every x, we put successively 3 x = and
2 x = . This has the advantage of calculating immediately the constants A and B.
In fact
For 3 x = we find
5
1
B 5 B 1 ) 2 3 ( B 5 3 2 = = + =
For 2 x = we find
5
9
A ) 5 ( A 9 ) 3 2 ( A 5 ) 2 ( 2 = = =
Third Method. The cover-up method.
Suppose that ) x ( Q contains a linear factor a x . This factor then contributes a
term of the form
a x
A
in the partial fraction decomposition of

) x ( Q
) x ( P
.
Let ) x ( p denote the expression obtained by omitting the a x term from
) x ( Q
) x ( P
.
Then the constant A is ) a ( p A = .
Therefore in our case in order to determine A we put p
3 x
5 x 2
) x (
= and
therefore
5
9
5
9
3 2
5 ) 2 ( 2
) 2 ( p A =
=

= = . In order to determine B, we consider
2 x
5 x 2
) x ( q
+
= and therefore
5
1
2 3
5 3 2
) 3 ( q B =
+

= = .

253
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[1] Maple Assistance.

[2] Mathematica Assistance

[3] Macsyma Assistance

[4] Axiom

[5] Reduce Assistance

[6] Derive Assistance

[7] Scientific Word Assistance

[8] MATLAB Assistance

) 1 x ( ) 2 x (
5 x 3
2
+
+

Solution. The partial fraction decomposition reads

1 x
C
) 2 x (
B
2 x
A
) 1 x ( ) 2 x (
5 x 3
2 2

+
+
+
+
=
+
+
(1)
We have now to determine the constants A, B and C in the partial fraction
decomposition.
254
Multiplying the previous equation by ) 1 x ( ) 2 x (
2
+ we get the equation

2
) 2 x ( C ) 1 x ( B ) 1 x )( 2 x ( A 5 x 3 + + + + = + (2)
) 4 x 4 x ( C ) 1 x ( B ) 2 x 2 x x ( A 5 x 3
2 2
+ + + + + = +
which may also be written as
C 4 B A 2 x ) C 4 B A ( x ) C A ( 5 x 3
2
+ + + + + = + (3)
Since the above equation is valid for every x, we get the simultaneous equations

+ =
+ + =
+ =
C 4 B A 2 5
C 4 B A 3
C A 0
(4)
The previous system can easily be solved. Adding for example the second to the
third equation we get C 8 A 8 + = . This last equation then is being added to the
first of (4) gives C 9 8 = from which we get
9
8
C = . Using this value of C to the
first of (4) we obtain
9
8
A = . The values of A and C are then plagued to the
second of (4) and we get the value of B:
3
1
B =
Using these values to (1) we get the partial fraction decomposition

1 x
1
9
8
) 2 x (
1
3
1
2 x
1
9
8
) 1 x ( ) 2 x (
5 x 3
2 2

+
+
+
+
=
+
+

Second Method. Since (2) is true for every x, we may substitute any value of x
into that equation.
For 1 x = we have
9
8
C 9 C 8 = =
For 2 x = , we have
3
1
B ) 3 ( B 1 = =
For 0 x = , we have + + = 4 C ) 1 ( B ) 2 ( A 5
255

9
8
A
9
8
4
3
1
A 2 5 = + =
) 3 x ( ) 2 x ( ) 1 x (
74 x 80 x 35 x 48 x 42 x 11
2 3
2 3 4 5
+ +
+ + + + +

+
+
+
+
+
+
=
+ +
+ + + + +
3 2 2 3
2 3 4 5
) 1 x (
C
) 1 x (
B
1 x
A
) 3 x ( ) 2 x ( ) 1 x (
74 x 80 x 35 x 48 x 42 x 11

3 x
F
) 2 x (
E
2 x
D
2

+
+
+
+
+
Multiplying the above identity by ) 3 x ( ) 2 x ( ) 1 x (
2 3
+ + we obtain
= + + + + + 74 x 80 x 35 x 48 x 42 x 11
2 3 4 5

+ + + + + + = ) 3 x ( ) 2 x )( 1 x ( B ) 3 x ( ) 2 x ( ) 1 x ( A
2 2 2

+ + + + + + ) 3 x )( 2 x ( ) 1 x ( D ) 3 x ( ) 2 x ( C
3 2

2 3 3
) 2 x ( ) 1 x ( F ) 3 x ( ) 1 x ( E + + + + +
From the previous identity we find:
For 1 x = , 3 C ) 4 ( C 12 = =
For 2 x = , 2 E ) 5 )( 1 ( E 10 = =
For 3 x = , 5 F ) 25 )( 64 ( F 8000 = =
For 0 x = , + + + + = ) 3 )( 2 )( 1 ( D ) 3 )( 4 ( C ) 3 )( 4 )( 1 ( B ) 3 )( 4 )( 1 ( A 74
+ + ) 4 )( 1 ( F ) 3 )( 1 ( E
) 4 ( F ) 3 ( E ) 6 ( D ) 12 ( C ) 12 ( B ) 12 ( A 74 + + + + + =
20 6 D 6 36 ) B A ( 12 74 + + + + =
1 D
2
1
B A = + +
For 2 x = , + + + + = ) 1 )( 4 )( 27 ( D ) 1 )( 16 ( C ) 1 )( 16 )( 3 ( B ) 1 )( 16 )( 9 ( A 1782
256
+ + ) 16 )( 27 ( F ) 1 )( 27 ( E
) 432 ( F ) 27 ( E ) 108 ( D ) 16 ( C ) 48 ( B ) 144 ( A 1782 + + + + + =
2160 54 D 108 48 B 48 A 144 1782 + + + =
40 D 9 B 4 A 12 = + +
For 1 x = , + + + + = ) 2 )( 3 )( 8 ( D ) 2 )( 9 ( C ) 2 )( 9 )( 2 ( B ) 2 )( 9 )( 4 ( A 290
+ + ) 9 )( 8 ( F ) 2 )( 8 ( E
) 72 ( F ) 16 ( E ) 48 ( D ) 18 ( C ) 36 ( B ) 72 ( A 290 + + + + + =
360 32 D 48 54 B 36 A 72 290 + + + =
13 D 4 B 3 A 6 = + +
Solving the system of equations
1 D
2
1
B A = + + , 40 D 9 B 4 A 12 = + + , 13 D 4 B 3 A 6 = + +
we find 2 A = , 5 B = and 4 D =
Therefore we have the following partial fraction decomposition
=
+ +
+ + + + +
) 3 x ( ) 2 x ( ) 1 x (
74 x 80 x 35 x 48 x 42 x 11
2 3
2 3 4 5

3 x
5
) 2 x (
2
2 x
4
) 1 x (
3
) 1 x (
5
1 x
2
2 3 2

+
+
+
+
+
+
=

) 1 x )( 1 x (
1 x x 3
2
2
+ +
+


1 x
C x B
1 x
A
) 1 x )( 1 x (
1 x x 3
2 2
2
+
+
+
+
=
+ +
+

Multiplying by ) 1 x )( 1 x (
2
+ + the previous identity we find
257
) 1 x )( C x B ( ) 1 x ( A 1 x x 3
2 2
+ + + + = +
For 1 x = , we find
2
5
A 2 A 5 = =
For 0 x = , we find
2
3
C C
2
5
1 C A 1 = + = + =
For 1 x = , we find
2
1
B
2
3
C B A 2 ) C B ( 2 A 3 = = + + + + =
1 x
2
3
x
2
1
1 x
2
5
) 1 x )( 1 x (
1 x x 3
2 2
2
+
+
+
=
+ +
+

or

1 x
3 x
2
1
1 x
1
2
5
) 1 x )( 1 x (
1 x x 3
2 2
2
+
+
+
=
+ +
+


) 3 x x ( ) 2 x (
5 x 3 x 4
2
2
+ +
+

3 x x
C Bx
2 x
A
) 3 x x ( ) 2 x (
5 x 3 x 4
2 2
2
+
+
+
+
=
+ +
+

Multiplying by ) 3 x x )( 2 x (
2
+ + the previous identity, we obtain
) 2 x ( ) C x B ( ) 3 x x ( A 5 x 3 x 4
2 2
+ + + + = +
For 2 x = , we find 3 A 9 A 27 = =
For 0 x = , we find 2 C C 2 9 5 2 C 3 A 5 = + = + =
For 1 x = , we find 1 B ) C B ( 5 A 12 = + + =
3 x x
2 x
2 x
3
) 3 x x )( 2 x (
5 x 3 x 4
2 2
2
+
+
+
=
+ +
+

258
Example 6. . Convert into partial fractions the rational function

2 2
2 3 4
) 1 x )( 2 x (
21 x 11 x 17 x x
+ +
+ + + +

2 2 2 2 2
2 3 4
) 1 x (
E x D
1 x
C x B
2 x
A
) 1 x )( 2 x (
21 x 11 x 17 x x
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
=
+ +
+ + + +

Multiplying the previous identity by
2 2
) 1 x )( 2 x ( + + , we obtain
= + + + + 21 x 11 x 17 x x
2 3 4

) 2 x )( E x D ( ) 1 x )( 2 x )( C x B ( ) 1 x ( A
2 2 2
+ + + + + + + + =
For 2 x = , we find 3 A 25 A 75 = =
For 0 x = , we find 9 E C 2 E 2 C A 21 = + + + =
For 1 x = , we find + + + + = ) E D ( 2 ) C B ( 4 A 27
6 D C B 2 = +
For 1 x = , we find + + + + = 3 ) E D ( 6 ) C B ( 4 A 51
4 D C B 2 = + +
For 2 x = , we find + + + + = 4 ) E D 2 ( 20 ) C B 2 ( 25 A 135
3 D C 2 B 5 = + +
Solving the system
9 E C = + , 6 D C B 2 = + , 4 D C B 2 = + + , 3 D C 2 B 5 = + +
we find 2 B = , 5 C = , 3 D = and 4 E = .
2 2 2 2 2
2 3 4
) 1 x (
4 x 3
1 x
5 x 2
2 x
3
) 1 x )( 2 x (
21 x 11 x 17 x x
+
+
+
+
+
=
+ +
+ + + +

) 1 x x )( 3 x ( ) 1 x (
25 x 45 x 6 x 8
2 2
2 3
+ + +
+

259

1 x x
E Dx
3 x
C
) 1 x (
B
1 x
A
) 1 x x )( 3 x ( ) 1 x (
25 x 45 x 6 x 8
2 2 2 2
2 3
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
=
+ + +
+

Multiplying the previous identity by ) 1 x x )( 3 x ( ) 1 x (
2 2
+ + + , we obtain
+ + + + + + + = + ) 1 x x )( 3 x ( B ) 1 x x )( 3 x )( 1 x ( A 25 x 45 x 6 x 8
2 2 2 3

) 3 x ( ) 1 x )( E x D ( ) 1 x x ( ) 1 x ( C
2 2 2
+ + + + + + +
For 1 x = , we find 3 B 6 B 18 = =
For 3 x = , we find 1 C 52 C 52 = =
For 0 x = , we find + + + = 3 E C 3 B 3 A 25
+ + = E 3 1 9 A 3 25
11 E A = +
For 2 x = , we find + + + + = ) E D 2 ( 7 C 7 B ) 7 ( A 25
+ + + = ) E D 2 ( 7 21 A 7 25
11 E D 2 A 7 = +
For 1 x = , we find + + + + = 16 ) E D ( 4 C 4 B 8 A 56
+ + + = ) E D ( 16 4 12 A 8 56
8 E 2 D 2 A = + +
Solving the system
11 E A = + , 11 E D 2 A 7 = + , 8 E 2 D 2 A = + +
we find
4 A = , 5 D = , 7 E =

1 x x
7 x 5
3 x
1
) 1 x (
3
1 x
4
) 1 x x )( 3 x ( ) 1 x (
25 x 45 x 6 x 8
2 2 2 2
2 3
+
+
+
+
+
+
=
+ + +
+

2 2 2
2 3 4 5 6
) 1 x x )( 3 x ( ) 1 x (
10 x 17 x 2 x 42 x 2 x 11 x 10
+ + +
+ + +

260
+
+
+
+
+
+
=
+ + +
+ + +
3 x
C
) 1 x (
B
1 x
A
) 1 x x )( 3 x ( ) 1 x (
10 x 17 x 2 x 42 x 2 x 11 x 10
2 2 2 2
2 3 4 5 6

2 2 2
) 1 x x (
G x F
1 x x
E x D
+
+
+
+
+
+
Multiplying by
2 2 2
) 1 x x )( 3 x ( ) 1 x ( + + + , we obtain the identity
= + + + 10 x 17 x 2 x 42 x 2 x 11 x 10
2 3 4 5 6

+ + + + + + + =
2 2 2 2
) 1 x x )( 3 x ( B ) 1 x x )( 3 x )( 1 x ( A
2 2 2
) 1 x x ( ) 1 x ( C + + +
) 3 x ( ) 1 x )( G x F ( ) 1 x x )( 3 x ( ) 1 x )( E x D (
2 2 2
+ + + + + + + + +
For 1 x = , we find 2 B 18 B 36 = =
For 3 x = , we find 5 C 676 C 3380 = =
For 0 x = , we find + + + + = 3 G 3 E C 3 B 3 A 10
+ + + = G 3 E 3 5 6 A 3 10
3 G E A = + +
For 2 x = , we find
+ + + + + + = ) G F 2 ( 7 ) E D 2 ( 49 C 49 B ) 49 ( A 48
+ + + + + = ) G F 2 ( ) E D 2 ( 7 245 98 A 49 48
195 G F 2 E 7 D 14 A 49 = + +
For 2 x = , we find
+ + + + + + = 45 ) G F 2 ( 135 ) E D 2 ( 81 C 45 B 135 A 1260
+ + + + + = ) G F 2 ( 45 ) E D 2 ( 135 405 90 A 135 1260
21 G F 2 E 3 D 6 A 3 = + + + +
For 1 x = , we find
+ + + + + + = 16 ) G F ( 16 ) E D ( 4 C 4 B 8 A 36
+ + + + + = ) G F ( 16 ) E D ( 16 20 8 A 8 36
3 G 2 F 2 E 2 D 2 A = + + + +

261
For 3 x = , we find
+ + + + + + = 96 ) G F 3 ( 672 ) E D 3 ( 784 C 294 B 1176 A 10892
+ + + + + = ) G F 3 ( 96 ) E D 3 ( 672 3920 588 A 1176 10892
315 G 4 F 12 E 28 D 84 A 49 = + + + +
Solving the system of equations
3 G E A = + + , 195 G F 2 E 7 D 14 A 49 = + +
21 G F 2 E 3 D 6 A 3 = + + + + , 3 G 2 F 2 E 2 D 2 A = + + + +
315 G 4 F 12 E 28 D 84 A 49 = + + + +
we find the following values
3 A = , 2 D= , 1 E = , 4 F= , 5 G =
+
+
+
=
+ + +
+ + +
2 2 2 2
2 3 4 5 6
) 1 x (
2
1 x
3
) 1 x x )( 3 x ( ) 1 x (
10 x 17 x 2 x 42 x 2 x 11 x 10

2 2 2
) 1 x x (
5 x 4
1 x x
1 x 2
3 x
5
+

+
+
+
+
+
Note. From the partial fraction decomposition it is evident that we have to
integrate terms like
[1]
b x a
A
+
and
2
) b x a (
A
+
, 2 n >
[2]
c x b x a
A
2
+ +
,
c x b x a
B x A
2
+ +
+
, and
[3]
n 2
) c x b x a (
A
+ +
,
n 2
) c x b x a (
B x A
+ +
+
, 2 n >
We have already considered integrals containing terms like these.

262

6.9.1a. More examples on partial fraction decomposition
2 2 2
2 3
) 1 x ( ) 1 x (
12 x 7 x 3 x 5
+ +
+ +


2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 3
) 1 x (
F x E
1 x
D x C
) 1 x (
B
1 x
A
) 1 x ( ) 1 x (
12 x 7 x 3 x 5
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
=
+ +
+ +

Multiplying through by
2 2 2
) 1 x ( ) 1 x ( + + we obtain from the previous identity

+ + + + + = + +
2 2 2 2 2 3
) 1 x ( B ) 1 x )( 1 x ( A 12 x 7 x 3 x 5

2 2 2
) 1 x )( F Ex ( ) 1 x ( ) 1 x )( D Cx ( + + + + + + +
which may be written as
+ + + + + + = + +
4 5 2 3
x ) D C 2 B A ( x ) C A ( 12 x 7 x 3 x 5
+ + + + + + + + + + +
2 3
x ) F E 2 D 2 C 2 B 2 A 2 ( x ) E D 2 C 2 A 2 (
F D B A x ) F 2 E D 2 C A ( + + + + + + + + +
Equating the similar powers of x, we obtain the system
0 C A = +
0 D C 2 B A = + + +
5 E D 2 C 2 A 2 = + + +
3 F E 2 D 2 C 2 B 2 A 2 = + + + + +
7 F 2 E D 2 C A = + + + +
12 F D B A = + + +
The above system has the unique solution

2
11
A = ,
4
3
B = ,
2
11
C = ,
4
25
D = ,
2
15
E = , 1 F=
263
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 3
) 1 x (
1 x
2
15
1 x
4
25
x
2
11
) 1 x (
4
3
1 x
2
11
) 1 x ( ) 1 x (
12 x 7 x 3 x 5
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
=
+ +
+ +

or
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 3
) 1 x (
2 x 15
2
1
1 x
25 x 22
4
1
) 1 x (
1
4
3
1 x
1
2
11
) 1 x ( ) 1 x (
12 x 7 x 3 x 5
+
+
=
+ +
+ +

3 2 2
2 3 4 5
) 1 x ( ) 2 x )( 1 x (
17 x 2 x 11 x 15 x 7 x 8
+ +
+ + +

+
+
+
=
+ +
+ + +
2 3 2 2
2 3 4 5
) 2 x (
C
2 x
B
1 x
A
) 1 x ( ) 2 x )( 1 x (
17 x 2 x 11 x 15 x 7 x 8

3 2 2 2 2
) 1 x (
K x H
) 1 x (
G x F
1 x
E x D
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
3 2 2
) 1 x ( ) 2 x )( 1 x ( + + , we obtain
+ + = + + +
3 2 2 2 3 4 5
) 1 x ( ) 2 x ( A 17 x 2 x 11 x 15 x 7 x 8
+ + + + + + +
3 2 3 2
) 1 x )( 1 x ( C ) 1 x )( 2 x )( 1 x ( B
+ + + + + + + + + ) 1 x ( ) 2 x )( 1 x )( G x F ( ) 1 x ( ) 2 x )( 1 x )( E Dx (
2 2 2 2 2

2
) 2 x )( 1 x )( K x H ( + + +
+ + + = + + +
8 2 3 4 5
x ) D B A ( 17 x 2 x 11 x 15 x 7 x 8
+ + + + + + + + +
6 7
x ) F E 3 D 2 C B A 7 ( x ) E D 3 C B A 4 (
+ + + + +
5
x ) G F 3 E 2 D 2 C 3 B 3 A 12 (
+ + + + + +
4
x ) H G 3 F E 2 D C 3 B 3 A 15 (
+ + + + + + + +
3
x ) K H 3 G F E D 5 C 3 B 3 A 12 (
264
+ + + + + + + + + + x ) H 4 F 4 D 4 C B A 4 ( x ) K 3 G E 5 C 3 A 13 (
2

K 4 G 4 E 4 C B 2 A 4 + + + + +
Equating the coefficients of the similar powers of x, we obtain the system
0 D B A = + +
0 E D 3 C B A 4 = + +
0 F E 3 D 2 C B A 7 = + + + +
8 G F 3 E 2 D 2 C 3 B 3 A 12 = + + +
7 H G 3 F E 2 D C 3 B 3 A 15 = + + + +
15 K H 3 G F E D 5 C 3 B 3 A 12 = + + + + + +
11 K 3 G E 5 C 3 A 13 = + + +
2 H 4 F 4 D 4 C B A 4 = + + + +
17 K 4 G 4 E 4 C B 2 A 4 = + + + +

36
13
A = ,
5625
1571
B = ,
375
241
C = ,
2500
1601
D = ,
2500
1113
E =

250
113
F = ,
250
429
G = ,
25
7
H = ,
25
76
K =
+
+
+
=
+ +
+ + +
2 3 2 2
2 3 4 5
) 2 x (
375
241
2 x
5625
1571
1 x
36
13
) 1 x ( ) 2 x )( 1 x (
17 x 2 x 11 x 15 x 7 x 8

3 2 2 2 2
) 1 x (
25
76
x
25
7
) 1 x (
250
429
x
250
113
1 x
2500
1113
x
2500
1601
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
or
+
+
=
+ +
+ + +
2 x
1
5625
1571
1 x
1
36
13
) 1 x ( ) 2 x )( 1 x (
17 x 2 x 11 x 15 x 7 x 8
3 2 2
2 3 4 5

+
+
2 2 2 2
) 1 x (
429 x 113
250
1
1 x
1113 x 1601
2500
1
) 2 x (
1
375
241

265

3 2
) 1 x (
76 x 7
25
1
+

) 1 x x ( ) 1 x (
11 x 12 x 7 x 5
2 2
2 3
+ +
+ +

1 x x
D Cx
) 1 x (
B
1 x
A
) 1 x x ( ) 1 x (
11 x 12 x 7 x 5
2 2 2 2
2 3
+
+
+
+
+
+
=
+ +
+ +

Multiplying through by ) 1 x x ( ) 1 x (
2 2
+ + we obtain from the previous identity

+ + + + + = + + ) 1 x x ( B ) 1 x x )( 1 x ( A 11 x 12 x 7 x 5
2 2 2 3

2
) 1 x )( D Cx ( + + +
+ + + + + = + +
2 3 2 3
x ) D C 2 B ( x ) C A ( 11 x 12 x 7 x 5
D B A x ) D 2 C B ( + + + + + +
Equating the coefficients of similar powers of x, we obtain the system
5 C A = +
7 D C 2 B = + +
12 D 2 C B = + +
11 D B A = + +
The above system has a unique solution

3
8
A = , 7 B = ,
3
23
C = ,
3
4
D =
1 x x
3
4
x
3
23
) 1 x (
7
1 x
3
8
) 1 x x ( ) 1 x (
11 x 12 x 7 x 5
2 2 2 2
2 3
+
+
+
+
+
=
+ +
+ +

or
266

1 x x
4 x 23
3
1
) 1 x (
7
1 x
1
3
8
) 1 x x ( ) 1 x (
11 x 12 x 7 x 5
2 2 2 2
2 3
+

+
+
+
=
+ +
+ +

2 2 2
2 3 4
) 1 x x ( ) 1 x (
11 x 12 x 7 x 5 x 7
+ +
+ +

+
+
+
+
=
+ +
+ +
2 2 2 2
2 3 4
) 1 x (
B
1 x
A
) 1 x x ( ) 1 x (
11 x 12 x 7 x 5 x 7

2 2 2
) 1 x x (
F Ex
1 x x
D Cx
+
+
+
+
+
+

2 2 2
) 1 x x ( ) 1 x ( + + we obtain from the previous identity

+ + + + + = + +
2 2 2 2 2 3 4
) 1 x x ( B ) 1 x x )( 1 x ( A 11 x 12 x 7 x 5 x 7

2 2 2
) 1 x )( F Ex ( ) 1 x x ( ) 1 x )( D Cx ( + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + = + +
4 5 2 3 4
x ) D C B A ( x ) C A ( 11 x 12 x 7 x 5 x 7
+ + + + + + + + +
2 3
x ) F E 2 C B 3 A ( x ) E D B 2 A (
F D B A x ) F 2 E D C B 2 A ( + + + + + + + + +
0 C A = +
7 D C B A = + + +
5 E D B 2 A = + +
7 F E 2 C B 3 A = + + + +
12 F 2 E D C B 2 A = + + + +
11 F D B A = + + +
267

9
53
A = ,
9
4
B = ,
9
53
C = ,
3
13
D = ,
3
13
E = ,
3
1
F =
+
+
+
+
=
+ +
+ +
2 2 2 2
2 3 4
) 1 x (
9
4
1 x
9
53
) 1 x x ( ) 1 x (
11 x 12 x 7 x 5 x 7

2 2 2
) 1 x x (
3
1
x
3
13
1 x x
3
13
x
9
53
+
+
+
+
or
+
+
+
=
+ +
+ +
2 2 2 2
2 3 4
) 1 x (
1
9
4
1 x
1
9
53
) 1 x x ( ) 1 x (
11 x 12 x 7 x 5 x 7

2 2 2
) 1 x x (
1 x 13
3
1
1 x x
39 x 53
9
1
+

+
+
+

3 2 2
2 3 4 5
) 1 x x ( ) 1 x (
13 x 12 x 7 x 3 x 8 x 7
+ +
+ + +

+
+
+
+
=
+ +
+ + +
2 3 2 2
2 3 4 5
) 1 x (
B
1 x
A
) 1 x x ( ) 1 x (
13 x 12 x 7 x 3 x 8 x 7

3 2 2 2 2
) 1 x x (
H Gx
) 1 x x (
F Ex
1 x x
D Cx
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
3 2 2
) 1 x x ( ) 1 x ( + + we obtain

+ + + + + = + + +
3 2 3 2 2 3 4 5
) 1 x x ( B ) 1 x x )( 1 x ( A 13 x 12 x 7 x 3 x 8 x 7
+ + + + + + + + + ) 1 x x ( ) 1 x )( F Ex ( ) 1 x x ( ) 1 x )( D Cx (
2 2 2 2 2

2
) 1 x )( H Gx ( + + +
268
+ + + + + = + + +
6 7 2 3 4 5
x ) D B A 2 ( x ) C A ( 13 x 12 x 7 x 3 x 8 x 7
+ + + + + + + +
4 5
x ) F E C 2 B 6 A ( x ) E B 3 A 3 (
+ + + + + + + + + +
2 3
x ) H G 2 E B 6 A 3 ( x ) G F D 2 B 7 A (
H F D B A x ) H 2 G E F C B 3 A 2 ( + + + + + + + + + + +
0 C A = +
0 D B A 2 = + +
7 E B 3 A 3 = +
8 F E C 2 B 6 A = + + + +
3 G F D 2 B 7 A = + + +
7 H G 2 E B 6 A 3 = + + + +
12 H 2 G E F C B 3 A 2 = + + + + +
13 H F D B A = + + + +

27
50
A = ,
27
14
B = ,
27
50
C = ,
27
86
D =
11 E = ,
9
49
F = ,
3
10
G = , 2 H =
+
+
+
+
=
+ +
+ + +
2 3 2 2
2 3 4 5
) 1 x (
27
14
1 x
27
50
) 1 x x ( ) 1 x (
13 x 12 x 7 x 3 x 8 x 7

3 2 2 2 2
) 1 x x (
2 x
3
10
) 1 x x (
9
49
x 11
1 x x
27
86
x
27
50
+
+
+
+
+
+
or
+
+
+
=
+ +
+ + +
2 3 2 2
2 3 4 5
) 1 x (
1
27
14
1 x
1
27
50
) 1 x x ( ) 1 x (
13 x 12 x 7 x 3 x 8 x 7

269

3 2 2 2 2
) 1 x x (
3 x 5
3
2
) 1 x x (
49 x 99
9
1
1 x x
43 x 25
27
2
+

+
+

+
+
+

3 2 2
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
) 1 x x )( 3 x ( ) 1 x (
9 x 44 x 55 x 89 x 102 x 43 x 3 x 12 x 3
+ + +
+ + + +

=
+ + +
+ + + +
3 2 2
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
) 1 x x )( 3 x ( ) 1 x (
9 x 44 x 55 x 89 x 102 x 43 x 3 x 12 x 3

3 2 2 2 2 2
) 1 x x (
K Hx
) 1 x x (
G Fx
1 x x
E Dx
3 x
C
) 1 x (
B
1 x
A
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
=
Multiplying by
3 2 2
) 1 x x )( 3 x ( ) 1 x ( + + + , we obtain
= + + + + 9 x 44 x 55 x 89 x 102 x 43 x 3 x 12 x 3
2 3 4 5 6 7 8

+ + + + + + + =
3 2 3 2
) 1 x x )( 3 x ( B ) 1 x x )( 3 x )( 1 x ( A
+ + + + + + + + +
2 2 2 3 2 2
) 1 x x )( 3 x ( ) 1 x )( E x D ( ) 1 x x ( ) 1 x ( C
) 3 x ( ) 1 x )( K Hx ( ) 1 x x )( 3 x ( ) 1 x )( G Fx (
2 2 2
+ + + + + + + + +
The previous expression can be written as
= + + + + 9 x 44 x 55 x 89 x 102 x 43 x 3 x 12 x 3
2 3 4 5 6 7 8

+ + + + + + + + + + + =
6 7 8
x ) F E 3 C A 3 ( x ) E D 3 C B A ( x ) D C A (
+ + + + + +
5
x ) G F 4 D 2 C 2 B 3 A 8 (
+ + + + + + + +
4
x ) H G 4 F 3 E 2 D 6 C 2 B 11 A 4 (
+ + + + + + + +
3
x ) K H 5 G 3 F E 6 C 2 B 15 (
+ + + + + + + + +
2
x ) K 5 H 7 G F 4 D C B 15 A 7 (
+ + + + + + + + x ) K 7 H 3 G 4 F 3 E D 3 C B 8 A 5 (
0 K 3 G 3 E 3 C B 3 A 3 = + + + + + +
270
3 D C A = + + ,
12 E D 3 C B A = + + + ,
3 F E 3 C A 3 = + + +
43 G F 4 D 2 C 2 B 3 A 8 = + + + + ,
102 H G 4 F 3 E 2 D 6 C 2 B 11 A 4 = + + + + + +
89 K H 5 G 3 F E 6 C 2 B 15 = + + + + + +
55 K 5 H 7 G F 4 D C B 15 A 7 = + + + + + + +
44 K 7 H 3 G 4 F 3 E D 3 C B 8 A 5 = + + + + + +
9 K 3 G 3 E 3 C B 3 A 3 = + + + + +
Solving the system, we find the following values of the constants:
2 A= , 6 B = , 3 C = , 2 D = , 1 E =
3 F = , 5 G = , 1 H = , 4 K =
=
+ + +
+ + + +
3 2 2
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
) 1 x x )( 3 x ( ) 1 x (
9 x 44 x 55 x 89 x 102 x 43 x 3 x 12 x 3

3 2 2 2 2 2
) 1 x x (
4 x
) 1 x x (
5 x 3
1 x x
1 x 2
3 x
3
) 1 x (
6
1 x
2
+
+

+
+
+
+
+
+
=
6.9.2 Another Method of Partial Fraction Decomposition

This method applies to the case of multiple roots and makes use the non-
terminating division.

Example 1. Convert into partial fractions the rational expression

2 3
2
) 2 x ( ) 1 x (
1 x x
+
+ +

1 x t = , i.e. 1 t x + =
The function then takes the form
271

) 9 t 6 t ( t
3 t 3 t
) 3 t ( t
1 ) 1 t ( ) 1 t (
2 3
2
2 3
2
+ +
+ +
=
+
+ + + +


2
2
3
t t 6 9
t 3 t 9 9
t 3
1
+ +
+ +

Performing the non-terminating division ) t t 6 9 ( ) t 3 t 9 9 (
2 2
+ + + + , we have
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ + + = + +
3
t
3
t
1 ) t t 6 9 ( t 3 t 9 9
3
2 2

or

2
3
2
2
t t 6 9
3
t
3
t
1
t t 6 9
t 3 t 9 9
+ +
+ + =
+ +
+ +


2
3
2
2
t t 6 9
1
3
t
3
t
1
) 3 t (
) 3 t 3 t ( 3
+ +
+ =
+
+ +

3
t 3
1
, we obtain the identity

2 2 3 2 3
2
) 3 t (
1
9
1
t
1
9
1
t
1
3
1
) 3 t ( t
3 t 3 t
+
+ =
+
+ +

Going back to the original variable x, ( 1 x t = ) we get

2 2 3 2 3
2
) 2 x (
1
9
1
) 1 x (
1
9
1
) 1 x (
1
3
1
) 2 x ( ) 1 x (
1 x x
+

=
+
+ +

Example 2. Convert into partial fractions the rational expression

) 4 x ( ) 1 x (
x 36 x 30 x 5 x
2 3
2 3 4
+

1 x t + = , i.e. 1 t x =
The function then takes the form
272

) 3 t 2 t ( t
12 t 5 t 9 t 9 t
] 4 ) 1 t [( t
) 1 t ( 36 ) 1 t ( 30 ) 1 t ( 5 ) 1 t (
2 3
2 3 4
2 3
2 3 4

+ +
=

Performing the non-terminating division
) 3 t 2 t ( ) 12 t 5 t 9 t 9 t (
2 2 3 4
+ +
we have
3 t 2 t
t 8
t t 4
3 t 2 t
12 t 5 t 9 t 9 t
2
3
2
2
2 3 4

+ + =

+ +

From the last identity, multiplying by
3
t
1
, we obtain
3 t 2 t
8
t
1
t
1
t
4
) 3 t 2 t ( t
12 t 5 t 9 t 9 t
2 2 3 2 3
2 3 4

+ + =

+ +

Going back to the original variable x ( 1 x t + = ), we get the identity

4 x
8
1 x
1
) 1 x (
1
) 1 x (
4
) 4 x ( ) 1 x (
x 36 x 30 x 5 x
2 2 3 2 3
2 3 4
+
+
+
+
+
=
+

Since, as usual

2 x
2
2 x
2
4 x
8
2
+

we obtain finally

2 x
2
2 x
2
1 x
1
) 1 x (
1
) 1 x (
4
) 4 x ( ) 1 x (
x 36 x 30 x 5 x
2 3 2 3
2 3 4
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
=
+

4 3 2
t t 9 t 9 t 5 12 + +
2
t 4 t 8 12 +
2
t t 4 + +
4 3 2
t t 9 t 5 t 3 +
3 2
t t 2 t 3 +
4 3 2
t t 10 t 3 +
4 3 2
t t 2 t 3 +
3
t 8
273

6.9.3 Examples of integration of rational functions using
partial fraction decomposition
6 x 5 x 2 x
5 x 6 x 3
I
2 3
2
}

+
=
Solution. We have that
) 3 x )( 2 x )( 1 x ( 6 x 5 x 2 x
2 3
+ =
We thus have the partial fraction decomposition

3 x
C
2 x
B
1 x
A
) 3 x )( 2 x )( 1 x (
5 x 6 x 3
2
+
+
+
=
+
+

Multiplying through by ) 3 x )( 2 x )( 1 x ( + , we obtain the identity
) 2 x )( 1 x ( C ) 3 x )( 1 x ( B ) 3 x )( 2 x ( A 5 x 6 x 3
2
+ + + + = +
For 2 x = ,
15
29
B 15 B 29 = =
For 3 x = ,
5
7
C 10 C 14 = =
For 1 x = ,
3
1
A ) 6 ( A 2 = =

3 x
5
7
2 x
15
29
1 x
3
1
) 3 x )( 2 x )( 1 x (
5 x 6 x 3
2
+
+
+
=
+
+

or

3 x
1
5
7
2 x
1
15
29
1 x
1
3
1
) 3 x )( 2 x )( 1 x (
5 x 6 x 3
2
+
+
+
=
+
+

We now can evaluate the integral:
=
+
+
+
=

+
=
} } } }
3 x
dx
5
7
2 x
dx
15
29
1 x
dx
3
1
dx
6 x 5 x 2 x
5 x 6 x 3
I
2 3
2

274
C | 3 x | ln
5
7
| 1 x | ln
15
29
| 1 x | ln
3
1
+ + + + =
x x 2 x
1 x x 2
I
2 3
2
}
+
+
=
Solution. We have

2 2 2 3
) 1 x ( x ) 1 x 2 x ( x x x 2 x = + = +

2 2
2
) 1 x (
C
1 x
B
x
A
) 1 x ( x
1 x x 2
+ =
+

2
) 1 x ( x we obtain the identity
x C ) 1 x ( x B ) 1 x ( A 1 x x 2
2 2
+ + = +
For 0 x = , 1 A ) 1 ( A 1
2
= =
For 1 x = , 2 C C 2 = =
For 2 x = , 3 B 2 C 2 B A 9 = + + =

2 2
2
) 1 x (
2
1 x
3
x
1
) 1 x ( x
1 x x 2
+ =
+

=
+ =
+
+
=
} } } } 2 2 3
2
) 1 x (
dx
2
1 x
dx
x
dx
dx
x x 2 x
1 x x 2
I
= +
|
.
|
\
|
+ + = C
1 x
1
2 | 1 x | ln | x | ln
C
1 x
2
x
1 x
ln +
=
Note. The integral
}

2
) 1 x (
dx
was evaluated using the substitution 1 x u =
( dx du = ):
275

1 x
1
u
1
u
du
) 1 x (
dx
2 2
= = =
} }

}
+
+
= dx
) 2 x ( ) 1 x (
5 x x 3
I
2
2

Solution. We have the partial fraction decomposition
2 x
C
) 1 x (
B
1 x
A
) 2 x ( ) 1 x (
5 x x 3
2 2
2
+
+
=
+
+

Multiplying through by ) 2 x ( ) 1 x (
2
+ we obtain the identity

2 2
) 1 x ( C ) 2 x ( B ) 2 x )( 1 x ( A 5 x x 3 + + + + = +
For 1 x = ,
3
7
B 3 B 7 = =
For 2 x = ,
9
19
C ) 3 ( C 19
2
= =
For 0 x = ,
9
8
A ) 1 ( C 2 B ) 2 ( A 5
2
= + + =
Therefore we have the decomposition
2 x
9
19
) 1 x (
3
7
1 x
9
8
) 2 x ( ) 1 x (
5 x x 3
2 2
2
+
+
=
+
+

or

2 x
1
9
19
) 1 x (
1
3
7
1 x
1
9
8
) 2 x ( ) 1 x (
5 x x 3
2 2
2
+
+
=
+
+

=
+
+
=
+
+
=
} } } }
2 x
dx
9
19
) 1 x (
dx
3
7
1 x
dx
9
8
dx
) 2 x ( ) 1 x (
5 x x 3
I
2 2
2

C | 2 x | ln
9
19
1 x
1
3
7
| 1 x | ln
9
8
+ + +
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
276
) 2 x 3 ( ) 1 x 2 (
1 x 3 x
I
2
2
}
+
+
=

2 x 3
C
) 1 x 2 (
B
1 x 2
A
) 2 x 3 ( ) 1 x 2 (
1 x 3 x
2 2
2
+
+
=
+
+

Multiplying through by ) 2 x 3 ( ) 1 x 2 (
2
+ , we obtain the identity

2 2
) 1 x 2 ( C ) 2 x 3 ( B ) 2 x 3 )( 1 x 2 ( A 1 x 3 x + + + + = +
C B 2 A 2 x ) C 4 B 3 A ( x ) C 4 A 6 ( 1 x 3 x
2 2
+ + + + + = +
Equating the coefficients of equal powers of x, we obtain the system
1 C 4 A 6 = + , 3 C 4 B 3 A = + , 1 C B 2 A 2 = + +

98
25
A = ,
14
1
B = ,
49
31
C =
2 x 3
1
49
31
) 1 x 2 (
1
14
1
1 x 2
1
98
25
) 2 x 3 ( ) 1 x 2 (
1 x 3 x
2 2
2
+
+
=
+
+

} } } }
+
+
=
+
+
=
2 x 3
dx
49
31
) 1 x 2 (
dx
14
1
1 x 2
dx
98
25
dx
) 2 x 3 ( ) 1 x 2 (
1 x 3 x
I
2 2
2

=
+
+
=
} } }
2 x 3
dx
49
31
) 1 x 2 (
dx
14
1
1 x 2
dx
98
25
2

=
+
+

=
} } }
dx
2 x 3
3
49 3
31
dx
) 1 x 2 (
2
14 2
1
dx
1 x 2
2
98 2
25
2

C | 2 x 3 | ln
147
31
1 x 2
1
28
1
| 1 x 2 | ln
196
25
+ + +
|
.
|
\
|
=
277
) 1 x 3 ( ) 3 x 2 (
7 x x 5
I
2
2
}
+
+
=

1 x 3
C
) 3 x 2 (
B
3 x 2
A
) 1 x 3 ( ) 3 x 2 (
7 x x 5
2 2
2
+
+
=
+
+

Multiplying through by ) 1 x 3 ( ) 3 x 2 (
2

2 2
) 3 x 2 ( C ) 1 x 3 ( B ) 1 x 3 )( 3 x 2 ( A 7 x x 5 + + + + = +
C 9 B A 3 x ) C 12 B 3 A 7 ( x ) C 4 A 6 ( 7 x x 5
2 2
+ + + + + = +

5 C 4 A 6 = + , 1 C 12 B 3 A 7 = + , 7 C 9 B A 3 = + +

The previous system has the unique solution

242
107
A = ,
22
67
B = and
121
71
C =

1 x 3
1
121
71
) 3 x 2 (
1
22
67
3 x 2
1
242
107
) 1 x 3 ( ) 3 x 2 (
7 x x 5
2 2
2
+
+
=
+
+

=
+
+
=
+
+
=
} } } }
1 x 3
dx
121
71
) 3 x 2 (
dx
22
67
3 x 2
dx
242
107
dx
) 1 x 3 ( ) 3 x 2 (
7 x x 5
I
2 2
2

=
+
+

+

=
} } }
dx
1 x 3
3
121 3
71
dx
) 3 x 2 (
2
22 2
67
dx
3 x 2
2
242 2
107
2

C | 1 x 3 | ln
242
71
3 x 2
1
44
67
| 3 x 2 | ln
482
107
+ + +
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
) 1 x 4 )( 3 x 2 ( ) 4 x 3 (
13 x 7 x 6
I
2 2
3
}
+ +
+
=
278
+
+
+
+
+
+
=
+ +
+
2 2 2
3
) 4 x 3 (
C
4 x 3
B
3 x 2
A
) 1 x 4 )( 3 x 2 ( ) 4 x 3 (
13 x 7 x 6

2
) 1 x 4 (
E
1 x 4
D
+
2 2
) 1 x 4 )( 3 x 2 ( ) 4 x 3 ( + + , we obtain the identity
+ + + + + = +
2 2 2 3
) 1 x 4 )( 4 x 3 )( 3 x 2 ( B ) 1 x 4 ( ) 4 x 3 ( A 13 x 7 x 6
2 2 2
) 4 x 3 )( 3 x 2 ( E ) 1 x 4 ( ) 4 x 3 )( 3 x 2 ( D ) 1 x 4 )( 3 x 2 ( C + + + + + + + +
which can be put into the form
+ + + = +
4 3
x ) D 72 B 96 A 144 ( 13 x 7 x 6
+ + + + + +
3
x ) E 18 D 282 C 32 B 224 A 312 (
+ + + + + +
2
x ) E 75 D 341 C 32 B 62 A 73 (
+ + + + x ) E 104 D 88 C 22 B 79 A 104 (
E 48 D 48 C 3 B 12 A 16 + + + +
0 D 72 B 96 A 144 = + +
6 E 18 D 282 C 32 B 224 A 312 = + + + +
0 E 75 D 341 C 32 B 62 A 73 = + + + +
7 E 104 D 88 C 22 B 79 A 104 = + +
13 E 48 D 48 C 3 B 12 A 16 = + + +
The above linear system has the unique solution

49
13
A = ,
6859
2295
B = ,
361
219
C = ,
336091
28394
D = ,
2527
363
E =
+
+
+
=
+ +
+
4 x 3
1
6859
2295
3 x 2
1
49
13
) 1 x 4 )( 3 x 2 ( ) 4 x 3 (
13 x 7 x 6
2 2
3

279

2 2
) 1 x 4 (
1
2527
363
1 x 4
1
336091
28394
) 4 x 3 (
1
361
219
+
+
+
+
+
=
+ +
+
=
} } }
4 x 3
dx
6859
2295
3 x 2
dx
49
13
dx
) 1 x 4 )( 3 x 2 ( ) 4 x 3 (
13 x 7 x 6
I
2 2
3

=
+
+
} } }
2 2
) 1 x 4 (
dx
2527
363
1 x 4
dx
336091
28394
) 4 x 3 (
dx
361
219

+
+
+
=
} } }
dx
) 4 x 3 (
3
361 3
219
dx
4 x 3
3
6859 3
2295
dx
3 x 2
2
49 2
13
2

=
} }
dx
) 1 x 4 (
4
2527 4
363
dx
1 x 4
4
336091 4
28394
2

|
.
|
\
|
+
+ + + =
4 x 3
1
361
73
| 4 x 3 | ln
6859
765
| 3 x 2 | ln
98
13

C
1 x 4
1
10108
363
| 1 x 4 | ln
672182
14197
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
x x
1
I
3
}
+
=
Solution. We have
) 1 x ( x x x
2 3
+ = +

1 x
C x B
x
A
) 1 x ( x
1
2 2
+
+
+ =
+

Multiplying through by ) 1 x ( x
2
x ) C x B ( ) 1 x ( A 1
2
+ + + =
which can be further transformed into
A x C x ) B A ( 1
2
+ + + =
280
0 B A = + , 0 C = , 1 A=
Therefore 1 A= , 1 B = and 0 C = . We thus get the partial fraction analysis

1 x
x
x
1
x x
1
2 3
+
=
+

=
+
=
+
=
+
=
} } } }
dx
1 x
x 2
2
1
| x | ln dx
1 x
x
x
dx
dx
x x
1
I
2 2 3

C ) 1 x ln(
2
1
| x | ln
2
+ + =
x x
2 x x
I
3
2
}
+
+
=
Solution. We have
) 1 x ( x x x
2 3
+ = +

1 x
C Bx
x
A
) 1 x ( x
2 x x
2 2
2
+
+
+ =
+
+

Multiplying through by ) 1 x ( x
2
x ) C x B ( ) 1 x ( A 2 x x
2 2
+ + + = +
which can be further transformed into
A x C x ) B A ( 2 x x
2 2
+ + + = +

1 B A = + , 1 C = , 2 A=
Therefore 2 A= , 1 B = and 1 C = . We thus get the partial fraction analysis

1 x
1 x
x
2
x x
2 x x
2 3
2
+
+
=
+
+

=
+
+
=
+
+
=
} } }
dx
1 x
1 x
dx
x
2
dx
x x
2 x x
I
2 3
2

281
=
+
+
=
} } }
dx
1 x
1
dx
1 x
x
dx
x
1
2
2 2

= +
+
=
}
C x arctan dx
1 x
x 2
2
1
| x | ln 2
2

C x arctan ) 1 x ln(
2
1
| x | ln 2
2
+ + =
}
+1 x
dx
3

Solution. Since ) 1 x x )( 1 x ( 1 x
2 3
+ + = + , we have the partial fraction
decomposition

1 x x
C Bx
1 x
A
) 1 x x )( 1 x (
1
2 2
+
+
+
+
=
+ +

Multiplying the previous identity by ) 1 x x )( 1 x (
2
+ + we obtain
) 1 x )( C Bx ( ) 1 x x ( A 1
2
+ + + + =
We substitute
1 x = :
3
1
A 3 A 1 = =
0 x = : C A 1 + = or
3
2
C C
3
1
1 = + =
1 x = : 2 ) C B ( A 1 + + = or
3
1
B 2
3
2
B
3
1
1 =
|
.
|
\
|
+ + =
Therefore

1 x x
3
2
x
3
1
1 x
3
1
) 1 x x )( 1 x (
1
2 2
+
+
+
+
=
+ +

or

1 x x
2 x
3
1
1 x
1
3
1
) 1 x x )( 1 x (
1
2 2
+
+
=
+ +

Therefore
282

} } }
+
+
=
+
dx
1 x x
2 x
3
1
dx
1 x
1
3
1
dx
1 x
dx
2 3

}
+
+ = dx
1 x x
2 x
3
1
| 1 x | ln
3
1
2

We further transform
1 x x
2 x
2
+
to
=
+
=
+
=
+
1 x x
4 x 2
2
1
1 x x
) 2 x ( 2
2
1
1 x x
2 x
2 2 2

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
1 x x
3
1 x x
1 x 2
2
1
2 2

1 x x
1
2
3
1 x x
1 x 2
2
1
2 2
+
=
Therefore we have
=
+
+ =
+
} }
dx
1 x x
2 x
3
1
| 1 x | ln
3
1
dx
1 x
dx
2 3

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ =
} }
dx
1 x x
1
2
3
dx
1 x x
1 x 2
2
1
3
1
| 1 x | ln
3
1
2 2

} }
+
+
+

+ = dx
1 x x
1
2
1
dx
1 x x
1 x 2
6
1
| 1 x | ln
3
1
2 2

Since
| 1 x x | ln dx
1 x x
1 x 2
2
2
+ =
+

}

(integral of the form | ) x ( f | ln dx
) x ( f
) x ( f
=
'
}
)
and
|
.
|
\
| +
=
+
}
3
1 x 2
arctan
3
3 2
dx
1 x x
1
2
(6.3.3, Example 2)
we have finally
283
+ + + =
+
}
| 1 x x | ln
6
1
| 1 x | ln
3
1
dx
1 x
dx
2
3

C
3
1 x 2
arctan
3
3
+ |
.
|
\
|
+
}
1 x
dx
3

Solution. Since ) 1 x x )( 1 x ( 1 x
2 3
+ + = + , we have the partial fraction
decomposition

1 x x
C Bx
1 x
A
) 1 x x )( 1 x (
1
2 2
+ +
+
+
=
+ +

Multiplying the previous identity by ) 1 x x )( 1 x (
2
+ + we obtain
) 1 x )( C Bx ( ) 1 x x ( A 1
2
+ + + + =
We substitute
1 x = :
3
1
A 3 A 1 = =
0 x = : ) 1 ( C A 1 + = or
3
2
C C
3
1
1 = =
1 x = : ) 2 ( ) C B ( A 1 + + = or
3
1
B ) 2 (
3
2
B
3
1
1 =
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
Therefore

1 x x
3
2
x
3
1
1 x
3
1
) 1 x x )( 1 x (
1
2 2
+ +

+
=
+ +

or

1 x x
2 x
3
1
1 x
1
3
1
) 1 x x )( 1 x (
1
2 2
+ +
+
=
+ +

Therefore
284

} } }
+ +
+
dx
1 x x
2 x
3
1
dx
1 x
1
3
1
dx
1 x
dx
2 3

}
+ +
+
= dx
1 x x
2 x
3
1
| 1 x | ln
3
1
2

We further transform
1 x x
2 x
2
+ +
+
to
=
+ +
+
=
+ +
+
=
+ +
+
1 x x
4 x 2
2
1
1 x x
) 2 x ( 2
2
1
1 x x
2 x
2 2 2

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
+
+ +
+
=
1 x x
3
1 x x
1 x 2
2
1
2 2

1 x x
1
2
3
1 x x
1 x 2
2
1
2 2
+ +
+
+ +
+
=
Therefore we have
=
+ +
+
=
} }
dx
1 x x
2 x
3
1
| 1 x | ln
3
1
dx
1 x
dx
2 3

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
+
+ +
+
=
} }
dx
1 x x
1
2
3
dx
1 x x
1 x 2
2
1
3
1
| 1 x | ln
3
1
2 2

} }
+ +
+ +
+
= dx
1 x x
1
2
1
dx
1 x x
1 x 2
6
1
| 1 x | ln
3
1
2 2

Since
| 1 x x | ln dx
1 x x
1 x 2
2
2
+ + =
+ +
+
}

(integral of the form | ) x ( f | ln dx
) x ( f
) x ( f
=
'
}
)
and
|
.
|
\
| +
=
+ +
}
3
1 x 2
arctan
3
3 2
dx
1 x x
1
2
(6.3.3, Example 1)
we have finally
285
+ + =
}
| 1 x x | ln
6
1
| 1 x | ln
3
1
dx
1 x
dx
2
3

C
3
1 x 2
arctan
3
3
+ |
.
|
\
| +

}
+ +
+ +
= dx
) 1 x ( ) 1 x (
13 x 7 x 8 x 5
I
2 2
2 3


1 x
D x C
) 1 x (
B
1 x
A
) 1 x ( ) 1 x (
13 x 7 x 8 x 5
2 2 2 2
2 3
+
+
+
+
+
+
=
+ +
+ +

Multiplying through by ) 1 x ( ) 1 x (
2 2
+ + we obtain the identity

2 2 2 2 3
) 1 x )( D x C ( ) 1 x ( B ) 1 x )( 1 x ( A 13 x 7 x 8 x 5 + + + + + + + = + +
which may take the form
+ + + + + + = + +
2 3 2 3
x ) D C 2 B A ( x ) C A ( 13 x 7 x 8 x 5
D B A x ) D 2 C A ( + + + + + +
5 C A = +
8 D C 2 B A = + + +
7 D 2 C A = + +
13 D B A = + +

2
31
A = ,
2
7
B = ,
2
21
C = and 1 D=
1 x
1 x
2
21
) 1 x (
2
7
1 x
2
31
) 1 x ( ) 1 x (
13 x 7 x 8 x 5
2 2 2 2
2 3
+
+
+
+
+
+
=
+ +
+ +

or
286

1 x
1
1 x
x
2
21
) 1 x (
1
2
7
1 x
1
2
31
) 1 x ( ) 1 x (
13 x 7 x 8 x 5
2 2 2 2 2
2 3
+
+
+
+
=
+ +
+ +

We now can evaluate the integral

}
+ +
+ +
= dx
) 1 x ( ) 1 x (
13 x 7 x 8 x 5
I
2 2
2 3

} } } }
+
+
+
+
=
1 x
dx
dx
1 x
x
2
21
) 1 x (
dx
2
7
1 x
dx
2
31
2 2 2

= + +
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ =
}
C x arctan dx
1 x
x 2
2 2
21
1 x
1
2
7
| 1 x | ln
2
31
2

C x arctan ) 1 x ln(
4
21
1 x
1
2
7
| 1 x | ln
2
31
2
+ + +
+
+ + =
}
+ +
+
= dx
) 3 x x )( 2 x (
5 x 3 x 4
I
2
2

3 x x
C x B
2 x
A
) 3 x x )( 2 x (
5 x 3 x 4
2 2
2
+
+
+
+
=
+ +
+

Multiplying through by ) 3 x x )( 2 x (
2
+ + , we obtain the identity
) 2 x )( C x B ( ) 3 x x ( A 5 x 3 x 4
2 2
+ + + + = +
C 2 A 3 x ) C B 2 A ( x ) B A ( 5 x 3 x 4
2 2
+ + + + + + = +
4 B A = + , 3 C B 2 A = + + , 5 C 2 A 3 = +
3 A = , 1 B= , 2 C =
3 x x
2 x
2 x
3
) 3 x x )( 2 x (
5 x 3 x 4
2 2
2
+
+
+
=
+ +
+

287
=
+
+
+
=
+ +
+
=
} } }
dx
3 x x
2 x
dx
2 x
3
dx
) 3 x x )( 2 x (
5 x 3 x 4
I
2 2
2

=
+

+
+
=
} }
dx
3 x x
3 ) 1 x 2 (
2
1
2 x
dx
3
2

=
+
+

+ + =
} }
dx
3 x x
3
2
1
dx
3 x x
) 1 x 2 (
2
1
| 2 x | ln 3
2 2

dx
3 x x
1
2
3
) 3 x x ln(
2
1
| 2 x | ln 3
2
2
}
+
+ + + =
For the evaluation of the integral
dx
3 x x
1
I
2
1 }
+
=
we see that since
2
2
2
2
11
2
1
x 3 x x
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= + , under the substitution
u
2
11
2
1
x =
we get
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= +
2 2 2
2
2
2
11
u
2
11
2
11
2
1
x 3 x x
) 1 u (
4
11
2
+ =
and
du
2
11
dx =
Therefore the integral
1
I transforms into
u arctan
11
11 2
1 u
du
11
11 2
) 1 u (
4
11
du
2
11
2
2
=
+
=
+
} }

288
11
1 x 2
u

integral
1
I :

|
|
.
|
\
|

=
+
=
}
11
1 x 2
arctan
11
11 2
dx
3 x x
1
I
2 1

We thus have
=
+ +
+
=
}
dx
) 3 x x )( 2 x (
5 x 3 x 4
I
2
2

C
11
1 x 2
arctan
11
11 2
2
3
) 3 x x ln(
2
1
| 2 x | ln 3
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

+ + + =
}
+ +
+
= dx
) 1 x )( 2 x (
11 x 6 x 5
I
2 2
2 3

2 2 2 2 2
2 3
) 1 x (
E x D
1 x
C x B
2 x
A
) 1 x )( 2 x (
11 x 6 x 5
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
=
+ +
+

2 2
) 1 x )( 2 x ( + + , we obtain the identity
) 2 x )( E Dx ( ) 1 x )( 2 x )( C Bx ( ) 1 x ( A 11 x 6 x 5
2 2 2 2 3
+ + + + + + + + = +
+ + + + = +
3 4 2 3
x ) C B 2 ( x ) B A ( 11 x 6 x 5
+ + + + + + + + + x ) E D 2 C B 2 ( x ) D C 2 B A 2 (
2

E 2 C 2 A + + +
0 B A = + , 5 C B 2 = + , 6 D C 2 B A 2 = + + +
0 E D 2 C B 2 = + + + , 11 E 2 C 2 A = + +
25
53
A = ,
25
53
B = ,
25
19
C = ,
5
27
D = ,
5
29
E =
289
2 2 2 2 2
2 3
) 1 x (
29 x 27
5
1
1 x
19 x 53
25
1
2 x
1
25
53
) 1 x )( 2 x (
11 x 6 x 5
+
+
+
+
+
=
+ +
+

=
+ +
+
=
}
dx
) 1 x )( 2 x (
11 x 6 x 5
I
2 2
2 3

} } }
=
+
+
+
+
+
= dx
) 1 x (
29 x 27
5
1
dx
1 x
19 x 53
25
1
2 x
dx
25
53
2 2 2

} }
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
+ + = dx
) 1 x (
29
) 1 x (
x 27
5
1
dx
1 x
19
1 x
x 53
25
1
| 2 x | ln
25
53
2 2 2 2 2 2

+
+
+
+ + =
} }
dx
1 x
1
19 dx
1 x
x 2
25 2
53
| 2 x | ln
25
53
2 2

} }
+
+
+
dx
) 1 x (
1
5
29
dx
) 1 x (
x 2
5 2
27
2 2 2 2

We now have
) 1 x ln( dx
1 x
x 2
2
2
+ =
+
}

1 x
1
dx
) 1 x (
x 2
2 2 2
+
=
+
}
(using the substitution 1 x u
2
+ = )
1 x
x
2
1
x arctan
2
1
dx
) 1 x (
1
2 2 2
+
+ =
+
}
(using the reduction formula, 6.7)
Therefore the value of the integral is given by
+ + + + =
+ +
+
=
}
| 1 x | ln
50
53
| 2 x | ln
25
53
dx
) 1 x ( ) 2 x (
11 x 6 x 5
I
2
2 2
2 3

C
1 x
x
2
1
x arctan
2
1
5
29
1 x
1
10
27
x arctan 19
2 2
+ |
.
|
\
|
+
+ +
+
+ +
or
+ + + + =
+ +
+
=
}
| 1 x | ln
50
53
| 2 x | ln
25
53
dx
) 1 x )( 2 x (
11 x 6 x 5
I
2
2 2
2 3

290
C
1 x
x
10
29
1 x
1
10
27
x arctan
10
219
2 2
+
+
+
+
+ +
}
+
+ +
= dx
) 5 x 3 x 2 ( ) 2 x 3 (
7 x 5 x 2 x 3
I
2 2
2 3

5 x 3 x 2
D Cx
) 2 x 3 (
B
2 x 3
A
) 5 x 3 x 2 ( ) 2 x 3 (
7 x 5 x 2 x 3
2 2 2 2
2 3
+
+
+
=
+
+ +

Multiplying through by ) 5 x 3 x 2 ( ) 2 x 3 (
2 2
+ + = + + ) 5 x 3 x 2 )( 2 x 3 ( A 7 x 5 x 2 x 3
2 2 3

2 2
) 2 x 3 )( D x C ( ) 5 x 3 x 2 ( B + + + +
which can take the form
+ + + + + = + +
2 3 2 3
x ) D 9 C 12 B 2 A 13 ( x ) C 9 A 6 ( 7 x 5 x 2 x 3
D 4 B 5 A 10 x ) D 12 C 4 B 3 A 21 ( + + + +
3 C 9 A 6 = + , 2 D 9 C 12 B 2 A 13 = + + ,
5 D 12 C 4 B 3 A 21 = + , 7 D 4 B 5 A 10 = + +
The above system admits the solution

175
32
A = ,
5
7
B= ,
175
37
C= ,
175
80
D =

5 x 3 x 2
80 x 37
175
1
) 2 x 3 (
1
5
7
2 x 3
1
175
32
) 5 x 3 x 2 ( ) 2 x 3 (
7 x 5 x 2 x 3
2 2 2 2
2 3
+
+
+
=
+
+ +

We then have the following decomposition of the integral
} } }
+
=
+
+ +
=
2 2 2
2 3
) 2 x 3 (
dx
5
7
2 x 3
dx
175
32
dx
) 5 x 3 x 2 ( ) 2 x 3 (
7 x 5 x 2 x 3
I

}
+
+
+ dx
5 x 3 x 2
80 x 37
175
1
2

291
We now have to evaluate the various integrals appearing on the right hand side of
the above result. We have
| 2 x 3 | ln
3
1
dx
2 x 3
3
3
1
2 x 3
dx
I
1
=
=
} }

2 x 3
1
3
1
) 2 x 3 (
dx 3
3
1
) 2 x 3 (
dx
I
2 2
2
=
} }

=
+
+
=
+
+
=
} }
dx
5 x 3 x 2
4
431
) 3 x 4 (
4
37
dx
5 x 3 x 2
80 x 37
I
2 2
3

} }
=
+
+
+
=
5 x 3 x 2
dx
4
431
dx
5 x 3 x 2
3 x 4
4
37
2 2

4
2
I
4
431
) 5 x 3 x 2 ln(
4
37
+ + =
where
}
+
=
5 x 3 x 2
dx
I
2
4
. The last integral
4
I , since
+
|
.
|
\
|
= +
16
31
4
3
x 2 5 x 3 x 2
2
2
, under the substitution u
4
31
4
3
x = , takes on
the form u arctan
31
31 2
1 u
du
31
31 2
) 1 u (
16
31
2
du
4
31
I
2
2
4
=
+
=
+
=
} }
.
Since
31
3 x 4
u

= , we get the following value for the integral
|
.
|
\
|
=
31
3 x 4
arctan
31
31 2
I
4
. The value of the original integral is then given by
= + + =
+
+ +
=
} 3 2 1
2 2
2 3
I
175
1
I
5
7
I
175
32
dx
) 5 x 3 x 2 ( ) 2 x 3 (
7 x 5 x 2 x 3
I
=
|
.
|
\
|
+ + +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
4
2
I
4
431
) 5 x 3 x 2 ln(
4
37
175
1
2 x 3
1
3
1
5
7
| 2 x 3 | ln
3
1
175
32

292
+ + +
= ) 5 x 3 x 2 ln(
700
37
2 x 3
1
15
7
| 2 x 3 | ln
525
32
2

C
31
3 x 4
arctan
21700
31 862
+ |
.
|
\
|
+
}
+ +
+ +
= dx
) 3 x 2 x 4 ( ) 3 x 5 ( ) 1 x 2 (
6 x 15 x 5 x 3 x 8
I
2 2
2 3 4

+
+
+
=
+ +
+ +
3 x 5
B
1 x 2
A
) 3 x 2 x 4 ( ) 3 x 5 )( 1 x 2 (
6 x 15 x 5 x 3 x 8
2 2
2 3 4

3 x 2 x 4
E x D
) 3 x 5 (
C
2 2
+
+
+
+
Multiplying through by ) 3 x 2 x 4 ( ) 3 x 5 )( 1 x 2 (
2 2
+ + we derive the identity
+ + = + + ) 3 x 2 x 4 ( ) 3 x 5 ( A 6 x 15 x 5 x 3 x 8
2 2 2 3 4

+ + + + + + + ) 3 x 2 x 4 )( 1 x 2 ( C ) 3 x 2 x 4 )( 3 x 5 )( 1 x 2 ( B
2 2

2
) 3 x 5 )( 1 x 2 )( E Dx ( + + +
which can take the form
+ + + = + +
4 2 3 4
x ) D 50 B 40 A 100 ( 6 x 15 x 5 x 3 x 8
+ + + +
3
x ) E 50 D 35 C 8 B 24 A 170 (
+ + + + + + + x ) E 12 D 9 C 4 B 3 A 108 ( x ) E 35 D 12 B 20 A 171 (
2

E 9 C 3 B 9 A 27 + + +
8 D 50 B 40 A 100 = + + , 3 E 50 D 35 C 8 B 24 A 170 = + +
5 E 35 D 12 B 20 A 171 = + , 15 E 12 D 9 C 4 B 3 A 108 = + + +
6 E 9 C 3 B 9 A 27 = + +
293
The above system admits the following solution

1210
91
A = ,
1323135
574352
B= ,
1485
1081
C = ,
21870
806
D = ,
21870
5459
E =
+
+
+
=
+ +
+ +
3 x 5
1
1323135
574352
1 x 2
1
1210
91
) 3 x 2 x 4 ( ) 3 x 5 )( 1 x 2 (
6 x 15 x 5 x 3 x 8
2 2
2 3 4

3 x 2 x 4
5459 x 806
21870
1
) 3 x 5 (
1
1485
1081
2 2
+
+

+
+
+
+
=
+ +
+ +
=
} } }
3 x 5
dx
1323135
574352
1 x 2
dx
1210
91
dx
) 3 x 2 x 4 ( ) 3 x 5 )( 1 x 2 (
6 x 15 x 5 x 3 x 8
I
2 2
2 3 4

dx
3 x 2 x 4
5459 x 806
21870
1
) 3 x 5 (
dx
1485
1081
2 2
} }
+
+
+
We now have to calculate the various integrals appearing in the right hand side of
the previous result. We have
| 1 x 2 | ln
2
1
1 x 2
dx 2
2
1
1 x 2
dx
I
1
+ =
+
=
+
=
} }

| 3 x 5 | ln
5
1
3 x 5
dx 5
5
1
3 x 5
dx
I
2
=
=
} }

3 x 5
1
5
1
) 3 x 5 (
dx 5
5
1
) 3 x 5 (
dx
I
2 2
3
=
} }

=
+
+
=
+
+
=
} }
dx
3 x 2 x 4
2
11321
) 2 x 8 (
4
403
dx
3 x 2 x 4
5459 x 806
I
2 2
4

} }
+
+
+

=
3 x 2 x 4
dx
2
11321
dx
3 x 2 x 4
2 x 8
4
403
2 2

5
2
I
2
11321
) 3 x 2 x 4 ln(
4
403
+ + =
294
The integral
}
+
=
3 x 2 x 4
dx
I
2
5
, since
+
|
.
|
\
|
= +
16
11
4
1
x 4 3 x 2 x 4
2
2
, under
the substitution u
4
11
4
1
x = , takes on the form
u arctan
11
11
1 u
du
11
11
) 1 u (
16
11
4
du
4
11
3 x 2 x 4
dx
I
2
2
2
5
=
+
=
+
=
+
=
} } }

Since
11
1 x 4
u

= , we obtain
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
=
}
11
1 x 4
arctan
11
11
3 x 2 x 4
dx
I
2
5
.
Therefore we derive the following value of the original integral:
+ + =
+ +
+ +
=
} 2 1
2 2
2 3 4
I
1323135
574352
I
1210
91
dx
) 3 x 2 x 4 ( ) 3 x 5 )( 1 x 2 (
6 x 15 x 5 x 3 x 8
I
4 3
I
21870
1
I
1485
1081
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
3 x 5
1
5
1
1485
1081
3 x 5 | ln
5
1
1323135
574352
| 1 x 2 | ln
2
1
1210
91

C
11
1 x 4
arctan
11
11
2
11321
) 3 x 2 x 4 ln(
4
403
21870
1
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
}
+
+ + +
= dx
) 1 x 2 x 3 ( ) 1 x 2 (
8 x 7 x 13 x x 6 x 11 x 8
I
2 2 3
2 3 4 5 6

+
=
+
+ + +
2 2 2 3
2 3 4 5 6
) 1 x 2 (
B
1 x 2
A
) 1 x 2 x 3 ( ) 1 x 2 (
8 x 7 x 13 x x 6 x 11 x 8

2 2 2 3
) 1 x 2 x 3 (
G x F
1 x 2 x 3
E x D
) 1 x 2 (
C
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
2 2 3
) 1 x 2 x 3 ( ) 1 x 2 ( + we obtain the identity
295
+ + = + + +
2 2 2 2 3 4 5 6
) 1 x 2 x 3 ( ) 1 x 2 ( A 8 x 7 x 13 x x 6 x 11 x 8
+ + + + +
2 2 2 2
) 1 x 2 x 3 ( C ) 1 x 2 x 3 )( 1 x 2 ( B
3 2 3
) 1 x 2 )( G x F ( ) 1 x 2 x 3 ( ) 1 x 2 ( ) E x D ( + + + + +
+ + = + + +
6 2 3 4 5 6
x ) D 24 A 36 ( 8 x 7 x 13 x x 6 x 11 x 8
+ + + +
5
x ) E 24 D 52 B 18 A 84 (
+ + + + +
4
x ) F 8 E 52 D 50 C 9 B 33 A 97 (
+ + + + +
3
x ) G 8 F 12 E 50 D 27 C 12 B 32 A 68 (
+ + + + +
2
x ) G 12 F 6 E 27 D 8 C 10 B 18 A 30 (

G E C B A x ) G 6 F E 8 D C 4 B 6 A 8 ( + + + + + +

8 D 24 A 36 = + , 11 E 24 D 52 B 18 A 84 = + +
6 F 8 E 52 D 50 C 9 B 33 A 97 = + + + ,
1 G 8 F 12 E 50 D 27 C 12 B 32 A 68 = + + + ,
13 G 12 F 6 E 27 D 8 C 10 B 18 A 30 = + + + ,

7 G 6 F E 8 D C 4 B 6 A 8 = + + +
,
8 G E C B A = +
The above system admits the unique solution

27
280
A = ,
6
77
B = ,
6
83
C= ,
27
429
D = ,
27
197
E = ,
9
55
F = , 1 G =
Therefore we get the partial fraction decomposition
+
=
+
+ + +
2 2 2 3
2 3 4 5 6
) 1 x 2 (
1
6
77
1 x 2
1
27
280
) 1 x 2 x 3 ( ) 1 x 2 (
8 x 7 x 13 x x 6 x 11 x 8

2 2 2 3
) 1 x 2 x 3 (
9 x 55
9
1
1 x 2 x 3
197 x 429
27
1
) 1 x 2 (
1
6
83
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
296
+
=
+
+ + +
} } }
2 2 2 3
2 3 4 5 6
) 1 x 2 (
dx
6
77
1 x 2
dx
27
280
dx
) 1 x 2 x 3 ( ) 1 x 2 (
8 x 7 x 13 x x 6 x 11 x 8

} } }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ dx
) 1 x 2 x 3 (
9 x 55
9
1
dx
1 x 2 x 3
197 x 429
27
1
) 1 x 2 (
dx
6
83
2 2 2 3

5 4 3 2 1
I
9
1
I
27
1
I
6
83
I
6
77
I
27
280
+ + + =
where
| 1 x 2 | ln
2
1
1 x 2
dx 2
2
1
1 x 2
dx
I
1
=
=
} }

1 x 2
1
2
1
) 1 x 2 (
dx 2
2
1
) 1 x 2 (
dx
I
2 2
2
=
} }

2 3 3
3
) 1 x 2 (
1
4
1
) 1 x 2 (
dx 2
2
1
) 1 x 2 (
dx
I
=
} }

dx
1 x 2 x 3
197 x 429
I
2
4 }
+
+
=

}
+
+
= dx
) 1 x 2 x 3 (
9 x 55
I
2 2
5

Before evaluating the integral
4
I , we evaluate the integral
}
+
=
1 x 2 x 3
dx
J
2
1

Since
+
|
.
|
\
|
= +
9
2
3
1
x 3 1 x 2 x 3
2
2
, under the substitution u
3
2
3
1
x = , takes
on the form
|
.
|
\
|
= =
+
=
+
=
} }
2
1 x 3
arctan
2
2
u arctan
2
2
1 u
du
2
2
) 1 u (
9
2
3
du
3
2
J
2
2
1
.
We now can turn in
4
I . We have
=
+
+
=
+
+
=
} }
dx
1 x 2 x 3
340 ) 2 x 6 (
2
143
dx
1 x 2 x 3
197 x 429
I
2 2
4

297
=
+
+
+
=
} }
1 x 2 x 3
dx
340 dx
1 x 2 x 3
2 x 6
2
143
2 2

1
2
J 340 ) 1 x 2 x 3 ln(
2
143
+ + =
We evaluate next the integral

}
+
=
2 2
2
) 1 x 2 x 3 (
dx
J
using the reduction formula proved in 6.5:
1 n
1 n 2
n
J
D ) 1 n (
a ) 3 n 2 ( 2
) c x b x a (
b x a 2
D ) 1 n (
1
J

+ +
+
= , 2 n >
(we have changed notation from
n
I to
n
J ).
We find from the previous formula for 3 a = , 2 b = , 1 c = , 8 D = and 2 n = :

1
2
2
J
4
3
) 1 x 2 x 3 (
2 x 6
8
1
J +
+

=
For the integral
5
I we use the reduction formula proved in 6.6:

n
1 n 2
n
J
a 2
b A
B
) c x b x a (
1
) 1 n ( a 2
A
K
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ +
=

, 2 n >
where
dx
) c x b x a (
B x A
K
n 2
n }
+ +
+
= and dx
) c x b x a (
1
J
n 2
n }
+ +
=
(notice that we have changed notation). For 55 A = , 9 B= , 3 a = , 2 b = , 1 c = ,
2 n = we find

2
2
2 5
J
3
82
1 x 2 x 3
1
6
55
K I +
+
= =
=
+
+ + +
}
dx
) 1 x 2 x 3 ( ) 1 x 2 (
8 x 7 x 13 x x 6 x 11 x 8
2 2 3
2 3 4 5 6

298
= + + + =
5 4 3 2 1
I
9
1
I
27
1
I
6
83
I
6
77
I
27
280

+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|

|
.
|
\
|
=
2
) 1 x 2 (
1
4
1
6
83
1 x 2
1
2
1
6
77
| 1 x 2 | ln
2
1
27
280

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ + +
2
2
1
2
J
3
82
1 x 2 x 3
1
6
55
9
1
J 340 ) 1 x 2 x 3 ln(
2
143
27
1

+
+ =
2
) 1 x 2 (
1
24
83
1 x 2
1
12
77
| 1 x 2 | ln
27
140

+ |
.
|
\
|
+
+
+ +
2
1 x 3
arctan
54
2 803
1 x 2 x 3
1
54
55
) 1 x 2 x 3 ln(
54
143
2
2

= +
+

+ C
1 x 2 x 3
1 x 3
54
41
2

+
+
+ =
) 1 x 2 x 3 ( 18
32 x 41
) 1 x 2 ( 24
237 x 308
| 1 x 2 | ln
27
140
2 2

C
2
1 x 3
arctan
54
2 803
) 1 x 2 x 3 ln(
54
143
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ + +
) 1 x ( x
4 x 3
I
3 2 2
4
}
+
+
=

3 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2
4
) 1 x (
H x G
) 1 x (
F x E
1 x
D x C
x
B
x
A
) 1 x ( x
4 x 3
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ + =
+
+

which can be written as (multiplying through by the denominator of the fraction of
the l.h.s.)
+ + + + + + + = +
2 2 2 3 2 3 2 4
) 1 x ( x ) D Cx ( ) 1 x ( B ) 1 x ( x A 4 x 3

2 2 2
x ) H x G ( ) 1 x ( x ) F x E ( + + + + +
The previous identity is equivalent to
+ + + + + + + = +
5 6 7 4
x ) E C 2 A 3 ( x ) D B ( x ) C A ( 4 x 3
+ + + + + + + +
3 4
x ) G E C A 3 ( x ) F D 2 B 3 (
B x A x ) H F D B 3 (
2
+ + + + + +
299
0 C A = + , 0 D B = + , 0 E C 2 A 3 = + + ,
3 F D 2 B 3 = + + , 0 G E C A 3 = + + +
0 H F D B 3 = + + + , 0 A = , 4 B=
The solution of the above system is
0 A = , 4 B= , 0 C = , 4 D = , 0 E = , 1 F = , 0 G = , 7 H =

3 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2
4
) 1 x (
7
) 1 x (
1
1 x
4
x
4
) 1 x ( x
4 x 3
+
+
=
+
+

For thus have for the integral

+
=
+
+
=
} } }
dx
1 x
1
4 dx
x
1
4 dx
) 1 x ( x
4 x 3
I
2 2 3 2 2
4

dx
) 1 x (
1
7 dx
) 1 x (
1
3 2 2 2
} }
+
+

3 2
I 7 I x arctan 4
x
4
=
where
n
I is the integral

}
+
=
n 2
n
) 1 x (
dx
I
This integral admits the reduction formula (6.7)

1 n
1 n 2
n
I
2 n 2
3 n 2
) 1 x (
x
2 n 2
1
I

+
+
= , ( 2 n > )
For 2 n = we get x arctan
2
1
1 x
x
2
1
I
2
1
1 x
x
2
1
I
2
1
2
2
+
+
= +
+
=
For 3 n = we get
2
2 2
3
I
4
3
) 1 x (
x
4
1
I +
+
=
or
300

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
+
= x arctan
2
1
1 x
x
2
1
4
3
) 1 x (
x
4
1
I
2 2 2
3

Therefore
= =
3 2
I 7 I x arctan 4
x
4
I

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
= x arctan
2
1
1 x
x
2
1
x arctan 4
x
4
2

C x arctan
2
1
1 x
x
2
1
4
3
) 1 x (
x
4
1
7
2 2 2
+
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
+

or finally
C x arctan
8
57
) 1 x (
x
4
7
1 x
x
8
25
x
4
I
2 2 2
+
+

+
=
Maple support:
> f:=(3*x^4+4)/x^2/(x^2+1)^3;
:= f
+ 3 x
4
4
x
2
( ) + x
2
1
3

> int(f,x);

57
8
( ) arctan x
4
x
7 x
4 ( ) + x
2
1
2
25 x
8 ( ) + x
2
1


I n [ 1 ] : =
3 x
4
x
2
x
2
1 ^3
x
O u t [ 1 ] = 3
x
4 1 x
2
2
x
8 1 x
2
ArcTan x
8

301
6.9.4. Additional Examples of Integration of Rational
Functions

Example 1.
(i) Evaluate the integral dx
1 x
dx
4
}
+

(ii) Find a reduction formula for the integral
dx
) 1 x (
dx
I
n 4
n }
+
=
Solution.
(i) The denominator can be factorized into a product of two quadratic trinomials:
= + = + + = +
2 2 2 2 2 4 4
) x 2 ( ) 1 x ( x 2 ) 1 x 2 x ( 1 x
) x 2 1 x ( ) x 2 1 x (
2 2
+ + + =
or
) 1 x 2 x ( ) 1 x 2 x ( 1 x
2 2 4
+ + + = +
Both the trinomials have negative discriminant. Therefore we have the following

1 x 2 x
D x C
1 x 2 x
B x A
1 x
1
2 2 4
+
+
+
+ +
+
=
+

which can be expressed as
) 1 x 2 x ( ) D x C ( ) 1 x 2 x ( ) B x A ( 1
2 2
+ + + + + + =
Performing the operations and rearranging the second member, we find
+ + + + + + =
2 3
x ) D C 2 B A 2 ( x ) C A ( 1
D B x ) D 2 C B 2 A ( + + + + +
Equating the coefficients of the similar powers of the variable x, we obtain the
system
0 C A = +
302
0 D C 2 B A 2 = + + +
0 D 2 C B 2 A = + +
1 D B = +
Solving the above system we get
4
2
A = ,
2
1
B = ,
4
2
C = ,
2
1
D =
Therefore we have

1 x 2 x
2
1
x
4
2
1 x 2 x
2
1
x
4
2
1 x
1
2 2 4
+
+
+
+ +
+
=
+

or

1 x 2 x
2 x
4
2
1 x 2 x
2 x
4
2
1 x
1
2 2 4
+

+ +
+
=
+

We have already calculated the integrals
=
+ +
+
}
dx
1 x 2 x
2 x
2

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ + + =
2
2 x 2
2
1
2
(6.4.3, Example 3(ii))
and
=
+
}
dx
1 x 2 x
2 x
2

|
|
.
|
\
|

+ + =
2
2 x 2
2
1
2
(6.4.3, Example 4(ii))
(ii) We have
=
+
+
+
=
+
+
=
+
n 4
4
n 4
4
n 4
4 4
n 4
) 1 x (
x
) 1 x (
1 x
) 1 x (
x ) 1 x (
) 1 x (
1

n 4
4
1 n 4
) 1 x (
x
) 1 x (
1
+
+
=

303
Therefore
dx
) 1 x (
x
dx
) 1 x (
dx
dx
) 1 x (
1
I
n 4
4
1 n 4 n 4
n } } }
+
+
=
+
=

or

n 1 n n
J I I =

(1)
where
dx
) 1 x (
x
J
n 4
4
n }
+
=
The last integral can be written as
dx
) 1 x (
x
x J
n 4
3
n }
+
=
For the integral
n
J , using the formula (integration by parts)

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f ) x ( g'

n 4
3
) 1 x (
x
+

x
1 n 4
) 1 x (
1
) 1 n ( 4
1

1
we find
+
+
=
+
=

}
1 n 4 n 4
4
n
) 1 x (
x
) 1 n ( 4
1
dx
) 1 x (
x
J
dx
) 1 x (
1
) 1 n ( 4
1
1 n 4
}

+
+
or

1 n
1 n 4
n
I
) 1 n ( 4
1
) 1 x (
x
) 1 n ( 4
1
J

+
+
= (2)
Using (1) and (2) we find
304

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
= =

1 n
1 n 4
1 n n 1 n n
I
) 1 n ( 4
1
) 1 x (
x
) 1 n ( 4
1
I J I I
or

1 n
1 n 4
n
I
) 1 n ( 4
1
1
) 1 x (
x
) 1 n ( 4
1
I

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=

1 n
1 n 4
n
I
) 1 n ( 4
5 n 4
) 1 x (
x
) 1 n ( 4
1
I

+
+
=
1 x
x
4
2
}
+

Solution. Since ) 1 x 2 x ( ) 1 x 2 x ( 1 x
2 2 4
+ + + = + according to the previous
example, we have the following partial fraction decomposition

1 x 2 x
D x C
1 x 2 x
B x A
1 x
x
2 2 4
2
+
+
+
+ +
+
=
+

which can be expressed as
) 1 x 2 x ( ) D x C ( ) 1 x 2 x ( ) B x A ( x
2 2 2
+ + + + + + =
+ + + + + + =
2 3 2
x ) D C 2 B A 2 ( x ) C A ( x
D B x ) D 2 C B 2 A ( + + + + +
Equating the coefficients of the similar powers of the variable x, we obtain the
system
0 C A = +
1 D C 2 B A 2 = + + +
0 D 2 C B 2 A = + +
0 D B = +
305
Solving the above system we get
2 2
1
A = , 0 B= ,
2 2
1
C = , 0 D =
Therefore we have

1 x 2 x
x
2 2
1
1 x 2 x
x
2 2
1
1 x
x
2 2 4
2
+
+
+ +
=
+

We have already found (6.4.3, Example 3)

=
+ +
}
dx
1 x 2 x
x
2

C
2
2 x 2
2
1
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ + =
and (6.4.3, Example 4)

=
+
}
dx
1 x 2 x
x
2

C
2
2 x 2
2
1
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

+ + =
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ + =
+
}
2
2 x 2
2
1
2 2
1
dx
1 x
x
2
4
2

C
2
2 x 2
2
1
2 2
1
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

+ +
or
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
+
=
+
}
2
2 x 2
arctan
2 2
1
1 x 2 x
1 x 2 x
ln
2 4
1
dx
1 x
x
2
2
4
2

C
2
2 x 2
arctan
2 2
1
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

1 x x
1
2 4
}
+ +

306
Solution. We factorize the denominator:
= + = + + = + +
2 2 2 2 2 4 2 4
x ) 1 x ( x ) 1 x 2 x ( 1 x x
) 1 x x ( ) 1 x x ( ) x 1 x ( ) x 1 x (
2 2 2 2
+ + + = + + + =
where both the trinomials have negative discriminant. Therefore we have the

1 x x
D Cx
1 x x
B Ax
1 x x
1
2 2 2 4
+
+
+
+ +
+
=
+ +

) 1 x x )( D Cx ( ) 1 x x )( B Ax ( 1
2 2
+ + + + + + =
D B x ) D C B A ( x ) D C B A ( x ) C A ( 1
2 3
+ + + + + + + + + =
Equating the equal powers of the variable x, we obtain the following system
0 C A = +
0 D C B A = + +
0 D C B A = + +
1 D B = +
The solution of the system is
2
1
A = ,
2
1
B = ,
2
1
C = ,
2
1
D = .
Therefore

1 x x
1 x
2
1
1 x x
1 x
2
1
1 x x
1
2 2 2 4
+
+
+
+ +
=
+ +

We now have (6.4.3, Example 1(ii))

=
+
}
dx
1 x x
1 x
2

C
3
1 x 2
2
1
2
+ |
.
|
\
| +
+ + =
and (6.4.3, Example 2(ii))
307

=
+
+
}
dx
1 x x
1 x
2

C
3
1 x 2
2
1
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ + =
Therefore
=
+ +
}
dx
1 x x
1
2 4

+
)
`
|
.
|
\
| +
+ + =
3
1 x 2
2
1
2
1
2

C
3
1 x 2
2
1
2
1
2
+
)
`
|
.
|
\
|
+ + +
or
=
+ +
}
dx
1 x x
1
2 4

C
3
1 x 2
arctan
2
3
3
1 x 2
arctan
2
3
1 x x
1 x x
ln
4
1
2
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ |
.
|
\
| +
+
+ +
+
=
6.10 Tenth Category. The Ostrogradsky Method
The Ostrogradsky Method (Ostrogradskys Algorithm) applies to the evaluation
of integrals of rational functions with complicated denominators.
The Ostrogradsky Algorithm consists of the following: We suppose we have to
integrate the rational function
) x ( Q
) x ( P
. We follow the following steps:
Step 1. We find the derivative ) x ( Q' of the denominator ) x ( Q .
Step 2. We calculate the GCD (greatest common divisor) of the polynomials
) x ( Q and ) x ( Q' . Let )} x ( Q ), x ( Q { GCD ) x ( Q
1
' =
Step 3. Let
) x ( Q
) x ( Q
) x ( Q
1
2
=
Step 4. Let ) x ( X and ) x ( Y be polynomials with undetermined
308
coefficients of degree less by one unit from the polynomials ) x ( Q
1

and ) x ( Q
2
respectively.
Step 5. We then have the following decomposition

} }
+ = dx
) x ( Q
) x ( Y
) x ( Q
) x ( X
dx
) x ( Q
) x ( P
2 1
(1)
Step 6. Differentiate the previous equation to determine the unknown
coefficients of the polynomials ) x ( X and ) x ( Y
Step 7. We go back to (1) and evaluate the integral
}
dx
) x ( Q
) x ( Y
2

}

=
2 3
) 1 x (
dx
I .
Solution. We shall evaluate the above integral using Ostrogradskys method.
We have in our case 1 ) x ( P = and
2 3
) 1 x ( ) x ( Q = . Since ) 1 x ( x 6 ) x ( Q
3 2
= ' ,
we have 1 x )} x ( Q ), x ( Q { GCD ) x ( Q
3
1
= ' = .
We also have 1 x
1 x
) 1 x (
) x ( Q
) x ( Q
) x ( Q
3
3
2 3
1
2
=
= =
Therefore ) x ( X and ) x ( Y are second degree polynomials. Let
c x b x a ) x ( X
2
+ + = and C x B x A ) x ( Y
2
+ + =
Equation
} }
+ = dx
) x ( Q
) x ( Y
) x ( Q
) x ( X
dx
) x ( Q
) x ( P
2 1

becomes
dx
1 x
C x B x A
1 x
c x b x a
) 1 x (
dx
3
2
3
2
2 3
} }

+ +
+
+ +
=
(1)
We differentiate the previous identity with respect to x. We find
309
+
' + + ' + +
=
2 3
3 2 3 2
2 3
) 1 x (
) 1 x ( ) c x b x a ( ) 1 x ( ) c x b x a (
) 1 x (
1

1 x
C x B x A
3
2
+ +
+
1 x
C x B x A
) 1 x (
x 3 ) c x b x a ( ) 1 x ( ) b x a 2 (
) 1 x (
1
3
2
2 3
2 2 3
2 3

+ +
+
+ + +
=

and multiplying through by
2 3
) 1 x ( , we derive the identity
) 1 x )( C x B x A ( x 3 ) c x b x a ( ) 1 x ( ) b x a 2 ( 1
3 2 2 2 3
+ + + + + + =
The previous identity can be put into the form
+ + =
2 3 4 3 4
x c 3 x b 3 x a 3 b x b ax 2 x a 2 1
C x C Bx x B Ax x A
3 4 2 5
+ + +
Collecting all the similar terms together, we get
C b x ) B a 2 ( x ) A c 3 ( x ) C b 2 ( x ) B a ( x A 1
2 3 4 5
+ + =

From the previous identity, equating the coefficients of the similar powers of x,
we obtain the system
, 0 C b 2 , 0 B a , 0 A = = =
1 C b , 0 B a 2 , 0 A c 3 = = + = +
Solving the system, we get
0 a = ,
3
1
b = , 0 c = , 0 A = , 0 B= ,
3
2
C =
dx
1 x
1
3
2
1 x
x
3
1
) 1 x (
dx
3 3 2 3
} }

(2)
310
We have now to evaluate the integral dx
1 x
1
3
}

. However this integral has been
evaluated before (6.9.3, Example 10):
+ + =
}
| 1 x x | ln
6
1
| 1 x | ln
3
1
dx
1 x
dx
2
3

C
3
1 x 2
arctan
3
3
+ |
.
|
\
| +
(3)
Using (2) and (3) we arrive at

+ +
}
| 1 x x | ln
6
1
| 1 x | ln
3
1
3
2
1 x
x
3
1
) 1 x (
dx
2
3 2 3

C
3
1 x 2
arctan
3
3
+
)
`
|
.
|
\
| +

or, after simplifications,
+ + + +
}
| 1 x x | ln
9
1
| 1 x | ln
9
2
1 x
x
3
1
) 1 x (
dx
2
3 2 3

C
3
1 x 2
arctan
9
3 2
+ |
.
|
\
| +
+
Note 1. Using partial fraction decomposition, we find

2 2 2 2 2 3
) 1 x x (
1 x
3
1
1 x x
3 x 2
9
1
1 x
1
9
2
) 1 x (
1
9
1
) 1 x (
1
+ +
+
+
+ +
+
+

Integrating the above function, we find
+ + + +

+ +
}
| 1 x x | ln
9
1
| 1 x | ln
9
2
1 x
1
9
1
1 x x
1 x
9
1
) 1 x (
dx
2
2 2 3

C
3
1 x 2
arctan
9
3 2
+ |
.
|
\
| +
+
Therefore, since
1 x
x
3
1
1 x
1
9
1
1 x x
1 x
9
1
3 2

=

+ +
, the two results are identical.

The advantage of using Ostrogradskys method consists, among other things, in
isolating the rational part of the integral.
311
Note 2. We may arrive at (2) without using Ostrogradskys method. In fact we
have
=
+
=
} }
dx
) 1 x (
x ) x 1 (
) 1 x (
dx
2 3
3 3
2 3

=
=
} }
dx
) 1 x (
x
dx
1 x
1
2 3
3
3

J dx
1 x
1
3
+
=
}

where
dx
) 1 x (
x
J
2 3
3
}

=
Since
dx
) 1 x (
x 3
x
3
1
dx
) 1 x (
x
J
2 3
2
2 3
3
} }

=
=

} }
and the table
) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'
2 3
2
) 1 x (
x 3

x
1 x
1
3

1

we get
)
`
=
}
dx
1 x
1
1 x
x
3
1
J
3 3

Therefore

)
`
} } }
dx
1 x
1
1 x
x
3
1
dx
1 x
1
) 1 x (
dx
3 3 3 2 3

312
from which we get
dx
1 x
1
3
1
1 x
x
3
1
dx
1 x
1
) 1 x (
dx
3 3 3 2 3
} } }

+

dx
1 x
1
3
2
1 x
x
3
1
) 1 x (
dx
3 3 2 3
} }

}
+
=
2 3
) 1 x (
dx
I .
Solution. Using Ostrogradkys Method we find, along the lines of the previous
example, that
dx
1 x
1
3
2
1 x
x
3
1
) 1 x (
dx
3 3 2 3
} }
+
+
+
=
+
(1)
The integral dx
1 x
1
3
}
+
has been evaluated before (6.9.3, Example 9).
The result is given by
+ + + =
+
}
| 1 x x | ln
6
1
| 1 x | ln
3
1
dx
1 x
dx
2
3

C
3
1 x 2
arctan
3
3
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ (2)
+ + + +
+
=
+
}
| 1 x x | ln
9
1
| 1 x | ln
9
2
1 x
x
3
1
) 1 x (
dx
2
3 2 3

C
3
1 x 2
arctan
9
3 2
+ |
.
|
\
|
+
Important Remark:
If the denominator is factored in irreducible factors,
+ + + =
n 2 1
r
n n
r
2 2
r
1 1
) b x a ( ) b x a ( ) b x a ( ) x ( Q

m 2 1
s
m m
2
m
s
2 2
2
2
s
1 1
2
1
) C x B x A ( ) C x B x A ( ) C x B x A ( + + + + + +
313
then we can prove that
+ + + =
1 r
n n
1 r
2 2
1 r
1 1 1
n 2 1
) b x a ( ) b x a ( ) b x a ( ) x ( Q

1 s
m m
2
m
1 s
2 2
2
2
1 s
1 1
2
1
m 2 1
) C x B x A ( ) C x B x A ( ) C x B x A (

+ + + + + +
and
+ + + = ) b x a ( ) b x a )( b x a ( ) x ( Q
n n 2 2 1 1 2

) C x B x A ( ) C x B x A )( C x B x A (
m m
2
m 2 2
2
2 1 1
2
1
+ + + + + +
}
+
+ +
=
2 2 3
2 3 4
) x 1 ( ) x 1 (
x x 2 x 2 x
I .
Solution. Using Ostrogradkys Method we find, along the lines of the previous
remark, that
+
+
+ + +
=
+
+ +
}
) x 1 ( ) x 1 (
D x C x B x A
) x 1 ( ) x 1 (
x x 2 x 2 x
2 2
2 3
2 2 3
2 3 4

dx
) x 1 )( x 1 (
c x b x a
2
2
}
+
+ +
+ (1)
Differentiation of the previous identity we find

) x 1 )( x 1 (
c bx ax
) x 1 ( ) x 1 (
D Cx Bx Ax
dx
d
) x 1 ( ) x 1 (
x x 2 x 2 x
2
2
2 2
2 3
2 2 3
2 3 4
+
+ +
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ + +
=
+
+ +
(2)
We have the following result
2 2 3 2 2
2 3
) x 1 ( ) x 1 (
) x ( P
) x 1 ( ) x 1 (
D Cx Bx Ax
dx
d
+
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ + +

Where
+ + + + + =
3 4 5
x ) C 3 A ( x ) B 2 A ( x A ) x ( P
D 2 C x ) D 2 C B 2 ( x ) D 4 C A 3 (
2
+ + + + + +
Therefore, taking into account the previous result and multiplying by

2 2 3
) x 1 ( ) x 1 ( +
we obtain from identity (2)
314
+ + + + + = + +
3 4 5 2 3 4
x ) C 3 A ( x ) B 2 A ( x A x x 2 x 2 x
+ + + + + + + D 2 C x ) D 2 C B 2 ( x ) D 4 C A 3 (
2

) x 1 ( ) x 1 ( ) c x b x a (
2 2 2
+ + + +
The previous identity can be written as
+ + + + + = + +
3 4 5 2 3 4
x ) C 3 A ( x ) B 2 A ( x A x x 2 x 2 x
+ + + + + + + D 2 C x ) D 2 C B 2 ( x ) D 4 C A 3 (
2

+ + + + + + + +
3 4 5 6
x ) c 2 b 2 a 2 ( x ) c b 2 a 2 ( x ) b a 2 ( x a
c x ) c 2 b ( x ) c 2 b 2 a (
2
+ + + +
Equating the coefficients of similar powers of the variable x, we obtain the system
of equations
a 0 = , b a 2 A 0 + = , c b 2 a 2 B 2 A 1 + + + =
c 2 b 2 a 2 C 3 A 2 + + = , c 2 b 2 a D 4 C A 3 2 + + + =
c 2 b D 2 C B 2 1 + + = , c D 2 C 0 + + =
Solving the system we find

2
1
A = ,
2
1
B = ,
2
3
C = , 1 D =
0 a = ,
2
1
b = ,
2
1
c =
Therefore
+
+
+
=
+
+ +
}
) x 1 ( ) x 1 (
1 x
2
3
x
2
1
x
2
1
) x 1 ( ) x 1 (
x x 2 x 2 x
2 2
2 3
2 2 3
2 3 4

dx
) x 1 )( x 1 (
2
1
x
2
1
2
}
+
+
+
or
+
+
+
=
+
+ +
}
) x 1 ( ) x 1 ( 2
2 x 3 x x
) x 1 ( ) x 1 (
x x 2 x 2 x
2 2
2 3
2 2 3
2 3 4

315
dx
) x 1 )( x 1 (
1 x
2
1
2
}
+
+
+
or
+
+
+
=
+
+ +
}
) x 1 ( ) x 1 ( 2
2 x 3 x x
) x 1 ( ) x 1 (
x x 2 x 2 x
2 2
2 3
2 2 3
2 3 4

dx
x 1
1
2
1
2
}
+
+
The final result thus reads
C x arctan
2
1
) x 1 ( ) x 1 ( 2
2 x 3 x x
) x 1 ( ) x 1 (
x x 2 x 2 x
2 2
2 3
2 2 3
2 3 4
+ +
+
+
=
+
+ +
}

6.11. The Hermite and Hermite-Horowitz Reduction Method.
6.11.1. The Hermite reduction.
The Hermite reduction makes use of a new concept, which is called Squarefree
Factorization. Roughly speaking, the squarefree factorization pulls out only
multiple factors. For example, the squarefree factorization of the polynomial
108 x 108 x 207 x 239 x 81 x 153 x 27 x 21 x 9 x
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
+ + + +
is given by

2 2 2 3
) 1 x )( 4 x ( ) 3 x ( +
On the contrary, the factorization into irreducible factors is given by

2 2 3
) 1 x ( ) 1 x )( 2 x )( 2 x ( ) 3 x ( + + +
There is also the squarefree partial fraction decomposition. For example, the
squarefree partial fraction decomposition of the fraction

1 x 2 x
2 x
2 4
2
+

is given by
316

2 2 2
) 1 x (
1
1 x
1

while the usual partial fraction decomposition is given by

) 1 x ( 4
3
) 1 x ( 4
1
) 1 x ( 4
3
) 1 x ( 4
1
2 2
+

Mathematica is a Computer Algebra System, which supports both squarefree
factorization and squarefree partial fraction decomposition.
The corresponding commands are the following:
FactorSquareFree[expr] or FactorSquareFree[expr,var]
and
ApartSquareFree[expr] or ApartSquareFree[expr,var]

dx
4 x 20 x 41 x 44 x 26 x 8 x
123 x 8 x 155 x 362 x 381 x 244 x 78 x 10
2 3 4 5 6
2 3 4 5 6 7
}
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +

Solution. We denote by ) x ( A and ) x ( B the numerator and denominator
respectively:
123 x 8 x 155 x 362 x 381 x 244 x 78 x 10 ) x ( A
2 3 4 5 6 7
+ + + + + + =
4 x 20 x 41 x 44 x 26 x 8 x ) x ( B
2 3 4 5 6
+ + + + + + =
Since )) x ( B deg( )) x ( A deg( > , performing Euclidean division, we find

4 x 20 x 41 x 44 x 26 x 8 x
131 x 8 x 37 x 40 x 7
2 x 10
) x ( B
) x ( A
2 3 4 5 6
2 3 4
+ + + + + +
+ + +
+ =
The squarefree factorization of the denominator is

4 2
) 1 x ( ) 2 x ( ) x ( B + + =
Therefore the integral under evaluation becomes
dx
) 1 x ( ) 2 x (
131 x 8 x 37 x 40 x 7
dx ) 2 x 10 ( dx
) x ( B
) x ( A
4 2
2 3 4
} } }
+ +
+ + +
+ =
317
dx
) 1 x ( ) 2 x (
131 x 8 x 37 x 40 x 7
x 2 x 5
4 2
2 3 4
2
}
+ +
+ + +
+ =
Partial fraction decomposition of the rational function of the last integral, gives us

2 2 3 4 4 2
2 3 4
) 2 x (
137
) 1 x (
130
) 1 x (
192
) 1 x (
129
) 1 x ( ) 2 x (
131 x 8 x 37 x 40 x 7
+
+
+
+
+
=
+ +
+ + +

In this case the squarefree partial fraction decomposition is exactly the same as the
usual one. We thus find
+
+
+
+ =
} } }
dx
) 1 x (
192
dx
) 1 x (
129
x 2 x 5 dx
) x ( B
) x ( A
3 4
2

dx
) 2 x (
137
dx
) 1 x (
130
2 2
} }
+
+
+
Performing the integrations, we obtain
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ =
}
2 3
2
) 1 x (
1
2
1
192
) 1 x (
1
3
1
129 x 2 x 5 dx
) x ( B
) x ( A

|
.
|
\
|
+

|
.
|
\
|
+
+
2 x
1
137
1 x
1
130
We thus get the result of the evaluation:
3
2 3
2
) 1 x )( 2 x (
17 x 6 x 13 x 7
x 2 x 5 dx
) x ( B
) x ( A
+ +
+
+ =
}

6.11.2. The Hermite-Horowitz reduction.
According to the Hermite-Horowitz reduction, we make use of the reduction
formula

} }
+ = dx
) x ( B
) x ( A
) x ( D
) x ( C
dx
) x ( Q
) x ( P

where ) x ( Q deg ) x ( P deg < and the denominator ) x ( Q is a square-free and monic
polynomial.
In the above formula, the polynomial ) x ( D is defined by
318
)} x ( Q ), x ( Q { GCD ) x ( D ' =
while the polynomial ) x ( B is defined by

) x ( D
) x ( Q
) x ( B =
If ) x ( D deg m= and ) x ( B deg n = , then the polynomials ) x ( C and ) x ( A have
degree by one unit less:
1 m ) x ( C deg = and 1 n ) x ( A deg =
The polynomials ) x ( C and ) x ( A , have undetermined coefficients. They can be
evaluated by differentiation of the reduction formula and equation of the
coefficients of similar powers of the variable x.
The above procedure is essentially similar to the Ostrogrsdsky algorithm explained
in the previous section.
x x 2 x
4 x 6 x 7 x 2 x 11
3 5 7
3 4 5
}
+ +
+ +

Solution. The denominator is monic and can be factorized thus

2 2 3 3 5 7
) 1 x ( x x x 2 x + = + +
Let
4 x 6 x 7 x 2 x 11 ) x ( P
3 4 5
+ + =
and

2 2 3 3 5 7
) 1 x ( x x x 2 x ) x ( Q + = + + =
We then have
) 1 x ( x )} x ( Q ), x ( Q { GCD ) x ( D
2 2
+ = ' =
and
) 1 x ( x
) x ( D
) x ( Q
) x ( B
2
+ = =
Therefore we obtain the following representation
319
dx
) 1 x ( x
c bx ax
) 1 x ( x
D Cx Bx Ax
dx
x x 2 x
4 x 6 x 7 x 2 x 11
2
2
2 2
2 3
3 5 7
3 4 5
} }
+
+ +
+
+
+ + +
=
+ +
+ +
(1)
where we have taken into account that
3 1 4 ) x ( C deg = = and 2 1 3 ) x ( A deg = =
Upon differentiation of (1) with respect to x, we obtain

) 1 x ( x
c bx ax
) 1 x ( x
D Cx Bx Ax
dx
d
x x 2 x
4 x 6 x 7 x 2 x 11
2
2
2 2
2 3
3 5 7
3 4 5
+
+ +
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ + +
=
+ +
+ +

=
+
+ +
2 2 3
3 4 5
) 1 x ( x
4 x 6 x 7 x 2 x 11

) 1 x ( x
c bx ax
) 1 x ( x
D 2 Cx Dx 4 x ) C 3 A ( Bx 2 Ax
2
2
2 2 3
2 3 4 5
+
+ +
+
+
+
=
Multiplying both members of the previous identity by
2 2 3
) 1 x ( x + and
rearranging, we obtain
+ + + + = + +
4 5 6 3 4 5
x ) B 2 c a ( x ) A b ( ax 4 x 6 x 7 x 2 x 11
D 2 Cx x ) D 4 c ( x ) C 3 A b (
2 3
+ + +
Equating the coefficients of the similar powers of x, we obtain the following
system of simultaneous equations

4 D 2
6 C
0 D 4 c
7 C 3 A b
2 B 2 c a
11 A b
0 a
=
=
=
= +
= +
=
=

The previous system admits the following unique solution
11 A = , 5 B= , 6 C = , 2 D= , 0 a = , 0 b = , 8 c =
Therefore we obtain the following

} }
+
+
+
+ +
=
+ +
+ +
) 1 x ( x
dx
8
) 1 x ( x
2 x 6 x 5 x 11
dx
x x 2 x
4 x 6 x 7 x 2 x 11
2 2 2
2 3
3 5 7
3 4 5

320
or even

} }
+
+
+
+ +
=
+ +
+ +
3 2 4
2 3
3 5 7
3 4 5
x x
dx
8
x x
2 x 6 x 5 x 11
dx
x x 2 x
4 x 6 x 7 x 2 x 11

The last integral can easily be evaluated using partial fractions and can be
expressed as a difference of two logarithms:
) 1 x ln(
2
1
| x | ln
x x
dx
2
3
+ =
+
}

However this integral is going to be evaluated by the Rothstein-Trager algorithm,
explained in the next section.
6.12 The Rothstein-Trager Method
The Rothstein-Trager method is used to calculate the logarithmic part of the
integral and makes use of the Resultant of two polynomials (which is the
determinant of the Sylvester Matrix) and is based on the following Theorem:
Theorem.
Suppose that ) x ( K
-
be a differential field over some constant field
-
K .
Let ) x ( A and ) x ( B be two polynomials ( ] x [ K B , A
-
e ) such that
1 ) B , A ( GCD = , ) x ( B is monic and square free and )) x ( B deg( )) x ( A deg( < .
We then have

}
=
=
n
1 k
k k
) N ln( C dx
) x ( B
) x ( A

where
-
k
C are the distinct roots of the polynomial
)} x ( B ), x ( B z ) x ( A { s Re ) z ( R
x
' =
and
-
k
N are the polynomials
)} x ( B ), x ( B C ) x ( A { GCD N
k k
' =
Let us try a simple Example first.
321
}
+
3
x x
dx

Solution. In our case we have 1 ) x ( A = and
3
x x ) x ( B + = . The conditions of the
above Theorem are clearly satisfied. We first calculate the resultant of the two
polynomials. We have
= ' = )} x ( B ), x ( B z ) x ( A { s Re ) z ( R
x

= + + = } x x ), x 3 1 ( z 1 { s Re
3 2
x

= + = } x x , x z 3 ) z 1 ( { s Re
3 2
x

1 z 3 z 4
0 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
z 1 0 z 3 0 0
0 z 1 0 z 3 0
0 0 z 1 0 z 3
3
+ + =

=
Since
2
2
1
z ) 1 z ( 4 ) z ( R
|
.
|
\
|
+ = , we have the two distinct roots:
1 C
1
= and
2
1
C
2
=
We now proceed to find
1
N and
2
N . We obtain
x } ) x 1 ( x , x 3 { GCD } x x ), x 3 1 ( 1 { GCD N
2 2 3 2
1
= + = + + =
and

2 2 2 3 2
2
x 1 } ) x 1 ( x ), x 1 (
2
3
{ GCD } x x ), x 3 1 (
2
1
1 { GCD N + = + + = + + + =
Using the formula of the Theorem, we obtain
) x 1 ln(
2
1
| x | ln ) N ln( C ) N ln( C
x x
dx
2
2 2 1 1
3
+ = + =
+
}

322
Note. There is a method, called the Lazard-Rioboo-Trager Method which
improves the Rothstein-Trager algorithm. However this method is sufficiently
technical to be explained here.

The Sylvester Matrix.
The Sylvester Matrix of two polynomials

=
=
m
0 k
k
k
x a ) x ( A and
=
=
n
0 k
k
k
x b ) x ( B
is a ) n m ( ) n m ( + + matrix M defined by
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
0 1 n
0 1 1 n n
0 1 1 n n
0 m
0 1 1 m m
0 1 1 m m
b b b
b b b b
b b b b
a a
a a a a
a a a a
M

All the elements of the above matrix not appearing explicitly are zero.
The determinant of the Sylvester matrix is called the resultant of the two
polynomials ) x ( A and ) x ( B :
) M det( )) x ( B ), x ( A ( res =
Example 1. The Sylvester Matrix of the polynomials
1 x 6 x 5 x 2 ) x ( A
2 3
+ = and 4 x 2 x 3 ) x ( B
2
+ =
is the 5 5 matrix M given by
323

(
(
(
(
(
(

=
4 2 3 0 0
0 4 2 3 0
0 0 4 2 3
1 6 5 2 0
0 1 6 5 2
M
The resultant of the polynomials is
499 ) M det( )) x ( B ), x ( A ( res = =
Maple support:
> with(LinearAlgebra):
> A:=2*x^3-5*x^2+6*x-1;
:= A + 2 x
3
5 x
2
6 x 1

> B:=3*x^2-2*x+4;
:= B + 3 x
2
2 x 4

> M:=SylvesterMatrix(A,B,x);

:= M
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
((
2 -5 6 -1 0
0 2 -5 6 -1
3 -2 4 0 0
0 3 -2 4 0
0 0 3 -2 4

> Determinant(M);
499

> resultant(A,B,x);
499

Example 2. The Sylvester Matrix of the polynomials
1 x y 3 x y 5 x y 2 ) x ( A
3 2 3 2
+ = and y 3 x y 2 x y 5 ) x ( B
2 2 3
=
considered as polynomials of x, is the 5 5 matrix M given by

(
(
(
(
(
(

=
y 3 y 2 y 5 0 0
0 y 3 y 2 y 5 0
0 0 y 3 y 2 y 5
1 y 3 y 5 y 2 0
0 1 y 3 y 5 y 2
M
2 3
2 3
2 3
3 2
3 2

324
The resultant of the polynomials is
= = ) M det( )) y , x ( B ), y , x ( A ( res
x

7 8 10 9 11 13
y 837 y 645 y 162 y 125 y 150 y 675 + + + =
Maple support:
> with(LinearAlgebra):
> A:=2*y^2*x^3-5*y*x^2-3*y^3*x+1;
:= A + 2 y
2
x
3
5 y x
2
3 y
3
x 1

> B:=5*y^3*x^2-2*y^2*x-3*y;
:= B 5 y
3
x
2
2 y
2
x 3 y

> M:=SylvesterMatrix(A,B,x);

:= M
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
2 y
2
5 y 3 y
3
1 0
0 2 y
2
5 y 3 y
3
1
5 y
3
2 y
2
3 y 0 0
0 5 y
3
2 y
2
3 y 0
0 0 5 y
3
2 y
2
3 y

> Determinant(M);
+ + 837 y
7
654 y
8
162 y
10
675 y
13
150 y
11
125 y
9

> resultant(A,B,x);
y
3
( ) + + + 675 y
10
150 y
8
162 y
7
125 y
6
654 y
5
837 y
4

325

6.13

Rational Functions

6.13 Exercises on Integrals of Rational Functions

The integral
}
+
dx
b x a
A
can be evaluated using the substitution
b x a u + = , dx a du = ( dx du
a
1
= ) .
Therefore
C | b x a | ln
a
A
C | u | ln
a
A
u
du
a
A
dx
b x a
A
+ + = + = =
+
} }

1)
}
+
dx
7 x 3
3
2)
}
+
dx
1 x 2
1
3)
}

dx
3 x 4
2

(1) Hint. Let 7 x 3 u + = . Since dx 3 du = , the integral transforms into
C | u | ln
u
du
+ =
}
. Answer. C | 7 x 3 | ln + + .
Exercises 1 and 2 are integrals of the form
}
+
dx
b x a
A

326
(2) Hint. Let 1 x 2 u + = . Since dx 2 du = , i.e. dx du
2
1
= , the integral transforms
into C | u | ln
2
1
u
du
2
1
+ =
}
. Answer. C | 1 x 2 | ln
2
1
+ + .
(3) Hint. Let 3 x 4 u = . Since dx 4 du = , i.e. dx 2 du
2
1
into C | u | ln
2
1
u
du
2
1
+ =
}
2
1
+ .
1)
}

dx
2 x 3
5
2)
}
+
dx
5 x 2
2
3)
}

dx
8 x 3
6

(1) Hint. Let 2 x 3 u = . Since dx 3 du = , i.e. dx du
3
1
into C | u | ln
3
5
u
du
3
5
+ =
}
3
5
+ .
(2) Hint. Let 8 x 3 u = . Since dx 3 du = , the integral transforms
into C | u | ln 2
u
du
2 + =
}
. Answer. C | 8 x 3 | ln 2 + .

The integral
}
+
+
dx
b x a
B x A
can be evaluated using the identity

b x a
1
a
A b
B
a
A
b x a
B x A
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
+
+

or

b x a
a
a
B a b A
a
A
b x a
B x A
2
+
=
+
+

Using this identity, we get
}
+
+
dx
b x a
B Ax

327

} } |
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
+
+
dx
b x a
1
a
A b
B
a
A
dx
b x a
B x A

=
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
} }
dx
b x a
1
a
A b
B dx
a
A

C | b x a | ln
a
A b
B
a
1
x
a
A
+ +
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
C | b x a | ln
a
B a b A
x
a
A
2
+ +
=
We remind the reader that the above identity can easily be proved performing the
division of the first degree polynomials, using the following setup:

B x A +
a
bA
x A
a
A
a
bA
B
b x a +

Using the Euclidean identity u + t o = A and dividing through by o , we derive
the identity
o
u
+ t =
o
A
(1). From the above scheme, it is evident that under the
substitution B x A + = A , b x a + = o ,
a
A
= t and
a
bA
B = u into (1), we get the
identity
b x a
1
a
A b
B
a
A
b x a
B x A
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
+
+
, which can also be written as

b x a
a
a
B a b A
a
A
b x a
B x A
2
+
=
+
+

The reader should perform the Euclidean division instead of taking this identity as
it is.

328
1)
}

+
dx
7 x 6
3 x 5
2)
}
+
dx
11 x 2
5 x 6
3)
}
+
dx
5 x 3
3 x

(1) Hint. Using the identity
7 x 6
6
36
53
6
5
7 x 6
3 x 5
+ =
+
we obtain

} } }

+ =
+
dx
7 x 6
6
36
53
dx
6
5
dx
7 x 6
3 x 5

Answer. C | 7 x 6 | ln
36
53
x
6
5
+ +
11 x 2
2
19 3
11 x 2
5 x 6
+
=
+
, we obtain

} } }
+
=
+
dx
11 x 2
2
19 dx 3 dx
11 x 2
5 x 6

Answer. C | 11 x 2 | ln 19 x 3 + +
5 x 3
3
9
14
3
1
5 x 3
3 x
+
=
+
, we obtain

} } }
+
=
+
dx
5 x 3
3
9
14
dx
3
1
dx
5 x 3
3 x

9
14
x
3
1
+ +
1)
}

+
dx
11 x 5
13 x 2
2)
}
+
dx
7 x 4
2 x 3
3)
}

dx
5 x 9
5 x 7

11 x 5
5
25
87
5
2
11 x 5
13 x 2
+ =
+
, we obtain

} } }

+ =
+
dx
11 x 5
5
25
87
dx
5
2
dx
11 x 5
13 x 2

25
87
x
5
2
+ +
329
7 x 4
4
16
21
4
3
7 x 4
2 x 3
+
=
+
, we obtain

} } }
+
=
+
dx
7 x 4
4
16
21
dx
4
3
dx
7 x 4
2 x 3

16
21
x
4
3
+ +
5 x 9
9
81
10
9
7
5 x 9
5 x 7
, we obtain

} } }

=
dx
5 x 9
9
81
10
dx
9
7
dx
5 x 9
5 x 7

81
10
x
9
7
+

For the integral
}
+
dx
) b x a (
A
n

we use the substitution b x a u + = . We then have dx a du = and therefore
du
a
1
dx = . The integral then becomes
= = =
+
} } }
du
u
1
a
A
du
a
1
u
A
dx
) b x a (
A
n n n

C
1 n
u
a
A
du u
a
A
1 n
n
+
+
= =
+
}

C
) b x a (
1
) 1 n ( a
A
C
u
1
) 1 n ( a
A
1 n 1 n
+
+
= +
=

}
+
dx
) b x a (
A
n
or
}
+
+
dx
) b x a (
B x A
n
, 2 n >
330
For the integral
}
+
+
dx
) b x a (
B x A
n
, since
|
.
|
\
|
+ + = +
a
b A
B ) b x a (
a
A
B x A ,
we have
=
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
=
+
+
} }
dx
) b x a (
a
Ab
B ) b x a (
a
A
dx
) b x a (
B x A
n n

=
+
+
+
+
=
} }
dx
) b x a (
a
Ab
B
dx
) b x a (
) b x a (
a
A
n n

=
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
=
} }
dx
) b x a (
1
a
Ab
B dx
) b x a (
) b x a (
a
A
n n

} }
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=

dx
) b x a (
1
a
b A
B dx
) b x a (
1
a
A
n 1 n

Therefore we have derived the following formula

} } }
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=
+
+
dx
) b x a (
1
a
Ab
B dx
) b x a (
1
a
A
dx
) b x a (
B x A
n 1 n n

The last two integrals are calculated using the substitution b x a u + = .
1)
}

dx
) 3 x 2 (
2
3
2)
}
+
dx
) 3 x 2 (
x
2
3)
}
+
+
dx
) 5 x 3 (
1 x 5
4

(1) Hint. Using the substitution 3 x 2 u = , since dx 2 du = , the integral
transforms into C
u
1
2
1
u
du
2 3
+ =
}

Answer. C
) 3 x 2 (
1
2
1
2
+

2
3
) 3 x 2 (
2
1
x + = , the integral takes the form
331
} } } }
+
+
=
+
+
=
+
2 2 2
) 3 x 2 (
dx
2
3
3 x 2
dx
2
1
dx
) 3 x 2 (
2
3
) 3 x 2 (
2
1
dx
) 3 x 2 (
x

The last two integrals are evaluated using the substitution 3 x 2 u + = .
4
1
3 x 2
1
4
3
+ + +
+

3
22
) 5 x 3 (
3
5
1 x 5 + = + , the integral takes the form

} } } }
+
+
=
+
+
=
+
+
4 3 4 4
) 5 x 3 (
dx
3
22
) 5 x 3 (
dx
3
5
dx
) 5 x 3 (
3
22
) 5 x 3 (
3
5
dx
) 5 x 3 (
1 x 5

Both the last two integrals are evaluated using the substitution 5 x 3 u + = .
Answer. C
) 5 x 3 (
1
27
22
) 5 x 3 (
1
18
5
3 2
+
+
+
+

1)
}

dx
) 2 x 3 (
7 x 3
3
2)
}
+
+
dx
) 4 x 3 (
8 x 4
4
3)
}

dx
) 11 x 2 (
9 x 7
5

(1) Hint. We have the identity 5 ) 2 x 3 ( 7 x 3 = . The integral takes the form

} } } }

3 2 3 3
) 2 x 3 (
dx
5 dx
) 2 x 3 (
dx
dx
) 2 x 3 (
5 ) 2 x 3 (
dx
) 2 x 3 (
7 x 3

Both the two last integrals are evaluated using the substitution 2 x 3 u = .
Answer. C
) 2 x 3 (
1
6
5
2 x 3
1
3
1
2
+

(2) Hint. We have the identity
3
8
) 4 x 3 (
3
4
8 x 4 + + = + . The integral takes the form

} } } }
+
+
+
=
+
+ +
=
+
+
3 3 4 4
) 4 x 3 (
dx
3
8
) 4 x 3 (
dx
3
4
dx
) 4 x 3 (
3
8
) 4 x 3 (
3
4
dx
) 4 x 3 (
8 x 4

Both the two last integrals are evaluated using the substitution 4 x 3 u + = .
Answer. C
) 4 x 3 (
1
27
8
) 4 x 3 (
1
9
2
3 2
+
+

+

332
(3) Hint. We have the identity
2
95
) 11 x 2 (
2
7
9 x 7 = . The integral takes the
form
=
} }
dx
) 11 x 2 (
2
95
) 11 x 2 (
2
7
dx
) 11 x 2 (
9 x 7
5 5

} }

=
5 4
) 11 x 2 (
dx
2
95
) 11 x 2 (
dx
2
7

Both the two last integrals are evaluated using the substitution 11 x 2 u = .
Answer. C
) 11 x 2 (
1
16
59
) 11 x 2 (
1
12
7
4 3
+

}
+ + c x b x a
dx
2

2
2
+ + .
If 0 D > , then we follow the next steps
Step 1. Calculate the two real roots of the trinomial:

a 2
D b
2 , 1

=
Step 2. Factorize the trinomial
) x ( ) x ( a c x b x a
2 1
2
= + +

Step 3. Perform the partial fraction decomposition

2 1 2 1
x
B
x
A
) x ( ) x (
1
=

Exercises 7-20 contain integrals of the form
}
+ + c x b x a
dx
2
.
In Exercises 7-14 the trinomial admits two distinct real roots ( 0 D > ).
333
and determine the constants A and B:

2 1

1
A
= and
2 1

1
B
=

)
`

=
+ +
} } }
2 1 2 1
2
x
dx
x
dx
) ( a
1
c x b x a
dx

=
+ +
}
c x b x a
dx
2

C ] | x | ln | x | ln [
) ( a
1
2 1
2 1
+
=
C
x
x
ln
) ( a
1
2
1
2 1
+
=
1)
}
15 x 2 x
dx
2
2)
}
35 x 2 x
dx
2
3)
}
3 x 5 x 2
dx
2

(1) Hint. The discriminant of the trinomial ( 15 c , 2 b , 1 a = = = ) is calculated to
be 0 64 ) 15 ( 1 4 ) 2 ( D
2
> = = . The two real roots are 5
1
= and 3
2
= .
Since ) 3 x )( 5 x ( 15 x 2 x
2
+ = , using partial fractions,
3 x
B
5 x
A
) 3 x )( 5 x (
1
15 x 2 x
1
2
+
+
=
+
=

we find
8
1
A = and
8
1
B = . Therefore
} } }
+
=

3 x
dx
8
1
5 x
dx
8
1
15 x 2 x
dx
2

Answer. C
3 x
5 x
ln
8
1
+
+

be 0 144 ) 35 ( 1 4 ) 2 ( D
2
1
= and 5
2
= .
334
Since ) 5 x )( 7 x ( 35 x 2 x
2
5 x
B
7 x
A
) 5 x )( 7 x (
1
15 x 2 x
1
2
+
+
=
+
=

we find
12
1
A = and
12
1
B = .
Therefore
} } }
+
=

3 x
dx
12
1
5 x
dx
12
1
35 x 2 x
dx
2
Answer. C
5 x
7 x
ln
12
1
+
+

be 0 49 ) 3 ( 2 4 ) 5 ( D
2
1
= and
2
1
2
= .
Since ) 1 x 2 )( 3 x ( 3 x 5 x 2
2
1 x 2
B
3 x
A
) 1 x 2 )( 3 x (
1
3 x 5 x 2
1
2
+
+
=
+
=

we find
7
1
A = and
7
2
B = .
Therefore dx
1 x 2
2
7
1
3 x
dx
7
1
3 x 5 x 2
dx
2
} } }
+
=

Answer. C
1 x 2
3 x
ln
7
1
+
+

1)
}
+ 6 x x 2
dx
2
2)
}
+ 3 x 7 x 6
dx
2
3)
}
1 x 2 x
dx
2

(1) Hint. The discriminant of the trinomial ( 6 c , 1 b , 2 a = = = ) is calculated to be
0 49 ) 6 ( 2 4 ) 1 ( D
2
> = = . The two real roots are
2
3
1
= and 2
2
= .
Since ) 2 x )( 3 x 2 ( ) 2 x (
2
3
x 2 6 x x 2
2
+ = +
|
.
|
\
|
= + , using partial fractions,
2 x
B
3 x 2
A
) 2 x )( 3 x 2 (
1
6 x x 2
1
2
+
+
=
+
=
+
, we find
7
2
A = and
7
1
B = .
335
Therefore dx
2 x
1
7
1
3 x 2
dx 2
7
1
6 x x 2
dx
2
} } }
+
=
+

Answer. C
2 x
3 x 2
ln
7
1
+
+

0 121 ) 3 ( 6 4 ) 7 ( D
2
3
1
1
= and
2
3
2
= .
Since ) 3 x 2 )( 1 x 3 (
2
3
x
3
1
x 6 3 x 7 x 6
2
+ =
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
3 x 2
B
1 x 3
A
) 3 x 2 )( 1 x 3 (
1
3 x 7 x 6
1
2
+
+
=
+
=
+
, we find
4
1
A = and
6
1
B = .
Therefore dx
3 x 2
2
12
1
dx
1 x 3
3
12
1
3 x 7 x 6
dx
2
} } }
+
=
+

Answer. C
3 x 2
1 x 3
ln
12
1
+
+

be 0 8 ) 1 ( 1 4 ) 2 ( D
2
> = = . The two real roots are 2 1
1
+ = and
2 1
2
= . Since ) x )( x ( 1 x 2 x
2 1
2
= , using partial fractions,
2 1 2 1
2
x
B
x
A
) x ( ) x (
1
1 x 2 x
1

+

=

=

, we find
2 1
1
A

= and
2 1
1
B

= . Therefore
|
|
.
|
\
|

=

} } }
2 1 2 1
2
x
dx
x
dx 1
1 x 2 x
dx

Answer. C
x
x
ln
1
2
1
2 1
+

or C
2 1 x
2 1 x
ln
2 2
1
+
+

.
1)
}
+ 3 x 11 x 6
dx
2
2)
}
+ 1 x 4 x
dx
2
3)
}
1 x 2 x 2
dx
2

336
be 0 49 3 6 4 ) 11 ( D
2
2
3
1
= and
3
1
2
= .
Since ) 1 x 3 )( 3 x 2 (
3
1
x
2
3
x 6 3 x 11 x 6
2
=
|
.
|
\
|

|
.
|
\
|
1 x 3
B
3 x 2
A
) 1 x 3 )( 3 x 2 (
1
3 x 11 x 6
1
2

+
=

=
+
, we find
7
2
A = and
7
3
B = .
Therefore dx
1 x 3
3
7
1
dx
3 x 2
2
7
1
3 x 11 x 6
dx
2
} } }

=
+

Answer. C
1 x 3
3 x 2
ln
7
1
+

0 12 1 1 4 ) 4 ( D
2
> = = . The two real roots are 3 2
1
+ = and 3 2
2
= .
Since ) x )( x ( 1 x 4 x
2 1
2
2 1 2 1
2
x
B
x
A
) x ( ) x (
1
1 x 4 x
1

+

=

=
+
, we find
2 1
1
A

= and
2 1
1
B

= . Therefore
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
+
} } }
2 1 2 1
2
x
dx
x
dx 1
1 x 4 x
dx

Answer. C
x
x
ln
1
2
1
2 1
+

or C
3 2 x
3 2 x
ln
3 2
1
+
+

.
be 0 12 ) 1 ( 2 4 ) 2 ( D
2
2
3
2
1
1
+ = and
2
3
2
1
2
= . Since ) x )( x ( 2 1 x 2 x 2
2 1
2
2 1 2 1
2
x
B
x
A
) x ( ) x ( 2
1
1 x 2 x 2
1

+

=

=

, we find
337
) ( 2
1
A
2 1

= and
) ( 2
1
B
2 1

= .
Therefore
|
|
.
|
\
|

=

} } }
2 1 2 1
2
x
dx
x
dx
) ( 2
1
1 x 2 x 2
dx

Answer. C
x
x
ln
) ( 2
1
2
1
2 1
+

or C
3 1 x 2
3 1 x 2
ln
3
1
+
+

.
1)
}
1 x 6 x 9
dx
2
2)
}
+ + 2 x 7 x 6
dx
2
3)
}
+ + 2 x 7 x 3
dx
2

be 0 72 ) 1 ( 9 4 ) 6 ( D
2
3
2
3
1
1
+ = and
3
2
3
1
2
= . Since ) x )( x ( 9 1 x 6 x 9
2 1
2
2 1 2 1
2
x
B
x
A
) x ( ) x ( 9
1
1 x 6 x 9
1

+

=

=

, we find
) ( 9
1
A
2 1

= and
) ( 9
1
B
2 1

= .
Therefore
|
|
.
|
\
|

=

} } }
2 1 2 1
2
x
dx
x
dx
) ( 9
1
1 x 6 x 9
dx

Answer. C
x
x
ln
) ( 9
1
2
1
2 1
+

or C
2 1 x 3
2 1 x 3
ln
2 6
1
+
+

.
0 1 2 6 4 7 D
2
2
1
1
= and
3
2
2
= . Since
) 2 x 3 )( 1 x 2 ( ) x )( x ( 6 2 x 7 x 6
2 1
2
+ + = = + + , using partial fractions,
2 x 3
B
1 x 2
A
) 2 x 3 ( ) 1 x 2 (
1
2 x 7 x 6
1
2
+
+
+
=
+ +
=
+ +
, we find 2 A= and 3 B = .
338
Therefore
} } }
+
+
=
+ +
dx
2 x 3
3
dx
1 x 2
2
2 x 7 x 6
dx
2

Answer. C
2 x 3
1 x 2
ln +
+
+

0 25 2 3 4 7 D
2
2
1
1
= and
3
2
2
= . Since
) 2 x 3 )( 1 x 2 ( ) x )( x ( 6 2 x 7 x 6
2 1
2
+ + = = + + , using partial fractions,
2 x 3
B
1 x 2
A
) 2 x 3 ( ) 1 x 2 (
1
2 x 7 x 6
1
2
+
+
+
=
+ +
=
+ +
, we find 2 A= and 3 B = .
Therefore
} } }
+
+
=
+ +
dx
2 x 3
3
dx
1 x 2
2
2 x 7 x 6
dx
2

Answer. C
2 x 3
1 x 2
ln +
+
+

1)
}
+ 1 x 12 x 9
dx
2
2)
}
+ + 1 x 20 x 25
dx
2
3)
}
+ 1 x x 12
dx
2

be 0 180 ) 1 ( 9 4 12 D
2
3
5
3
2
1
+ = and
3
5
3
2
2
= . Since ) x )( x ( 9 1 x 12 x 9
2 1
2
2 1 2 1
2
x
B
x
A
) x ( ) x ( 9
1
1 x 12 x 9
1

+

=

=
+
, we find
) ( 9
1
A
2 1

= and
) ( 9
1
B
2 1

= .
Therefore
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
+
} } }
2 1 2 1
2
x
dx
x
dx
) ( 9
1
1 x 12 x 9
dx

339
Answer. C
x
x
ln
) ( 9
1
2
1
2 1
+

or C
5 2 x 3
5 2 x 3
ln
5 6
1
+
+

.
0 300 1 25 4 20 D
2
5
3
5
2
1
+ = and
5
3
5
2
2
+ = . Since ) x )( x ( 25 1 x 20 x 25
2 1
2
= + + , using partial fractions,
2 1 2 1
2
x
B
x
A
) x ( ) x ( 25
1
1 x 20 x 25
1

+

=

=
+ +
, we find
) ( 25
1
A
2 1

= and
) ( 25
1
B
2 1

= .
Therefore
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
+ +
} } }
2 1 2 1
2
x
dx
x
dx
) ( 25
1
1 x 20 x 25
dx

Answer. C
x
x
ln
) ( 25
1
2
1
2 1
+

or C
3 2 x 5
3 2 x 5
ln
3 10
1
+
+ +
+
.
be 0 49 ) 1 ( 12 4 1 D
2
4
1
1
= and
3
1
2
= .
Since ) 1 x 3 )( 1 x 4 ( ) x )( x ( 12 1 x x 12
2 1
2
+ = = + , using partial fractions,
1 x 3
B
1 x 4
A
) 1 x 3 ( ) 1 x 4 (
1
1 x x 12
1
2
+
+
=
+
=
+
, we find
7
4
A = and
7
3
B = .
Therefore
} } }
+
=
+
dx
1 x 3
3
7
1
dx
1 x 4
4
7
1
1 x x 12
dx
2

Answer. C
1 x 3
1 x 4
ln
7
1
+
+

1)
}
+ 4 x 5 x 6
dx
2
2)
}
+ 6 x 7 x 5
dx
2
3)
}
+ 1 x 2 x 4
dx
2

340
0 121 ) 4 ( 6 4 5 D
2
2
1
1
= and
3
4
2
= . Since
) 4 x 3 ( ) 1 x 2 ( ) x )( x ( 6 4 x 5 x 6
2 1
2
4 x 3
B
1 x 2
A
) 4 x 3 ( ) 1 x 2 (
1
4 x 5 x 6
1
2
+
+
=
+
=
+
, we find
11
2
A = and
11
3
B = .
Therefore
} } }
+
=
+
dx
4 x 3
3
11
1
dx
1 x 2
2
11
1
4 x 5 x 6
dx
2

Answer. C
4 x 3
1 x 2
ln
11
1
+
+

0 169 ) 6 ( 5 4 7 D
2
5
3
1
= and 2
2
= . Since
) 2 x ( ) 3 x 5 ( ) x )( x ( 5 6 x 7 x 5
2 1
2
2 x
B
3 x 5
A
) 2 x ( ) 3 x 5 (
1
6 x 7 x 5
1
2
+
+
=
+
=
+
, we find
13
5
A = and
13
1
B = .
Therefore
} } }
+
=
+
dx
2 x
1
11
1
dx
3 x 5
5
13
1
6 x 7 x 5
dx
2

Answer. C
2 x
3 x 5
ln
13
1
+
+

0 20 ) 1 ( 4 4 2 D
2
4
5
4
1
1
+ = and
5
3
5
2
2
+ = . Since ) x )( x ( 4 1 x 2 x 4
2 1
2
2 1 2 1
2
x
B
x
A
) x ( ) x ( 4
1
1 x 2 x 4
1

+

=

=
+
, we find
341
) ( 4
1
A
2 1

= and
) ( 4
1
B
2 1

= .
Therefore
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
+
} } }
2 1 2 1
2
x
dx
x
dx
) ( 4
1
1 x 2 x 4
dx

Answer. C
x
x
ln
) ( 4
1
2
1
2 1
+

or C
5 1 x 4
5 1 x 4
ln
5 2
1
+
+
+

1)
}
+ x 4 x
dx
2
2)
}
25 x 16
dx
2
3)
}
3 x 4
dx
2

(1) Hint. Since ) 4 x ( x x 4 x
2
+ = + , using partial fractions,

4 x
B
x
A
) 4 x ( x
1
x 4 x
1
2
+
+ =
+
=
+

we find
4
1
A = and
4
1
B = . We thus have
4 x
1
4
1
x
1
4
1
x 4 x
1
2
+
=
+
.
Therefore
)
`
+
=
+
} } }
4 x
dx
x
dx
4
1
x 4 x
dx
2
. Answer. C
4 x
x
ln
4
1
+
+

(2) Hint. Since ) 5 x 4 ( ) 5 x 4 ( 25 x 16
2
5 x 4
B
5 x 4
A
) 5 x 4 ( ) 5 x 4 (
1
25 x 16
1
2
+
+
=
+
=
we find
10
1
A = and
10
1
B = .
We thus have
)
`
5 x 4
1
5 x 4
1
10
1
25 x 16
1
2
. Therefore
)
`
} } }
5 x 4
dx
5 x 4
dx
10
1
25 x 16
dx
2
. Answer. C
5 x 4
5 x 4
ln
10
1
+
+

(3) Hint. Since ) 3 x 2 ( ) 3 x 2 ( 3 x 4
2
+ = , using partial fractions

3 x 2
B
3 x 2
A
) 3 x 2 ( ) 3 x 2 (
1
3 x 4
1
2
+
+
=
+
=
,
we find
6
3
A = and
6
3
B = .
342
We thus have
3 x 2
1
6
3
3 x 2
1
6
3
3 x 4
1
2
+

.
Therefore
)
`
} } }
dx
3 x 2
2
dx
3 x 2
2
12
3
3 x 4
dx
2
.
Answer. C
3 x 2
3 x 2
ln
12
3
+
+

1)
}
x 2 x
dx
2
2)
}
16 x 9
dx
2
3)
}
9 x 2
dx
2

2
x
B
2 x
A
) 2 x ( x
1
x 2 x
1
2
+
, we find
2
1
A = and
2
1
B = .
We thus have
x
1
2
1
2 x
1
2
1
x 2 x
1
2

. Therefore
)
`
} } }
x
dx
2 x
dx
2
1
x 2 x
dx
2
. Answer. C
x
2 x
ln
2
1
+

(2) Hint. Since ) 4 x 3 ( ) 4 x 3 ( 16 x 9
2
4 x 3
B
4 x 3
A
) 4 x 3 ( ) 4 x 3 (
1
16 x 9
1
2
+
+
=
+
=
we find
8
1
A = and
8
1
B = .
We thus have
)
`
4 x 3
1
4 x 3
1
8
1
16 x 9
1
2
. Therefore
)
`
} } }
4 x 3
dx
4 x 3
dx
8
1
16 x 9
dx
2
. Answer. C
4 x 3
4 x 3
ln
24
1
+
+

(3) Hint. Since ) 2 3 x 2 ( ) 2 3 x 2 (
2
1
) 18 x 4 (
2
1
9 x 2
2 2
+ = = , using partial
fractions
2 3 x 2
B
2 3 x 2
A
) 2 3 x 2 ( ) 2 3 x 2 (
2
9 x 2
1
2
+
+
=
+
=
,
343
we find
6
2
A = and
6
2
B = . We thus have
2 3 x 2
1
6
2
2 3 x 2
1
6
2
9 x 2
1
2
+

. Therefore
)
`
} } }
dx
2 3 x 2
2
dx
2 3 x 2
2
12
2
9 x 2
dx
2
.
Answer. C
2 3 x 2
2 3 x 2
ln
12
2
+
+

}
+ + c x b x a
dx
2

2
2
+ + .
If 0 D = , we follow the next steps
Step 1. Calculate the double root of the trinomial:

a 2
b
=
Step 2. Write the trinomial as a perfect square:

2 2
) x ( a c x b x a = + +
Step 3. Express the integral as
} }

=
+ +
2 2
) x (
dx
a
1
c x b x a
dx

Step 4. Use the substitution x u = and transform the integral to

}
2
u
du
a
1

In Exercises 15-16 the trinomial admits a double root ( 0 D = )
344
C
u
1
a
1
u
du
a
1
2
+ =
}

Step 6. Go back to the original variable x:
C
x
1
a
1
c x b x a
dx
2
+
=
+ +
}

1)
}
+ 1 x 2 x
dx
2
2)
}
+ 1 x 6 x 9
dx
2
3)
}
+ + 1 x 4 x 4
dx
2

0 1 1 4 ) 2 ( D
2
= = . The double root is then 1 = . We thus have
2 2
) 1 x ( 1 x 2 x = + . Therefore
} }

=
+
2 2
) 1 x (
dx
1 x 2 x
dx
. Under the
substitution 1 x u = , the integral becomes C
u
1
u
du
2
+ =
}
.
Answer. C
1 x
1
+

0 1 9 4 ) 6 ( D
2
= = . The double root is then
3
1
= . We thus have
2
2
2
) 1 x 3 (
3
1
x 9 1 x 6 x 9 =
|
.
|
\
|
= + . Therefore
} }

=
+
2 2
) 1 x 3 (
dx
1 x 6 x 9
dx
.
Under the substitution 1 x 3 u = , the integral becomes C
u 3
1
u
du
3
1
2
+ =
}
.
Answer. C
) 1 x 3 ( 3
1
+

0 1 4 4 4 D
2
2
1
= . We thus have
345
2
2
2
) 1 x 2 (
2
1
x 4 1 x 4 x 4 + =
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + + . Therefore
} }
+
=
+ +
2 2
) 1 x 2 (
dx
1 x 4 x 4
dx
.
Under the substitution 1 x 2 u + = , the integral becomes C
u 2
1
u
du
2
1
2
+ =
}
.
Answer. C
) 1 x 2 ( 2
1
+
+

1)
}
+ 4 x 12 x 9
dx
2
2)
}
+ + 25 x 20 x 4
dx
2
3)
}
+ 9 x 30 x 25
dx
2

be 0 4 9 4 ) 12 ( D
2
3
2
= . We thus have
2
2
2
) 2 x 3 (
3
2
x 9 4 x 12 x 9 =
|
.
|
\
|
= + . Therefore
} }

=
+
2 2
) 2 x 3 (
dx
4 x 12 x 9
dx
.
Under the substitution 2 x 3 u = , the integral becomes C
u 3
1
u
du
3
1
2
+ =
}
.
Answer. C
) 2 x 3 ( 3
1
+

be 0 25 4 4 20 D
2
2
5
= . We thus have
2
2
2
) 5 x 2 (
2
5
x 4 25 x 20 x 4 + =
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + + . Therefore
} }
+
=
+ +
2 2
) 5 x 2 (
dx
25 x 20 x 4
dx
. Under the substitution 5 x 2 u + = , the integral
becomes C
u 2
1
u
du
2
1
2
+ =
}
. Answer. C
) 5 x 2 ( 2
1
+
+

346
be 0 9 25 4 ) 30 ( D
2
5
3
= . We thus have
2
2
2
) 3 x 5 (
5
3
x 25 9 x 30 x 25 =
|
.
|
\
|
= + . Therefore
} }

=
+
2 2
) 3 x 5 (
dx
9 x 30 x 25
dx
. Under the substitution 3 x 5 u = , the integral
becomes C
u 5
1
u
du
5
1
2
+ =
}
. Answer. C
) 3 x 5 ( 5
1
+

}
+ + c x b x a
dx
2

2
2
+ + .
If 0 D < , we follow the next steps
Step 1. Transform the trinomial into a sum of squares:

|
|
.
|
\
|

+
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + +
2
2
2
a 2
D
a 2
b
x a c x b x a

Step 2. Use the substitution

u
a 2
D
a 2
b
x
= +
,
du
a 2
D
dx
=

Step 3. Transform the trinomial into
In Exercises 17-20 the trinomial admits two complex conjugate roots
( 0 D< )
347

) 1 u (
a 2
D
a c x b x a
2
2
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

= + +


} }
+
=
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

1 u
du
D
2
du
1 u
a 2
D
a 2
D
a
1
2 2 2

Step 5. Perform the integration:
C u arctan
D
2
1 u
du
D
2
2
+
=
+
}

Step 6. Go back to the original variable, using the relation
D
b ax 2
u
+
= :
C
D
b x a 2
arctan
D
2
c x b x a
dx
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
=
+ +
}

1)
}
+ 2 x 2 x
dx
2
2)
}
+ 2 x x
dx
2
3)
}
+ 34 x 20 x 4
dx
2

0 4 2 1 4 ) 2 ( D
2
< = = . The trinomial is then expressed as a sum of two
squares: 1 ) 1 x ( 2 x 2 x
2 2
+ = + . Therefore
} }
+
=
+ 1 ) 1 x (
dx
2 x 2 x
dx
2 2
.
Under the substitution 1 x u = the integral becomes C u arctan
1 u
du
2
+ =
+
}
.
Answer. C ) 1 x arctan( +
348
0 7 2 1 4 ) 1 ( D
2
squares:
2
2
2
2
7
2
1
x 2 x x
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= + . Therefore
} }
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|

=
+
2
2
2
2
7
2
1
x
dx
2 x x
dx
. Under the substitution u
2
7
2
1
x = , the
integral becomes C u arctan
7
7 2
du
) 1 u (
4
7
2
7
2
+ =
+
}
.
Answer. C u
7
1 x 2
arctan
7
7 2
+ |
.
|
\
|

be 0 144 34 4 4 ) 20 ( D
2
< = = . The trinomial is then expressed as a sum of
two squares:
2 2 2
3 ) 5 x 2 ( 34 x 20 x 4 + = + . Therefore
} }
+
=
+
2 2 2
3 ) 5 x 2 (
dx
34 x 20 x 4
dx
. Under the substitution u 3 5 x 2 = , the
6
1
du
) 1 u ( 9
2
3
2
+ =
+
}
.
Answer. C u
3
5 x 2
arctan
6
1
+
|
.
|
\
|

1)
}
+ 1 x 2 x 3
dx
2
2)
}
+ 2 x 3 x 2
dx
2
3)
}
+ 2 x 5 x 6
dx
2

349
0 8 1 3 4 ) 2 ( D
2
squares:
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= +
2
2
2
3
2
3
1
x 3 1 x 2 x 3 . Therefore
} }
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|

=
+
2
2
2
3
2
3
1
x
dx
3
1
1 x 2 x 3
dx
3
2
3
1
x = , the
2
2
du
) 1 u (
9
2
3
2
3
1
2
+ =
+
}
.
Answer. C u
2
1 x 3
arctan
2
2
+ |
.
|
\
|

0 7 2 2 4 ) 3 ( D
2
squares:
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= +
2
2
2
4
7
4
3
} }
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|

=
+
2
2
2
4
7
4
3
x
dx
2
1
1 x 2 x 3
dx
4
7
4
3
x = , the
7
7 2
du
) 1 u (
16
7
4
7
2
1
2
+ =
+
}
.
Answer. C u
7
3 x 4
arctan
7
7 2
+ |
.
|
\
|

350
0 23 2 6 4 ) 5 ( D
2
squares:
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= +
2
2
2
12
23
12
5
} }
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|

=
+
2
2
2
12
23
12
5
x
dx
6
1
2 x 5 x 6
dx
. Under the substitution
u
12
23
12
5
x = , the integral becomes C u arctan
23
23 2
du
) 1 u (
144
23
12
23
6
1
2
+ =
+
}
.
Answer. C u
23
5 x 12
arctan
23
23 2
+ |
.
|
\
|

1)
}
+ 36 x
dx
2
2)
}
+121 x 4
dx
2
3)
}
+ 25 x 6
dx
2

(1) Hint. Under the substitution u 6 x = , the integral becomes
C u arctan
6
1
1 u
du
6
1
) 1 u ( 36
du 6
2 2
+ =
+
=
+
} }
. Answer. C
6
x
arctan
6
1
+
|
.
|
\
|

In Exercises 19 and 20, there is no need to consider the discriminant of the
trinomial. These integrals have the generic form
}
+ b x a
dx
2
, 0 b , 0 a > >
and they are evaluated using the substitution u
a
b
x = .
351
(2) Hint. Under the substitution u
2
11
x = , the integral becomes
C u arctan
22
1
1 u
du
22
1
) 1 u ( 121
du
2
11
2 2
+ =
+
=
+
} }
. Answer. C
11
x 2
arctan
22
1
+
|
.
|
\
|

6
5
x = , the integral becomes
C u arctan
6 5
1
1 u
du
6 5
1
) 1 u ( 25
du
6
5
2 2
+ =
+
=
+
} }
.
Answer. C x
5
6
arctan
6 5
1
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

1)
}
+ 3 x
dx
2
2)
}
+ 5 x 3
dx
2
3)
}
+8 x 6
dx
2

(1) Hint. Under the substitution u 3 x = , the integral takes the form

C u arctan
3
3
1 u
du
3
3
) 1 u ( 3
du 3
2 2
+ =
+
=
+
} }
. Answer. C
3
x
arctan
3
3
+ |
.
|
\
|

3
5
x = , the integral takes the form
C u arctan
15
1
1 u
du
15
1
) 1 u ( 5
du
3
5
2 2
+ =
+
=
+
} }
. Answer. C x
5
3
arctan
15
1
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

6
8
x = , the integral takes the form
C u arctan
3 4
1
1 u
du
3 4
1
) 1 u ( 8
du
6
8
2 2
+ =
+
=
+
} }
. Answer. C x
2
3
arctan
3 4
1
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

352

- In Exercise 21 the discriminant of the trinomial is positive. In this case we
work as follows:
Positive Discriminant. Suppose 0 D > . In this case the trinomial admits two
distinct real roots
1
and
2
a 2
D b
2 , 1

=
The trinomial then takes the form ) x ( ) x ( a c x b x a
2 1
2
= + +
For the integral dx
c x b x a
B x A
2
}
+ +
+
we have similarly the partial fraction
decomposition
2 1 2 1
x
L
x
K
) x ( ) x (
B Ax
=

+

The above identity is equivalent to ) x ( L ) x ( K B Ax
1 2
+ = +
For
1
x = we find ) ( K B A
2 1 1
= + and then
2 1
1

B A
K
+
=
For
2
x = we find ) ( L B A
1 2 2
= + and then
2 1
2

B A
L
+
=
Therefore

2 2 1
2
1 2 1
1
2 1
x
1

B A
x
1

B A
) x ( ) x (
B x A
+
=

+

The integral then can be evaluated as follows
=

+
=
+ +
+
} }
dx
) x ( ) x (
B x A
a
1
dx
c x b x a
B x A
2 1
2

} }

+

+
= dx
x
1
) ( a
B A
dx
x
1
) ( a
B A
2 2 1
2
1 2 1
1

Exercises 21-23 are integrals of the form dx
c x b x a
B Ax
2
}
+ +
+

353
C | x | ln
) ( a
B A
| x | ln
) ( a
B A
2
2 1
2
1
2 1
1
+
+
=
1) dx
15 x 2 x
3 x 2
2
}

+
2) dx
35 x 2 x
7 x 3
2
}

3) dx
3 x 5 x 2
1 x 5
2
}

4) dx
1 x 4 x 2
5 x 6
2
}

+

(1) Hint. The trinomial 15 x 2 x
2
has positive discriminant ( 0 64 D > = ) and
admits two real roots 5
1
= and 3
2
= . Therefore ) 3 x )( 5 x ( 15 x 2 x
2
+ =
Using partial fractions,
3 x
B
5 x
A
15 x 2 x
3 x 2
2
+
+
=

+
, we find
8
13
A = and
8
3
B= .
We thus have
} } }
+
+
=

+
3 x
dx
8
3
5 x
dx
8
13
dx
15 x 2 x
3 x 2
2

Answer. C | 3 x | ln
8
3
| 5 x | ln
8
13
+ + +
(2) Hint. The trinomial 35 x 2 x
2
1
= and 7
2
= . Therefore ) 7 x )( 5 x ( 35 x 2 x
2
+ =
Using partial fractions,
7 x
B
5 x
A
35 x 2 x
7 x 3
2

+
+
=

, we find
6
11
A = and
6
7
B= .
We thus have
} } }

+
+
=

7 x
dx
6
7
5 x
dx
6
11
dx
35 x 2 x
7 x 3
2

6
7
| 5 x | ln
6
11
+ + +
(3) Hint. The trinomial 3 x 5 x 2
2
1
= and
2
1
2
= . Therefore
354
) 1 x 2 )( 3 x ( 3 x 5 x 2
2
+ = . Using partial fractions,
1 x 2
B
3 x
A
3 x 5 x 2
1 x 5
2
+
+
, we find 2 A= and 1 B= .
We thus have
} } }
+
+
1 x 2
dx
3 x
dx
2 dx
3 x 5 x 2
1 x 5
2

2
1
| 3 x | ln 2 + + +
(4) Hint. The trinomial 1 x 4 x 2
2
admits two real roots
2
6
1
1
+ = and
2
6
1
2
= . Therefore
) x )( x ( 2 1 x 4 x 2
2 1
2
= . Using partial fractions,
2 1 2 1
x
B
x
A
) x )( x ( 2
5 x 6

+

=

+
, we find
) ( 2
5 6
A
2 1
1

+
= and
) ( 2
5 6
B
2 1
2

+
= . We thus have
} } }

+

+
=

+
2 2 1
2
1 2 1
1
2
x
dx
) ( 2
5 6
x
dx
) ( 2
5 6
dx
1 x 4 x 2
5 x 6
.
Answer. C
2
6
1 x ln
6 2
6 3 11
2
6
1 x ln
6 2
6 3 11
+
+
+

- In Exercise 22 the discriminant of the trinomial is zero. In this case we
work as follows:
Zero Discriminant. Suppose 0 ac 4 b D
2
= . In this case the trinomial has a
double real root given by
a 2
b

2 2
) x ( a c x b x a = + +
For the integral
dx
) x (
B Ax
a
1
dx
c x b x a
B x A
2 2
} }

+
=
+ +
+

355

2 2
) x (
L
x
K
) x (
B Ax
+

from which we get
L ) x ( K B Ax + = +
For x = we find B A L L B A + = = +
For 0 x = we find A K L ) ( K B = + =
Therefore

2 2
) x (
B A
x
A
) x (
B Ax
+
+
+

=
+
+
=
+ +
+
} } }
dx
) x (
B A
a
1
dx
x
A
a
1
dx
c x b x a
B x A
2 2

=
+
+
=
} }
dx
) x (
1
a
B A
dx
x
1
a
A
2

= +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ = C
x
1
a
B A
| x | ln
a
A

C
x
1
a
B A
| x | ln
a
A
+
+
=
1) dx
1 x 2 x
2 x 3
2
}
+
+
2) dx
1 x 6 x 9
4 x
2
}
+

3) dx
1 x 4 x 4
12 x 6
2
}
+ +
+
4) dx
16 x 24 x 9
9 x 5
2
}
+ +

(1) Hint. The discriminant of the trinomial 1 x 2 x
2
+ is zero. The double root is
1 = . Therefore
2 2
) 1 x ( 1 x 2 x = + . Using partial fractions,
356
2 2
) 1 x (
B
1 x
A
1 x 2 x
2 x 3
=
+
+
, we find 3 A = and 5 B= .
We thus have
} } }

+
=
+
+
2 2
) 1 x (
dx
5
1 x
dx
3 dx
1 x 2 x
2 x 3
.
Answer. C
1 x
5
| 1 x | ln 3 +

(2) Hint. The discriminant of the trinomial 1 x 6 x 9
2
+ is zero. The double root is
3
1
= . Therefore
2
2
2
) 1 x 3 (
3
1
x 9 1 x 6 x 9 =
|
.
|
\
|
= + . Using partial fractions,
2 2
) 1 x 3 (
B
1 x 3
A
1 x 6 x 9
4 x
=
+
, we find
3
1
A = and
3
11
B = .
We thus have
} } }

=
+
2 2
) 1 x 3 (
dx
3
11
1 x 3
dx
3
1
dx
1 x 6 x 9
4 x
.
Answer. C
1 x 3
1
9
11
| 1 x 3 | ln
9
1
+

2
+ + is zero. The double root is
2
1
= . Therefore
2
2
2
) 1 x 2 (
2
1
x 4 1 x 4 x 4 + =
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + + . Using partial fractions,
2 2
) 1 x 2 (
B
1 x 2
A
1 x 4 x 4
12 x 6
+
+
+
=
+ +
+
, we find 3 A = and 9 B = .
We thus have
} } }
+
+
+
=
+ +
+
2 2
) 1 x 2 (
dx
9
1 x 2
dx
3 dx
1 x 4 x 4
12 x 6
.
Answer. C
1 x 2
1
2
9
| 1 x 2 | ln
2
3
+
+
+
357
2
+ + is zero. The double root
is
3
4
= . Therefore
2
2
2
) 4 x 3 (
3
4
x 9 16 x 24 x 9 + =
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + + . Using partial
fractions,
2 2
) 4 x 3 (
B
4 x 3
A
16 x 24 x 9
9 x 5
+
+
+
=
+ +

, we find
3
5
A = and
3
47
B = .
We thus have
} } }
+
+
=
+ +

2 2
) 4 x 3 (
dx
3
47
4 x 3
dx
3
5
dx
16 x 24 x 9
9 x 5
.
Answer. C
4 x 3
1
9
47
| 4 x 3 | ln
9
5
+
+
+ +
- In Exercise 23 the discriminant of the trinomial is negative. In this case we
work as follows:
Negative Discriminant. Suppose that 0 D < .
For the integral dx
c x b x a
B x A
2
}
+ +
+
we first prove the identity

|
.
|
\
|
+ + = +
a 2
Ab
B ) b ax 2 (
a 2
A
B Ax
We have
=
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
|
.
|
\
|
+ = +
A
B
x a 2
a 2
1
A
A
B
x A B Ax
=
|
.
|
\
|
+ + + =
|
.
|
\
|
+ + =
A
B
a 2
b
A ) b ax 2 (
a 2
1
A
A
B
a 2
b
) b ax 2 (
a 2
1
A

|
.
|
\
|
+ + + = B
a 2
Ab
) b ax 2 (
a 2
A

=
+ +
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
=
+ +
+
} }
dx
c x b x a
a 2
Ab
B ) b ax 2 (
a 2
A
dx
c x b x a
B x A
2 2

=
+ +
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ +
+
=
} }
dx
c x b x a
1
a 2
Ab
B dx
c x b x a
b ax 2
a 2
A
2 2

358
I
a 2
Ab
B | c x b x a | ln
a 2
A
2
|
.
|
\
|
+ + + =
where I is the integral
dx
c x b x a
1
I
2
}
+ +
=
which is known how to be evaluated.
1) dx
1 x 2 x 2
7 x 5
2
}
+
2) dx
3 x 3 x
11 x 2
2
}
+
+

3) dx
2 x 4 x 3
5 x 3
2
}
+
+
4) dx
2 x 3 x 2
7 x 4
2
}
+
+

2
+ is negative ( 0 4 D < = ).
Using the identity
2
9
) 2 x 4 (
4
5
7 x 5 = , we have =
+
}
dx
1 x 2 x 2
7 x 5
2

=
+
=
+

=
} } }
1 x 2 x 2
dx
2
9
dx
1 x 2 x 2
2 x 4
4
5
dx
1 x 2 x 2
2
9
) 2 x 4 (
4
5
2 2 2

1
2
I
2
9
| 1 x 2 x 2 | ln
4
5
+ = , where
}
+
=
1 x 2 x 2
dx
I
2
1
.
Since
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= +
2 2
2
2
1
2
1
x 2 1 x 2 x 2 , under the substitution
u
2
1
2
1
x = , the integral
1
I takes on the form u arctan
1 u
du
I
2
1
=
+
=
}
.
Answer. C ) 1 x 2 arctan(
2
9
| 1 x 2 x 2 | ln
4
5
2
+ +
(2) Hint. The discriminant of the trinomial 3 x 3 x
2
+ is negative ( 0 3 D < = ).
Using the identity 14 ) 3 x 2 ( 11 x 2 + = + , we have =
+
+
}
dx
3 x 3 x
11 x 2
2

=
+
+
+

=
+
+
=
} } }
3 x 3 x
dx
14 dx
3 x 3 x
3 x 2
dx
3 x 3 x
14 ) 3 x 2 (
2 2 2

359
1
2
I 14 | 3 x 3 x | ln + + = , where
}
+
=
3 x 3 x
dx
I
2
1
.
Since
2
2
2
2
3
2
3
x 3 x 3 x
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= + , under the substitution
u
2
3
2
3
x = , the integral
1
3
3 2
) 1 u (
4
3
du
2
3
I
2
1
=
+
=
}
.
Answer. C
3
3 x 2
arctan
3
3 28
| 3 x 3 x | ln
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ +
2
+ is negative ( 0 8 D < = ).
Using the identity 7 ) 4 x 6 (
2
1
5 x 3 + = + , we have =
+
+
}
dx
2 x 4 x 3
5 x 3
2

=
+
+
+
=
+
+
=
} } }
2 x 4 x 3
dx
7 dx
2 x 4 x 3
4 x 6
2
1
dx
2 x 4 x 3
7 ) 4 x 6 (
2
1
2 2 2

1
2
I 7 | 2 x 4 x 3 | ln
2
1
+ + = , where
}
+
=
2 x 4 x 3
dx
I
2
1
.
Since
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= +
2
2
2
3
2
3
2
u
3
2
3
2
x = , the integral
1
2
2
) 1 u (
9
2
3
du
3
2
I
2
1
=
+
=
}
.
Answer. C
2
2 x 3
arctan
2
2 7
| 2 x 4 x 3 | ln
2
1
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ +
2
+ is negative ( 0 7 D < = ).
Using the identity 10 ) 3 x 4 ( 7 x 4 + = + , we have =
+
+
}
dx
2 x 3 x 2
7 x 4
2

=
+
+
+

=
+
+
=
} } }
2 x 3 x 2
dx
10 dx
2 x 3 x 2
3 x 4
dx
2 x 3 x 2
10 ) 3 x 4 (
2 2 2

360
1
2
I 10 | 2 x 3 x 2 | ln + + = , where
}
+
=
2 x 3 x 2
dx
I
2
1
.
Since
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= +
2
2
2
4
7
4
3
u
4
7
4
3
x = , the integral
1
I takes on the form
u arctan
7
7 2
) 1 u (
16
7
2
du
4
7
I
2
1
=
+
=
}
.
Answer. C
7
3 x 4
arctan
7
7 20
| 2 x 3 x 2 | ln
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ +


}
+ +
= dx
) c x b x a (
1
I
n 2
n
, 2 n >
are evaluated using the reduction formula

1 n
1 n 2
n
I
D ) 1 n (
a ) 3 n 2 ( 2
) c x b x a (
b x a 2
D ) 1 n (
1
I

+ +
+
= , 2 n >
if 0 D = . The proof is given in Section 6.5. The reader should ether prove the
reduction formula or apply the general procedure according to the Example 1 of
Section 6.5.
If 0 D = then the trinomial is a complete square:
2 2
) x ( a c x b x a = + +
a 2
b
= . The integral then becomes

} }

=
+ +
= dx
) x (
1
a
1
dx
) c x b x a (
1
I
n 2 n n 2
n

Exercises 24-25 are integrals of the form
}
+ +
n 2
) c x b x a (
dx

361
which is evaluated using the substitution = x u .
1)
}
+
2 2
) 6 x x 2 (
dx
2)
}

3 2
) 1 x 2 x (
dx
3)
}
+
4 2
) 4 x 5 x 6 (
dx

(1) Hint. For 2 n = and 6 c , 1 b , 2 a = = = ( 0 49 D = = ), we have

1
2 2 2
2
I
49
4
6 x x 2
1 x 4
49
1
) 6 x x 2 (
dx
I
+
+
=
+
=
}

where
2 x
3 x 2
ln
7
1
6 x x 2
dx
I
2
1
+
=
+
=
}
(using partial fractions, the roots of the
trinomial being 2 and 2 / 3 ).
Answer. C
2 x
3 x 2
ln
343
4
6 x x 2
1 x 4
49
1
2
+
+

+
+


2
2 2 3 2
3
I
8
3
) 1 x 2 x (
1 x
8
1
) 1 x 2 x (
dx
I

=

=
}

For 2 n = ,
1
2 2 2
2
I
4
1
1 x 2 x
1 x
4
1
) 1 x 2 x (
dx
I

=

=
}

where
2 1 x
2 1 x
ln
2 2
1
1 x 2 x
dx
I
2
1
+

=

=
}
(using partial fractions, the roots of
the trinomial being 2 1 ).
Answer. C
2 1 x
2 1 x
ln
2 64
3
1 x 2 x
1 x
32
3
) 1 x 2 x (
1 x
8
1
2 2 2
+
+

+

+

(3) Hint. We have 4 c , 5 b , 6 a = = = and 0 121 D = = .
For 4 n = , we get
3
3 2 4 2
4
I
121
20
) 4 x 5 x 6 (
5 x 12
363
1
) 4 x 5 x 6 (
dx
I
+
+
=
+
=
}

For 3 n = , we get
362
2
2 2 3 2
3
I
121
18
) 4 x 5 x 6 (
5 x 12
242
1
) 4 x 5 x 6 (
dx
I
+
+
=
+
=
}

For 2 n = , we get
1
2 2 2
2
I
121
12
4 x 5 x 6
5 x 12
121
1
) 4 x 5 x 6 (
dx
I
+
+
=
+
=
}

and finally, taking into account that ) 3 x 3 ( ) 1 x 2 ( 4 x 5 x 6
2
+ = + and using
partial fractions,
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+
4 x 3
3
1 x 2
2
11
1
4 x 5 x 6
1
2
, we obtain
4 x 3
1 x 2
ln
11
1
4 x 5 x 6
dx
I
2
1
+
=
+
=
}
. Therefore
=
|
|
.
|
\
|

+
+

+
+
=
2
2 2 3 2
4
I
121
18
) 4 x 5 x 6 (
5 x 12
242
1
121
20
) 4 x 5 x 6 (
5 x 12
363
1
I
= +
+
+
+
+
+
=
2
2 2 3 2
I
14641
360
) 4 x 5 x 6 (
5 x 12
14641
10
) 4 x 5 x 6 (
5 x 12
363
1

+
+
+
+
+
+
=
2 2 3 2
) 4 x 5 x 6 (
5 x 12
14641
10
) 4 x 5 x 6 (
5 x 12
363
1

|
|
.
|
\
|

+
+
+
1
2
I
121
12
4 x 5 x 6
5 x 12
121
1
14641
360

Answer.
+
+
+
+
+

2 2 3 2
) 4 x 5 x 6 (
5 x 12
14641
10
) 4 x 5 x 6 (
5 x 12
363
1

C
4 x 3
1 x 2
ln
19487171
4320
4 x 5 x 6
5 x 12
1771561
360
2
+
+

+
+

1)
}
+
2 2
) 3 x 2 x 2 (
dx
2)
}
+
3 2
) 2 x x (
dx
3)
}
+
4 2
) 2 x 2 x (
dx


1
2 2 2
2
I
5
1
3 x 2 x 2
1 x 2
10
1
) 3 x 2 x 2 (
dx
I +
+
=
+
=
}

363
where
}
+
=
3 x 2 x 2
dx
I
2
1
. Since
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= +
2
2
2
2
5
2
1
x 2 3 x 2 x 2 , under the
substitution u
2
5
2
1
x = , the integral
1
I takes on the form
u arctan
5
5
) 1 u (
4
5
2
du
2
5
I
2
1
=
+
=
}
, or |
.
|
\
|
=
+
=
}
5
1 x 2
arctan
5
5
3 x 2 x 2
dx
I
2
1
.
Answer. C
5
1 x 2
arctan
25
5
3 x 2 x 2
1 x 2
10
1
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
+
+

(2) Hint. We have 2 c , 1 b , 1 a = = = ( 0 7 D = = ).
For 3 n = we obtain
2
2 2 3 2
3
I
7
3
) 2 x x (
1 x 2
14
1
) 2 x x (
dx
I +
+

=
+
=
}

For 2 n = we obtain

1
2 2 2
2
I
7
2
2 x x
1 x 2
7
1
) 2 x x (
dx
I +
+

=
+
=
}

Since
2
2
2
2
7
2
1
x 2 x x
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= + , under the substitution u
2
7
2
1
x = , the
integral
1
7
7 2
) 1 u (
4
7
du
2
7
I
2
1
=
+
=
}
, or
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
=
}
7
1 x 2
arctan
7
7 2
2 x x
dx
I
2
1
. Therefore
|
.
|
\
|
+
+

+
+

=
1
2 2 2
3
I
7
2
2 x x
1 x 2
7
1
7
3
) 2 x x (
1 x 2
14
1
I
Answer. C
7
1 x 2
arctan
343
7 12
2 x x
1 x 2
49
3
) 2 x x (
1 x 2
14
1
2 2 2
+ |
.
|
\
|
+
+

+
+

(3) Hint. We have 2 c , 2 b , 1 a = = = ( 0 4 D = = ).
For 4 n = we obtain
364
3
3 2 4 2
4
I
6
5
) 2 x 2 x (
1 x
6
1
) 2 x 2 x (
dx
I +
+

=
+
=
}

For 3 n = we obtain
2
2 2
3
I
4
3
) 2 x 2 x (
1 x
4
1
I +
+

=

For 2 n = we obtain
1
2
2
I
2
1
2 x 2 x
1 x
2
1
I +
+

=
Since 1 ) 1 x ( 2 x 2 x
2 2
+ = + , under the substitution 1 x u = , we have
) 1 x arctan( u arctan
1 u
du
2 x 2 x
dx
I
2 2
1
= =
+
=
+
=
} }

Therefore
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+

+
+

=
+
=
} 2
2 2 3 2 4 2
4
I
4
3
) 2 x 2 x (
1 x
4
1
6
5
) 2 x 2 x (
1 x
6
1
) 2 x 2 x (
dx
I

|
.
|
\
|
+
+

+
+

+
+

=
1
2 2 2 3 2
I
2
1
2 x 2 x
1 x
2
1
24
15
) 2 x 2 x (
1 x
24
5
) 2 x 2 x (
1 x
6
1

Answer. +
+

+
+

2 2 3 2
) 2 x 2 x (
1 x
24
5
) 2 x 2 x (
1 x
6
1

C ) 1 x arctan(
48
15
2 x 2 x
1 x
48
15
2
+ +
+

+

The integral
dx
) c x b x a (
B x A
J
n 2
n }
+ +
+
= , 2 n >
using the identity

|
.
|
\
|
+ + = +
a 2
b A
B ) b x a 2 (
a 2
A
B Ax
is transformed into
Exercise 26 are integrals of the form dx
) c x b x a (
B Ax
n 2
}
+ +
+

365
=
+ +
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
=
+ +
+
=
} }
dx
) c x b x a (
a 2
b A
B ) b x a 2 (
a 2
A
dx
) c x b x a (
B x A
J
n 2 n 2
n

=
+ +
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ +
+
=
} }
dx
) c x b x a (
1
a 2
b A
B dx
) c x b x a (
b x a 2
a 2
A
n 2 n 2

or

n
1 n 2
n
I
a 2
b A
B
) c x b x a (
1
) 1 n ( a 2
A
J
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ +
=

, 2 n >
where
dx
) c x b x a (
1
I
n 2
n }
+ +
= , evaluated by the reduction formula used in
Exercises 24 and 25.
1) dx
) 6 x 5 x (
8 x 5
2 2
}
+
+
2) dx
) 1 x 3 x 2 (
4 x 3
3 2
}
+
+
3) dx
) 5 x 2 x 3 (
13 x
3 2
}
+
+

(1) Hint. We have 8 B , 5 A = = and 6 c , 5 b , 1 a = = = ( 0 1 D = = ).
For 2 n = , we obtain
2
2 2 2
2
I
2
41
6 x 5 x
1
2
5
dx
) 6 x 5 x (
8 x 5
J +
+
=
+
+
=
}

For 2 n = , we also get
1
2
2
I 2
6 x 5 x
5 x 2
I
+

= . We then have
2 x
3 x
ln
6 x 5 x
dx
I
2
1
=
+
=
}
. Therefore
|
|
.
|
\
|
+

+
+
=
+
+
=
} 1
2 2 2 2
2
I 2
6 x 5 x
5 x 2
2
41
6 x 5 x
1
2
5
dx
) 6 x 5 x (
8 x 5
J
Answer. C
2 x
3 x
ln 41
6 x 5 x
5 x 2
2
41
6 x 5 x
1
2
5
2 2
+

+

+

For 3 n = we have
3
2 3 2
3
I
4
25
1 x 3 x 2
1
8
3
dx
) 1 x 3 x 2 (
4 x 3
J +
+
=
+
+
=
}

366
For 3 n = we have
2
2 2 3 2
3
I 6
) 1 x 3 x 2 (
3 x 4
2
1
) 1 x 3 x 2 (
dx
I
+

=
+
=
}

For 2 n = we have
1
2 2 2
2
I 2
1 x 3 x 2
3 x 4
) 1 x 3 x 2 (
dx
I
+
=
+
=
}

where
1 x 2
1 x
ln
1 x 3 x 2
dx
I
2
1
=
+
=
}
. Therefore
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+

+
+
=
+
+
=
} 2
2 2 2 3 2
3
I 6
) 1 x 3 x 2 (
3 x 4
2
1
4
25
1 x 3 x 2
1
8
3
dx
) 1 x 3 x 2 (
4 x 3
J
|
|
.
|
\
|

+

+
=
1
2 2 2 2
I 2
1 x 3 x 2
3 x 4
2
75
) 1 x 3 x 2 (
3 x 4
8
25
1 x 3 x 2
1
8
3

Answer.
C
1 x 2
1 x
ln 75
1 x 3 x 2
3 x 4
2
75
) 1 x 3 x 2 (
3 x 4
8
25
1 x 3 x 2
1
8
3
2 2 2 2
+
+
+
+
+

+

For 3 n = we have
3
2 3 2
3
I
3
40
5 x 2 x 3
1
12
1
dx
) 5 x 2 x 3 (
13 x
J +
+
=
+
+
=
}

For 3 n = we have
2
2 2 3 2
3
I
56
9
) 5 x 2 x 3 (
1 x 3
56
1
) 5 x 2 x 3 (
dx
I +
+

=
+
=
}

For 2 n = we have
1
2 2 2
2
I
28
3
5 x 2 x 3
1 x 3
28
1
) 5 x 2 x 3 (
dx
I +
+

=
+
=
}

Since
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= +
2
2
2
3
14
3
1
u
3
14
3
1
x = , we obtain u arctan
14
14
) 1 u (
9
14
3
du
3
14
I
2
1
=
+
=
}
or
|
.
|
\
|
=
14
1 x 3
arctan
14
14
I
1
. Therefore
+
+
=
+
+
=
}
5 x 2 x 3
1
12
1
dx
) 5 x 2 x 3 (
13 x
J
2 3 2
3

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+

+
2
2 2
I
56
9
) 5 x 2 x 3 (
1 x 3
56
1
3
40

367
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+

+
+

+
+
=
1
2 2 2 2
I
28
3
5 x 2 x 3
1 x 3
28
1
7
15
) 5 x 2 x 3 (
1 x 3
21
5
5 x 2 x 3
1
12
1

Answer.
+
+

+
+

+
+

5 x 2 x 3
1 x 3
420
15
) 5 x 2 x 3 (
1 x 3
21
5
5 x 2 x 3
1
12
1
2 2 2 2

|
.
|
\
|
+
14
1 x 3
arctan
2744
14 45

The theory of evaluating this type of integrals was developed in 6.7 and 6.8
respectively.
For integrals of the form
}
+
= dx
) a x (
1
I
n 2 2
n
we use the reduction formula
1 n 2 2 2
1 n
2
n
) a x (
x
a ) 1 n ( 2
1
I
a ) 1 n ( 2
3 n 2
I

+
+
=
}
+
+
= dx
) a x (
B Ax
J
n 2 2
n
n
1 n 2 2 n 2 2
n
I B
) a x (
1
) 1 n ( 2
A
dx
) a x (
B Ax
J +
+
=
+
+
=

}

1)
}
+
2 2
) 25 x (
dx
2)
}
+
3 2
) 36 x (
dx

3)
}
+
4 2
) 24 x (
dx
4) dx
) 8 x (
3 x 5
3 2
}
+
+

(1) Hint. For 2 n = and 25 a
2
= ( 0 a > ) we find

25 x
x
50
1
I
50
1
) 25 x (
dx
I
2
1
2 2
2
+
+ =
+
=
}

Exercise 27 are integrals of the form dx
) a x (
1
n 2 2
}
+
and dx
) a x (
B Ax
n 2 2
}
+
+

368
We also have

|
.
|
\
|
=
+
=
}
5
x
arctan
5
1
25 x
dx
I
2
1

Answer. C
25 x
x
50
1
5
x
arctan
250
1
2
+
+
+
|
.
|
\
|

2
= ( 0 a > ) we find

2 2
2
3 2
3
) 36 x (
x
144
1
I
48
1
) 36 x (
dx
I
+
+ =
+
=
}

For 3 n = we find

36 x
x
72
1
I
72
1
) 36 x (
dx
I
2
1
2 2
2
+
+ =
+
=
}

We also have

|
.
|
\
|
=
+
=
}
6
x
arctan
6
1
36 x
dx
I
2
1

Therefore
2 2 2
1
3 2
3
) 36 x (
x
144
1
36 x
x
72
1
I
72
1
48
1
) 36 x (
dx
I
+
+ |
.
|
\
|
+
+ =
+
=
}

Answer. C
) 36 x (
x
144
1
36 x
x
3456
1
6
x
arctan
20736
1
2 2 2
+
+
+
+
+
|
.
|
\
|

2
= ( 0 a > ) we find
3 2
3
4 2
4
) 24 x (
x
144
1
I
144
5
) 24 x (
dx
I
+
+ =
+
=
}

For 3 n = we find
2 2
2
3 2
3
) 24 x (
x
96
1
I
32
1
) 24 x (
dx
I
+
+ =
+
=
}

For 2 n = we find
24 x
x
48
1
I
48
1
) 24 x (
dx
I
2
1
2 2
2
+
+ =
+
=
}

We also have |
.
|
\
|
=
+
=
}
6 2
x
arctan
6 2
1
24 x
dx
I
2
1
. Therefore
=
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ =
+
=
}
3 2 2 2
2
4 2
4
) 24 x (
x
144
1
) 24 x (
x
96
1
I
32
1
144
5
) 24 x (
dx
I

369
3 2 2 2 2
1
) 24 x (
x
144
1
) 24 x (
x
13824
5
24 x
x
48
1
I
48
1
4608
5
+
+
+
+ |
.
|
\
|
+
+ =
Answer. +
+
+ |
.
|
\
|
24 x
x
221184
5
6 2
x
arctan
6 442368
5
2

C
) 24 x (
x
144
1
) 24 x (
x
13824
5
3 2 2 2
+
+
+
+
+
(4) Hint. For 3 n = , 3 B , 5 A = = and 8 a
2
= ( 0 a > ) we find
3
2 2 3 2
3
I 3
) 8 x (
1
4
5
dx
) 8 x (
3 x 5
J +
+
=
+
+
=
}

For 3 n = we find

2 2
2
3 2
3
) 8 x (
x
32
1
I
32
3
) 8 x (
dx
I
+
+ =
+
=
}

For 2 n = we find

8 x
x
16
1
I
16
1
) 8 x (
dx
I
2
1
2 2
2
+
+ =
+
=
}

We also have |
.
|
\
|
=
+
=
}
2 2
x
arctan
2 2
1
8 x
dx
I
2
1
. Therefore
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ +
+
=
+
+
=
}
2 2
2
2 2 3 2
3
) 8 x (
x
32
1
I
32
3
3
) 8 x (
1
4
5
dx
) 8 x (
3 x 5
J
2 2 2
1
2 2
) 8 x (
x
32
3
8 x
x
16
1
I
16
1
32
9
) 8 x (
1
4
5
+
+ |
.
|
\
|
+
+ +
+
=
Answer.
2 2 2 2 2
) 8 x (
x
32
3
8 x
x
512
9
2 2
x
arctan
2 1024
9
) 8 x (
1
4
5
+
+
+
+ |
.
|
\
|
+
+

1) dx
) 3 x 2 )( 1 x ( x
13 x 6
2
}
+ +

2) dx
) 1 x )( 2 x )( 2 x 3 (
5 x x
2
}
+
+

Exercises 28 and 29 are integrals of the form dx
) x ( Q
) x ( P
}
, where
) x ( Q and ) x ( P are integral polynomials with ) x ( Q deg ) x ( P deg < .
The denominator ) x ( Q has distinct real roots.
370
3) dx
x 6 x 5 x
10 x 4
2 3
}
+ +
+
4) dx
6 x 11 x 6 x
8 x 3 x 5
2 3
2
}
+
+

(1) Hint. Using partial fractions,
3 x 2
C
1 x
B
x
A
) 3 x 2 )( 1 x ( x
13 x 6
2
+
+
+
+ =
+ +

,
we find
3
13
A = , 7 B= and
3
2
C = . Therefore the integral becomes
dx
3 x 2
2
3
1
1 x
dx
7
x
dx
3
13
} } }
+
+
+
+ .
3
1
| 1 x | ln 7 | x | ln
3
13
+ + + + +
1 x
C
2 x
B
2 x 3
A
) 1 x )( 2 x )( 2 x 3 (
5 x x
2
+
+
+
=
+
+

we find
8
43
A = ,
24
11
B = and
3
5
C = . Therefore the integral is equal to the sum
} } }

+
+
+
1 x
dx
3
5
2 x
dx
24
11
2 x 3
dx
8
43
.
3
5
| 2 x | ln
24
11
| 2 x 3 | ln
24
43
+ + + +
(3) Hint. Since ) 3 x )( 2 x ( x x 6 x 5 x
2 3
+ + = + + , using partial fractions
3 x
C
2 x
B
x
A
x 6 x 5 x
10 x 4
2 3
+
+
+
+ =
+ +
+
, we find
3
5
A = , 1 B = ,
3
2
C = .
Therefore the integral takes on the form of a sum of the integrals
} } }
+
3 x
dx
3
2
2 x
dx
x
dx
3
5
. Answer. C | 3 x | ln
3
2
| 2 x | ln | x | ln
3
5
+ + +
(4) Hint. Since ) 3 x )( 2 x )( 1 x ( 6 x 11 x 6 x
2 3
= + , using partial fractions
3 x
C
2 x
B
1 x
A
6 x 11 x 6 x
8 x 3 x 5
2 3
2
=
+
+
, we find 5 A = , 22 B = , 22 C = .
Therefore the integral takes on the form of a sum of the integrals
371
} } }

+
3 x
dx
22
2 x
dx
22
1 x
dx
5 .
Answer. C | 3 x | ln 22 | 2 x | ln 22 | 1 x | ln 5 + +
1) dx
) 2 x 3 x ( x
5 x 3
2
}
+
+
2) dx
) 1 x 3 x 2 ( ) 3 x (
x 7 x 4
2
2
}
+ +
+

3) dx
) 4 x 5 x ( ) 2 x (
3 x 13 x 2
2
2
}
+ +
+
4) dx
) 2 x 7 x 6 ( ) 1 x 3 (
12 x x
2
2
}
+ +
+

(1) Hint. Since ) 2 x )( 1 x ( 2 x 3 x
2
2 x
C
1 x
B
x
A
) 2 x 3 x ( x
5 x 3
2

+
+ =
+
+
, we find
2
5
A = , 8 B = ,
2
11
C = .
Therefore the integral takes on the form
} } }

+
2 x
dx
2
11
1 x
dx
8
x
dx
2
5

2
11
| 1 x | ln 8 | x | ln
2
5
+ +
(2) Hint. Since ) 1 x )( 1 x 2 ( 1 x 3 x 2
2
1 x
C
1 x 2
B
3 x
A
) 1 x 3 x 2 ( ) 3 x (
x 7 x 4
2
2
+
+
=
+ +
+
, we find
28
55
A = ,
7
18
B = ,
4
11
C = .
Therefore the integral takes on the form
} } }

+
+ 1 x
dx
4
11
1 x 2
dx 2
7
9
3 x
dx
28
15

4
11
| 1 x 2 | ln
7
9
| 3 x | ln
28
15
+ + +
(3) Hint. Since ) 4 x )( 1 x ( 4 x 5 x
2
372
4 x
C
1 x
B
2 x
A
) 4 x 5 x ( ) 2 x (
3 x 13 x 2
2
2
+
+
=
+ +
+
, we find
18
13
A = ,
9
14
B = ,
18
113
C= . Therefore the integral takes on the form
} } }

+
4 x
dx
18
113
1 x
dx
9
14
2 x
dx
18
13
.
18
113
| 1 x | ln
9
14
| 2 x | ln
18
13
+ + +
(4) Hint. Since ) 2 x 3 )( 1 x 2 ( 2 x 7 x 6
2
2 x 3
C
1 x 2
B
1 x 3
A
) 2 x 7 x 6 ( ) 1 x 3 (
12 x x
2
2
+
+
= +
+ +
+
, we find
45
112
A = ,
5
47
B = ,
9
106
C= . Therefore the integral takes on the form
} } }

+
+ 2 x 3
dx
9
106
1 x 2
dx
5
47
1 x 3
dx
45
112
.
27
106
| 1 x 2 | ln
10
47
| 1 x 3 | ln
135
112
+ + +

1) dx
x 2 x
1 x 4 x 2
2 3
2
}

+
2) dx
x x
4 x 7 x 6
2 4
2 3
}

+

3) dx
) 1 x (
2 x 3 x 13 x 2
2 2
2 3
}

+ +
4) dx
) 1 x 2 ( ) 1 x 3 (
6 x 2 x 5
3 2
2
}
+
+

) x ( Q
) x ( P
}
, where
The denominator ) x ( Q has real roots, some of them multiple.
373
(1) Hint. We have ) 2 x ( x x 2 x
2 2 3
= . We thus have the partial fraction
decomposition
2 x
C
x
B
x
A
x 2 x
1 x 4 x 2
2 2 3
2
+ + =
+
. We find
4
7
A = ,
2
1
B = ,
4
15
C =
} } }

+ +
2 x
dx
4
15
x
dx
2
1
x
dx
4
7
2

4
15
x 2
1
| x | ln
4
7
+ +
(2) Hint. We have ) 1 x )( 1 x ( x x x
2 2 4
+ = . We thus have the partial fraction
decomposition
1 x
D
1 x
C
x
B
x
A
x x
4 x 7 x 6
2 2 4
2 3
+
+
+ + =
+
. We find
0 A = , 4 B = ,
2
3
C = ,
2
9
D = . Therefore the integral becomes
} } }
+
+
+
1 x
dx
2
9
1 x
dx
2
3
x
dx
4
2

2
9
| 1 x | ln
2
3
x
4
+ + + +
(3) Hint. We have
2 2 2 2
) 1 x ( ) 1 x ( ) 1 x ( + = . We thus have the partial fraction
decomposition
2 2 2 2
2 3
) 1 x (
D
1 x
C
) 1 x (
B
1 x
A
) 1 x (
2 x 3 x 13 x 2
+
+
+
+
+ +
.
We find
4
15
A = ,
2
7
B = ,
4
7
C = , 4 D= . Therefore the integral becomes
} } } }
+
+
+
2 2
) 1 x (
dx
4
1 x
dx
4
7
) 1 x (
dx
2
7
1 x
dx
4
15

Answer. C
1 x
4
| 1 x | ln
4
7
1 x
1
2
7
| 1 x | ln
4
15
+
+
+

(4) Hint. We have the partial fraction decomposition
3 2 2 3 2
2
) 1 x 2 (
E
) 1 x 2 (
D
1 x 2
C
) 1 x 3 (
B
1 x 3
A
) 1 x 2 ( ) 1 x 3 (
6 x 2 x 5
+
+
+
+
=
+
+
.
374
We find
125
186
A = ,
25
39
B = ,
125
124
C= ,
25
24
D = , 1 E = . Therefore the integral
becomes
+
+
+
} } } }
2 2
) 1 x 2 (
dx
25
24
1 x 2
dx
125
124
) 1 x 3 (
dx
25
39
1 x 3
dx
125
186

}

+
3
) 1 x 2 (
dx

Answer.
C
) 1 x 2 (
1
4
1
1 x 2
1
25
12
| 1 x 2 | ln
125
62
1 x 3
1
25
13
| 1 x 3 | ln
125
62
2
+
+ +
+
+ +
1) dx
) 3 x ( ) 1 x (
4 x x
3
2 3
}
+
+
2) dx
) 2 x )( 1 x ( x
4 x x 8 x 7
3 2
2 3 4
}
+
+

3) dx
) x 2 x ( ) 1 x 2 (
9 x 3 x 7 x
3 4 2
2 3
}

+
4) dx
) 3 x 2 ( ) 1 x 2 ( 8
119 x 46 x 36 x 72
2 2
2 3
}
+
+


3 x
1
32
11
) 1 x (
1
2
1
) 1 x (
1
8
11
1 x
1
32
21
) 3 x ( ) 1 x (
4 x x
3 2 3
2 3
+
+

+

+
=
+
+

the integral takes on the form

32
11
) 1 x (
1
4
1
1 x
1
8
11
| 1 x | ln
32
21
2
+ +
+
+
+
+ +
(2) Hint. Using partial fractions, =
+
+
3 2
2 3 4
) 2 x ( ) 1 x ( x
4 x x 8 x 7

3 2 2
) 2 x (
1
3
44
) 2 x (
1
9
67
2 x
1
108
43
1 x
1
27
4
x
1
2
1
x
1
4
1
+

+
+
+
+
+ =

Answer.
C
) 2 x (
1
3
22
2 x
1
9
67
| 2 x | ln
108
43
| 1 x | ln
27
4
x
1
2
1
| x | ln
4
1
2
+
+
+
+
+ +
3 3 4
= , using partial fractions
375

=

+
=

+
) 2 x ( x ) 1 x 2 (
9 x 3 x 7 x
) x 2 x ( ) 1 x 2 (
9 x 3 x 7 x
3 2
2 3
3 4 2
2 3

2 3 2
) 1 x 2 (
1
3
94
1 x 2
1
9
974
x
1
2
9
x
1
4
75
x
1
8
431
2 x
1
72
17
=

Answer.
C
1 x 2
1
3
47
| 1 x 2 | ln
9
487
x
1
4
9
x
1
4
75
| x | ln
8
431
| 2 x | ln
72
17
2
+
+ + + +
(4) Hint. Using partial fractions, =
+
+
2 2
2 3
) 3 x 2 ( ) 1 x 2 ( 8
119 x 46 x 36 x 72

2 2
) 3 x 2 (
4
3 x 2
1
2
1
) 1 x 2 (
1
4
3
1 x 2
1
8
5
+
+
+
=

16
5
1 x 2
1
8
3
| 3 x 2 | ln
4
1
3 x 2
2
+ +
+ + +
+

1) dx
) 2 x )( 1 x (
4 x x
2 2
2
}
+ +
+
2) dx
) 1 x x ( ) 1 x (
8 x 7 x 6
2 2
2
}
+ +
+

3) dx
) 1 x ( ) 3 x 2 (
7 x 2 x x
2 2
2 3
}
+ +
+
4) dx
) 9 x 2 ( ) 1 x (
2 x x 6 x 5
2 2
2 3
}
+ +
+

) x ( Q
) x ( P
}
, where
The denominator ) x ( Q has complex, non-repeated roots.
376
1 x
3 x
2 x
2 x
) 2 x )( 1 x (
4 x x
2 2 2 2
2
+
=
+ +
+

Answer. C x arctan 3 ) 1 x ln(
2
1
2
x
arctan 2 ) 2 x ln(
2
1
2 2
+ + + |
.
|
\
|
+
1 x x
1 x 2
1 x
7 x 2
) 1 x x )( 1 x (
8 x 7 x 6
2 2 2 2
2
+
+
+
=
+ +
+

Answer. C ) 1 x x ln( x arctan 7 ) 1 x ln(
2 2
+ + + +
3 x 2
11 x
1 x
6 x
) 3 x 2 )( 1 x (
7 x 2 x x
2 2 2 2
2 3
+
=
+ +
+

Answer. C x
3
6
arctan
6
6 11
) 3 x 2 ln(
4
1
x arctan 6 ) 1 x ln(
2
1
2 2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + +
1 x
1 x
7
4
9 x 2
50 x 43
7
1
) 9 x 2 )( 1 x (
2 x x 6 x 5
2 2 2 2
2 3
+
=
+ +
+

Answer.
C x
3
2
arctan
21
2 25
) 9 x 2 ln(
28
43
x arctan
7
4
) 1 x ln(
7
2
2 2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + + +
1) dx
) 2 x 2 x ( ) 2 x (
3 x 5 x 2
2 2
2 3
}
+ +
+
2) dx
) 1 x 3 ( ) 3 x 3 x (
1 x 4 x 2 x 5
2 2
2 3
}
+ +
+ +

3) dx
) 4 x )( 1 x 2 (
8 x 6 x 5
2 2
2
}
+ +
+
4) dx
) x 2 x 3 x 2 ( ) 5 x 3 (
1 x 3 x 11
2 3 2
2
}
+ +
+

2 x 2 x
2 x 5
4
1
2 x
8 x 13
4
1
) 2 x 2 x )( 2 x (
3 x 5 x 2
2 2 2 2
2 3
+
+

+
+
=
+ +
+

Answer.
C
2
x
arctan 2 ) 2 x ln(
8
13
) 1 x arctan(
4
7
) 2 x 2 x ln(
8
5
2 2
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ + + +
377
1 x 3
59 x 127
91
1
3 x 3 x
86 x 194
91
1
) 3 x 3 x )( 1 x 3 (
1 x 4 x 2 x 5
2 2 2 2
2 3
+

+

=
+ +
+ +

Answer. + + + + + ) 3 x 3 x ln(
91
97
) x 3 arctan(
273
3 59
) 1 x 3 ln(
546
127
2 2

C
3
3 x 2
arctan
273
3 410
+ |
.
|
\
|
+
1 x 2
11 x 12
7
1
4 x
2 x
7
6
) 4 x )( 1 x 2 (
8 x 6 x 5
2 2 2 2
2
+

+
+
=
+ +
+

Answer. C
2
x
arctan
7
6
) 4 x ln(
7
3
) x 2 arctan(
14
2 11
) 1 x 2 ln(
7
3
2 2
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ + + + +
5 x 3
2790 x 291
755
1
2 x 3 x 2
537 x 138
302
1
x
1
10
1
) x 2 x 3 x 2 )( 5 x 3 (
1 x 3 x 11
2 2 2 3 2
2
+
+

+
+
+ =
+ +
+

Answer.
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ + ) 5 x 3 ln(
1510
97
7
3 x 4
arctan
302
7 183
) 2 x 3 x 2 ln(
604
69
2 2

C | x | ln
10
1
x
5
15
arctan
755
15 186
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

) x ( Q
) x ( P
}
, where
The denominator ) x ( Q has complex repeated roots.
378

1) dx
) 1 x (
2 x x
2 2
2
}
+
+
2) dx
) 1 x x (
1 x 3 x 2
2 2
2
}
+
+

3) dx
) 1 x ( ) 1 x 2 (
1 x 2 x x
2 2 2
2 3
}
+ +
+
4) dx
) 2 x ( ) 1 x (
1 x x 2 x x
3 2
2 3 4
}
+
+ +

(1) Hint. Perform the partial fraction decomposition

2 2 2 2 2
2
) 1 x (
D x C
1 x
B x A
) 1 x (
2 x x
+
+
+
+
+
=
+
+

and determine the coefficients A, B, C and D. You will find
2 2 2 2 2
2
) 1 x (
1 x
1 x
1
) 1 x (
2 x x
+
+
=
+
+

Answer. C x arctan
2
3
) 1 x ( 2
1 x
2
+ +
+
+

2 2 2 2 2
2
) 1 x x (
1 x
1 x x
2
) 1 x x (
1 x 3 x 2
+
+
+
=
+
+

Answer. C
3
1 x 2
arctan
3
3 2
1 x x
1 x
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
+
+

1 x
x
) 1 x 2 (
1 x 3
1 x 2
x 2
) 1 x ( ) 1 x 2 (
1 x 2 x x
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 3
+
+
+
+
+
=
+ +
+

Answer. C ) x 2 arctan(
4
2
) 1 x 2 ( 4
3 x 2
1 x 2
1 x
ln
2
1
2 2
2
+
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+


) 2 x ( 25
3
) 1 x ( 25
6 x 3
) 1 x ( 5
9 x 2
) 1 x (
2
) 2 x ( ) 1 x (
1 x x 2 x x
2 2 2 3 2 3 2
2 3 4
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
=
+
+ +

379
Answer.
C | 2 x | ln
25
3
) 1 x ln(
50
3
x arctan
100
9
) 1 x ( 2
x
) 1 x ( 20
4 x 3
2
2 2 2
+ + +
+

1) dx
) 2 x 2 x ( ) 1 x (
) 5 x 3 x 3 x ( 25
2 3 2
2 3 5
}
+ +
+ +

2) dx
) 2 x 3 ( ) 3 x 3 x (
74 x 228 x 129 x 614 x 123 x 399
2 2 2
2 3 4 5
}
+ +
+ +

3) dx
) x 2 x ( ) 1 x x (
4 x 16 x 33 x 27 x 15 x x 2
2 3 2 2
2 3 4 5 6
}
+ +
+ + +

4) dx
) 1 x ( x
1 x 3 x 20 x 14 x 20 x 19 x 4 x 7
3 2 2
2 3 4 5 6 7
}
+
+ + +

(1) Hint. Using partial fractions, we have
3 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2
2 3 5
) 1 x (
30 x 40
) 1 x (
103 x 41
) 1 x ( 5
11 x 58
) 2 x 2 x ( 5
127 x 58
) 2 x 2 x ( ) 1 x (
) 5 x 3 x 3 x ( 25
+
+
+
+
+
+
=
+ +
+ +

Answer. + +
+
+
) 1 x arctan(
5
69
x arctan
20
849
) 1 x ( 2
) 4 x 3 ( 5
) 1 x ( 4
82 x 161
2 2 2

C
1 x
2 x 2 x
ln
5
29
2
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
=
+ +
+ +
2 2 2
2 3 4 5
) 2 x 3 ( ) 3 x 3 x (
74 x 228 x 129 x 614 x 123 x 399

2 2 2 2
) 2 x 3 (
8 x 12
2 x 3
5 x 7
3 x 3 x
5 x 42
+
+
+
+

=
Answer. + + +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
+
+
) 3 x 3 x ln( 21 x
2
6
arctan
6
6 7
) 2 x 3 ln(
6
7
2 x 3
2 x 2
2 2
2

C
3
3 x 2
arctan
3
3 116
+ |
.
|
\
|
+
380
=
+ +
+ + +
) x 2 x ( ) 1 x x (
4 x 16 x 33 x 27 x 15 x x 2
2 3 2 2
2 3 4 5 6

2 x
4
x
5
x
2
) 1 x x (
1 x
1 x x
2 x 3
2 2 2 2
+
+ +
+
+
+
=
Answer. + |
.
|
\
|
+ + +
+
+
3
1 x 2
arctan
9
3 23
) 1 x x ln(
2
3
) 1 x x ( 3
1 x
2
2

C | x | ln 5
x
2
| 2 x | ln 4 + + +
=
+
+ + +
3 2 2
2 3 4 5 6 7
) 1 x ( x
1 x 3 x 20 x 14 x 20 x 19 x 4 x 7

x
3
x
1
) 1 x (
3 x
) 1 x (
11 x 2
1 x
3 x 4
2 3 2 2 2 2
+
+
+
+
+
=
Answer.
C | x | ln 3
x
1
x arctan
8
77
) 1 x ln( 2
) 1 x ( 4
1 x 3
) 1 x ( 8
8 x 53
2
2 2 2
+ + + + +
+
+
+

In this case we perform the Euclidean division first.
1) dx
1 x
2 x 3 x 7 x 5
2
2 3
}
+
+
2) dx
2 x 2 x
5 x x 2 x 8
2
2 3
}
+
+

3) dx
x 2 x 6 x 4
5 x x 2 x 8
2 3
2 3
}
+
+
4) dx
1 x 3 x 3 x 3 x 2
4 x 3 x x 4 x 12
2 3 4
2 3 4
}
+ +
+

(1) Hint. Performing Euclidean division, we find
) x ( Q
) x ( P
}
, where
) x ( Q and ) x ( P are integral polynomials with ) x ( Q deg ) x ( P deg > .
381

1 x
5 x 2
7 x 5
1 x
2 x 3 x 7 x 5
2 2
2 3
+
=
+
+

Answer. C x arctan 5 ) 1 x ln( x 7
2
x 5
2
2
+ + +
(2) Hint. We perform the Euclidean division and we find
2 x 2 x
33 x 13
14 x 8
2 x 2 x
5 x x 2 x 8
2 2
2 3
+

+ + =
+
+

Answer. C ) 1 x arctan( 20 ) 2 x 2 x ln(
2
13
x 14 x 4
2 2
+ + + +
x 2 x 6 x 4
5 x 3 x 10
2
x 2 x 6 x 4
5 x x 2 x 8
2 3
2
2 3
2 3
+

+ =
+
+

We also have ) 1 x 2 )( 1 x ( x 2 x 2 x 6 x 4
2 3
= + . Using partial fractions, we get
1 x 2
8
x 2
5
1 x
1
x 2 x 6 x 4
5 x 3 x 10
2 3
2
=
+

.
Answer. C | 1 x 2 | ln 4 | x | ln
2
5
| 1 x | ln x 2 + + +
1 x 3 x 3 x 3 x 2
10 x 21 x 19 x 14
6
1 x 3 x 3 x 3 x 2
4 x 3 x x 4 x 12
2 3 4
2 3
2 3 4
2 3 4
+ +
+
+ =
+ +
+

We also have ) 1 x ( ) 1 x 2 ( ) 1 x ( 1 x 3 x 3 x 3 x 2
2 2 3 4
+ = + + . Using partial
fractions, we have
1 x 2
4
1 x
3
1 x
3 x 2
1 x 3 x 3 x 3 x 2
10 x 21 x 19 x 14
2 2 3 4
2 3
+
+
=
+ +
+

Answer. C | 1 x 2 | ln 2 | 1 x | ln 3 x arctan 3 ) 1 x ln( x 6
2
+ + + + +
382
1) dx
x x x
1 x x 3 x 4 x 7 x 8
2 3
2 3 4 5
}
+
+ + +

2) dx
x 2 x 2 x
7 x 3 x 5 x 2 x 3 x 9 x 12
2 3
2 3 4 5 6
}
+
+ + +

3) dx
2 x x 2 x
9 x 3 x x 6 x 8 x 9
2 3
2 3 4 5
}
+ + +
+ +

4) dx
1 x x 2 x x
7 x 5 x 2 x 3 x x 2 x 7
2 3 4
2 3 4 5 6
}
+ +
+ + +

x x x
1 x 4 x 7
3 x x 8
x x x
1 x x 3 x 4 x 7 x 8
2 3
2
2
2 3
2 3 4 5
+

+ =
+
+ + +

Using partial fractions, we have
1 x x
5 x 8
x
1
x x x
1 x 4 x 7
2 2 3
2
+
=
+

Answer.
C
3
1 x 2
arctan
3
3 2
| 1 x x | ln 4 | x | ln x 3
2
x
3
x 8
2
2 3
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ + + +
=
+
+ + +
x 2 x 2 x
7 x 3 x 5 x 2 x 3 x 9 x 12
2 3
2 3 4 5 6

x 2 x 2 x
7 x 25 x 41
14 x 9 x 15 x 12
2 3
2
2 3
+

+ + =
) 2 x 2 x ( 2
64 x 89
x 2
7
x 2 x 2 x
7 x 25 x 41
2 2 3
2
+
=
+

Answer.
+ + + + ) 2 x 2 x ln(
4
89
| x | ln
2
7
x 14
2
x 9
x 5 x 3
2
2
3 4

C ) 1 x arctan(
2
25
+
383
=
+ + +
+ +
2 x x 2 x
9 x 3 x x 6 x 8 x 9
2 3
2 3 4 5

2 x x 2 x
107 x 6 x 91
49 x 26 x 9
2 3
2
2
+ + +
+
+ =
) 2 x ( 5
483
) 1 x ( 5
26 x 28
2 x x 2 x
107 x 6 x 91
2 2 3
2
+
=
+ + +
+

Answer.
C x arctan
5
26
) 1 x ln(
4
15
| 2 x | ln
5
483
x 49 x 13 x 3
2 2 3
+ + + + +
=
+ +
+ + +
1 x x 2 x x
7 x 5 x 2 x 3 x x 2 x 7
2 3 4
2 3 4 5 6

1 x x 2 x x
15 x 8 x 12 x 14
8 x 5 x 7
2 3 4
2 3
2
+ +
+
+ =
Using partial fractions we have
1 x x
21 x 17
1 x
6 x 3
1 x x 2 x x
15 x 8 x 12 x 14
2 2 2 3 4
2 3
+
=
+ +
+

Answer.
+ + + + + ) 1 x x ln(
2
17
x arctan 6 ) 1 x ln(
2
3
x 8
2
x 5
3
x 7
2 2
2 3

C
3
1 x 2
arctan
3
3 25
+ |
.
|
\
|
+

Exercises 38-40 are integrals of the form dx
) x ( Q
) x ( P
}
, where
) x ( Q and ) x ( P are integral polynomials. The evaluation will be making
use of the Ostrogradsky Method.
384

1) dx
) 7 x 3 x (
4 x 6 x 3
3 2
2
}
+
+
2) dx
) 3 x x (
5 x 6
3 2
}
+
+

3) dx
) 1 x x (
7 x 5 x
2 2
5 6
}
+
+ +
4) dx
) 1 x x ( x
4 x 8 x 7 x 5
4 2 3
2 4 6
}
+
+ +

(1) Hint. Using Ostrogradsky, we have
dx
7 x 3 x
b x a
) 7 x 3 x (
D x C x B Ax
dx
) 7 x 3 x (
4 x 6 x 3
2 2 2
2 3
3 2
2
} }
+
+
+
+
+ + +
=
+
+

Answer. C
19
3 x 2
arctan
6859
19 78
) 7 x 3 x ( 722
648 x 422 x 351 x 78
2 2
2 3
+ |
.
|
\
|
+
+
+

dx
3 x x
b x a
) 3 x x (
D x C x B Ax
dx
) 3 x x (
5 x 6
2 2 2
2 3
3 2
} }
+
+
+
+
+ + +
=
+
+

Answer.
C
11
1 x 2
arctan
1331
11 96
) 3 x x ( 242
595 x 512 x 144 x 96
2 2
2 3
+ |
.
|
\
|
+
+
+

(3) Hint. Performing the Euclidean division (although this is not necessary using
Ostrogradskys scheme), we get

2 2
2 3
2
2 2
5 6
) 1 x x (
4 x 15 x 20 x 3
11 x 7 x
) 1 x x (
7 x 5 x
+
+
+ + + =
+
+ +

Using Ostrogradsky, we have
dx
1 x x
B x A
1 x x
b x a
dx
) 1 x x (
4 x 15 x 20 x 3
2 2 2 2
2 3
} }
+
+
+
+
+
=
+
+

The Exercises 38-40 are solved using the method of Example 3, 6.10.
385
Answer.
+ |
.
|
\
|
+
+ + +
3
1 x 2
arctan
3
3 17
) 1 x x ( 6
6 x 108 x 45 x 47 x 19 x 2
2
2 3 4 5

C ) 1 x x ln(
2
3
2
+ + +
=
+
+ +
}
dx
) 1 x x ( x
4 x 8 x 7 x 5
4 2 3
2 4 6

}
+
+ +
+
+
+ + + + + + +
=
) 1 x x ( x
c x b x a
) 1 x x ( x
H x G x F x E x D x C x B x A
2
2
3 2 2
2 3 4 5 6 7

Answer.
+
+
+ + + +
3 2 2
2 3 4 5 6 7
) 1 x x ( x 54
108 x 540 x 2385 x 6649 x 8860 x 8631 x 4667 x 1694

C
3
1 x 2
arctan
81
3 1262
) 1 x x ln( 8 | x | ln 16
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ +
1) dx
) 1 x ( x
7 x 6 x 3 x x 2
2 2 4
2 5 6
}
+
+ +
2) dx
) 1 x 3 ( x
3 x 5 x 4 x x
3 2 2
2 3 4
}
+
+ +

3) dx
) 1 x ( x
3 x x 4
3 3 5
2
}
+
+
4) dx
x 9 x 6 x
5 x 2 x
3 4 5
2
}
+
+

+
+
+ + + +
=
+
+ +
}
) 1 x ( x
E x D x C x B x A
dx
) 1 x ( x
7 x 6 x 3 x x 2
2 3
2 3 4
2 2 4
2 5 6

dx
) 1 x ( x
c x b x a
2
2
}
+
+ +
+
Answer.
386
C x arctan 14 ) 1 x ln( 6 | x | ln 12
) 1 x ( x 6
14 x 18 x 52 x 39 x 72
2
2 3
2 3 4
+ + + +
+
+ + +

+
+
+ + + +
=
+
+ +
}
2 2
2 3 4
3 2 2
2 3 4
) 1 x 3 ( x
E Dx Cx Bx Ax
dx
) 1 x 3 ( x
3 x 5 x 4 x x

dx
) 1 x 3 ( x
c x b x a
2
2
}
+
+ +
+
Answer.
C ) x 3 arctan(
9
3 46
x
1 x 3
ln
2
5
) 1 x 3 ( x 6
18 x 22 x 154 x 45 x 276
2
2
2 2
2 3 4
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
+ + + +

+
+
=
+
+
}
2 3 4
9
3 3 5
2
) 1 x ( x
) x ( P
dx
) 1 x ( x
3 x x 4

dx
) 1 x x )( 1 x ( x
d x c x b x a
2
2 3
}
+ +
+ + +
+
where ) x ( P
9
is a ninth-degree polynomial. Differentiating the previous identity
and equating the coefficients of the similar powers of x, we get
+ + + + =
4 5 6 7 8 9
9
x
2
3
x
9
64
x
12
245
x x
9
40
x
3
35
) x ( P

4
3
x
3
1
x 2 x
2
15
2 3
+ +
and 0 a = ,
3
35
b = ,
9
80
c = , 3 d = . We then calculate the integral
+ + + =
+ +
+
}
| 1 x | ln
27
212
) 1 x x ln(
54
131
dx
) 1 x x )( 1 x ( x
3 x
9
80
x
3
35
2
2
2

3
1 x 2
arctan
27
3 25
| x | ln 3

+ +
387
using partial fractions.
Answer. Add the two parts.
(4) Hint. Using Ostrogradsky, we have, since
2 3 3 4 5
) 3 x ( x x 9 x 6 x = +
dx
) 3 x ( x
B x A
) 3 x ( x
c x b x a
dx
x 9 x 6 x
5 x 2 x
2
2
3 4 5
2
} }

+
+
+ +
=
+
+

Answer. C
3 x
x
ln
27
4
) 3 x ( x 18
15 x 3 x 8
2
2
+
|
.
|
\
|

1) dx
) 1 x ( ) 1 x (
7 x 5 x
2 2 3
2
}
+ +
+
2) dx
) 1 x ( ) 2 x (
1 x 3 x 5 x 2
2 3
2 3
}
+
+ +

3) dx
) 1 x ( ) 2 x (
) 1 x (
2 3 2
2 2
}
+ +
+

dx
) 1 x )( 1 x (
c x b ax
) 1 x ( ) 1 x (
D x C x B Ax
dx
) 1 x ( ) 1 x (
7 x 5 x
2
2
2 2
2 3
2 2 3
2
} }
+ +
+ +
+
+ +
+ + +
=
+ +
+

Answer. C
1 x
) 1 x (
ln
8
13
) 1 x ( ) 1 x ( 8
50 x 47 x 72 x 49
2
2
2 2
2 3
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
+ +
+ + +

dx
) 1 x )( 2 x (
B x A
) 1 x ( ) 2 x (
c x b x a
dx
) 1 x ( ) 2 x (
1 x 3 x 5 x 2
2
2
2 3
2 3
} }
+
+
+
+
+ +
=
+
+ +

Answer. C
1 x
2 x
ln
27
10
) 1 x ( ) 2 x ( 18
7 x 31 x 16
2
2
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
+

+
+ +
+ + + +
=
+ +
+
}
) 1 x ( ) 2 x (
E x D x C x B x A
dx
) 1 x ( ) 2 x (
) 1 x (
2 2
2 3 4
2 3 2
2 2

388
dx
) 1 x )( 2 x (
c x b x a
2
2
}
+ +
+ +
+
Answer. C x
2
2
arctan
64
2 3
) 1 x ( ) 2 x ( 96
80 x 14 x 62 x 9 x 9
2 2
2 3 4
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
+ + + +

7

Integrals of
Exponential Functions

Learning Objectives

integrals involving exponential functions.
The classification involves fifteen cases.

Chapter 7-Integrals of exponential functions
390
First Category. Integrals of the form

}
dx e x
x n
and
}
dx e ) x ( P
x

where ) x ( P is an nth-degree polynomial
Second Category. Integrals of the form

}
dx ) e ( R
x

where ) x ( R is a rational function.
Third Category. Integrals of the form
dx
a x
e
x p
}

and dx
) a x (
e
n
x p
}

.
Fourth Category. Integrals of the form
dx
) a x (
e ) x ( P
n
x p
}

,
where ) x ( P is a polynomial with 1 n ) x ( P deg = .
Fifth Category. Integrals of the form
dx
c bx x a
e
2
x p
}
+ +

Sixth Category. Integrals of the form
dx
) c bx x a (
e
n 2
x p
}
+ +

Seventh Category. Integrals of the form

}
dx e ) x ( R
x


391

}
dx e x
x n
and
}
dx e ) x ( P
x

where ) x ( P is an nth-degree polynomial.
7.1.1 Case I. Integrals of the form
}
dx e x
x n

First Method
We put

}
= dx e x I
x n
n

Using the formula

} }
and the table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'
x
e
n
x
x
e
1

1 n
x n

we find

} }
=
|
.
|
\
|
= =

dx ) x n ( e
1
e x
1
dx e x I
1 n x x n x n
n

}
= =

dx x e
n
e x
1
1 n x x n

1 n
x n
I
n
e x
=
We thus have arrived at the recurrent formula

1 n
x n
n
I
n
e x
1
I

=

}
= dx e x I
x n
n

Second Method. We set
C e ) a x a x a x a ( dx e x I
x
n 1 n
1 n
1
n
0
x n
n
+ + + + + = =

}

392
The coefficients
n 1 n 1 0
a , a , , a , a

can be determined by differentiation of the
above identity and equating the similar powers of x. We consider the following
example.
}
= dx e x I
x 2 3

Solution.
First Method.
Considering the integral
}
= dx e x I
x 2 n
n
we find the recurrent formula
1 n
x 2 n
n
I
2
n
e x
2
1
I

= .
For 3 n = we have
2
x 2 3
3
I
2
3
e x
2
1
I =
For 2 n = we have
1
x 2 2
2
I
2
2
e x
2
1
I =
For 1 n = we have
0
x 2
1
I
2
1
e x
2
1
I =
Since
x 2 x 2
0
e
2
1
dx e I = =
}
, we get from the above relations
=
|
.
|
\
|
=
1
x 2 2 x 2 3
3
I
2
2
e x
2
1
2
3
e x
2
1
I
= + =
1
x 2 2 x 2 3
I
2
3
e x
4
3
e x
2
1

=
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
0
x 2 x 2 2 x 2 3
I
2
1
e x
2
1
2
3
e x
4
3
e x
2
1

= + =
0
x 2 x 2 2 x 2 3
I
4
3
e x
4
3
e x
4
3
e x
2
1

C e
8
3
e x
4
3
e x
4
3
e x
2
1
x 2 x 2 x 2 2 x 2 3
+ + =
Second Method. Put
393
C e ) a x a x a x a ( dx e x
x 2
3 2
2
1
3
0
x 2 3
+ + + + =
}

Differentiating the above equation we have

x 2
3 2
2
1
3
0
x 2
2 1
2
0
x 2 3
e ) a x a x a x a ( 2 e ) a x a 2 x a 3 ( e x + + + + + + =
Canceling the common factor
x 2
e we derive the equation
) a x a x a x a ( 2 ) a x a 2 x a 3 ( x
3 2
2
1
3
0 2 1
2
0
3
+ + + + + + =

3 2 2 1
2
1 0
3
0
3
a 2 a x ) a 2 a 2 ( x ) a 2 a 3 ( x a 2 x + + + + + + =
From the previous equation, equating the coefficients of the like exponents of the
variable x, we obtain the simultaneous equations

0
a 2 1= ,
1 0
a 2 a 3 0 + = ,
2 1
a 2 a 2 0 + = ,
3 2
a 2 a 0 + =
Solving the system, we find

2
1
a
0
= ,
4
3
a
1
= ,
4
3
a
2
= and
8
3
a
3
=
Therefore
C e
8
3
x
4
3
x
4
3
x
2
1
dx e x
x 2 2 3 x 2 3
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
}

which is exactly what we have obtained earlier.
7.1.2 Case II. For integrals of the form
}
dx e ) x ( P
x
, where ) x ( P is an nth-
degree polynomial, we either integrate term by term using the reduction formula,
or consider the identity
C e ) a x a x a x a ( dx e ) x ( P
x
n 1 n
1 n
1
n
0
x
+ + + + + =

}

and proceed as before. We usually prefer the second method.
Example 1. Evaluate the integral dx e ) 3 x x 2 (
x 2 2
}
+
Solution. We consider the identity
C e ) a x a x a ( dx e ) 3 x x 2 (
x 2
2 1
2
0
x 2 2
+ + + = +
}

394
Differentiation of the above identity we get

x 2
2 1
2
0
x 2
1 0
x 2 2
e ) a x a x a ( 2 e ) a x a 2 ( e ) 3 x x 2 ( + + + + = +
and canceling the factor
x 2
e we get
) a x a x a ( 2 ) a x a 2 ( 3 x x 2
2 1
2
0 1 0
2
+ + + + = +

2 1 0
2
0
2
a 2 x ) a 2 a 2 ( x a 2 3 x x 2 + + + = +
Equating the similar powers of the variable x, we derive the system of equations

0
a 2 2 = ,
1 0
a 2 a 2 1 + = and
2
a 2 3 =
The solution of the previous system is
1 a
0
= ,
2
3
a
1
= ,
2
3
a
2
=
Therefore
C e
2
3
x
2
3
x dx e ) 3 x x 2 (
x 2 2 x 2 2
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ = +
}

Example 2. If ) x ( P is an n-th degree polynomial, show that the integral
dx ) x ( P e
x a
}

can be expressed into the form

x a
1 n
) n (
3 2
x a
e
a
) x ( P
a
) x ( P
a
) x ( P
a
) x ( P
dx ) x ( P e

+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
' '
+
'
+ =
}


} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f ) x ( g'

x a
e

) x ( P
x a
e
a
1

) x ( P'
we find
395
dx ) x ( P e
a
1
) x ( P e
a
1
dx ) x ( P e
x a x a x a
} }
' + =

(1)
We also find, using the same method
dx ) x ( P e
a
1
) x ( P e
a
1
dx ) x ( P e
x a x a x a
} }
' ' + ' = '

(2)
dx ) x ( P e
a
1
) x ( P e
a
1
dx ) x ( P e
x a x a x a
} }
' ' ' + ' ' = ' '

(3)

dx ) x ( P e
a
1
) x ( P e
a
1
dx ) x ( P e
) n ( x a ) 1 n ( x a ) 1 n ( x a
} }

+ = (n)
dx ) x ( P e
a
1
) x ( P e
a
1
dx ) x ( P e
) 1 n ( x a ) n ( x a ) n ( x a
} }
+
+ =
or, since for an n-th degree polynomial we have 0 ) x ( P
) 1 n (
=
+
,
) x ( P e
a
1
dx ) x ( P e
) n ( x a ) n ( x a
=
}
(n+1)
Multiplying equation (2) by
a
1
, equation (3) by
2
a
1
, equation (4) by
3
a
1
, .,
equation (n+1) by
n
a
1
and adding the resulting equations, we get

x a
1 n
) n (
3 2
x a
e
a
) x ( P
a
) x ( P
a
) x ( P
a
) x ( P
dx ) x ( P e

+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
' '
+
'
+ =
}


}
dx ) e ( R
x

In this case we apply the transformation
x
e t = . From this relation we get
x t ln = and dt
t
1
1
dx = . Therefore the integral transforms to
396

}
dt
t
) t ( R
1

which is an integral of a rational function and can be evaluated using the methods
of Section 6.
Example1. Evaluate the integral dx
1 e
2 e
I
x
x
}
+
+
=
Solution. Using the transformation
x
e t = , we have t ln x = and dt
t
1
dx = .
dt
t ) 1 t (
2 t
dt
t
1
1 t
2 t
I
} }
+
+
=
+
+
=
Using partial fraction decomposition

1 t
1
t
2
t ) 1 t (
2 t
+
=
+
+

we get
= + + =
+
=
} }
C | 1 t | ln | t | ln 2 dt
1 t
1
dt
t
2
I
C ) 1 e ln( x 2 C ) 1 e ln( ) e ln( 2
x x x
+ + = + + =
e 2 1
1
I
x
}
+
=
Solution.
First Method. Using the transformation
x
t
1
dx = .
dt
t ) t 2 1 (
1
dt
t
1
t 2 1
1
I
} }
+
=
+
=

1 t 2
2
t
1
t ) t 2 1 (
1
+
=
+

397
we get
= + + =
+
=
} }
C | 1 t 2 | ln | t | ln dt
1 t 2
2
dt
t
1
I
C ) 1 e 2 ln( x C ) 1 e 2 ln( ) e ln(
x x x
+ + = + + =
Second Method. We have
dx
2 e
e
dx
e 2 1
1
I
x
x
x
} }
+
=
+
=

Using the substitution 2 e u
x
+ =

, we have dx e du
x
= . Therefore
= + = =
+
=
} }
C | u | ln
u
du
dx
e 2 1
1
I
x

C | 2 e | ln
x
+ + =

We can check that the results of the two methods are identical.
e e
1
I
x x
}

+
=
Solution.
First Method. Using the transformation
x
t
1
dx = .
= + =
+
=
+
=
} }
C t arctan dt
1 t
1
dt
t
1
t
1
t
1
I
2

C ) e arctan(
x
+ =
Second Method. We have
dx
1 e
e
dx
e e
1
I
x 2
x
x x
} }
+
=
+
=

x
e u = we find dx e du
x
= . Therefore
398
C ) e arctan( C u arctan
1 u
du
I
x
2
+ = + =
+
=
}

dx
a x
e
x p
}

and dx
) a x (
e
n
x p
}

These integral are not elementary. The first integral is written in equivalent form
as
dx p
) a x ( p
e
e dx
a x
e
) a x ( p
a p
x p
} }

=

Using the substitution ) a x ( p u = , dx p du = , the integral is transformed into
du
u
e
e
u
a p
}

The above integral remind us the exponential integral, defined by

}

=
x t
dt
t
e
) x ( Ei , 0 x >
Therefore, without loss of generality, instead of considering du
u
e
u
}
, we consider
the integral
) u ( Ei dt
t
e
u t
}

Going back to the original variable, since ) a x ( p u = , we get
)) a x ( p ( Ei e dx
a x
e
a p
x p
=
}

For the integral dx
) a x (
e
J
n
x p
n }

= we can establish a reduction formula.
Using the formula

} }
399
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

n
) a x (
1

x p
e
1 n
) a x (
1
1 n
1

x p
e p
we find
dx
) a x (
e
1 n
p
) a x (
e
1 n
1
dx
) a x (
e
J
1 n
x p
1 n
x p
n
x p
n } }

=
or

1 n
1 n
x p
n
x p
n
J
1 n
p
) a x (
e
1 n
1
dx
) a x (
e
J

=
}

This is the reduction formula for the integral dx
) a x (
e
J
n
x p
n }

= .
After successive reductions we end up to the evaluation of the integral
dx
a x
e
x p
}

which, as mentioned earlier, is not elementary, but can be expressed in terms of
the exponential integral ) x ( Ei .
Note 1. Integrals of the form dx
a x
e
x p
}

and dx
) a x (
e
n
x p
}

can also be evaluated
by the substitution

p
t ln
a x = .
We then have
p
t ln
a x + = , t ln a p x p + = ,
t e e e e e
a p t ln a p t ln a p x p
= = =
+

dt
t
1
p
1
dx = .
400
Therefore

} } }
= =
t ln
dt
e dt
t
1
p
1
p
t ln
t e
dx
a x
e
a p
a p x p

and

} } }

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
n
a p 1 n
n
a p
n
x p
) t (ln
dt
e p dt
t
1
p
1
p
t ln
t e
dx
) a x (
e

The last integral, denoted by
dx
) x (ln
1
I
n
n }
=
can be evaluated using the reduction formula (Section 8, 8.4)

1 n
1 n
n
I
1 n
1
) x (ln
x
1 n
1
I

=
The integral
}
t ln
dt
is not an elementary integral, i.e. it cannot be expressed in
terms of elementary functions.
Note 2. The function defined by the definite integral

}
=
x
0
t ln
dt
) x ( li
is called the logarithmic integral.
The following relation holds between the logarithmic and exponential integrals:
) x (ln Ei ) x ( li = , 1 x >
1 x
e
I
x
}

=
a x
e
a p
x p
=
}

we established earlier, for 1 p = and 1 a = , we find
401
) 1 x ( Ei e dx
1 x
e
I
x
=
=
}

Second method. Using the substitution t ln 1 x = , we have t ln 1 x + = and
dt
t
1
dx = . Therefore
dt
t ln
1
e dt
t
1
t ln
t
e dt
t
1
t ln
e e
dt
t
1
t ln
e
I
t ln t ln 1
} } } }
= =
= =
+

or
) 1 x ( Ei e ) t (ln Ei e ) t ( li e dt
t ln
1
e I = = = =
}

1 x
e
I
x 2
}
+
=
a x
e
a p
x p
=
}

we established earlier for 2 p = and 1 a = , we find
)) 1 x ( 2 ( Ei e dx
1 x
e
I
2
x 2
+ =
+
=

}

Second method. Using the substitution
2
t ln
1 x = + , we have
2
t ln
1 x + = ,
t ln 2 x 2 + = and dt
t
1
2
1
dx = . Therefore
= =
+
=
} }
+
dt
t
1
2
1
2
t ln
e
dx
1 x
e
I
t ln 2 x 2

dt
t ln
1
e dt
t
1
t ln
t
e dt
t
1
t ln
e e
2 2
t ln 2
} } }

= =
=
or
)) 1 x ( 2 ( Ei e ) t (ln Ei e ) t ( li e dt
t ln
1
e I
2 2 2 2
+ = = = =

}

402
) 2 x (
e
I
3
x 3
}

=
Solution. Using the reduction formula
1 n
1 n
x 3
n
J
1 n
3
) 2 x (
e
1 n
1
J

=
for the integral dx
) 2 x (
e
J I
3
x 3
3 }

= , we find
for 3 n = ,
2
2
x 3
3
J
2
3
) 2 x (
e
2
1
J +
=
for 3 n = ,
1
x 3
2
J 3
2 x
e
J +
=
where )) 2 x ( 3 ( Ei e dx
2 x
e
J
6
x 3
1
=
=
}

= +
=
} 2
2
x 3
3
x 3
3
J
2
3
) 2 x (
e
2
1
dx
) 2 x (
e
J I
=
=
1
x 3
2
x 3
J 3
2 x
e
2
3
) 2 x (
e
2
1

=
= )) 2 x ( 3 ( Ei e 3
2 x
e
2
3
) 2 x (
e
2
1
6
x 3
2
x 3

)) 2 x ( 3 ( Ei e
2
9
2 x
e
2
3
) 2 x (
e
2
1
6
x 3
2
x 3
+
=
Second Method. Using the substitution
3
t ln
2 x = , we have
3
t ln
2 x + = ,
t ln 6 x 3 + = and dt
t
1
3
1
dx = . Therefore
403
=
=
|
.
|
\
|
=
=
} } }
+
dt
t
1
3
1
27
) t (ln
e e
dt
t
1
3
1
3
t ln
e
dx
) 2 x (
e
I
3
t ln 6
3
t ln 6
3
x 3

dt
) t (ln
1
e 9
3
6
}
=
Using the reduction formula
1 n
1 n
n
I
1 n
1
) x (ln
x
1 n
1
I

= , dx
) x (ln
1
I
n
n }
=
we find

2
2 3
3
I
2
1
) t (ln
t
2
1
dt
) t (ln
1
I + = =
}

where

1
2
2
I
t ln
t
dt
) t (ln
1
I + = =
}

and
)) 2 x ( 3 ( Ei ) t (ln Ei ) t ( li
t ln
dt
I
1
= = = =
}

Therefore

|
.
|
\
|
+ + =
} 1 2 3
I
t ln
t
2
1
) t (ln
t
2
1
dt
) t (ln
1

or

1
2 3
I
2
1
t ln
t
2
1
) t (ln
t
2
1
dt
) t (ln
1
+ =
}

We thus find
C I
2
1
t ln
t
2
1
) t (ln
t
2
1
e 9 dx
) 2 x (
e
I
1
2
6
3
x 3
+
)
`
+ =
=
}

or
=
=
}
dx
) 2 x (
e
I
3
x 3

404
C )) 2 x ( 3 ( Ei e
2
9
) 2 x ( 3
e
e
2
9
) 2 x ( 9
e
e
2
9
6
) 2 x ( 3
6
2
) 2 x ( 3
6
+ +
=

C )) 2 x ( 3 ( Ei e
2
9
) 2 x ( 3
e
2
3
) 2 x (
e
2
1
6
x 3
2
x 3
+ +
=
Integrals of the form dx
) a x (
e ) x ( P
n
x p
}

, where ) x ( P is a polynomial with
1 n ) x ( P deg = . In this case we put
dx
a x
e
A
) a x (
e ) x ( Q
dx
) a x (
e ) x ( P
x p
1 n
x p
n
x p
} }

+

where ) x ( Q is a polynomial (with undetermined coefficients) with
2 n ) x ( Q deg = . In order to determine the coefficients of the polynomial ) x ( Q ,
we differentiate both members of the above identity and equate the similar powers
of the variable x.
) 1 x (
e ) 1 x x 2 (
I
3
x 2 2
}

+
=
Solution. Using the identity
dx
1 x
e
A e
) 1 x (
b x a
dx
) 1 x (
e ) 1 x x 2 (
x 2
x 2
2 3
x 2 2
} }

+
+
=
+

Differentiating the previous identity we have

1 x
e
A e
) 1 x (
b x a
dx
d
) 1 x (
e ) 1 x x 2 (
x 2
x 2
2 3
x 2 2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+


1 x
e
A ) e (
dx
d
) 1 x (
b x a
e
) 1 x (
b x a
dx
d
) 1 x (
e ) 1 x x 2 (
x 2
x 2
2
x 2
2 3
x 2 2
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+

405
+
+ +
=
x 2
4
2
3
x 2 2
e
) 1 x (
) 1 x ( 2 ) b ax ( ) 1 x ( ) b x a (
dx
d
) 1 x (
e ) 1 x x 2 (

1 x
e
A e 2
) 1 x (
b x a
x 2
x 2
2

+
+
+
+
+
=
x 2
4
2
3
x 2 2
e
) 1 x (
) 1 x ( 2 ) b ax ( ) 1 x ( a
) 1 x (
e ) 1 x x 2 (

1 x
e
A e 2
) 1 x (
b x a
x 2
x 2
2

+
+
+
+
+
=
x 2
3 3
x 2 2
e
) 1 x (
) b ax ( 2 ) 1 x ( a
) 1 x (
e ) 1 x x 2 (

1 x
e
A e
) 1 x (
b x a
2
x 2
x 2
2

+
+
+
2 2
) 1 x ( A ) 1 x )( b ax ( 2 ) b ax ( 2 ) 1 x ( a 1 x x 2 + + + + = +
Performing the operations and arranging the right member we arrive at the
identity:
A b 4 a x ) A 2 b 2 a 3 ( x ) A a 2 ( 1 x x 2
2 2
+ + + = +
Equating the coefficients of the similar powers of the variable x , we obtain the
system
2 A a 2 = +
1 A 2 b 2 a 3 = +
1 A b 4 a = +
The system is satisfied if 5 a = , 4 b = and 12 A = . Therefore we have
dx
1 x
e
12 e
) 1 x (
4 x 5
dx
) 1 x (
e ) 1 x x 2 (
x 2
x 2
2 3
x 2 2
} }

+
+
=
+

The last integral can be evaluated using the formula
406
a x
e
a p
x p
=
}

for 2 p = and 1 a = :
)) 1 x ( 2 ( Ei e dx
1 x
e
2
x 2
=
}

Therefore
)) 1 x ( 2 ( Ei e 12 e
) 1 x (
4 x 5
dx
) 1 x (
e ) 1 x x 2 (
2 x 2
2 3
x 2 2
+
+
=
+
}

7.5 Fifth Category. Integrals of the form
dx
c bx x a
e
2
x p
}
+ +
and dx
c bx x a
e ) B x A (
2
x p
}
+ +
+

In this case we suppose that the discriminant 0 ac 4 b D
2
> .
Case I. If 0 D > , then using partial fraction decomposition, we have

|
|
.
|
\
|

=
+ +
2 1 2 1
2
x
1
x
1
) ( a
1
c bx x a
1

where
1
and
2
are the two real roots of the trinomial.
Therefore the first integral transforms into
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
+ +
} } }
dx
x
e
dx
x
e
) ( a
1
dx
c bx x a
e
2
x p
1
x p
2 1
2
x p

))} x ( p ( Ei e )) x ( p ( Ei e {
) ( a
1
2
p
1
p
2 1
2 1

=

The second integral, since we have the partial fraction decomposition
2 2 1
2
1 2 1
1
2 1
x
1 B A
x
1 B A
) x ( ) x (
B x A

+
=

+

we obtain
=
+ +
+
}
dx
c bx x a
e ) B x A (
2
x p

407
=
|
|
.
|
\
|

+

+

=
} }
dx
x
e
) B A ( dx
x
e
) B A (
) ( a
1
2
x p
2
1
x p
1
2 1

))} x ( p ( Ei e ) B A ( )) x ( p ( Ei e ) B A {(
) ( a
1
2
p
2 1
p
1
2 1
2 1
+ +

=

2 2
) x ( a c bx x a = + + , where
a 2
b
= is the double
root of the trinomial. Therefore in this case the integral transforms into
dx
) x (
e
a
1
dx
c bx x a
e
2
x p
2
x p
} }

=
+ +

Using the reduction formula (Section 7.3)

1 n
1 n
x p
n
x p
n
J
1 n
p
) a x (
e
1 n
1
dx
) a x (
e
J

=
}

for 2 n = , we find
= +

=

=
+ +
} } 1
x p
2
x p
2
x p
J
a
p
x
e
a
1
dx
) x (
e
a
1
dx
c bx x a
e

)) x ( p ( Ei e
a
p
x
e
a
1
a p
x p
+

=
7.6 Sixth Category. Integrals of the form
dx
) c bx x a (
e
I
n 2
x p
n }
+ +
= and
}
+ +
+
= dx
) c x b x a (
e ) B Ax (
J
n 2
x p
n
, 3 n >
2
> .
Case I. We have
=
+ +
=
}
dx
) c x b x a (
e
I
n 2
x p
n

} }
+ +
+
+
+ +
=

dx
) c x b x a (
e ) b x a 2 (
D
1
dx
) c x b x a (
e
D
a 4
n 2
x p 2
1 n 2
x p

n 1 n
M
D
1
I
D
a 4
+ =

408
where

}
+ +
+
= dx
) c x b x a (
e ) b x a 2 (
M
n 2
x p 2
n

Using the formula

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f
n 2
) c bx x a (
b ax 2
+ +
+

x p
e ) b x a 2 ( +
1 n 2
) c bx ax (
1
) 1 n (
1
+ +

x p
e } a 2 ) b ax 2 ( p { ) x ( g + + = '

we find
=
+ +
+
=
}
dx
) c x b x a (
e ) b x a 2 (
M
n 2
x p 2
n

=
+ +
+ +
+
+ +
+
=
}

dx
) c bx ax (
e } a 2 ) b ax 2 ( p {
) 1 n (
1
) c bx ax (
e ) b ax 2 (
) 1 n (
1
1 n 2
x p
1 n 2
x p

+
+ +
+
+
+ +
+
=
}

dx
) c bx ax (
e ) b ax 2 (
) 1 n (
p
) c bx ax (
e ) b ax 2 (
) 1 n (
1
1 n 2
x p
1 n 2
x p

=
+ +
+
}

dx
) c bx ax (
e
) 1 n (
a 2
1 n 2
x p

1 n 1 n
1 n 2
x p
K
) 1 n (
p
I
) 1 n (
a 2
) c bx ax (
e ) b ax 2 (
) 1 n (
1

+
+ +
+
=
where

}

+ +
+
= dx
) c x b x a (
e ) b x a 2 (
K
1 n 2
x p
1 n

Using the formula

} }
409
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

1 n 2
) c bx x a (
b x a 2
+ +
+

x p
e
2 n 2
) c bx ax (
1
) 2 n (
1
+ +

x p
e p

we find
=
+ +
+
=
}

dx
) c x b x a (
e ) b x a 2 (
K
1 n 2
x p
1 n

}

+ +
+
+ +
= dx
) c x b x a (
e
) 2 n (
p
) c bx ax (
e
) 2 n (
1
2 n 2
x p
2 n 2
x p

2 n
2 n 2
x p
I
) 2 n (
p
) c bx ax (
e
) 2 n (
1

+
+ +
=
=
+ +
=
}
dx
) c x b x a (
e
I
n 2
x p
n

+
+ +
+
+ =

1 n 1 n
1 n 2
x p
1 n
K
) 1 n (
p
I
) 1 n (
a 2
) c bx ax (
e ) b ax 2 (
) 1 n (
1
D
1
I
D
a 4

+
+
+ +
+
+ =

1 n
1 n 2
x p
1 n
I
) 1 n (
a 2
) c bx ax (
e ) b ax 2 (
) 1 n (
1
D
1
I
D
a 4

+
+ +
2 n
2 n 2
x p
I
) 2 n (
p
) c bx ax (
e
) 2 n (
1
) 1 n (
p
D
1

or finally
=
+ +
=
}
dx
) c x b x a (
e
I
n 2
x p
n

+ +

+ +
+
=
2 n 2
x p
1 n 2
x p
) c bx ax (
e
D ) 2 n )( 1 n (
p
) c bx ax (
e ) b ax 2 (
D ) 1 n (
1

2 n
2
1 n
I
D ) 2 n )( 1 n (
p
I
D
a 4

+
410

}
+ +
+
= dx
) c x b x a (
e ) B Ax (
J
n 2
x p
n

using the identity

a 2
bA aB 2
) b ax 2 (
a 2
A
B x A

+ + = +
we find
=
+ +
+
=
}
dx
) c x b x a (
e ) B Ax (
J
n 2
x p
n

} }
+ +
+
+ +
+
= dx
) c x b x a (
e
a 2
bA aB 2
dx
) c x b x a (
e ) b x a 2 (
a 2
A
n 2
x p
n 2
x p

or

n n 2
x p
n 2
x p
n
I
a 2
bA aB 2
dx
) c x b x a (
e ) b x a 2 (
a 2
A
dx
) c x b x a (
e ) B Ax (
J

+
+ +
+
=
+ +
+
=
} }

Using the formula

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

n 2
) c bx x a (
b x a 2
+ +
+

x p
e
1 n 2
) c bx ax (
1
) 1 n (
1
+ +

x p
e p

we find
=
+ +
+
}

dx
) c x b x a (
e ) b x a 2 (
1 n 2
x p

}

+ +
+
+ +
= dx
) c x b x a (
e
) 1 n (
p
) c bx ax (
e
) 1 n (
1
1 n 2
x p
1 n 2
x p

1 n
1 n 2
x p
I
) 1 n (
p
) c bx ax (
e
) 1 n (
1

+
+ +
=
Therefore
411
=
+ +
+
=
}
dx
) c x b x a (
e ) B Ax (
J
n 2
x p
n

n 1 n
1 n 2
x p
I
a 2
bA aB 2
I
) 1 n (
p
) c bx ax (
e
) 1 n (
1
a 2
A
+
+
+ +

or
=
+ +
+
=
}
dx
) c x b x a (
e ) B Ax (
J
n 2
x p
n

1 n n
1 n 2
x p
I
a ) 1 n ( 2
Ap
I
a 2
bA aB 2
) c bx ax (
e
a ) 1 n ( 2
A
+
+ +
=
For the integral
n
I we have established reduction formulas previously in this
section.
7.7 Seventh Category. This Category includes integrals of the form

}
dx e ) x ( R
x

In this case we express the function ) x ( R as
) x (
) x ( Q
) x ( P ) x ( R + =
where ) x ( P is the proper part (a polynomial) and
) x (
) x ( Q
is the fractional part, i.e.
) x ( Y deg ) x ( Q deg < . We then apply the partial fraction decomposition for the
fractional part. We thus arrive at integrals of the form
dx
a x
e
x p
}

, dx
) a x (
e
n
x p
}

,
dx
) a x (
e ) x ( P
n
x p
}

where n ) x ( P deg <
412
dx
c bx x a
e
2
x p
}
+ +
, dx
) c bx x a (
e
n 2
x p
}
+ +

and
dx
c bx x a
e ) B Ax (
2
x p
}
+ +
+
, dx
) c bx x a (
e ) B Ax (
n 2
x p
}
+ +
+

where we suppose that 0 ac 4 b D
2
> .
All these integrals can be evaluated by methods explained previously.

7.8

Exponential Functions

In this case we put
}
= dx e x I
x n
n
and we establish the reduction formula
1 n
x n
n
I
n
e x
1
I

= (see 7.1.1) . Alternatively, we set
C e ) a x a x a x a ( dx e x I
x
n 1 n
1 n
1
n
0
x n
n
+ + + + + = =

}

The coefficients
n 1 n 1 0
a , a , , a , a

are determined by differentiation of the
above identity and equating the coefficients of similar powers of x.
Exercise 1 contains integrals of the form
}
dx e x
x n
and
}
dx e ) x ( P
x

where
) x ( P
is an nth-degree polynomial.
413
}
dx e ) x ( P
x
, where ) x ( P is an nth-degree polynomial,
we either integrate term by term using the reduction formula, or we consider the
identity
C e ) a x a x a x a ( dx e ) x ( P
x
n 1 n
1 n
1
n
0
x
+ + + + + =

}

and differentiate both members to determine the coefficients.
1)
}
dx e x
x 3 2
2)
}
+ dx e ) 2 x x (
x 3 2

3)
}
dx e x
x 3 4
4)
}
+ dx e ) 3 x x 3 x (
x 2 2 3

(1) Hint. Considering the integral
}
= dx e x I
x 3 n
n
, we find the recurrent formula
1 n
x 3 n
n
I
3
n
e x
3
1
I

= . For 2 n = we have
1
x 3 2 x 3 2
2
I
3
2
e x
3
1
dx e x I =
}
.
For 1 n = we have
0
x 3
1
I
3
1
e x
3
1
I = where
x 3 x 3
0
e
3
1
dx e I = =
}
.
Answer. C e
27
2
e x
9
2
e x
3
1
x 3 x 3 x 3 2
+ +
(2) Hint. Put C e ) a x a x a ( dx e ) 2 x x (
x 3
2 1
2
0
x 3 2
+ + + = +
}


x 3
2 1
2
0
x 3
1 0
x 2 2
e ) a x a x a ( 3 e ) a x a 2 ( e ) 2 x x ( + + + + = +
x 3
e we derive the equation

2 1 1 0
2
0
2
a 3 a x ) a 3 a 2 ( x a 3 2 x x + + + + = +
From the previous equation, equating the coefficients of the like exponents of the
variable x, we obtain the simultaneous equations
0
a 3 1= ,
1 0
a 3 a 2 1 + = ,
2 1
a 3 a 2 + = . Solving the system, we find
3
1
a
0
= ,
9
5
a
1
= ,
27
23
a
2
=
Answer. C e
27
23
x
9
5
x
3
1
x 3 2
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
414
(3) Hint. Put C e ) a x a x a x a x a ( dx e x
x 3
4 3
2
2
3
1
4
0
x 3 4
+ + + + + =
}

+ + + + =
x 3
3 2
2
1
3
0
x 3 4
e ) a x a 2 x a 3 x a 4 ( e x

x 3
4 3
2
2
3
1
4
0
e ) a x a x a x a x a ( 3 + + + + +
x 3
e , we derive the equation

4 3 3 2
2
2 1
3
1 0
4
0
4
a 3 a x ) a 3 a 2 ( x ) a 3 a 3 ( x ) a 3 a 4 ( x a 3 x + + + + + + + + =
From the above identity we obtain the system of simultaneous equations
1 a 3
0
= , 0 a 3 a 4
1 0
= + , 0 a 3 a 3
2 1
= + , 0 a 3 a 2
3 2
= + , 0 a 3 a
4 3
= +
Solving the above system we obtain
3
1
a
0
= ,
9
4
a
1
= ,
9
4
a
2
= ,
27
8
a
3
= and
81
8
a
4
= . Answer. C e
81
8
x
27
8
x
9
4
x
9
4
x
3
1
x 3 2 3 4
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
(4) Hint. Put C e ) a x a x a x a ( dx e ) 3 x x 3 x (
x 2
3 2
2
1
3
0
x 2 2 3
+ + + + = +
}

Differentiating the above equation we obtain the identity
+ + + = +
x 2
2 1
2
0
x 2 2 3
e ) a x a 2 x a 3 ( e ) 3 x x 3 x (

x 2
3 2
2
1
3
0
e ) a x a x a x a ( 2 + + + +
x 2
e , we derive the equation

3 2 2 1
2
1 0
3
0
2 3
a 2 a x ) a 2 a 2 ( x ) a 2 a 3 ( x a 2 3 x x 3 x + + + + + + = +
From the above identity we obtain the system of simultaneous equations
1 a 2
0
= , 3 a 2 a 3
1 0
= + , 1 a 2 a 2
2 1
= + , 3 a 2 a
3 2
= +
From the above system we obtain
2
1
a
0
= ,
4
9
a
1
= ,
4
11
a
2
= and
8
23
a
3
= .
Answer. C e
8
23
x
4
11
x
4
9
x
2
1
x 2 2 3
+
|
.
|
\
|
+

415

In this case we apply the transformation
x
e t = . From this relation we get
x t ln = and dt
t
1
1
dx = . Therefore the integral transforms into
}
dt
t
) t ( R
1
,
which is an integral of a rational function and can be evaluated using the methods
of Section 6.
1) dx
2 e
1 e
x
x
}
+
2) dx
3 e 2
1 e
x 2
x 2
}
+

3) dx
1 e 3 e 2
e
x x 2
x
}
+
4) dx
5 e
e 3 4
x 3
x 3
}
+

5) dx
e e e
3 e e
x x 2 x 3
x x 2
}
+
+
6) dx
) 6 e 5 e (
5 e 3 e
2 x x 2
x x 2
}
+
+

(1) Hint. Using the transformation
x
t
1
dx = .
Therefore the integral becomes dt
t ) 2 t (
1 t
dt
t
1
2 t
1 t
} }
+
=
+
. Using partial fraction

decomposition
t
1
2
1
2 t
1
2
3
t ) 2 t (
1 t

+
=
+
, we get
| t | ln
2
1
| 2 t | ln
2
3
t
dt
2
1
2 t
dt
2
3
dt
) 2 t ( t
1 t
+ =
+
=
+
} } }

Answer. C x
2
1
) 2 e ln(
2
3
x
+ +
x 2
e t = , we have t ln
2
1
x = and dt
t 2
1
dx = .
}
dx ) e ( R
x
where
) x ( R
is a
rational function.
416
) 3 t 2 ( t 2
1 t
dt
t 2
1
3 t 2
1 t
} }
+
=
+
. Using partial
fraction decomposition,
t
1
6
1
3 t 2
2
12
5
) 3 t 2 ( t 2
1 t

+
=
+
, we get
| t | ln
6
1
| 3 t 2 | ln
12
5
t
dt
6
1
3 t 2
dt 2
12
5
dt
) 3 t 2 ( t 2
1 t
+ =
+
=
+
} } }

Answer. C x
3
1
) 3 e 2 ln(
12
5
x 2
+ +
(3) Hint. The substitution
x
e t = converts the integral into
}
+ 1 t 3 t 2
dt
2
.
Since ) 1 t )( 1 t 2 ( 1 t 3 t 2
2
= + , using partial fractions we have
1 t 2
2
1 t
1
) 1 t ( ) 1 t 2 (
1
1 t 3 t 2
1
2

=

=
+
.
Therefore C
1 t 2
1 t
ln
1 t 3 t 2
dt
2
+
=
+
}
. Answer. C
1 e 2
1 e
ln
x
x
+

x 3
e t = , we have t ln
3
1
x = and dt
t 3
1
dx = .
) 5 t ( t
t 3 4
3
1
dt
t 3
1
5 t
t 3 4
} }
+
=
+
. Using partial
fractions
5 t
1
5
19
t
1
5
4
) 5 t ( t
t 3 4
+
=
+
. Therefore the integral has value

| 5 t | ln
15
19
| t | ln
15
4
+ . Answer. C | 5 e | ln
15
19
5
x 4
x 3
+ +
x
t
1
dx = .
) 1 t t ( t
3 t t
dt
t
1
t t t
3 t t
2 2
2
2 3
2
} }
+
+
=
+
+
. Using
1 t t
t 2
t
3
t
2
) 1 t t ( t
3 t t
2 2 2 2
2
+
+ =
+
+
and integrating
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
+
+
}
3
1 t 2
arctan
3
3 2
) 1 t t ln(
t
3
| t | ln 2 dt
) 1 t t ( t
3 t t
2
2 2
2

417
Answer. C
3
1 e 2
arctan
3
3 2
) 1 e e ln( e 3 x 2
x
x x 2 x
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

+

x
t
1
dx = .
t ) 6 t 5 t (
5 t 3 t
2 2
2
}
+
+
decomposition

t
1
36
5
) 3 t (
1
3
5
3 t
1
9
26
) 2 t (
1
2
3
2 t
1
4
11
t ) 6 t 5 t (
5 t 3 t
2 2 2 2
2
+
=
+
+

and integrating, we obtain
| t | ln
56
3
3 t
1
3
5
| 3 t | ln
9
26
2 t
1
2
3
| 2 t | ln
4
11
dt
t ) 6 t 5 t (
5 t 3 t
2 2
2
+
=
+
+
}

Answer. C x
56
3
3 e
1
3
5
| 3 e | ln
9
26
2 e
1
2
3
| 2 e | ln
4
11
x
x
x
x
+ +

These integrals are not elementary. For the first integral we have (see 7.3)
a x
e
a p
x p
=
}
, where ) x ( Ei is the exponential integral function,
defined by
}

=
x t
dt
t
e
) x ( Ei , 0 x > .
For the integral dx
) a x (
e
J
n
x p
n }

= we use the reduction formula (see 7.3)
1 n
1 n
x p
n
x p
n
J
1 n
p
) a x (
e
1 n
1
dx
) a x (
e
J

=
}

After successive reductions we end up to the evaluation of the integral dx
a x
e
x p
}

dx
a x
e
x p
}

and
dx
) a x (
e
n
x p
}

418
which, as mentioned earlier, is not elementary, but can be expressed in terms of
the exponential integral ) x ( Ei .
Integrals of the form dx
a x
e
x p
}

and dx
) a x (
e
n
x p
}

can also be evaluated by the
substitution
p
t ln
a x = . We then have
p
t ln
a x + = , t ln a p x p + = ,
t e e e e e
a p t ln a p t ln a p x p
= = =
+
and dt
t
1
p
1
dx = . Therefore
} } }
= =
t ln
dt
e dt
t
1
p
1
p
t ln
t e
dx
a x
e
a p
a p x p
and

} } }

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
n
a p 1 n
n
a p
n
x p
) t (ln
dt
e p dt
t
1
p
1
p
t ln
t e
dx
) a x (
e

The last integral, denoted by dx
) x (ln
1
I
n
n }
= can be evaluated using the
reduction formula (Section 8, 8.4)
1 n
1 n
n
I
1 n
1
) x (ln
x
1 n
1
I

=
The integral
}
t ln
dt
is not an elementary integral, i.e. it cannot be expressed in
terms of elementary functions. The function defined by the definite integral
}
=
x
0
t ln
dt
) x ( li is called the logarithmic integral. The following relation holds
between the logarithmic and exponential integrals: ) x (ln Ei ) x ( li = , 1 x >
1) dx
1 x
e
x 3
}

2) dx
3 x
e
x 2
}
+

419
3) dx
) 3 x (
e
3
x 2
}
+
4) dx
) 1 x (
e
2
x 3
}

5) dx
1 x 2
e
x 3
}
+
6) dx
) 1 x 3 (
e
2
x 3
}

(1) Hint. Use the formula )) a x ( p ( Ei e dx
a x
e
a p
x p
=
}
for 3 p = and 1 a = .
You may also use the substitution
3
t ln
1 x = .
Answer. )) 1 x ( 3 ( Ei e dx
1 x
e
3
x 3
=
}

(2) Hint. Use the formula )) a x ( p ( Ei e dx
a x
e
a p
x p
=
}
for 2 p = and 3 a = .
2
t ln
3 x = + .
Answer. )) 3 x ( 2 ( Ei e dx
3 x
e
6
x 2
+ =
+

}

(3) Hint. Using the reduction formula
1 n
1 n
x 2
n
J
1 n
2
) 3 x (
e
1 n
1
J

+
+
=
for the integral dx
) 3 x (
e
J
3
x 2
3 }
+
= , we find for 3 n = ,
2
2
x 2
3
J
) 3 x (
e
2
1
J +
+
=
for 2 n = ,
1
x 2
2
J 2
3 x
e
J +
+
= , where )) 3 x ( 2 ( Ei e dx
3 x
e
J
6
x 2
1
+ =
+
=

}

2
t ln
3 x = + and the reduction formula
1 n
1 n
n
I
1 n
1
) x (ln
x
1 n
1
I

= , dx
) x (ln
1
I
n
n }
=
Answer. )) 3 x ( 2 ( Ei e 2
3 x
e
) 3 x (
e
2
1
6
x 2
2
x 2
+ +
+
+

420
(4) Hint. Using the reduction formula
1 n
1 n
x 3
n
J
1 n
3
) 1 x (
e
1 n
1
J

=
for the integral dx
) 1 x (
e
J
2
x 3
2 }

= , we find for 2 n = ,
1
x 3
2
J 3
1 x
e
J +
= , where
)) 1 x ( 3 ( Ei e dx
1 x
e
J
3
x 3
1
=
=
}

3
t ln
1 x = and the reduction formula
1 n
1 n
n
I
1 n
1
) x (ln
x
1 n
1
I

= , dx
) x (ln
1
I
n
n }
=
Answer. )) 1 x ( 3 ( Ei e 3
1 x
e
3
x 3
+

2
1
x
e
2
1
dx
1 x 2
e
x 3 x 3
} }
+
=
+
. We then use the formula
a x
e
a p
x p
=
}
for 3 p = and
2
1
a = .
Answer. ))
2
1
x ( 3 ( Ei e
2
1
2
3
+

3
1
x
e
9
1
dx
) 1 x 3 (
e
2
x 3
2
x 3
} }
|
.
|
\
|

=
. Using the reduction formula

1 n
1 n
x p
n
x p
n
J
1 n
p
) a x (
e
1 n
1
dx
) a x (
e
J

=
}
for dx
3
1
x
e
J
2
x 3
2 }
|
.
|
\
|

=
for the values 3 p = and
3
1
a = , we get
1
x 3
2
J 3
3
1
x
e
J +
= , where
421
) 1 x 3 ( Ei e dx
3
1
x
e
J
x 3
1
=
=
}
. Answer.
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
) 1 x 3 ( Ei e
1 x 3
e
3
1
x 3

In this case we put
dx
a x
e
A
) a x (
e ) x ( Q
dx
) a x (
e ) x ( P
x p
1 n
x p
n
x p
} }

+

where ) x ( Q is a polynomial (with undetermined coefficients) with
2 n ) x ( Q deg = . In order to determine the coefficients of the polynomial ) x ( Q ,
we differentiate both members of the above identity and equate the similar powers
of the variable x.
1) dx
) 1 x (
e ) 3 x 2 x (
3
x 3 2
}
+
+
2) dx
) 2 x (
e ) 2 x 3 (
2
x 2
}
+

(1) Hint. Use the identity dx
1 x
e
A e
) 1 x (
b x a
dx
) 1 x (
e ) 3 x 2 x (
x 3
x 3
2 3
x 3 2
} }
+
+
+
+
=
+
+

and differentiate with respect to x both members. We then multiply by
3
) 1 x ( +
and cancel
x 3
e . After equating the coefficients of the similar powers of x, we can
determine the various constants. We find
1 x
e
A e
) 1 x (
b x a
dx
d
) 1 x (
e ) 3 x 2 x (
x 3
x 3
2 3
x 3 2
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=
+
+
, which is equivalent to
1 x
e
A e
) 1 x (
b x a
3 e
) 1 x (
) b ax ( 2 ) 1 x ( a
) 1 x (
e ) 3 x 2 x (
x 3
x 3
2
x 3
3 3
x 3 2
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
=
+
+

dx
) a x (
e ) x ( P
n
x p
}

, where
) x ( P
is a
polynomial of
1 n ) x ( P deg =
.

422
2 2
) 1 x ( A ) 1 x )( b ax ( 3 ) b ax ( 2 ) 1 x ( a 3 x 2 x + + + + + + + = +
Performing the operations and arranging the right member we arrive at the
identity: A b a x ) A 2 b 3 a 2 ( x ) A a 3 ( 3 x 2 x
2 2
+ + + + + + + = +
Equating the coefficients of the similar powers of the variable x , we obtain the
system 1 A a 3 = + , 2 A 2 b 3 a 2 = + + , 3 A b a = + + .
The system is satisfied if 6 a = , 8 b = and 17 A = . Therefore we have
dx
1 x
e
17 e
) 1 x (
8 x 6
dx
) 1 x (
e ) 3 x 2 x (
x 3
x 3
2 3
x 3 2
} }
+
+
+
=
+
+

The last integral can be evaluated using the formula )) a x ( p ( Ei e dx
a x
e
a p
x p
=
}

for 3 p = and 1 a = : )) 1 x ( 3 ( Ei e dx
1 x
e
3
x 3
+ =
+

}
.
Answer. )) 1 x ( 3 ( Ei e 17 e
) 1 x (
8 x 6
dx
) 1 x (
e ) 3 x 2 x (
3 x 3
2 3
x 3 2
+
+
+
=
+
+

}

(2) Hint. We put dx
2 x
e
A e
2 x
a
dx
) 2 x (
e ) 2 x 3 (
x 2
x 2
2
x 2
} }
+
+
+
=
+

Differentiation of the above identity gives us
2 x
e
A e
2 x
a 2
e
) 2 x (
a
) 2 x (
e ) 2 x 3 (
x 2
x 2 x 2
2 2
x 2
+
+
+
+
+
=
+

from which we get ) 2 x ( A ) 2 x ( a 2 a 2 x 3 + + + + = . Equating the coefficients
of similar powers of x, we obtain the system 3 A a 2 = + , 2 A 2 a 3 = + .
The system admits the unique solution 8 a = , 13 A = . Therefore
dx
2 x
e
13 e
2 x
8
dx
) 2 x (
e ) 2 x 3 (
x 2
x 2
2
x 2
} }
+
+
=
+
. The last integral can be evaluated

using the formula
a x
e
a p
x p
=
}
for 2 p = and 2 a = .
Answer. )) 2 x ( 2 ( Ei e 13 e
2 x
8
dx
) 2 x (
e ) 2 x 3 (
4 x 2
2
x 2
+
+
=
+

}

423

Case I. If 0 D > , then using partial fraction decomposition, we have

|
|
.
|
\
|

=
+ +
2 1 2 1
2
x
1
x
1
) ( a
1
c bx x a
1

where
1
and
2
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
+ +
} } }
dx
x
e
dx
x
e
) ( a
1
dx
c bx x a
e
2
x p
1
x p
2 1
2
x p

))} x ( p ( Ei e )) x ( p ( Ei e {
) ( a
1
2
p
1
p
2 1
2 1

=

2 2 1
2
1 2 1
1
2 1
x
1 B A
x
1 B A
) x ( ) x (
B x A

+
=

+

we obtain
=
+ +
+
}
dx
c bx x a
e ) B x A (
2
x p

=
|
|
.
|
\
|

+

+

=
} }
dx
x
e
) B A ( dx
x
e
) B A (
) ( a
1
2
x p
2
1
x p
1
2 1

))} x ( p ( Ei e ) B A ( )) x ( p ( Ei e ) B A {(
) ( a
1
2
p
2 1
p
1
2 1
2 1
+ +

=

2 2
a 2
b
= is the double
dx
c bx x a
e
2
x p
}
+ +
and
dx
c bx x a
e ) B x A (
2
x p
}
+ +
+
, where the discriminant
0 ac 4 b D
2
>
.

424
dx
) x (
e
a
1
dx
c bx x a
e
2
x p
2
x p
} }

=
+ +

Using the reduction formula (Section 7.3)

1 n
1 n
x p
n
x p
n
J
1 n
p
) a x (
e
1 n
1
dx
) a x (
e
J

=
}

for 2 n = , we find
= +

=

=
+ +
} } 1
x p
2
x p
2
x p
J
a
p
x
e
a
1
dx
) x (
e
a
1
dx
c bx x a
e

)) x ( p ( Ei e
a
p
x
e
a
1
a p
x p
+

=

1) dx
1 x 3 x 2
e
2
x 2
}
+
2) dx
6 x x
e ) 5 x 2 (
2
x 3
}
+

3) dx
3 x 2 x 8
e ) 4 x 3 (
2
x 2
}
+
+
4) dx
1 x 4 x 4
e ) 6 x (
2
x 3
}
+ +

1 x 2
2
1 x
1
1 x 3 x 2
1
2

=
+
the integral
becomes dx
2 / 1 x
e
dx
1 x
e
dx
1 x 3 x 2
e
x 2 x 2
2
x 2
} } }

=
+
. Using the formula
a x
e
a p
x p
=
}
, we can evaluate each one of the integrals.

Answer. ) 1 x 2 ( Ei e )) 1 x ( 2 ( Ei e
2

2 x
1
5
1
3 x
1
5
11
6 x x
5 x 2
2

+
=
+
the integral
becomes dx
2 x
e
5
1
dx
3 x
e
5
11
dx
6 x x
e ) 5 x 2 (
x 3 x 3
2
x 3
} } }

+
=
+
. Using the formula

a x
e
a p
x p
=
}

425
Answer. )) 2 x ( 3 ( Ei e
5
1
)) 3 x ( 3 ( Ei e
5
11
6 9
+

3 x 4
1
10
7
1 x 2
1
10
11
3 x 2 x 8
4 x 3
2
+

=
+
+
the
integral becomes dx
3 x 4
e
10
7
dx
1 x 2
e
10
11
dx
3 x 2 x 8
e ) 4 x 3 (
x 2 x 2
2
x 2
} } }
+
=
+
+
. Using the
formula )) a x ( p ( Ei e dx
a x
e
a p
x p
=
}

Answer. ) 2 / 3 x 2 ( Ei e
40
7
) 1 x 2 ( Ei e
20
11
2
3
+

2 2
) 1 x 2 (
1
2
13
1 x 2
1
2
1
) 1 x 2 (
6 x
+

+
=
+
the integral
becomes dx
) 1 x 2 (
e
2
13
dx
1 x 2
e
2
1
dx
) 1 x 2 (
e ) 6 x (
2
x 3 x 3
2
x 3
} } }
+
+
=
+
. Using the formula

a x
e
a p
x p
=
}
and the reduction formula
1 n
1 n
x p
n
x p
n
J
1 n
p
) a x (
e
1 n
1
dx
) a x (
e
J

=
}
,
we can evaluate the two last integrals.

Answer. ) 2 / 3 x 3 ( Ei e
8
37
1 x 2
e
4
13
2
3
x 3
+
+

dx
) c bx x a (
e
n 2
x p
}
+ +
and
dx
) c bx x a (
e ) B x A (
n 2
x p
}
+ +
+
, where the discriminant
0 ac 4 b D
2
>
.

426
Case I. We have for the integral
}
+ +
= dx
) c x b x a (
e
I
n 2
x p
n
the reduction formula
(see 7.6)
+ +
+ +
+
=
2 n 2
x p
1 n 2
x p
n
) c bx ax (
e
D ) 2 n )( 1 n (
p
) c bx ax (
e ) b ax 2 (
D ) 1 n (
1
I

2 n
2
1 n
I
D ) 2 n )( 1 n (
p
I
D
a 4

+ , 3 n > .
}
+ +
+
= dx
) c x b x a (
e ) B Ax (
J
n 2
x p
n
, using the identity
a 2
bA aB 2
) b ax 2 (
a 2
A
B x A

+ + = + , we find

1 n n
1 n 2
x p
n
I
a ) 1 n ( 2
Ap
I
a 2
bA aB 2
) c bx ax (
e
a ) 1 n ( 2
A
J

+
+ +
=
where the integral
n
I is evaluated using the reduction formula of Case I.
1) dx
) 1 x 3 x 2 (
e
2 2
x 2
}
+
2) dx
) 1 x 3 x 2 (
e ) 5 x 2 (
3 2
x 2
}
+

(1) Hint. Using partial fractions, since ) 1 x ( ) 1 x 2 ( 1 x 3 x 2
2
= + , we have

2 2 2 2
) 1 x 2 (
4
1 x 2
8
) 1 x (
1
1 x
4
) 1 x ( ) 1 x 2 (
1
=

dx
) 1 x 2 (
e
4 dx
1 x 2
e
8 dx
) 1 x (
e
dx
1 x
e
4
2
x 2 x 2
2
x 2 x 2
} } } }

+

The integrals dx
1 x
e
x 2
}

and dx
1 x 2
e
x 2
}

are evaluated using the formula
a x
e
a p
x p
=
}
while the other two, using the reduction formula
427
1 n
1 n
x p
n
x p
n
J
1 n
p
) a x (
e
1 n
1
dx
) a x (
e
J

=
}
.
Answer. ) 1 x 2 ( Ei e 6 )) 2 x ( 2 ( Ei e 2
1 x 3 x 2
e ) x 4 3 (
2
2
x 2
+
+

(2) Hint. Using the formula
1 n n
1 n 2
x p
n
I
a ) 1 n ( 2
p A
I
a 2
A b B a 2
) c x b x a (
e
a ) 1 n ( 2
A
J

+
+ +
=
for 2 p , 3 n = = , 5 B , 2 A = = and 1 c , 3 b , 2 a = = = , we obtain

2 3
2 2
x 2
3 2
x 2
3
I
2
1
I
2
7
) 1 x 3 x 2 (
e
4
1
dx
) 1 x 3 x 2 (
e ) 5 x 2 (
J +
+
=
+
=
}

For the integral dx
) 1 x 3 x 2 (
e
I
3 2
x 2
3 }
+
= , we use the reduction formula

+ +
+ +
+
=
2 n 2
x p
1 n 2
x p
n
) c bx ax (
e
D ) 2 n )( 1 n (
p
) c bx ax (
e ) b ax 2 (
D ) 1 n (
1
I
2 n
2
1 n
I
D ) 2 n )( 1 n (
p
I
D
a 4

+ , 3 n > .
We find
1 2
2
x 2
2 2
x 2
3
I 2 I 8
1 x 3 x 2
e
) 1 x 3 x 2 (
e ) 3 x 4 (
2
1
I +
+
=
Therefore
+
=
2 2
x 2
3
) 1 x 3 x 2 (
e
4
1
J

2 1 2
2
x 2
2 2
x 2
I
2
1
I 2 I 8
1 x 3 x 2
e
) 1 x 3 x 2 (
e ) 3 x 4 (
2
1
2
7
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+

or

1 2
2
x 2
2 2
x 2
3
I 7 I
2
57
1 x 3 x 2
e
2
7
) 1 x 3 x 2 (
e ) 11 x 14 (
2
1
J +
+
+
+
=
Answer.
428
) 1 x 2 ( Ei e 136 )) 2 x ( 2 ( Ei e 50
) 1 x 3 x 2 ( 2
e ) 125 x 566 x 788 x 344 (
2
2 2
x 2 2 3
+
+
+

) x (
) x ( Q
) x ( P ) x ( R + = where ) x ( P is
the proper part (a polynomial) and
) x (
) x ( Q
dx
a x
e
x p
}

, dx
) a x (
e
n
x p
}

, dx
) a x (
e ) x ( P
n
x p
}

dx
c bx x a
e
2
x p
}
+ +
, dx
) c bx x a (
e
n 2
x p
}
+ +
and dx
c bx x a
e ) B Ax (
2
x p
}
+ +
+
,
dx
) c bx x a (
e ) B Ax (
n 2
x p
}
+ +
+
, where we suppose that 0 ac 4 b D
2
> .
1) dx
2 x 7 x 4 x 4
e ) 2 x x 3 (
2 3
x 2 2
}

+
2) dx
) 4 x ( ) 2 x (
e ) 5 x 3 x x 5 (
2 2
x 2 2 3
}

+

(1) Hint. ) 2 x ( ) 1 x 2 ( 2 x 7 x 4 x 4
2 2 3
+ = . Using partial fractions,

2 2 3
2
) 1 x 2 (
1
10
13
1 x 2
1
50
27
2 x
1
25
12
2 x 7 x 4 x 4
2 x x 3
+

+
+
=

+

Therefore
dx
) 1 x 2 (
e
10
13
dx
1 x 2
e
50
27
dx
2 x
e
25
12
dx
2 x 7 x 4 x 4
e ) 2 x x 3 (
2
x 2 x 2 x 2
2 3
x 2 2
} } } }
+

+
+
=

+

}
dx e ) x ( R
x
where
) x ( R
is a
rational function.

429
Each one of the integrals appearing on the rhs of the above relation can be evaluated
using the hints of Exercise 3.
Answer. ) 1 x 2 ( Ei e
50
19
)) 2 x ( 2 ( Ei e
25
12
1 x 2
e
20
12
1 4
x 2
+ +
+


3 2 2 2
2 3
) 2 x (
1
4
37
) 2 x (
1
16
199
2 x
1
64
265
2 x
1
64
55
) 4 x ( ) 2 x (
5 x 3 x x 5
+
+
=

+

Therefore +
+
+
=

+
} } }
dx
2 x
e
64
265
dx
2 x
e
64
55
dx
) 4 x ( ) 2 x (
e ) 5 x 3 x x 5 (
x 2 x 2
2 2
x 2 2 3

dx
) 2 x (
e
4
37
dx
) 2 x (
e
16
199
3
x 2
2
x 2
} }

+
+
Each one of the integrals appearing on the rhs of the above relation can be evaluated
using the hints of Exercise 3.
Answer.
)) 2 x ( 2 ( Ei e
64
55
)) 2 x ( 2 ( Ei e
64
3041
) 2 x (
e ) 620 x 347 (
16
1
4 4
2
x 2
+ + +

8

Integrals of
Logarithmic Functions

Learning Objectives

integrals involving logarithmic functions.
The classification involves fifteen cases.

Chapter 8-Integrals of logarithmic functions
431

- First Category. Integrals of the form

}
= dx ) x (ln I
n
n

- Second Category. Integrals of the form
}
= dx ) x (ln P I
where ) x ( P is a polynomial function.
- Third Category. Integrals of the form
}
= dx ) x (ln R I

}
= dx
) x (ln
1
J
n
n


}
= dx
x
x ln
K
n
n

- Sixth Category. Integrals of the form
}
= dx x ln x I
n
n
.
- Seventh Category. Integrals of the form
}
= dx x ln ) x ( P I
n

where ) x ( P is an n-th degree polynomial.
- Eighth Category. Integrals of the form
}
= dx x ln ) x ( R I
n

432
- Ninth Category. Integrals of the form
}
= dx ) x (ln x I
n m
n , m

- Tenth Category. Integrals of the form
}
= dx
x ln
x
I
n
n
, 2 n > .
- Eleventh Category. Integrals of the form

}
= dx
) x (ln
x
I
n
m
n , m
, 2 m> ,
- Twelfth Category. Integrals of the form
dx
x
) x (ln
I
m
n
n }
= , 2 n >
- Thirteenth Category. Integrals of the form
}

=
n
n
) x (ln x
dx
I , 2 n >
- Fourteenth Category. Integrals of the form
}

=
) x (ln x
dx
I
n
n
, 2 n >
- Fifteenth Category. Integrals of the form
}

=
n m
n , m
) x (ln x
dx
I , 2 m> , 2 n >

433

8.1. First Category. Integrals of the form

}
= dx ) x (ln I
n
n
(1)
8.1.1. First Method
This type of integrals can be evaluated using integration by parts.
- For 1 n = we have to calculate the integral
}
= dx x ln I
1
.
Using the formula

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

1

x ln

x

x
1

we find
C x x ln x dx x ln x dx x ln I
1
+ = = =
} }

- For 2 n > we have, using formula (2) and the table below, that
= = =

} }
dx ) x (ln
x
n
x ) x (ln x dx ) x (ln I
1 n n n
n

1 n
n 1 n n
I n ) x (ln x dx ) x (ln n ) x (ln x

= =
}

) x ( f '

) x ( g ) x ( f

) x ( g'

1

n
) x (ln
x
1 n
) x (ln
x
n

We have thus arrived at the reduction formula

1 n
n
n
I n ) x (ln x I

= , 2 n > (3)
where
C x x ln x I
1
+ = (4)
434
}
= dx ) x (ln I
4

Solution. We recognize that
4
I I = . Therefore we have
For 4 n = we find from the reduction formula (3)

3
4
4
I 4 ) x (ln x I =
For 3 n = we find

2
3
3
I 3 ) x (ln x I =
For 2 n = we find

1
2
2
I 2 ) x (ln x I =
Combining the above formulas we get
= = } I 3 ) x (ln x { 4 ) x (ln x I
2
3 4
4

= + =
2
3 4
I 12 ) x (ln x 4 ) x (ln x
= + = } I 2 ) x (ln x { 12 ) x (ln x 4 ) x (ln x
1
2 3 4

1
2 3 4
I 24 ) x (ln x 12 ) x (ln x 4 ) x (ln x + =
and using formula (4) for the
1
I , we get the final result
C ) x x ln x ( 24 ) x (ln x 12 ) x (ln x 4 ) x (ln x I
2 3 4
+ + =
8.1.2 Second Method
Instead of using reduction formula, it would in some cases be more convenient to
use the formula
C } A ) x (ln A ) x (ln A { x dx ) x (ln
n
1 n
1
n
0
n
+ + + + =

}

The coefficients
n 1 0
A , , A , A are determined by differentiating both members
of the above identity.
}
dx ) x (ln
3
.
C } A ) x (ln A ) x (ln A ) x (ln A { x dx ) x (ln
3 2
2
1
3
0
3
+ + + + =
}

435
Differentiating both members we get
+ + + + =
3 2
2
1
3
0
3
A ) x (ln A ) x (ln A ) x (ln A ) x (ln

)
`
+ + +
x
1
A ) x (ln
x
2
A ) x (ln
x
3
A x
2 1
2
0

+ + + =
2
0 1
3
0
3
) x (ln ) A 3 A ( ) x (ln A ) x (ln

3 2 1 2
A A ) x )(ln A 2 A ( + + + +
From the above identity we obtain the system

0
A 1= ,
0 1
A 3 A 0 + = ,
1 2
A 2 A 0 + = ,
3 2
A A 0 + =
Solving the system, we obtain the values of the coefficients:
1 A
0
= , 3 A
1
= , 6 A
2
= and 6 A
3
=
C } 6 ) x (ln 6 ) x (ln 3 ) x {(ln x dx ) x (ln
2 3 3
+ + =
}

The reader can verify that the same result can be obtained using the reduction
formula.
8.2. Second Category. Integrals of the form
}
= dx ) x (ln P I
where ) x ( P is an n-th degree polynomial function.

In this case we use the identity
C ) x (ln Q x dx ) x (ln P I + = =
}

where ) x ( Q is again a polynomial of the same degree with ) x ( P .
The coefficients of the polynomial ) x ( Q are determined by differentiation of both
members of the identity.
}
+ dx ] 3 ) x (ln 7 ) x (ln 5 ) x (ln 2 [
2 3

436
= +
}
dx ] 3 ) x (ln 7 ) x (ln 5 ) x (ln 2 [
2 3

C } A ) x (ln A ) x (ln A ) x (ln A { x
3 2
2
1
3
0
+ + + + =
Differentiating both members of the previous identity, we obtain
= + 3 ) x (ln 7 ) x (ln 5 ) x (ln 2
2 3

+ + + + =
3 2
2
1
3
0
A ) x (ln A ) x (ln A ) x (ln A

)
`
+ + +
x
1
A ) x (ln
x
2
A ) x (ln
x
3
A x
2 1
2
0

= + 3 ) x (ln 7 ) x (ln 5 ) x (ln 2
2 3

+ + + =
2
0 1
3
0
) x (ln ) A 3 A ( ) x (ln A

3 2 1 2
A A ) x )(ln A 2 A ( + + + +

0
A 2 = ,
0 1
A 3 A 5 + = ,
1 2
A 2 A 7 + = ,
3 2
A A 3 + =
2 A
0
= , 11 A
1
= , 29 A
2
= and 32 A
3
=
C } 32 ) x (ln 29 ) x (ln 11 ) x (ln 2 { x dx ) x (ln
2 3 3
+ + =
}

8.3. Third Category
}
= dx ) x (ln R I
In this case we make the substitution x ln t = .
) x (ln 4
x ln 1
2
}

+

437
Solution. Using the substitution x ln t = , since
t
e x = and dt e dx
t
= ,
dt e
t 4
t 1
t
2
}

+
(1)
Using partial fraction decomposition, we find

2 t
1
4
1
2 t
1
4
3
t 4
t 1
2
+
+

Therefore the integral (1) takes the form
dt
2 t
e
4
1
dt
2 t
e
4
3
dt e
t 4
t 1
t t
t
2 } } }
+
+

Using the formula (see 7.3)
)) x a ( p ( Ei e dx
a x
e
a p
x p
=
}

we find
) t 2 ( Ei e dt
2 t
e
2
t
=
}
and ) t 2 ( Ei e dt
2 t
e
2
t
=
+

}

Therefore
) t 2 ( Ei e
4
1
) t 2 ( Ei e
4
3
dt e
t 4
t 1
2 2 t
2
=
+

}

Going back to the original variable, we get the value of the integral
) x ln 2 ( Ei e
4
1
) x ln 2 ( Ei e
4
3
dx
) x (ln 4
x ln 1
2 2
2
=
+

}

8.4. Fourth Category. Integrals of the form

}
= dx
) x (ln
1
J
n
n

For 1 n = we have to calculate the integral
}
= dx
x ln
1
J
1
which cannot be
evaluated by elementary methods. This function can be identified, without loss of
438
generality with the logarithmic integral, defined by the definite integral (see 7.3,
Note 2)

}
=
x
0
t ln
dt
) x ( li
We also have that ) x (ln Ei ) x ( li = .
For 2 n > , using the formula
} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

1
n
) x (ln
1

x
1 n
) x (ln
1
x
n
+

We find
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
} }
+
dx
) x (ln
1
x
n
x
) x (ln
x
dx
) x (ln
1
J
1 n n n
n

1 n
n 1 n n
J n
) x (ln
x
dx
) x (ln
1
n
) x (ln
x
+
+
+ = + =
}

We have thus arrived at the reduction formula

1 n
n
n
J n
) x (ln
x
J
+
+ =
from which we get

n
n
1 n
J
n
1
) x (ln
x
n
1
J + =
+

or, changing n to 1 n ,

1 n
1 n
n
J
1 n
1
) x (ln
x
1 n
1
J

=
}
= dx
) x (ln
1
I
3

439
Solution. Since
3
J I = , using the reduction formula proved above, we have
For 3 n = ,
2
2
3
J
2
1
) x (ln
x
2
1
J + =
For 2 n = ,
1 2
J
x ln
x
J + =
Therefore
|
.
|
\
|
+ + =
1
2
3
J
x ln
x
2
1
) x (ln
x
2
1
J or

}
+ = dx
x ln
1
2
1
x ln
x
2
1
) x (ln
x
2
1
J I
2 3

The last integral can be identified with the logarithmic integral

}
=
x
0
t ln
dt
) x ( li
Therefore
) x ( li
2
1
x ln
x
2
1
) x (ln
x
2
1
I
2
+ =
8.5. Fifth Category
8.5.1 First Case. Integrals of the form

}
= dx
x
x ln
K
n
n

For 1 n = we have to evaluate the integral

}
= dx
x
x ln
K
1

which can be evaluated using the substitution x ln t = . We then find
C ) x (ln
2
1
C t
2
1
dt t dx
x
x ln
K
2 2
1
+ = + = = =
} }

For 2 n > , using the formula

} }
440
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

n
x
1

x ln
1 n
x
1
1 n
1

x
1

we find
=
= =
} }

dx
x
1
1 n
1
x
x ln
1 n
1
dx
x
x ln
K
n 1 n n
n

C
x
1
) 1 n (
1
x
x ln
1 n
1
1 n 2 1 n
+
=

We thus have arrived at the formula
C
x
1
) 1 n (
1
x
x ln
1 n
1
dx
x
x ln
K
1 n 2 1 n n
n
+
= =

}
, 2 n >
C ) x (ln
2
1
K
2
1
+ =
Example 1. Evaluate the integral dx x ln
x
x x
I
5
3 4
+
=
}

Solution. The integral can be written as the sum of two integrals

2 1 2
K K dx
x
x ln
dx
x
x ln
I + = + =
} }

where

2
1
) x (ln
2
1
K =

x
1
x
x ln
K
2
=
Therefore
C
x
1
x
x ln
) x (ln
2
1
dx x ln
x
x x
I
2
5
3 4
+ =
+
=
}

8.5.2 Second Case. Integrals of the form
441

}

dx
) a x (
x ln
n

For 1 n = , we have to evaluate the integral

}

dx
a x
x ln

In this case we use the substitution t a a x = . We then have ) 1 t ( a x + = and
dt a dx = . The integral thus becomes
=
+ +
=
+
} }
dt
t
) 1 t ( ln a ln
a dt a
t
)] 1 t ( a [ ln

} }
+
+ = dt
t
) 1 t ( ln
a dt
t
1
) a (ln a
The integral
}
+
dt
t
) 1 t ( ln
under the substitution t 1 u + = takes the form
}

du
u 1
u ln
, which can be identified, without loss of generality to the
dilogarithm, a function defined by the integral
dt
t 1
t ln
) x ( Li
x
1
2 }

=
Therefore
) 1 t ( Li dt
t
) 1 t ( ln
2
+ =
+
}

and
C )} 1 t ( Li | t | ln ) a {(ln a dt a
t
)] 1 t ( a [ ln
2
+ + =
+
}

Going back to the original variable, we obtain the following value of the integral
C 1
a
a x
Li
a
a x
ln ) a (ln a dx
a x
x ln
2
+
)
`
|
.
|
\
|
+
}

or
442
C
a
x
Li 1
a
x
ln ) a (ln a dx
a x
x ln
2
+
)
`
|
.
|
\
|
=
}

The integral

}

= dx
) a x (
x ln
J
n n
, 2 n >
can be evaluated using the formula

} }
and the table
) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'
n
) a x (
1

x ln
1 n
) a x (
1
1 n
1

x
1

We then find

} }

=
1 n 1 n n
n
) a x ( x
dx
1 n
1
) a x (
x ln
1 n
1
dx
) a x (
x ln
J , 2 n >

}

dx
) 3 x (
x ln
3

Solution. Using the above formula, we have for 3 a = and 3 n = :

} }

+
2 2 3
) 3 x ( x
dx
2
1
) 3 x (
x ln
2
1
dx
) 3 x (
x ln

We find, using partial fraction decomposition,

2 2
) 3 x (
1
3
1
3 x
1
9
1
x
1
3
1
) 3 x ( x
1

Therefore
=
} } } } 2 2 3
) 3 x (
dx
6
1
3 x
dx
18
1
x
dx
6
1
) 3 x (
x ln
2
1
dx
) 3 x (
x ln

C
3 x
1
6
1
| 3 x | ln
18
1
| x | ln
6
1
) 3 x (
x ln
2
1
2
+
=

443
8.6. Sixth Category
}
= dx x ln x I
n
n
.
Integrals of this type can be evaluated using integration by parts.
Using the formula

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g ) x ( f

) x ( g'

n
x

x ln
1 n
x
1 n
+
+

x
1

we find
=
+
+
= =
} }
+ +
dx
x
1
1 n
x
x ln
1 n
x
dx x ln x I
1 n 1 n
n
n

=
+
+
=
}
+
dx x
1 n
1
x ln
1 n
x
n
1 n

C
1 n
x
1 n
1
x ln
1 n
x
1 n 1 n
+
+ +
+
=
+ +

Therefore
C x
) 1 n (
1
x ln
1 n
x
dx x ln x I
1 n
2
1 n
n
n
+
+
+
= =
+
+
}


}
dx x ln x
4

Solution. Using the above formula, we find for 4 n = :
C x
25
1
x ln
5
x
dx x ln x
5
5
4
+ =
}

444
8.7. Seventh Category
}
= dx x ln ) x ( P I
n
where ) x ( P is an n-th degree
polynomial:

n 1 n
1 n
1
n
0
a x a x a x a ) x ( P + + + + =

Integrals of this type can be evaluated either integrating term by term using the
formula of the previous Category (8.7) or using the formula
= + + + +
}
dx x ln ) a x a x a x a (
n 1 n
1 n
1
n
0

+ + + + + =

+
x ln ) x A x A x A x A (
n
2
1 n
n
1
1 n
0

C ) x B x B x B x B (
n
2
1 n
n
1
1 n
0
+ + + + + +

+

The various coefficients appearing in the above formula can be determined by
differentiation and equating the coefficients of similar power of the variable x.
We thus find
= + + + +

x ln ) a x a x a x a (
n 1 n
1 n
1
n
0

+ + + + + + =

x ln } A x A 2 x nA x A ) 1 n {(
n 1 n
1 n
1
n
0

+ + + + + +

+
x
1
) x A x A x A x A (
n
2
1 n
n
1
1 n
0

n 1 n
1 n
1
n
0
B x B 2 x B n x B ) 1 n ( + + + + + +

= + + + +

n 1 n
1 n
1
n
0

+ + + + + + =

x ln } A x A 2 x nA x A ) 1 n {(
n 1 n
1 n
1
n
0

+ + + + + +

n 1 n
1 n
1
n
0
A x A x A x A

n 1 n
1 n
1
n
0
B x B 2 x B n x B ) 1 n ( + + + + + +

or
= + + + +

n 1 n
1 n
1
n
0

445
+ + + + + + =

x ln } A x A 2 x nA x A ) 1 n {(
n 1 n
1 n
1
n
0

+ + + + + + +

1 n
1 1
n
0 0
x } B n A { x } B ) 1 n ( A {
n n 1 n 1 n
B A x } B 2 A { + + + +


0 0
A ) 1 n ( a + = ,
1 1
A n a = , ,
1 n 1 n
A 2 a

= ,
n n
A a =
0 B ) 1 n ( A
0 0
= + + , 0 B n A
1 1
= + , , 0 B 2 A
1 n 1 n
= +

, 0 B A
n n
= +
The above system can be solved to give

1 n
a
A
0
0
+
= ,
n
a
A
1
1
= , ,
2
a
A
1 n
1 n

= ,
n n
a A =

2
0
0
) 1 n (
a
B
+
= ,
2
1
1
n
a
B = , ,
4
a
B
1 n
1 n

= ,
n n
a B =
Therefore all the unknown coefficients can be determined uniquely from the
known coefficients of the polynomial ) x ( P .
Example 1. Evaluate the integral dx x ln ) 4 x 5 x 2 (
2
}
+
Solution. We put
+ + + = +
}
x ln ) x A x A x A ( dx x ln ) 4 x 5 x 2 (
2
2
1
3
0
2

C ) x B x B x B (
2
2
1
3
0
+ + + + (1)
Differentiation with respect to x of both members of the previous identity gives
us the relation
+ + + = + x ln ) A x A 2 x A 3 ( x ln ) 4 x 5 x 2 (
2 1
2
0
2

+ + + +
x
1
) x A x A x A (
2
2
1
3
0

) B x B 2 x B 3 (
2 1
2
0
+ + +
+ + + = + x ln ) A x A 2 x A 3 ( x ln ) 4 x 5 x 2 (
2 1
2
0
2

446
) B A ( x ) B 2 A ( x ) B 3 A (
2 2 1 1
2
0 0
+ + + + + +
From the above identity we get the system
2 A 3
0
= , 5 A 2
1
= , 4 A
2
=
0 B 3 A
0 0
= + , 0 B 2 A
1 1
= + , 0 B A
2 2
= +
The previous system has the unique solution given by

3
2
A
0
= ,
2
5
A
1
= , 4 A
2
=

9
2
B
0
= ,
4
5
B
1
= , 4 B
2
=
Therefore we obtain from (1) that the value of the integral is given by
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ = +
}
x ln x 4 x
2
5
x
3
2
dx x ln ) 4 x 5 x 2 (
2 3 2

C x 4 x
4
5
x
9
2
2 3
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
Example 2. Evaluate the integral dx x ln ) 4 x 6 x 5 x 3 (
2 3
}
+
Solution. We put
+ + + + = +
}
x ln ) x A x A x A x A ( dx x ln ) 4 x 6 x 5 x 3 (
3
2
2
3
1
4
0
2 3

3
2
2
3
1
4
0
+ + + + +
Using the same procedure, as in the previous Example, we arrive at
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ = +
}
x ln x 4 x 3 x
3
5
x
4
3
dx x ln ) 4 x 6 x 5 x 3 (
2 3 4 2 3

C x 4 x
2
3
x
9
5
x
16
3
2 3 4
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ + +
8.8 Eighth Category
}
= dx x ln ) x ( R I
n
A special case of these integrals is
447
dx ) x (ln
) c bx ax (
B Ax
n 2
}
+ +
+

Example 1. Evaluate the integral dx ) x (ln
x
1 x
4
2
}
+

Solution.
= + =
+
} } }
dx
x
x ln
dx
x
x ln
dx ) x (ln
x
1 x
4 2 4
2

C ) x (ln
x 3
1 x 3
x 9
1 x 9
3
2
3
2
+
+
+
=
Note. In evaluating the above two integrals we have used the reduction formula
(8.5)
1 n 2 1 n n
x
1
) 1 n (
1
x
x ln
1 n
1
dx
x
x ln

=
}
, 2 n >
For 2 n = we find
x
1
x
x ln
dx
x
x ln
2
=
}

For 4 n = we find
3 3 4
x
1
9
1
x
x ln
3
1
dx
x
x ln
=
}

8.9. Ninth Category
}
= dx ) x (ln x I
n m
n , m

Using the formula

} }
and the table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'
m
x
n
) x (ln
1 m
x
1 m
+
+

1 n
) x (ln
x
n

448
we find
=
+
+
= =

+ +
} }
dx ) x (ln
x
n
1 m
x
) x (ln
1 m
x
dx ) x (ln x I
1 n
1 m
n
1 m
n m
n , m

=
+
+
=

+
}
dx ) x (ln x
1 m
n
) x (ln
1 m
x
1 n m n
1 m

1 n , m
n
1 m
I
1 m
n
) x (ln
1 m
x
+
+
+
=
Therefore

1 n , m
n
1 m
n , m
I
1 m
n
) x (ln
1 m
x
I

+
+
+
=
}
= dx ) x (ln x I
2 3

Solution. This is the integral
2 , 3
I . Using the above reduction formula for 3 m = ,
2 n = , we find

1 , 3
2
4
2 3
2 , 3
I
2
1
) x (ln
4
x
dx ) x (ln x I I = =
}

For the integral
1 , 3
I we find for 3 m = , 1 n =
0 , 3
4
1 , 3
I
4
1
) x (ln
4
x
I =
where
4
x
dx x I
4
3
0 , 3
= =
}

Putting everything together, we find
C
4
x
4
1
) x (ln
4
x
2
1
) x (ln
4
x
dx ) x (ln x I I
4 4
2
4
2 3
2 , 3
+
= =
}

or
C
32
x
) x (ln
8
x
) x (ln
4
x
dx ) x (ln x I I
4 4
2
4
2 3
2 , 3
+ + = =
}

449
Note. Integrals of the form
}
= dx ) x (ln x I
n m
n , m
can be evaluated using the
formula
C x } a ) x (ln a ) x (ln a { dx ) x (ln x
1 m
n
1 n
1
n
0
n m
+ + + + =
+
}

where the coefficients are determined by differentiation of both members of the
above identity.
8.10. Tenth Category. Integrals of the form
}
= dx
x ln
x
I
n
n
, 2 n > .
Under the substitution x ln t = , (
t
e x = and dt e dx
t
= ), the integral transforms
into
) t ) 1 n ( ( Ei dt
t
e
dt e
t
e
t ) 1 n (
t
t n
+ = =
} }
+

using the formula (see 7.3)
a x
e
a p
x p
=
}

Going back to the original variable, we have
) x ln ) 1 n ( ( Ei dx
x ln
x
I
n
n
+ = =
}

}
dx
x ln
x
2

Solution. Using the above formula, we find ) x ln 3 ( Ei dx
x ln
x
2
=
}

8.11. Eleventh Category
}
= dx
) x (ln
x
I
n
m
n , m
, 2 n > .
Using the formula

} }
450
and the table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f

) x ( g'
m
x
n
) x (ln
1

1 m
x
1 m
+
+

1 n
) x (ln
1
x
n
+

we find
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
= =
+
+ +
} }
dx
) x (ln
1
x
n
1 m
x
) x (ln
1
1 m
x
dx
) x (ln
x
I
1 n
1 m
n
1 m
n
m
n , m

=
+
+
+
=
}
+
+
dx
) x (ln
x
1 m
n
) x (ln
1
1 m
x
1 n
m
n
1 m

1 n , m
n
1 m
I
1 m
n
) x (ln
1
1 m
x
+
+
+
+
+
=
We thus have arrived at the reduction formula

1 n , m
n
1 m
n , m
I
1 m
n
) x (ln
1
1 m
x
I
+
+
+
+
+
=
from which we get

1 n , m
n
1 m
n , m
I
) x (ln
1
n
x
I
n
1 m
+
+
+ =
+

or

n , m
n
1 m
1 n , m
I
n
1 m
) x (ln
x
n
1
I
+
+ =
+
+

Changing n to 1 n in the above formula, we find

1 n , m
1 n
1 m
n , m
I
1 n
1 m
) x (ln
x
1 n
1
I

+
+
=

}
= dx
) x (ln
x
I
3
2

451
Solution. We have
}
= = dx
) x (ln
x
I I
3
2
3 , 2

For 2 m= , 3 n = we find from the above formula

2 , 2
2
3
3 , 2
I
2
3
) x (ln
x
2
1
I + =

1 , 2
3
2 , 2
I 3
) x (ln
x
I + =
where (Example, 8.10)

) x ln 3 ( Ei dx
x ln
x
I
2
1 , 2
= =
}

= + = = =
} 2 , 2
2
3
3
2
3 , 2
I
2
3
) x (ln
x
2
1
dx
) x (ln
x
I I
=
+ + =
1 , 2
3
2
3
I 3
) x (ln
x
2
3
) x (ln
x
2
1

C ) x ln 3 ( Ei 3
) x (ln
x
2
3
) x (ln
x
2
1
3
2
3
+
+ + =
C ) x ln 3 ( Ei
2
9
) x (ln
x
2
3
) x (ln
x
2
1
3
2
3
+ + =
}
dx
) x (ln
x
n
m
may be evaluated using the identity
) x ln ) 1 m ( ( Ei a x
x ln
a
) x (ln
a
) x (ln
a
dx
) x (ln
x
n
1 m 1 n
2 n
1
1 n
0
n
m
+ +
+ + + =
+

}

where the coefficients are determined by differentiation of both members.
We remind that
x
e
) x ( Ei
dx
d
x
= . Therefore in differentiating ) x ln ) 1 m ( ( Ei + , we
should take into account that
) x (ln x
1
) x ln ) 1 m ( ( Ei
dx
d
2 m+
= + .
452
8.12. Twelfth Category. Integrals of the form
}
= dx
x
) x (ln
I
m
n
n , m
, 2 m> .
Using the formula

} }
and the table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'
m
x
1

n
) x (ln
1 m
x
1
1 m
1

1 n
) x (ln
x
n

we find
= =

}
1 m
n
m
n
n , m
x
) x (ln
1 m
1
dx
x
) x (ln
I
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
}
dx ) x (ln
x
n
x
1
1 m
1
1 n
1 m

}

= dx
x
) x (ln
1 m
n
x
) x (ln
1 m
1
m
1 n
1 m
n


1 n , m
1 m
n
n , m
I
1 m
n
x
) x (ln
1 m
1
I

=
}
= dx
x
) x (ln
I
4
3

Solution. We have
}
= dx
x
) x (ln
I I
4
3
3 , 4

453
2 , 4 3
3
3 , 4
I
x
) x (ln
3
1
I + =
For 4 m= , 2 n = we find

1 , 4 3
2
2 , 4
I
3
2
x
) x (ln
3
1
I + =
For 4 m= , 1 n = we find

0 , 4 3 1 , 4
I
3
1
x
) x (ln
3
1
I + =
where

3 4 0 , 4
x
1
3
1
dx
x
1
I = =
}

= + = =
} 2 , 4 3
3
4
3
3 , 4
I
x
) x (ln
3
1
dx
x
) x (ln
I I
= + =
1 , 4 3
2
3
3
I
3
2
x
) x (ln
3
1
x
) x (ln
3
1

=
)
`
+ + =
0 , 4 3 3
2
3
3
I
3
1
x
) x (ln
3
1
3
2
x
) x (ln
3
1
x
) x (ln
3
1

= +
)
`
)
`
+ + = C
x
1
3
1
3
1
x
) x (ln
3
1
3
2
x
) x (ln
3
1
x
) x (ln
3
1
3 3 3
2
3
3

C
x
1
27
2
x
) x (ln
9
2
x
) x (ln
3
1
x
) x (ln
3
1
3 3 3
2
3
3
+ =
}
dx
x
) x (ln
m
n
} a ) x (ln a ) x (ln a {
x
1
dx
x
) x (ln
n
1 n
1
n
0
1 m m
n
+ + + =

}

8.13. Thirteenth Category. Integrals of the form
}

=
n
n
) x (ln x
dx
I , 2 n >
454
Using the formula

} }
and the table

) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f

) x ( g'

x
1

n
) x (ln
1

x ln
1 n
) x (ln
1
x
n
+

we find
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
=
} }
+
dx
) x (ln
1
x
n
) x (ln
) x (ln
1
) x (ln
) x (ln x
dx
I
1 n n n
n

n
1 n n 1 n
I n
) x (ln
1
dx
) x (ln x
1
n
) x (ln
1
+ =
+ =

}

We have thus derived the formula

n
1 n
n
I n
) x (ln
1
I + =

from which we get
1 n
n
) x (ln
1
I ) n 1 (

= or
C
) x (ln
1
1 n
1
I
1 n
n
+
=

, 2 n >
For 1 n = we have
}

=
x ln x
dx
I
1
. Using the substitution x ln t = we have
dx
x
1
dt = . Therefore
} }
+ = + = =
= C | x ln | ln C | t | ln
t
dt
x ln x
dx
I
1
.
}

=
3
) x (ln x
dx
I
455
Solution. We have
}

=
3 3
) x (ln x
dx
I I
For 3 n = we find
C
) x (ln
1
2
1
) x (ln x
dx
I
2 3 3
+ =
=
}

8.14. Fourteenth Category. Integrals of the form
}

=
) x (ln x
dx
I
n
n
, 2 n >
The integral

}

+
) x (ln x
dx
1 n

under the substitution x ln t = , (
t
e x = , dt e dx
t
= ) takes the form
dt ) n (
t n
dt e
t e
dt e
t n
t ) 1 n (
t
} }

+

Under a second substitution t n u = ( dt ) n ( du = ), the integral becomes
du
u
e
u
}

which can be identified, without loss of generality, with the exponential integral
) u ( Ei . Therefore, going back to the original variable, we have the value of the
integral
) x ln n ( Ei
) x (ln x
dx
1 n
=
}
+

}

=
) x (ln x
dx
I
3

Solution. We have ) x ln 2 ( Ei
) x (ln x
dx
I I
3
3
=
=
}

456
8.15. Fifteenth Category
}

=
n m
n , m
) x (ln x
dx
I , 2 m> , 2 n >
Using the formula

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

m
x
1

n
) x (ln
1

1 m
x
1
1 m
1

1 n
) x (ln
1
x
n
+

we find

=
} n 1 m n m n , m
) x (ln x
1
1 m
1
) x (ln x
dx
I
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|

}
+
dx
) x (ln
1
x
n
x
1
1 m
1
1 n 1 m

}
+

=
1 n m n 1 m
) x (ln x
dx
1 m
n
) x (ln x
1
1 m
1

1 n , m
n 1 m
I
1 m
n
) x (ln x
1
1 m
1
+
=
We thus have arrived at the formula

1 n , m
n 1 m
n , m
I
1 m
n
) x (ln x
1
1 m
1
I
+
=
from which we get

1 n , m
n 1 m
n , m
I
) x (ln x
1
n
1
I
n
1 m
+

or
457

n , m
n 1 m
1 n , m
I
n
1 m
) x (ln x
1
n
1
I

=

+

Changing n to 1 n , we obtain from the above formula

1 n , m
1 n 1 m
n , m
I
1 n
1 m
) x (ln x
1
1 n
1
I

=
Special case is the integral
n , 1
I :
C
n 1
) x (ln
) x (ln x
dx
I
n 1
n
n , 1
+
=

}
, 2 n >
The integral

}

=
x ln x
dx
I
1 , 1

can be evaluated using the substitution x ln u = (
x
dx
du = ).
We find
C | x ln | ln C | u | ln
u
du
x ln x
dx
I
1 , 1
+ = + = =
=
} }

}

2 3
) x (ln x
dx

Solution. This integral is the integral
2 , 3
I .
For 2 n , 3 m = = we get
1 , 3
2
2 , 3
I 2
) x (ln x
1
I =
We also have (Example, 8.14)

) x ln 2 ( Ei
) x (ln x
dx
I
3
1 , 3
=
=
}

= =
} 1 , 3
2 2 3
I 2
) x (ln x
1
) x (ln x
dx

458
) x ln 2 ( Ei 2
) x (ln x
1
2
=

8.16

Logarithmic Functions

First Method. We use the reduction formula
1 n
n
n
I n ) x (ln x I

= , 2 n > where C x x ln x I
1
+ =
Second Method. We use the identity
C } A ) x (ln A ) x (ln A { x dx ) x (ln
n
1 n
1
n
0
n
+ + + + =

}

where the coefficients
n 1 0
A , , A , A are determined by differentiating both
members of the above identity.
1)
}
dx ) x (ln
2
2)
}
dx ) x (ln
4

(1) Hint. We consider the reduction formula
1 n
n
n
I n ) x (ln x I

= , 2 n > where C x x ln x I
1
+ =
For 2 n = we have
1
2 2
2
I 2 ) x (ln x dx ) x (ln I = =
}

}
= dx ) x (ln I
n
n

459
Answer. C ) x x ln x ( 2 ) x (ln x
2
+
(2) Hint. We consider the identity
C } A ) x (ln A ) x (ln A ) x (ln A ) x (ln A { x dx ) x (ln
4 3
2
2
3
1
4
0
4
+ + + + + =
}

Differentiating both members we get
+ + + + + =
4 3
2
2
3
1
4
0
4
A ) x (ln A ) x (ln A ) x (ln A ) x (ln A ) x (ln

)
`
+ + + +
x
1
A ) x (ln
x
2
A ) x (ln
x
3
A ) x (ln
x
4
A x
3 2
2
1
3
0

+ + + + + =
2
1 2
3
0 1
4
0
3
) x )(ln A 3 A ( ) x (ln ) A 4 A ( ) x (ln A ) x (ln

3 4 2 3
A A ) x (ln ) A 2 A ( + + + +

0
A 1= ,
0 1
A 4 A 0 + = ,
1 2
A 3 A 0 + = ,
2 3
A 2 A 0 + = ,
3 4
A A 0 + =
1 A
0
= , 4 A
1
= , 12 A
2
= , 24 A
3
= and 24 A
4
=
Answer. C } 24 ) x (ln 24 ) x (ln 12 ) x (ln 4 ) x (ln { x
2 3 4
+ + +
}
= dx ) x (ln P I where ) x ( P is an n-th
degree polynomial function.

C ) x (ln Q x dx ) x (ln P I + = =
}

where ) x ( Q is again a polynomial of the same degree with ) x ( P .
The coefficients of the polynomial ) x ( Q are determined by differentiation of both
members of the identity.
1)
}
+ dx ] 2 ) x (ln 3 ) x (ln 4 [
2

460
2)
}
+ + dx ] 7 ) x (ln 5 ) x (ln 11 ) x (ln 3 [
2 3

C } A ) x (ln A ) x (ln A { x dx ] 2 ) x (ln 3 ) x (ln 4 [
2 1
2
0
2
+ + + = +
}


)
`
+ + + + = +
x
1
A ) x (ln
x
2
A x A ) x (ln A ) x (ln A 2 ) x (ln 3 ) x (ln 4
1 0 2 1
2
0
2

which is written as

1 2 0 1
2
0
2
A A ) x (ln ) A 2 A ( ) x (ln A 2 ) x (ln 3 ) x (ln 4 + + + + = +
From the previous identity we obtain the system 4 A
0
= , 3 A 2 A
0 1
= + and
2 A A
1 2
= + . This system admits the solution 4 A
0
= , 11 A
1
= , 13 A
2
= .
Answer. C } 12 ) x (ln 11 ) x (ln 4 { x
2
+ +
= + +
}
dx ] 7 ) x (ln 5 ) x (ln 11 ) x (ln 3 [
2 3

C } A ) x (ln A ) x (ln A ) x (ln A { x
3 2
2
1
3
0
+ + + + =
= + + 7 ) x (ln 5 ) x (ln 11 ) x (ln 3
2 3

)
`
+ + + + + + =
x
1
A ) x (ln
x
2
A ) x (ln
x
3
A x A ) x (ln A ) x (ln A ) x (ln A
2 1
2
0 3 2
2
1
3
0

+ + + = + +
2
0 1
3
0
2 3
) x (ln ) A 3 A ( ) x (ln A 7 ) x (ln 5 ) x (ln 11 ) x (ln 3

3 2 1 2
A A ) x )(ln A 2 A ( + + + +

0
A 3 = ,
0 1
A 3 A 11 + = ,
1 2
A 2 A 5 + = ,
3 2
A A 7 + =
3 A
0
= , 2 A
1
= , 9 A
2
= and 16 A
3
=
461
Answer. C } 16 ) x (ln 9 ) x (ln 2 ) x (ln 3 { x
2 3
+ + +

}
= dx ) x (ln R I where ) x ( R is a rational
function.

In this case we make the substitution x ln t = .
1) dx
) x (ln 1
x ln 3 2
2
}

2) dx
) x ln 1 }( ) x (ln 4 {
1 ) x (ln 5 ) x (ln 4
2
2
}
+

(1) Hint. Using the substitution x ln t = , since
t
e x = and dt e dx
t
= ,
the integral transforms to dt e
t 1
t 3 2
t
2
}

. Using partial fraction decomposition, we

find
1 t
1
2
1
1 t
1
2
5
t 1
t 3 2
2

+
+
=
. Therefore the integral takes on the form

dt
1 t
e
2
1
dt
1 t
e
2
5
dt e
t 1
t 3 2
t t
t
2
} } }

+
+
=
Using the formula (see 7.3)

a x
e
a p
x p
=
}
we find ) 1 t ( Ei e dt
1 t
e
1
t
+ =
+

}
and
) 1 t ( Ei e dt
1 t
e
t
=
}
. Answer. ) 1 x (ln Ei e
2
1
) 1 x (ln Ei e
2
5
1
+ +

(2) Hint. Using the substitution x ln t = , since
t
e x = and dt e dx
t
= ,
the integral transforms to dt e
) t 1 ( ) t 4 (
1 t 5 t 4
t
2
2
}
+

decomposition, we find
1 t
1
3
8
2 t
1
4
25
2 t
1
12
5
) t 1 ( ) t 4 (
1 t 5 t 4
2
2
+
+
+

=
+

.
1 t
e
3
8
dt
2 t
e
4
25
dt
2 t
e
12
5
t t t
} } }
+
+
+
,
462
where each one of the integrals is evaluated using the formula
a x
e
a p
x p
=
}
.
Answer. ) 1 t ( Ei e
3
8
) 2 t ( Ei e
4
25
) 2 t ( Ei e
12
5
1 2 2
+ + +

}
= dx
) x (ln
1
J
n
n

For 2 n > , we have the reduction formula
1 n
1 n
n
J
1 n
1
) x (ln
x
1 n
1
J

=
For 1 n = we have
} }
= = =
x
0
1
t ln
dt
) x ( li dx
x ln
1
J where ) x ( li is the logarithmic
integral. We also have the identity: ) x (ln Ei ) x ( li = .
1)
}
dx
) x (ln
1
2
2)
}
dx
) x (ln
1
4

(1) Hint. Using the reduction formula, we have for 2 n = ,
1
2
2
J
x ln
x
dx
) x (ln
1
J + = =
}
. Answer. ) x ( li
x ln
x
+
(2) Hint. Using the reduction formula, we have for 4 n = ,
3
3 4
4
J
3
1
) x (ln
x
3
1
dx
) x (ln
1
J + = =
}
. For 3 n = ,
2
2
3
J
2
1
) x (ln
x
2
1
J + = and for
2 n = ,
1 2
J
x ln
x
J + = . Therefore

|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + + = =
} 1
2 3 4
4
J
x ln
x
2
1
) x (ln
x
2
1
3
1
) x (ln
x
3
1
dx
) x (ln
1
J
463
Answer. ) x ( li
6
1
x ln
x
6
1
) x (ln
x
6
1
) x (ln
x
3
1
2 3
+

}
= dx
x
x ln
K
n
n
and
}

= dx
) a x (
x ln
J
n n

}
= dx
x
x ln
K
n
n
are evaluated using the reduction formula
1 n 2 1 n n
n
x
1
) 1 n (
1
x
x ln
1 n
1
dx
x
x ln
K

= =
}
, 2 n >
2
1
) x (ln
2
1
dx
x
x ln
K = =
}

}

= dx
) a x (
x ln
J
n
n
are evaluated using the formula
} }

=
1 n 1 n n
n
) a x ( x
dx
1 n
1
) a x (
x ln
1 n
1
dx
) a x (
x ln
J , 2 n >
)
`
|
.
|
\
|
=
=
}
a
x
Li 1
a
x
ln ) a (ln a dx
a x
x ln
J
2 1

where ) x ( Li
2
is the dilogarithm, a function defined by the integral
dt
t 1
t ln
) x ( Li
x
1
2 }

= .
1) dx x ln
x
x 2 x 5
6
4 5
}
2) dx x ln
x
x 7 x 4
5
2 3
}

3)
}

4
) 2 x (
x ln

(1) Hint. The integral can be written as the sum of two integrals
2 1
2
K 2 K 5 dx
x
x ln
2 dx
x
x ln
5 =
} }
where
2
1
) x (ln
2
1
K = and
x
1
x
x ln
K
2
=
464
Answer. C
x
2
x
x ln
2 ) x (ln
2
5
2
+ + +
(2) Hint. The integral can be written as the sum of two integrals
3 2
3 2
K 7 K 4 dx
x
x ln
7 dx
x
x ln
4 =
} }
. Using the reduction formula for 3 n = and
2 n = , we obtain
2 2
3
x
1
4
1
x
x ln
2
1
K = and
x
1
x
x ln
K
2
= .
Answer. C
x
1 x ln 2
4
7
x
) 1 x (ln 4
2
+
+
+
+

(3) Hint. Using the reduction formula, we have for 2 a = and 4 n = :

} }

+
3 3 4
) 2 x ( x
dx
3
1
) 2 x (
x ln
3
1
dx
) 2 x (
x ln

We find, using partial fraction decomposition,

3 2 3
) 2 x (
1
2
1
) 2 x (
1
4
1
2 x
1
8
1
x
1
8
1
) 2 x ( x
1
+ =

Therefore the integral equals to
} } } }

+

3 2 3
) 2 x (
dx
6
1
) 2 x (
dx
12
1
2 x
dx
24
1
x
dx
24
1
) 2 x (
x ln
3
1

Answer.
C
) 2 x (
1
12
1
2 x
1
12
1
| 2 x | ln
24
1
| x | ln
24
1
) 2 x (
x ln
3
1
2 3
+
+ +

}
= dx x ln x I
n
n

Integrals of this type can be evaluated using integration by parts or the formula
1 n
2
1 n
n
n
x
) 1 n (
1
x ln
1 n
x
dx x ln x I
+
+
+
+
= =
}
we have already proved.
465
1)
}
dx x ln x
5
2)
}
dx x ln x
8

(1) Hint. Using the above formula, we evaluate the integral for 5 n = .
Answer. C
36
x
x ln
6
x
6 6
+
(2) Hint. Using the above formula, we evaluate the integral for 8 n = .
Answer. C
81
x
x ln
9
x
9 9
+

}
= dx x ln ) x ( P I
n
where ) x ( P is an n-th
degree polynomial

Integrals of this type can be evaluated either integrating term by term using the
formula of the previous Category (8.7) or using the formula
= + + + +
}
dx x ln ) a x a x a x a (
n 1 n
1 n
1
n
0

+ + + + + =

+
x ln ) x A x A x A x A (
n
2
1 n
n
1
1 n
0

n
2
1 n
n
1
1 n
0
+ + + + + +

+

The various coefficients appearing in the above formula can be determined by
differentiation and equating the coefficients of similar power of the variable x.
1) dx x ln ) 5 x 7 x 3 (
2
}
+ 2) dx x ln ) 3 x x 4 x (
2 3
}
+
(1) Hint. We put
+ + + = +
}
x ln ) x A x A x A ( dx x ln ) 5 x 7 x 3 (
2
2
1
3
0
2

C ) x B x B x B (
2
2
1
3
0
+ + + +
Differentiation with respect to x of both members of the previous identity gives
us the relation
466
+ + + = + x ln ) A x A 2 x A 3 ( x ln ) 5 x 7 x 3 (
2 1
2
0
2

) B x B 2 x B 3 (
x
1
) x A x A x A (
2 1
2
0 2
2
1
3
0
+ + + + + +
+ + + = + x ln ) A x A 2 x A 3 ( x ln ) 5 x 7 x 3 (
2 1
2
0
2

) B A ( x ) B 2 A ( x ) B 3 A (
2 2 1 1
2
0 0
+ + + + + +
From the above identity we get the system
3 A 3
0
= , 7 A 2
1
= , 5 A
2
= , 0 B 3 A
0 0
= + , 0 B 2 A
1 1
= + , 0 B A
2 2
= +
The previous system has the unique solution given by
1 A
0
= ,
2
7
A
1
= , 5 A
2
= ,
3
1
B
0
= ,
4
7
B
1
= , 5 B
2
=
Answer.
C x 5 x
4
7
x
3
1
x ln x 5 x
2
7
x
2 3 2 3
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
|
.
|
\
|
+
(2) Hint. We put
+ + + + = +
}
x ln ) x A x A x A x A ( dx x ln ) 3 x x 4 x (
3
2
2
3
1
4
0
2 3

3
2
2
3
1
4
0
+ + + + +
Using the same procedure, as in the previous Exercise, we arrive at the following
Answer.
C x 3 x
4
1
x
9
4
x
16
1
x ln x 3 x
2
1
x
3
4
x
4
1
2 3 4 2 3 4
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ + +
|
.
|
\
|
+

}
= dx x ln ) x ( R I
n
where ) x ( R is a
rational function.

Integrals of this type can be evaluated using integration by parts or using the
formula
467

1 n 2 1 n n
x
1
) 1 n (
1
x
x ln
1 n
1
dx
x
x ln

=
}
, 2 n >
or the method of the previous Exercise.
1) dx ) x (ln
x
3 x 4 x
4
2 3
}
+
2) dx ) x (ln
x
5 x 7 x 2
4
2
}

(1) Hint.
dx
x
x ln
3 dx
x
x ln
4 dx
x
x ln
dx ) x (ln
x
3 x 4 x
4 2 4
2 3
} } } }
+ =
+

We also have,
2
) x (ln
2
1
dx
x
x ln
=
}
using the substitution x ln u = and
x
1
x
x ln
dx
x
x ln
2
=
}
,
3 3 4
x
1
9
1
x
x ln
3
1
dx
x
x ln
=
}

using the above formula. Answer. C
x
1 x ln 3
x
) 1 x (ln 4
) x (ln
2
1
3
2
+
+
+
+
(2) Hint.
dx
x
x ln
5 dx
x
x ln
7 dx
x
x ln
2 dx ) x (ln
x
5 x 7 x 2
4 3 2 4
2
} } } }
=

We find as previously
x
1
x
x ln
dx
x
x ln
2
=
}
,
2 2 3
x
1
4
1
x
x ln
2
1
dx
x
x ln
=
}
and
3 3 4
x
1
9
1
x
x ln
3
1
dx
x
x ln
=
}
.
Answer. C
x 9
) 1 x ln 3 ( 5
x 4
) 1 x ln 2 ( 7
x
) 1 x (ln 2
3 2
+
+
+
+
+
+

}
= dx ) x (ln x I
n m
n , m

468
Integrals of this type can be evaluated using integration by parts or the reduction
formula
1 n , m
n
1 m
n , m
I
1 m
n
) x (ln
1 m
x
I

+
+
+
= .
1)
}
dx ) x (ln x
2 4
2)
}
dx ) x (ln x
3 5

(1) Hint. This is the integral
2 , 4
I . Using the above reduction formula for 4 m= ,
2 n = , we find
1 , 4
2
5
2 4
2 , 4
I
5
2
) x (ln
5
x
dx ) x (ln x I = =
}
. For the integral
1 , 4
I we
find for 4 m= , 1 n = ,
0 , 4
5
1 , 4
I
5
1
) x (ln
5
x
I = , where
5
x
dx x I
5
4
0 , 4
= =
}
.
Answer. C x } 2 x ln 50 ) x (ln 25 {
125
1
5 2
+ +
(2) Hint. This is the integral
3 , 5
I . Using the above reduction formula for 5 m = ,
3 n = , we find
2 , 5
3
6
3 5
3 , 5
I
6
3
) x (ln
6
x
dx ) x (ln x I = =
}
. For the integral
2 , 5
I we
find for 5 m = , 2 n = ,
1 , 5
2
6
2 , 5
I
6
2
) x (ln
6
x
I = . For the integral
1 , 5
I we find for
5 m = , 1 n = ,
0 , 5
6
1 , 5
I
6
1
) x (ln
6
x
I = where
6
x
dx x I
6
5
0 , 5
= =
}
.
Answer. C x
216
1
) x (ln
36
1
) x (ln
12
1
) x (ln
6
1
6 2 3
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
}
= dx ) x (ln x I
n m
n , m
can be evaluated using the
formula
C x } a ) x (ln a ) x (ln a { dx ) x (ln x
1 m
n
1 n
1
n
0
n m
+ + + + =
+
}

where the coefficients are determined by differentiation of both members of the
above identity. The reader can try this method in evaluating the integrals of the
Exercise 9.
469

}
= dx
x ln
x
I
n
n
, 2 n >

Integrals of this form are evaluated using the formula
) x ln ) 1 n ( ( Ei dx
x ln
x
I
n
n
+ = =
}
, where () Ei is the exponential integral.
1)
}
dx
x ln
x
3
2)
}
dx
x ln
x
5

(1) Hint. Use the above formula for 3 n = . Answer. ) x ln 4 ( Ei
(2) Hint. Use the above formula for 5 n = . Answer. ) x ln 6 ( Ei

}
= dx
) x (ln
x
I
n
m
n , m
, 2 n > .

Integrals of this type can be evaluated using integration by parts or the reduction
formula
1 n , m
1 n
1 m
n , m
I
1 n
1 m
) x (ln
x
1 n
1
I

+
+
= .
1)
}
dx
) x (ln
x
2
3
2)
}
dx
) x (ln
x
4
3

(1) Hint. We have
}
= dx
) x (ln
x
I
2
3
2 , 3
. For 3 m = , 2 n = we find from the
reduction formula
1 , 3
4
2 , 3
I 4
x ln
x
I + = where ) x ln 4 ( Ei dx
x ln
x
I
3
1 , 3
= =
}

Answer. ) x ln 4 ( Ei 4
x ln
x
4
+

470
(2) Hint. We have
}
= dx
) x (ln
x
I
4
3
4 , 3
reduction formula
3 , 3
3
4
4 , 3
I
3
4
) x (ln
x
3
1
I + = . For 3 m = , 3 n = we find from the
reduction formula
2 , 3
2
4
3 , 3
I 2
) x (ln
x
2
1
I + = . For 3 m = , 2 n = we find from the
reduction formula
1 , 3
4
2 , 3
I 4
x ln
x
I + = where ) x ln 4 ( Ei dx
x ln
x
I
3
1 , 3
= =
}
.
Answer. ) x ln 4 ( Ei
3
32
x ln
x
3
8
) x (ln
x
3
2
) x (ln
x
3
1
4
2
4
3
4
+

}
dx
) x (ln
x
n
m
) x ln ) 1 m ( ( Ei a x
x ln
a
) x (ln
a
) x (ln
a
dx
) x (ln
x
n
1 m 1 n
2 n
1
1 n
0
n
m
+ +
+ + + =
+

}

where the coefficients are determined by differentiation of both members.
We remind that
x
e
) x ( Ei
dx
d
x
= . Therefore in differentiating ) x ln ) 1 m ( ( Ei + , we
should take into account that
) x (ln x
1
) x ln ) 1 m ( ( Ei
dx
d
2 m+
= + .
}
= dx
x
) x (ln
I
m
n
n , m
, 2 m>

reduction formula
1 n , m
1 m
n
n , m
I
1 m
n
x
) x (ln
1 m
1
I

=
1)
}
dx
x
) x (ln
3
2
2)
}
dx
x
) x (ln
5
4

471
(1) Hint. We have
}
= dx
x
) x (ln
I
3
2
2 , 3
reduction formula
1 , 3
2
2
2 , 3
I
x
) x (ln
2
1
I + = . For 3 m = , 1 n = we find
0 , 3
2
1 , 3
I
2
1
x
x ln
2
1
I + = where
2 3
0 , 3
x
1
2
1
x
dx
I = =
}

Answer. C
x
1
4
1
x
x ln
2
1
x
) x (ln
2
1
2 2 2
2
+
(2) Hint. We have
}
= dx
x
) x (ln
I
5
4
4 , 5
. We find, using the reduction formula

3 , 5
4
4
4 , 5
I
x
) x (ln
4
1
I + = ,
2 , 5
4
3
3 , 5
I
4
3
x
) x (ln
4
1
I + = ,
1 , 5
4
2
2 , 5
I
2
1
x
) x (ln
4
1
I + = ,
0 , 5
4
1 , 5
I
4
1
x
x ln
4
1
I + = where
}
= dx
x
1
I
5
0 , 5
.
Answer. C
x
1
128
3
32
) x (ln 3
16
) x (ln 3
4
) x (ln
4
) x (ln
4
2 3 4
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + + +
}
dx
x
) x (ln
m
n
} a ) x (ln a ) x (ln a {
x
1
dx
x
) x (ln
n
1 n
1
n
0
1 m m
n
+ + + =

}

}

=
n
n
) x (ln x
dx
I , 2 n >

formulas
1 n
n
) x (ln
1
1 n
1
I

= , 2 n > with | x ln | ln
x ln x
dx
I
1
=
=
}

472
1)
}

=
5
) x (ln x
dx
I 2)
}

=
8
) x (ln x
dx
I
(1) Hint. We have
}

=
5
5
) x (ln x
dx
I . Answer. C
) x (ln
1
4
1
4
+
(2) Hint. We have
}

=
8
8
) x (ln x
dx
I . Answer. C
) x (ln
1
7
1
7
+

}

=
+
) x (ln x
dx
I
1 n
n
, 1 n >

The integral
}

+
) x (ln x
dx
1 n
under the substitution x ln t = , (
t
e x = , dt e dx
t
= )
takes the form ) x ln n ( Ei
) x (ln x
dx
1 n
=
}
+

1)
}
) x (ln x
dx
4
2)
}
) x (ln x
dx
7

(1) Hint. We have ) x ln 3 ( Ei
) x (ln x
dx
I
4
3
=
=
}

(2) Hint. We have ) x ln 6 ( Ei
) x (ln x
dx
I
7
6
=
=
}

}

=
n m
n , m
) x (ln x
dx
I , 2 m> , 2 n >

Integrals of this type can be evaluated using integration by parts or the formulas
1 n , m
1 n 1 m
n , m
I
1 n
1 m
) x (ln x
1
1 n
1
I

= , 2 m> , 2 n >
473

n 1
) x (ln
) x (ln x
dx
I
n 1
n
n , 1
=

}
, 2 n >
| x ln | ln
x ln x
dx
I
1 , 1
=
=
}

1)
}

3 3
) x (ln x
dx
2)
}

2 4
) x (ln x
dx

(1) Hint. For 3 n , 3 m = = we get
2 , 3
2 2
3 , 3
I
) x (ln x
1
2
1
I = . For 2 n , 3 m = =
we get
1 , 3
2
2 , 3
I 2
) x (ln x
1
I = , where ) x ln 2 ( Ei
) x (ln x
dx
I
3
1 , 3
=
=
}

Answer. ) x ln 2 ( Ei 2
) x (ln x
1
) x (ln x
1
2
1
2 2 2
+ +
(2) Hint. For 2 n , 4 m = = we get
1 , 4
3
2 , 4
I 3
) x (ln x
1
I = , where
) x ln 3 ( Ei
) x (ln x
dx
I
4
1 , 4
=
=
}
. Answer. ) x ln 3 ( Ei 3
) x (ln x
1
3

9

Integrals of
Trigonometric Functions

Learning Objectives

integrals involving trigonometric functions.
The classification involves sixteen cases.

- First Category. Integrals of the form

}
+ dx ) b x a sin( and
}
+ dx ) b x a cos(
- Second Category. Integrals of the form dx x cos x sin
n m
}

dx ) x b cos( ) x a sin(
}
, dx ) x b sin( ) x a sin(
}
, dx ) x b cos( ) x a cos(
}

- Fourth Category. Integrals involving sines and cosines in linear
expressions. In this category belong integrals of the form
Chapter 9-Integrals of trigonometric functions
475
dx ) x cos , x (sin R I
}
=
where ) x cos , x (sin R is a rational function of x sin and x cos , i.e.
integrals of the form

}
x sin
dx
,
}
x cos
dx
,
}
+ x cos 3 2
dx
,
}
+
dx
x sin 1
x cos 2

- Fifth Category. Integrals which contain sines and cosines where the
integrand in invariant under the substitutions x sin x sin and
x cos x cos .
- Sixth Category. In this category belong integrals of the form
dx
x sin
1
m
}
, dx
x cos
1
m
}
, dx
x cos x sin
1
n m
}

and

dx
x cos
x sin
n
m
}
or dx
x sin
x cos
m
n
}

where in general m and n are positive integers with 3 n , m > .

}
= dx x tan I
m
m
and
}
= dx x cot J
m
m

- Eighth Category Integrals of the form
dx ) ax sin( x I
n
n }
= and dx ) ax cos( x J
n
n }
=
- Ninth Category Integrals of the form

}
dx ) ax sin( ) x ( P and
}
dx ) ax cos( ) x ( P
where ) x ( P is an th n degree polynomial.
- Tenth Category Integrals of the form

}

dx
c x
) ax sin(
,
}

dx
) c x (
) ax sin(
n

476

}

dx
c x
) ax cos(
,
}

dx
) c x (
) ax cos(
n

- Eleventh Category

}
+ +
dx
c bx x a
) x m sin(
2
,
}
+ +
dx
) c bx x a (
) x m sin(
n 2

}
+ +
dx
c bx x a
) x m cos(
2
,
}
+ +
dx
) c bx x a (
) x m cos(
n 2

- Twelfth Category

}
dx ) ax sin( ) x ( R and
}
dx ) ax cos( ) x ( R
- Thirteenth Category Integrals of the form

}
= dx ) bx sin( e I
ax
and
}
= dx ) bx cos( e J
ax

- Fourteenth Category Integrals of the form

}
= dx ) bx sin( e x I
ax n
n
and
}
= dx ) bx cos( e x J
ax n
n

- Fifteenth Category Integrals of the form

}
= dx ) bx sin( e ) x ( P I
ax
n
and
}
= dx ) bx cos( e ) x ( P J
ax
n

- Sixteenth Category Integrals of the form

}
= dx ) bx sin( e ) x ( R I
ax
and
}
= dx ) bx cos( e ) x ( R J
ax


477

9.0 Trigonometric Identities
We first list some useful identities we shall need in dealing with integrals of
trigonometric functions:
1 x cos x sin
2 2
= + , x sec x tan 1
2 2
= + ,
x ec cos x cot 1
2 2
= + ,
2
x 2 cos 1
x sin
2

= ,
2
x 2 cos 1
x cos
2
+
=

x tan 1
x tan 2
x 2 sin
2
+
= ,
x tan 1
x tan 1
x 2 cos
2
2
+
=


}
}
+ dx ) b x a cos(
In both the above cases we use the substitution b x a u + = . Since dx a du = , we
get
= + = = +
} }
C u cos
a
1
du u sin
a
1
dx ) b x a sin(
C ) b x a cos(
a
1
+ + =
and
= + = = +
} }
C u sin
a
1
du u cos
a
1
dx ) b x a cos(
C ) b x a sin(
a
1
+ + =
}
+ = dx ) 1 x 2 sin( I and
}
= dx ) 2 x 3 cos( J
Solution.
478
C ) 1 x 2 cos(
2
1
dx ) 1 x 2 sin( I + + = + =
}

C ) 2 x 3 sin(
3
1
dx ) 2 x 3 cos( J + = =
}

}
= dx x 3 sin I and
}
= dx x 4 cos J
Solution.
C x 3 cos
3
1
dx x 3 sin I + = =
}

C x 4 sin
4
1
dx x 4 cos J + = =
}

9.2. Second Category. Integrals of the form dx x sin
m
}

First Case. Integrals of the form dx x sin
1 m 2
}
+

In this case we use the method of substitution. We have
= = =
} } }
+
dx x sin ) x (sin dx x sin x sin dx x sin
m 2 m 2 1 m 2

dx x sin ) x cos 1 (
m 2
}
=
Using the substitution x cos u = , dx x sin du = , the integral transforms to
dx ) u 1 (
m 2
}

which can be evaluated by expanding the binomial and integrating term by term.
3
}
=
Solution.
dx x sin ) x cos 1 ( dx x sin x sin dx x sin I
2 2 3
} } }
= = =
C
3
u
u du u du du ) u 1 (
3
2 2
+ + = + =
} } }

479
C x cos
3
1
x cos dx x sin I
3 3
+ + = =
}

Second Case. Integrals of the form dx x sin
m 2
}

In this case the integrand is converted to a trigonometric number of multiple angle.
This can be done using the formula

2
x 2 cos 1
x sin
2

=
2
}
=
Solution.
= =
= =
} } }
dx ) x 2 cos 1 (
2
1
dx
2
x 2 cos 1
dx x sin I
2

= + = =
} }
C
2
x 2 sin
2
1
x
2
1
dx x 2 cos
2
1
dx
2
1

C x 2 sin
4
1
x
2
1
+ =
4
}
=
Solution. Squaring both members of the identity
2
x 2 cos 1
x sin
2

=
we find
4
x 2 cos x 2 cos 2 1
4
) x 2 cos 1 (
x sin
2 2
4
+
=
=
In the previous identity we use the identity
2
x 4 cos 1
x 2 cos
2
+
=
and we get
480
=
+
+
=
4
2
x 4 cos 1
x 2 cos 2 1
x sin
4

8
) x 4 cos 1 ( ) x 2 cos 2 1 ( 2 + +
=
or

8
x 4 cos x 2 cos 4 3
x sin
4
+
=
Therefore we get
=
+
= =
} }
dx
8
x 4 cos x 2 cos 4 3
dx x sin I
4

= + =
} } }
dx x 4 cos
8
1
dx x 2 cos
8
4
dx
8
3

C
4
x 4 sin
8
1
2
x 2 sin
8
4
x
8
3
+ + =
C x 4 sin
32
1
x 2 sin
4
1
x
8
3
+ + =

9.2.1. Reduction Formula.
dx x sin
m
1 m
m
x sin x cos
dx x sin
2 m
1 m
m
} }

+ =
Proof. We call
m
I the integral dx x sin
m
}
:
dx x sin I
m
m }
=
We transform the above integral to
= = =
} }

dx x sin x sin dx x sin I
2 m 2 m
m

= =
}

2 m 2

= =
} }

dx x sin x cos dx x sin
2 m 2 2 m

2 m 2 m
J I

=
481
The integral
2 m
J

can be written as
dx x cos ) sin x (cos dx x sin x cos J
2 m 2 m 2
2 m } }

= =
Using the formula (integration by parts)

} }
and the Table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'
) x (sin x cos
2 m

x cos
x sin
1 m
1
1 m

x sin

we find
dx x cos ) sin x (cos dx x sin x cos J
2 m 2 m 2
2 m } }

= =
}
=

dx x sin
1 m
1
1 m
x sin x cos
m
1 m

m
1 m
I
1 m
1
1 m
x sin x cos
=

Therefore

|
|
.
|
\
|
=

m
1 m
2 m m
I
1 m
1
1 m
x sin x cos
I I

m
1 m
2 m m
I
1 m
1
1 m
x sin x cos
I I

1 m
x sin x cos
I I
1 m
1
I
1 m
2 m m m

2 m
1 m
m
I
1 m
x sin x cos
I
1 m
1
1

=
|
.
|
\
|
+
2 m
1 m
m
I
1 m
x sin x cos
I
1 m
m

482
2 m
1 m
m
I
m
1 m
m
x sin x cos
I

+ =
which is the sought for reduction formula.

9.2.2. Using Multiple Angles.
Any power of x sin can be expressed in terms of multiple angles of sines or
cosines. For example, considering the formula
x sin 4 x sin 3 x 3 sin
3
=
and solving with respect to x sin
3
, we find
x 3 sin
4
1
x sin
4
3
x sin
3
=
There is a powerful technique for converting any power of x sin in terms of
multiple angles of sines or cosines, based on complex numbers. This technique is
fully explained in the last paragraph (9.27) of this section. We find for example
x 7 sin x 5 sin 7 x 3 sin 21 x sin 35 x sin 64
7
+ =
35 x 8 cos x 6 cos 8 x 4 cos 28 x 2 cos 56 x sin 128
8
+ + + =

}
= dx x sin I
7

Solution. Using the above formula, we have
= + = =
} }
dx ) x 7 sin x 5 sin 7 x 3 sin 21 x sin 35 (
64
1
x sin I
7

= + =
} } } }
dx x 7 sin
64
1
dx x 5 sin
64
7
dx x 3 sin
64
21
dx x sin
64
35

= +
|
.
|
\
|

|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= C
7
x 7 cos
64
1
5
x 5 cos
64
7
3
x 3 cos
64
21
) x cos (
64
35

C x 7 cos
448
1
x 5 cos
320
7
x 3 cos
64
7
x cos
64
35
+ + + =
483
9.3. Third Category. Integrals of the form dx x cos
n
}

First Case. Integrals of the form dx x cos
1 n 2
}
+

= = =
} } }
+
dx x cos ) x (cos dx x cos x cos dx x cos
n 2 n 2 1 n 2

dx x cos ) x sin 1 (
n 2
}
=
Using the substitution x sin u = , dx x cos du = , the integral transforms to
dx ) u 1 (
n 2
}

which can be evaluated by expanding the binomial and integrating term by term.

Example 1. Evaluate the integral dx x cos I
3
}
=
Solution. The integral can be written as
dx x cos ) x sin 1 ( dx x cos x cos dx x cos I
2 2 3
} } }
= = =
C
3
u
u du u du du ) u 1 (
3
2 2
+ = =
} } }

C x sin
3
1
x sin dx x cos I
3 3
+ = =
}

Second Case. Integrals of the form dx x cos
n 2
}

In this case the integrand can be converted to a sum of cosines of multiple angles.

2
x 2 cos 1
x cos
2
+
=
Example 1. Evaluate the integral dx x cos J
2
}
=
Solution.
484
= + =
+
= =
} } }
dx ) x 2 cos 1 (
2
1
dx
2
x 2 cos 1
dx x cos J
2

= + + = + =
} }
C
2
x 2 sin
2
1
x
2
1
dx x 2 cos
2
1
dx
2
1

C x 2 sin
4
1
x
2
1
+ + =
Example 2. Evaluate the integral dx x cos I
4
}
=
Solution. Squaring both members of the identity
2
x 2 cos 1
x cos
2
+
=
we find
4
x 2 cos x 2 cos 2 1
4
) x 2 cos 1 (
x cos
2 2
4
+ +
=
+
=
In the previous identity we use again
2
x 4 cos 1
x 2 cos
2
+
=
and we get
=
+
+ +
=
4
2
x 4 cos 1
x 2 cos 2 1
x cos
4

8
) x 4 cos 1 ( ) x 2 cos 2 1 ( 2 + + +
=
or

8
x 4 cos x 2 cos 4 3
x cos
4
+ +
=
Therefore we get
=
+ +
= =
} }
dx
8
x 4 cos x 2 cos 4 3
dx x cos I
4

= + + =
} } }
dx x 4 cos
8
1
dx x 2 cos
8
4
dx
8
3

485
C
4
x 4 sin
8
1
2
x 2 sin
8
4
x
8
3
+ + + =
C x 4 sin
32
1
x 2 sin
4
1
x
8
3
+ + + =
9.3.1. Reduction Formula
dx x cos
m
1 m
m
x cos x sin
dx x cos
2 m
1 m
m
} }

+ =
Proof. We call
m
I the integral dx x cos
m
}
:
dx x cos I
m
m }
=
We transform the above integral to
= = =
} }

dx x cos x cos dx x cos I
2 m 2 m
m

= =
}

2 m 2

= =
} }

dx x cos x sin dx x cos
2 m 2 2 m

2 m 2 m
J I

=
The integral
2 m
J

can be written as
dx x sin ) cos x (sin dx x cos x sin J
2 m 2 m 2
2 m } }

= =

} }
and the Table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'
) x (cos x sin
2 m

x sin
x cos
1 m
1
1 m

x cos

we find
dx x sin ) cos x (sin dx x cos x sin J
2 m 2 m 2
2 m } }

= =
486
}
=

dx x cos
1 m
1
1 m
x cos x sin
m
1 m

m
1 m
I
1 m
1
1 m
x cos x sin
=

Therefore

|
|
.
|
\
|
=

m
1 m
2 m m
I
1 m
1
1 m
x cos x sin
I I

m
1 m
2 m m
I
1 m
1
1 m
x cos x sin
I I
+ =

1 m
x cos x sin
I I
1 m
1
I
1 m
2 m m m
+ =

2 m
1 m
m
I
1 m
x cos x sin
I
1 m
1
1

=
|
.
|
\
|
+
2 m
1 m
m
I
1 m
x cos x sin
I
1 m
m

2 m
1 m
m
I
m
1 m
1 m
x cos x sin
I

=
which is the sought for reduction formula.

9.3.2. Using Multiple Angles.
Any power of x sin can be expressed in terms of multiple angles of sinee or
cosines. For example, considering the formula
x cos 3 x cos 4 x 3 cos
3
=
and solving with respect to x cos
3
, we find
x cos
4
3
x 3 cos
4
1
x cos
3
=
487
There is a powerful technique for converting any power of x sin in terms of
multiple angles of cosines, based on complex numbers. This technique is fully
explained in the last paragraph of this section. We find for example
x 7 cos x 5 cos 7 x 3 cos 21 x cos 35 x cos 64
7
+ + + =
x 8 cos x 6 cos 8 x 4 cos 28 x 2 cos 56 35 x cos 128
8
+ + + + =

}
= dx x cos I
7

Solution. Using the above formula, we have
= + + + = =
} }
dx ) x 7 cos x 5 cos 7 x 3 cos 21 x cos 35 (
64
1
x cos I
7

= + + + =
} } } }
dx x 7 cos
64
1
dx x 5 cos
64
7
dx x 3 cos
64
21
dx x cos
64
35

= +
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ = C
7
x 7 sin
64
1
5
x 5 sin
64
7
3
x 3 sin
64
21
x sin
64
35

C x 7 sin
448
1
x 5 sin
320
7
x 3 sin
64
7
x sin
64
35
+ + + + =

9.4. Fourth Category. Integrals of the form dx x cos x sin
n m
}

9.4.1. First Case. Integrals of the form
[1] dx x cos x sin
1 n 2 m 2
}
+

[2] dx x cos x sin
n 2 1 m 2
}
+

[3] dx x cos x sin
1 n 2 1 m 2
}
+ +

where m and n are non-negative integers.
In this case belong integrals where at least one of the exponents m or n is an odd
integer, i.e. integrals of the form
dx x cos x sin
3 2
}
, dx x cos x sin
5 4
}

488
In this case we use the method of substitution.
[1] = =
} }
+
dx x cos ) x (cos ) x (sin dx x cos x sin
n 2 m 2 1 n 2 m 2

dx x cos ) x sin 1 ( ) x (sin
n 2 m 2
}
=
du ) u 1 ( u
n 2 m 2
}

which can be evaluated by expanding the binomial, performing the operations and
integrating term by term.
[2] = =
} }
+
dx x sin ) x (cos ) x (sin dx x cos x sin
n 2 m 2 n 2 1 m 2

dx x sin ) x (cos ) x cos 1 (
n 2 m 2
}
=
}
du u ) u 1 (
n 2 m 2

[3] = =
} }
+ + +
n 2 1 m 2 1 n 2 1 m 2

n 2 1 m 2
}
=
+

du ) u 1 ( u
n 2 1 m 2
}

+

We can also use another route:
= =
} }
+ + +
1 n 2 m 2 1 n 2 1 m 2

1 n 2 m 2
}
+
=
489
du u ) u 1 (
1 n 2 m 2
}
+

Example 1. Evaluate the integral dx x cos x sin I
3 2
}
=
dx x cos ) x sin 1 ( x sin dx x cos x cos x sin I
2 2 2 2
} }
= =
x sin t = , dx x cos dt =
= = =
} } } }
dt t dt t dt ) t t ( dt ) t 1 ( t
4 2 4 2 2 2

C
5
t
3
t
5 3
+ =
Going back to the original variable, we get the result
C x sin
5
1
x sin
3
1
dx x cos x sin I
5 3 3 2
+ = =
}

5 5
}
=
dx x cos ) x sin 1 ( x sin dx x cos x cos x sin I
2 2 5 4 5
} }
= =
x sin t = , dx x cos dt =
= + = + =
} } }
dt ) t t 2 t ( dt ) t t 2 1 ( t dt ) t 1 ( t
9 7 5 4 2 5 2 2 5

= + =
} } }
dt t dt t 2 dt t
9 7 5

C
10
t
8
t
2
6
t
10 8 6
+ + =
490
Going back to the original variable, we get the result
C x sin
10
1
x sin
4
1
x sin
6
1
dx x cos x sin I
10 8 6 5 5
+ + = =
}

Note. In case where n m= , as in the previous case, we may use the formula
x 2 sin
2
1
x cos x sin =
and then
m
m
m
m m m
) x 2 (sin
2
1
x 2 sin
2
1
) x cos x (sin x cos x sin =
|
.
|
\
|
= =
which is an already known case.
9.4.2. Second Case. Integrals of the form dx x cos x sin
n 2 m 2
}

In this case belong integrals where both of the exponents m or n are even
integers, i.e. integrals of the form
dx x cos x sin
4 2
}
, dx x cos x sin
6 4
}

In this case the integrand should be converted to a trigonometric number of
multiple angle. This can be done using the formulas

2
x 2 cos 1
x sin
2

= and
2
x 2 cos 1
x cos
2
+
=
4 2
}
=
Solution.
= =
= =
} } }
dx ) x 2 cos 1 (
2
1
dx
2
x 2 cos 1
dx x sin I
2

= + = =
} }
C
2
x 2 sin
2
1
x
2
1
dx x 2 cos
2
1
dx
2
1

C x 2 sin
4
1
x
2
1
+ =
9.4.3. Reduction Formulas.
We shall establish two reduction formulas for the integral
491
dx x cos x sin I
n m
n , m }
=
Case I. We transform the integral to dx x cos ) x cos x (sin I
1 n m
n , m }

=

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'
x cos x sin
m
x cos
1 n

x sin
1 m
1
1 m+
+

x cos ) x sin )( 1 n (
2 n

we get

+
= =
+
}
x cos x sin
1 m
1
dx x cos x sin I
1 n 1 m n m
n , m

=
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
}
dx x cos ) x sin )( 1 n ( x sin
1 m
1
2 n 1 m

dx x cos x sin
1 m
1 n
x cos x sin
1 m
1
2 n 2 m 1 n 1 m + +
}
+
+
+
=
We can transform now the integrand using simple trigonometric identities. We
have
= =
+
x cos x sin x sin x cos x sin
2 n 2 m 2 n 2 m

= =

x cos ) x cos 1 ( x sin
2 n 2 m

x cos x sin x cos x sin
n m 2 n m
=

Therefore we get
+
+
=
+
x cos x sin
1 m
1
I
1 n 1 m
n , m

dx x cos x sin
1 m
1 n
dx x cos x sin
1 m
1 n
n m 2 n m
} }
+
+

or
492

n , m 2 n , m
1 n 1 m
n , m
I
1 m
1 n
I
1 m
1 n
x cos x sin
1 m
1
I
+
+
+
=

+


2 n , m
1 n 1 m
n , m n , m
I
1 m
1 n
x cos x sin
1 m
1
I
1 m
1 n
I

+
+
+
+
=
+
+

2 n , m
1 n 1 m
n , m
I
1 m
1 n
x cos x sin
1 m
1
I
1 m
1 n
1

+
+
+
+
=
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
2 n , m
1 n 1 m
n , m
I
1 m
1 n
x cos x sin
1 m
1
I
1 m
n m
+
+
+
+
=
+
+

and finally

2 n , m
1 n 1 m
n , m
I
n m
1 n
x cos x sin
n m
1
I

+
+
+
+
=
Case II. We transform the integral to dx x sin ) x cos x sin ( I
1 m n
n , m }

=

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'
x cos x sin
n
x sin
1 m

x cos
1 n
1
1 n+
+

x sin ) x )(cos 1 m (
2 m

we get
+
= =
+
}
x cos x sin
1 n
1
dx x cos x sin I
1 n 1 m n m
n , m

=
|
.
|
\
|
+

+
}
dx x sin ) x )(cos 1 m ( x cos
1 n
1
2 m 1 n

dx x sin x cos
1 n
1 m
x cos x sin
1 n
1
2 m 2 n 1 n 1 m + +
}
+
+
+
=
493
We can transform now the integrand using simple trigonometric identities. We
have
= =
+
x sin x cos x cos x sin x cos
2 m 2 n 2 m 2 n

= =

x sin ) x sin 1 ( x cos
2 m 2 n

x sin x cos x sin x cos
m n 2 m n
=

Therefore we get
+
+
=
+
x cos x sin
1 n
1
I
1 n 1 m
n , m

dx x sin x cos
1 n
1 m
dx x sin x cos
1 n
1 m
m n 2 m n
} }
+
+

or

n , m n , 2 m
1 n 1 m
n , m
I
1 n
1 m
I
1 n
1 m
x cos x sin
1 n
1
I
+
+
+
=

+


n , 2 m
1 n 1 m
n , m n , m
I
1 n
1 m
x cos x sin
1 n
1
I
1 n
1 m
I

+
+
+
+
=
+
+
n , 2 m
1 n 1 m
n , m
I
1 n
1 m
x cos x sin
1 n
1
I
1 n
1 m
1

+
+
+
+
=
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
and finally

n , 2 m
1 n 1 m
n , m
I
n m
1 m
x cos x sin
n m
1
I

+
+
+
+
=
9.5 Fifth Category. Integrals of the form
dx ) x b cos( ) x a sin(
}

dx ) x b sin( ) x a sin(
}

dx ) x b cos( ) x a cos(
}

In this category we convert the product into sum (or difference) of sines and
cosines according to the formulas
494
x ) b a sin( x ) b a sin( ) bx cos( ) ax sin( 2 + + =
x ) b a cos( x ) b a cos( ) bx sin( ) ax sin( 2 + =
x ) b a cos( x ) b a cos( ) bx cos( ) ax cos( 2 + + =
Example 1. Evaluate the integral dx x 2 cos x 4 sin I
}
=
Solution. Since
= + + = )] x 2 x 4 sin( ) x 2 x 4 sin( [
2
1
x 2 cos x 4 sin
) x 2 sin x 6 sin (
2
1
+ =
we have
= + = + =
} } }
dx x 2 sin
2
1
dx x 6 sin
2
1
dx ) x 2 sin x 6 (sin
2
1
I
C x 2 cos
4
1
x 6 cos
12
1
C
2
x 2 cos
2
1
6
x 6 cos
2
1
+ = +
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
Example 2. Evaluate the integral dx x 2 sin x 5 sin I
}
=
Solution. Since
= + = )] x 2 x 5 cos( ) x 2 x 5 cos( [
2
1
x 2 sin x 5 sin
) x 7 cos x 3 cos (
2
1
=
we have
= = =
} }
dx ) x 7 cos x 3 (cos
2
1
dx x 2 sin x 5 sin I
= =
} }
dx x 7 cos
2
1
dx x 3 cos
2
1

C x 7 sin
14
1
x 3 sin
6
1
C
7
x 7 sin
2
1
3
x 3 sin
2
1
+ = + =
Example 3. Evaluate the integral dx x 3 cos x 4 cos I
}
=
495
Solution. Since
= + + = )] x 3 x 4 cos( ) x 3 x 4 cos( [
2
1
x 3 cos x 4 cos
) x cos x 7 (cos
2
1
+ =
we get
= + = =
} }
dx ) x cos x 7 (cos
2
1
dx x 3 cos x 4 cos I
= + + = + =
} }
C x sin
2
1
7
x 7 sin
2
1
dx x cos
2
1
dx x 7 cos
2
1

C x sin
2
1
x 7 sin
14
1
+ + =
2 4
}
=
Solution. We convert the integrand to trigonometric numbers of multiple angles
through the series of identities
=
= = ) x cos x sin 4 (
4
1
2
x 2 cos 1
) x cos x (sin x sin x cos x sin
2 2 2 2 2 2 4

= =
= x 2 sin ) x 2 cos 1 (
8
1
) x cos x sin 2 (
4
1
2
x 2 cos 1
2 2

= =
= ) x 4 cos 1 ( ) x 2 cos 1 (
16
1
2
x 4 cos 1
) x 2 cos 1 (
8
1

= + = ) x 4 cos x 2 cos x 2 cos x 4 cos 1 (
16
1

=
|
.
|
\
|
+ + + = )] x 4 x 2 cos( ) x 4 x 2 cos( [
2
1
x 2 cos x 4 cos 1
16
1

=
|
.
|
\
|
+ + = )] x 2 cos( x 6 cos [
2
1
x 2 cos x 4 cos 1
16
1

=
|
.
|
\
|
+ + = x 2 cos
2
1
x 6 cos
2
1
x 2 cos x 4 cos 1
16
1

496
=
|
.
|
\
|
+ = x 6 cos
2
1
x 2 cos
2
1
x 4 cos 1
16
1

x 6 cos
32
1
x 2 cos
32
1
x 4 cos
16
1
16
1
+ =
= + =
} } } }
dx x 6 cos
32
1
dx x 2 cos
32
1
dx x 4 cos
16
1
dx
16
1
I
C
6
x 6 sin
32
1
2
x 2 sin
32
1
4
x 4 sin
16
1
x
16
1
+ + =
C x 6 sin
192
1
x 2 sin
64
1
x 4 sin
64
1
x
16
1
+ + =

9.6 Sixth Category. Integrals involving sines and cosines in linear
expressions. In this category belong integrals of the form
dx ) x cos , x (sin R I
}
=
where ) x cos , x (sin R is a rational function of x sin and x cos , i.e. integrals of
the form

}
x sin
dx
,
}
x cos
dx
,
}
+ x cos 3 2
dx
,
}
+
dx
x sin 1
x cos 2

In this case we express x sin and x cos in terms of the
2
x
tan using the formulas

2
x
tan 1
2
x
tan 2
x sin
2
+
= and
2
x
tan 1
2
x
tan 1
x cos
2
2
+
= (1)
and then the substitution

2
x
tan u = (2)
497
In order to find dx, we invert (2),
2
x
u arctan = and then we get u arctan 2 x = ,
from which by differentiation we obtain
du
u 1
2
dx
2
+
= (3)
We also get from (1), using the substitution (2):

2
u 1
u 2
x sin
+
= and
2
2
u 1
u 1
x cos
+
= (4)
}
=
x sin
dx
I
Solution.
First Method.
We use the formula
2
x
tan 1
2
x
tan 2
x sin
2
+
= and the substitution
2
x
tan u = . We then
have
2
u 1
u 2
x sin
+
= and du
u 1
2
dx
2
+
C
2
x
tan ln C | u | ln
u
du
u 1
u 2
du
u 1
2
x sin
dx
I
2
2
+ = + = =
+
+
= =
} } }

Second Method. Multiply numerator and denominator by x sin . We thus have
dx
x cos 1
x sin
dx
x sin
x sin
x sin
dx
I
2 2
} } }

= = =
under the substitution x cos u = , dx x sin du = , we get
du
1 u
1
du
u 1
1
x sin
dx
I
2 2
} } }

=
= =
498

1 u
1
2
1
1 u
1
2
1
1 u
1
2
+

we get
=
+
= =
} } }
du
1 u
1
2
1
du
1 u
1
2
1
x sin
dx
I
= +
+
= + + = C
1 u
1 u
ln
2
1
C | 1 u | ln
2
1
| 1 u | ln
2
1

C
1 x cos
1 x cos
ln
2
1
+
+
=
Third Method. The integral can be written as
=
+
= = =
} } }
dx
2
x
cos
2
x
sin 2
2
x
cos
2
x
sin
dx
2
x
cos
2
x
sin 2
1
x sin
dx
I
2 2

= + =
} }
dx
2
x
cos
2
x
sin 2
2
x
cos
dx
2
x
cos
2
x
sin 2
2
x
sin
2 2

C
2
x
sin ln
2
x
cos ln dx
2
x
sin
2
x
cos
2
1
dx
2
x
cos
2
x
sin
2
1
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= + =
} }

C
2
x
tan ln +
|
.
|
\
|
=
Fourth Method. We have the known relations
x ec cos ) x (cot
2
= '
and
ecx cos x cot ) ecx (cos = '
Adding the two previous relations we get
ecx cos x cot x ec cos ) ecx (cos ) x (cot
2
= ' + '
499
ecx cos ) x cot ecx (cos ) ecx cos x (cot + = ' +

ecx cos x cot
) ecx cos x (cot
ecx cos
+
' +
=
Integrating the previous relation we get
C | ecx cos x cot | ln dx
ecx cos x cot
) ecx cos x (cot
dx ecx cos + + =
+
' +
=
} }

}
=
x cos
dx
I
Solution.
First Method.
We use the formula
2
x
tan 1
2
x
tan 1
x cos
2
2
+
= and the substitution

2
x
tan u = . We then
have
2
2
u 1
u 1
x cos
+
= and du
u 1
2
dx
2
+
du
1 u
2
u 1
du 2
u 1
u 1
du
u 1
2
x cos
dx
I
2 2
2
2
2
} } } }

=
=
+
+
= =

1 u
1
1 u
1
1 u
2
2

+
=

we get
C | 1 u | ln | 1 u | ln
1 u
du
1 u
du
I + + =
+
=
} }

= +
+
= + + = C
u 1
u 1
ln C | u 1 | ln | u 1 | ln
500
C
2
x
4
tan ln C
2
x
tan 1
2
x
tan 1
ln + |
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = +
+
=
Second Method. Multiply numerator and denominator by x cos . We thus have
dx
x sin 1
x cos
dx
x cos
x cos
x cos
dx
I
2 2
} } }

= = =
under the substitution x sin u = , dx x cos du = , we get
du
1 u
1
du
u 1
1
x cos
dx
I
2 2
} } }

=
= =

1 u
1
2
1
1 u
1
2
1
1 u
1
2
+
+

we get
=
+
+
= =
} } }
du
1 u
1
2
1
du
1 u
1
2
1
x cos
dx
I
= + + + = C | 1 u | ln
2
1
| 1 u | ln
2
1

= + + + = C | u 1 | ln
2
1
| u 1 | ln
2
1

C
x sin 1
x sin 1
ln
2
1
C
u 1
u 1
ln
2
1
+
+
= +
+
=
The above expression can be further simplified. In fact we find
=
+
=
+
+
=
+
x sin 1
) x sin 1 (
) x sin 1 )( x sin 1 (
) x sin 1 (
x sin 1
x sin 1
2
2 2

2
2
2
x cos
x sin 1
x cos
) x sin 1 (
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+
=
Therefore
501
= +
|
.
|
\
|
+
= +
+
= C
x cos
x sin 1
ln
2
1
C
x sin 1
x sin 1
ln
2
1
I
2

= + + = +
+
= C
x cos
x sin
x cos
1
ln C
x cos
x sin 1
ln
C | x tan x sec | ln + + =
Third Method. The integral can be written as
dx
x
2
sin
1
x cos
dx
I
} }
|
.
|
\
|

= =
and using the substitution x
2
t = we have dx dt = .
Therefore
= +
|
.
|
\
|
= =
}
C
2
t
tan ln
t sin
dt
I
Since
2
x
4
2
t
= , we have
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
x
4
cot
2
x
4
tan
2
t
tan
Therefore
C
2
x
4
tan ln C
2
x
4
cot ln
t sin
dt
I + |
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + |
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = =
}

Fourth Method. We have the known relations
x sec ) x (tan
2
= '
and
x sec x tan ) x (sec = '
Adding the two previous relations we get
x sec x tan x sec ) x (sec ) x (tan
2
+ = ' + '
x sec ) x tan x (sec ) x sec x (tan + = ' +
502

x sec x tan
) x sec x (tan
x sec
+
' +
=
Integrating the previous relation we get
C | x sec x tan | ln dx
x sec x tan
) x sec x (tan
dx x sec + + =
+
' +
=
} }

x cos 1
x sin 1
I
}

+
=
Solution. Using the formulas

2
x
tan 1
2
x
tan 2
x sin
2
+
= and
2
x
tan 1
2
x
tan 1
x cos
2
2
+
=
2
x
tan u = , since du
u 1
2
dx
2
+
= (as explained
previously), we get
=
+ +
+ +
=
+
+
+
+
=
} }
du
u 1
2
) u 1 ( ) u 1 (
u 2 ) u 1 (
du
u 1
2
u 1
u 1
1
u 1
u 2
1
I
2 2 2
2
2
2
2
2

du
) u 1 ( u
) 1 u (
du
u 1
2
u 2
1 u 2 u
2 2
2
2 2
2
} }
+
+
=
+
+ +
=
Using the partial fraction decomposition

2 2 2 2
2
u 1
u 2
u
1
u
2
) u 1 ( u
) 1 u (
+
+ =
+
+

we have
=
+
+ =
} } }
du
u 1
u 2
du
u
1
du
u
2
I
2 2

C ) u 1 ln(
u
1
| u | ln 2
2
+ + =
Going back to the original variable, we finally get
503
C
2
x
tan 1 ln
2
x
cot
2
x
tan ln 2 I
2
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
}
+
=
x cos b a
dx
I , 0 ab =
2
x
tan 1
2
x
tan 1
x cos
2
2
+
= and then the substitution

2
x
tan u = , since du
u 1
2
dx
2
+
= (as explained previously), we get
=
+
+
+
=
+
=
} }
du
u 1
2
u 1
u 1
b a
1
x cos b a
dx
I
2
2
2

du
b a u ) b a (
2
du
) u 1 ( b ) u 1 ( a
2
2 2 2 } }
+ +
=
+ +
=

We distinguish the following cases:
(I) If b a = , then
C
2
x
tan
b a
2
C u
b a
2
du
b a
2
du
b a
2
I +
+
= +
+
=
+
=
+
=
} }

(II) If b a = , then
du
b a
b a
u
2
du
b a u ) b a (
2
x cos b a
dx
I
2
2 } } }
+
+
=
+ +
=
+
=

(II)a If
2
k
b a
b a
=
+
, 0 k > , then
du
b a
b a
u
2
du
b a u ) b a (
2
x cos b a
dx
I
2
2 } } }
+
+
=
+ +
=
+
=

C
2
x
tan
b a
b a
arctan
b a
b a
2 C
k
u
arctan
k
2
du
k u
2
2 2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
= +
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
=
}

504
(II)b If
2
m
b a
b a
=
+
, 0 m > , then
du
b a
b a
u
2
du
b a u ) b a (
2
x cos b a
dx
I
2
2 } } }
+
+
=
+ +
=
+
=

=
)
`
=
} } }
m u
du
m u
du
m
1
du
m u
2
2 2

C
a b
a b
2
x
tan
a b
a b
2
x
tan
ln
a b
a b
C
m u
m u
ln
m
1
+
+
+

+
= +
+
=
}
+
=
x sin b a
dx
I , 0 ab =
2
x
tan 1
2
x
tan 2
x sin
2
+
= and then the substitution
2
x
tan u = , since du
u 1
2
dx
2
+
= (as explained previously), we get
=
+
+
+
=
+
=
} }
du
u 1
2
u 1
u 2
b a
1
x sin b a
dx
I
2
2

du
a u b 2 u a
2
du
u 2 b ) u 1 ( a
2
2 2 } }
+ +
=
+ +
=
We distinguish the following cases
(I) If 0 ) a b ( 4 a 4 b 4 D
2 2 2 2
> = = , then
) u )( u ( a a bu 2 au
2 1
2
= + + where
a
a b b
2 2
1
+
= and
a
a b b
2 2
2

=
are the two roots of the trinomial
Using partial fraction decomposition,
505
)
`

=

2 1 2 1 2 1
u
1
u
1
) ( a
2
) u )( u ( a
2

we have
=
+ +
=
+
=
} }
du
a u b 2 u a
2
x sin b a
dx
I
2

C
u
u
ln
) ( a
2
u
du
u
du
) ( a
2
2
1
2 1 2 1 2 1
+

=
)
`

=
} }

C
2
x
tan
2
x
tan
ln
) ( a
2
2
1
2 1
+

=
(II) If 0 ) a b ( 4 a 4 b 4 D
2 2 2 2
= = = , then
2 2
) u ( a a bu 2 au = + + where
a
b
= is the double root of the
trinomial. We then have
=
+ +
=
+
=
} }
du
a u b 2 u a
2
x sin b a
dx
I
2

C
2
x
tan
1
a
2
C
u
1
a
2
du
) u (
du
a
2
2
+

= +

=

=
}

(III) If 0 ) a b ( 4 a 4 b 4 D
2 2 2 2
< = = , then
|
|
.
|
\
|

+
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + +
2
2 2
2
2
a
b a
a
b
u a a bu 2 au
In this case, using the substitution t
a
b a
a
b
u
2 2
= + , we get
=
|
|
.
|
\
|

+
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + +
2
2 2
2
2
a
b a
a
b
u a a bu 2 u a
) 1 t (
a
b a
2
2 2
+
=
506
Therefore
=
+
=
+ +
=
+
=
} } }
) 1 t (
a
b a
dt
a
b a
2 du
a u b 2 u a
2
x sin b a
dx
I
2
2 2
2 2
2

C t arctan
b a
2
1 t
dt
b a
2
2 2
2
2 2
+
=
+
=
}

C
b a
b
2
x
tan a 2
arctan
b a
2
x sin b a
dx
I
2 2 2 2
+
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
=
}

}
+ +
=
x sin c x cos b a
dx
I
Solution. Using the formulas

2
x
tan 1
2
x
tan 2
x sin
2
+
= and
2
x
tan 1
2
x
tan 1
x cos
2
2
+
=
2
x
tan u = , since du
u 1
2
dx
2
+
= (as explained
previously), we get
=
+
+
+
+
+
=
+ +
=
} }
du
u 1
2
u 1
u 2
c
u 1
u 1
b a
1
x sin c x cos b a
dx
I
2
2 2
2

=
+ + +
=
}
du
u 2 c ) u 1 ( b ) u 1 ( a
2
2 2

du
b a u c 2 u ) b a (
2
2 }
+ + +
=
We distinguish the following cases:
(I) If b a = , then
507
du
b a u c 2
2
x sin c x cos b a
dx
I
} }
+ +
=
+ +
=

= + + =
+
=
}
C | a u c | ln
c
1
du
a 2 u c 2
c 2
c
1

C a
2
x
tan c ln
c
1
+ + =
(II) If b a = , then
=
+
+
=
+ +
=
} }
du
b a
b a
u
b a
c 2
u
1
b a
2
x sin c x cos b a
dx
I
2

du
u 2 u
1
b a
2
2 }
+ +
=
, where

b a
c
= and
b a
b a
+
=
Let D be the discriminant of the trinomial + + u 2 u
2
:
) ( 4 4 ) 2 ( D
2 2
= =
We distinguish the following cases
(I) If 0 ) ( 4 D
2
> = , then
) u )( u ( u 2 u
2 1
2
= + + where
+ =
2
1
and =
2
2

are the two roots of the trinomial
)
`

=

2 1 2 1 2 1
u
1
u
1
) (
2
) u )( u (
2

we have
=
+ +
=
+ +
=
} }
du
u 2 u
1
b a
2
x sin c x cos b a
dx
I
2

508
=
)
`

=
} }
2 1 2 1
u
du
u
du
) )( b a (
2

C
2
x
tan
2
x
tan
ln
) )( b a (
2
C
u
u
ln
) )( b a (
2
2
1
2 1 2
1
2 1
+

= +

=
(II) If 0 ) ( 4 D
2
= = , then
2 2
) u ( u 2 u + = + +

Therefore
=
+ +
=
+ +
=
} }
du
u 2 u
1
b a
2
x sin c x cos b a
dx
I
2

C
2
x
tan
1
b a
2
C
u
1
b a
2
) u (
du
b a
2
2
+
+
= +
+
=
+
=
}

(III) If 0 ) ( 4 D
2
< = , then
2 2 2
) u ( u 2 u + + = + +
Using the substitution t u
2
= + , then
) 1 t )( ( ) u ( u 2 u
2 2 2 2 2
+ = + + = + +
and dt du
2
= . Therefore
=
+ +
=
+ +
=
} }
du
u 2 u
1
b a
2
x sin c x cos b a
dx
I
2

=
+

=
+

=
} }
dt
) 1 t (
1
) b a (
2
dt
) 1 t )( ( ) b a (
2
2
2
2 2
2

= +

+

= +

= C
u
arctan
) b a (
2
C t arctan
) b a (
2
2 2 2

C
2
x
tan
arctan
) b a (
2
2 2
+

+

=

9.7. Seventh Category. Integrals which contain sines and cosines where the
integrand in invariant under the substitutions x sin x sin and x cos x cos .
509
In other words we consider integrals of the form

}
dx ) x cos , x (sin R
where the function ) v , u ( R satisfies the relation: ) v , u ( R ) v , u ( R =
In this category belong integrals of the form
dx
x cos 2 x cos x sin 3 x sin
1
I
2 2
}
+
=
The integrals in this case are evaluated using the substitution x tan u = . The
integrand has to be converted to the form

x cos
1
) x (tan f
2

The method works like the next examples.
1
I
2 2
}
+
=
Solution. The integrand can be written as
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
x cos
x cos
2
x cos
x cos x sin
3
x cos
x sin
x cos
1
2
2
2 2
2
2

) 2 x tan 3 x (tan x cos
1
2 2
+
=
Therefore, introducing the substitution x tan u = , since dx
x cos
1
du
2
= , the
integral becomes
=
+
=
}
dx
1
I
2 2

} }
+
=
+
=
2 u 3 u
du
) 2 x tan 3 x (tan x cos
dx
2 2 2

510

1 u
1
2 u
1
2 u 3 u
1
2

=
+

we get
C
1 u
2 u
ln C | 1 u | ln | 2 u | ln
1 u
du
2 u
du
I +
= + =
=
} }

C
1 x tan
2 x tan
ln I +
=

}
+
=
1 x cos 4
dx
I
2

Solution. We transform the integrand so as to be expressed in terms of x tan and
x cos
1
2
. We have
=
+ +
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+ )] x tan 1 ( 4 [ x cos
1
x cos
1
4 x cos
1
1 x cos 4
1
2 2
2
2
2

) x tan 5 ( x cos
1
2 2
+
=
Therefore

} }
+
=
+
=
) x tan 5 ( x cos
dx
1 x cos 4
dx
I
2 2 2

Using the substitution x tan u = , we find dx
x cos
1
du
2
= and the integral takes
the form

}
+
=
2
u 5
du
I
Under the new substitution w 5 u = , we have
511
) w 1 ( 5 w 5 5 ) w 5 ( 5 u 5
2 2 2 2
+ = + = + = +
and
dw 5 du =
We thus obtain
C w arctan
5
5
w 1
dw
5
5
) w 1 ( 5
dw 5
I
2 2
+ =
+
=
+
=
} }

or
C
5
x tan
arctan
5
5
C
5
u
arctan
5
5
I + |
.
|
\
|
= + |
.
|
\
|
=
}
=
x cos x sin
dx
I
3 5

Solution. The integrand is invariant under the substitutions
x sin x sin and x cos x cos
Therefore we may use the substitution x tan u = .
We have however to transform the integrand into an expression of the form
x cos
1
) x (tan f
2
. We find
=

=
x cos x cos
x cos
x sin
1
x cos x sin
1
3 5
5
5 3 5

x cos
1
x cos x tan
1
x cos x tan
1
2 6 5 8 5

=
and since
x tan 1
x cos
1
2
2
+ = ,
3 2
3
2 6
) x tan 1 (
x cos
1
x cos
1
+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
we have
512

x cos
1
) x tan 1 (
x tan
1
x cos x sin
1
2
3 2
5 3 5
+ =

} }

+
= =
x cos
dx
x tan
) x tan 1 (
x cos x sin
dx
I
2 5
3 2
3 5
(1)
The substitution x tan u = ,
x cos
dx
du
2
= , converts (1) to the integral

} } }
+
=
+
= = du
u
) u 1 (
x cos
dx
x tan
) x tan 1 (
x cos x sin
dx
I
5
3 2
2 5
3 2
3 5

Expanding the numerator and dividing by the numerator, we find
u
u
3
u
3
u
1
u
) u 1 (
3 5 5
3 2
+ + + =
+

Therefore
= + + + =
} } } }
du u
u
du
3
u
du
3
u
du
I
3 5

C
2
u
| u | ln 3
u
1
2
1
3
u
1
4
1
2
2 4
+ + +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
C x tan
2
1
| x tan | ln 3
x tan
1
2
3
x tan
1
4
1
I
2
2 4
+ + + =
}
=
x cos x sin
dx
I
4 2

x cos
1
) x (tan f
2
. We find
513
=

=
x cos x cos
x cos
x sin
1
x cos x sin
1
4 2
2
2 4 2

x cos
1
x cos x tan
1
2 4 2

=
and since
x tan 1
x cos
1
2
2
+ = ,
2 2
3
2 4
) x tan 1 (
x cos
1
x cos
1
+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
we have

x cos
1
) x tan 1 (
x tan
1
x cos x sin
1
2
2 2
2 4 2
+ =

} }

+
= =
x cos
dx
x tan
) x tan 1 (
x cos x sin
dx
I
2 2
2 2
4 2
(1)
x cos
dx
du
2
= , converts (1) to the integral
=
+
}
du
u
) u 1 (
2
2 2

= + + =
+ +
=
} } } }
du u du 2 du
u
1
du
u
u u 2 1
2
2 2
4 2

C
3
u
u 2
u
1
3
+ + + =
C
3
x tan
x tan 2
x tan
1
I
3
+ + + =
x cos x sin
1
I
3
}
=
514
x cos
1
) x (tan f
2
.
We find
x cos x tan x cos x cos
x cos
x sin
x cos x sin
4 3 3
= =
Therefore
x cos x tan x cos x sin
2 3
=
The integral becomes

x cos
dx
x tan
1
dx
x cos x sin
1
I
2
3
} }
= = (1)
Using the substitution x tan u = ,
x cos
dx
du
2
= , relation (1) gets the form
= = =
} }
x cos
dx
x tan
1
dx
x cos x sin
1
I
2
3

C x tan 2 C u 2
u
du
+ = + = =
}

}

=
x cos b x sin a
dx
I
2 2 2 2

Solution. Since

) b x tan a ( x cos
1
x cos b x sin a
1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

=

the substitution x tan t = , dx
x cos
1
dt
2
= , converts the integral to
} }
+
=
) b t a ( ) b t a (
dt
b t a
dt
2 2 2

515

b t a
1
b 2
1
b t a
1
b 2
1
) b t a ( ) b t a (
1
+
=
+

we find
=
+
} } }
b t a
dt
b 2
1
b t a
dt
b 2
1
b t a
dt
2 2 2

=
+
=
} }
b t a
dt a
ab 2
1
b t a
dt a
ab 2
1

= + + = C | b t a | ln
ab 2
1
| b t a | ln
ab 2
1

C
b t a
b t a
ln
ab 2
1
+
+
=
C
b x tan a
b x tan a
ln
ab 2
1
x cos b x sin a
dx
I
2 2 2 2
+
+
=
}

x sin ) x cos x (sin
x cos ) x cos x (sin
I
3 3
}

+
=
x cos
1
) x (tan f
2
. We find
=
+
3 3

=
+ +
+
=
x sin ) x cos x cos x sin x (sin ) x cos x (sin
2 2

516
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
|
.
|
\
|

|
.
|
\
|
+
=
x sin
x cos
x cos
x cos
x cos x sin
x cos
x sin
x cos
x cos
x cos
x cos
x sin
x cos
x cos
x cos
x cos
x cos
x sin
x cos
2
2
2 2
2
2

=
+ +
+
=
x sin ) 1 x tan x (tan x cos ) 1 x (tan x cos
) 1 x (tan x cos
2 2
2

=
+ +
+
=
x sin ) 1 x tan x (tan ) 1 x (tan x cos
1 x tan
2

) 1 x tan x (tan ) 1 x (tan x tan x cos
1 x tan
2 2
+ +
+
=

x cos
1
) 1 x tan x (tan ) 1 x (tan x tan
1 x tan
2 2

+ +
+
=
Therefore we get
=
+
=
}
dx
I
3 3

dx
x cos
1
) 1 x tan x (tan ) 1 x (tan x tan
1 x tan
2 2

+ +
+
=
}

Using the substitution x tan u = , dx
x cos
1
du
2
= , we find
du
) 1 u u ( ) 1 u ( u
1 u
I
2
}
+ +
+
=

1 u u
1 u
3
1
1 u
1
3
2
u
1
) 1 u u ( ) 1 u ( u
1 u
2 2
+ +
+ =
+ +
+

we have
=
+ +
+
=
}
du
) 1 u u ( ) 1 u ( u
1 u
I
2

517
=
+ +
+ =
} } }
du
1 u u
1 u
3
1
du
1 u
1
3
2
du
u
1
2

C
3
1 u 2
arctan 3 | 1 u u | ln
2
1
3
1
| 1 u | ln
3
2
| u | ln
2
+
)
`
|
.
|
\
| +
+ + + + =
where the last integral was evaluated before (6.4.3 Example 1(ii)).
Going back to the original variable, x tan u = , we find the value of the integral
=
+
=
}
dx
I
3 3

+ + = | 1 x tan | ln
3
2
| x tan | ln
C
3
1 x tan 2
arctan
3
3
| 1 x tan x tan | ln
6
1
2
+ |
.
|
\
| +
+ + +

518
9.8. Eighth Category. In this category belong integrals of the form
dx
x sin
1
m
}
,
where in general m is a positive integer with 3 m > .
Let dx
x sin
1
I
m
m }
=
We shall distinguish two cases: m even and m odd positive integers.
Case I. Let
dx
x sin
1
I
m 2
m 2 }
= (1)
In this case we have
= = =
} }

dx
x sin
1
x sin
1
dx
x sin
1
I
2 2 m 2 m 2
m 2

dx
x sin
1
) x cot 1 ( dx
x sin
1
x sin
1
2
1 m 2
2
1 m
2
} }

+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
Using the substitution x cot u = , dx
x sin
1
du
2
= , we obtain
du ) u 1 ( I
1 m 2
m 2 }

+ =
which can be evaluated using elementary methods (expanding the binomial and
integrating term by term).
x sin
1
I
4
}
= .
Solution. We have
dx
x sin
1
) x cot 1 ( dx
x sin
1
x sin
1
dx
x sin
1
2
2
2 2 4 } } }
+ = =
x sin
1
du
2
= , we obtain
519
= + = = + =
} } }
C
3
u
u du u du du ) u 1 ( I
3
2 2

C
3
x cot
x cot
3
+ =
x sin
1
I
6
}
= .
Solution. We have
= =
} }
dx
x sin
1
x sin
1
dx
x sin
1
2 4 6

dx
x sin
1
) x cot 1 ( dx
x sin
1
x sin
1
2
2 2
2
2
2 } }
+ =
|
.
|
\
|
=
x sin
1
du
2
= , we obtain
= + + = + =
} }
du ) u u 2 1 ( du ) u 1 ( I
4 2 2 2

= + = =
} } }
C
5
u
3
u
2 u du u du u 2 du
5 3
4 2

C x cot
5
1
x cot
3
2
x cot
5 3
+ =
Case II. Let
dx
x sin
1
I
1 m 2
1 m 2 }
+
+
=
=
+
= =
} }
+ +
+
dx
x sin
x cos x sin
dx
x sin
1
I
1 m 2
2 2
1 m 2
1 m 2

= + =
} }
+ +
dx
x sin
x cos
dx
x sin
x sin
1 m 2
2
1 m 2
2

dx
x sin
x cos
dx
x sin
1
1 m 2
2
1 m 2
} }
+
+ =
or
520
dx
x sin
x cos
I I
1 m 2
2
1 m 2 1 m 2 }
+
+
+ =

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'
x sin
x cos
1 m 2 +

x cos
x sin
1
m 2
1
m 2

x sin

we get
= =
} }
+
dx
x sin
1
m 2
1
x sin
x cos
m 2
1
dx
x sin
x cos
1 m 2 m 2 1 m 2
2

1 m 2
m 2
I
m 2
1
x sin
x cos
m 2
1
=
Therefore

1 m 2
m 2
1 m 2 1 m 2
I
m 2
1
x sin
x cos
m 2
1
I I
+
=
or

1 m 2
m 2
1 m 2
I
m 2
1
1
x sin
x cos
m 2
1
I
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
x sin
1
I
3
}
=
Solution. According to the previous reduction formula, we have ( 1 m = )

1 2 3 3
I
2
1
x sin
x cos
2
1
dx
x sin
1
I I + = =
}

and since (Example 1, 9.6) | x ec cos x cot | ln dx
x sin
1
I
1
=
}
, we get
C | x ec cos x cot | ln
2
1
x sin
x cos
2
1
dx
x sin
1
I I
2 3 3
+ = =
}

521
x sin
1
I
5
}
=
Solution. For 2 m= , we find from the reduction formula
3 4 5
I
4
1
1
x sin
x cos
4
1
I I
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
where the integral
3
I was evaluated in the previous Example.
2
1
x sin
x cos
2
1
4
3
x sin
x cos
4
1
I I
2 4 5
+
)
`
+ =
or
8
3
x sin
x cos
8
3
x sin
x cos
4
1
I I
2 4 5
+ + =
9.9. Ninth Category. Let dx
x cos
1
J
n
n }
=
We shall distinguish two cases: n even and n odd positive integers.
Case I. Let
dx
x cos
1
J
n 2
n 2 }
= (1)
= = =
} }

dx
x cos
1
x cos
1
dx
x cos
1
J
2 2 n 2 n 2
n 2

dx
x cos
1
) x tan 1 ( dx
x cos
1
x cos
1
2
1 n
2
2
1 n
2

} }
+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
x cos
1
du
2
= , we find
du ) u 1 ( J
1 n
2
n 2

}
+ =
which can be evaluated by elementary methods (expanding the binomial and
integrating term by term).
522
x cos
1
I
4
}
=
Solution. We have
= = =
} }
dx
x cos
1
x cos
1
dx
x cos
1
J I
2 2 4 4

dx
x cos
1
) x tan 1 (
2
2
}
+ =
x cos
1
du
2
= , we find
= + = + =
} } }
du u du du ) u 1 ( J I
2 2
4

C
3
x tan
x tan C
3
u
u
3 3
+ + = + + =
x cos
1
I
6
}
=
Solution. We have
= = =
} }
dx
x cos
1
x cos
1
dx
x cos
1
J I
2 4 6 6

dx
x cos
1
) x tan 1 ( dx
x cos
1
x cos
1
2
2
2
2
2
2 } }
+ =
|
.
|
\
|
=
x cos
1
du
2
= , we find
= + + = + =
} }
du ) u u 2 1 ( du ) u 1 ( J I
4 2
2
2
6

= + + + = + + =
} } }
C
5
u
3
u
2 u du u du u 2 du
5 3
4 2

C x tan
5
1
x tan
3
2
x tan
5 3
+ + + =
Case II. Let
dx
x cos
1
J
1 n 2
1 n 2 }
+
+
=
523
=
+
= =
} }
+ +
+
dx
x cos
x cos x sin
dx
x cos
1
J
1 n 2
2 2
1 n 2
1 n 2

= + =
} }
+ +
dx
x cos
x cos
dx
x cos
x sin
1 n 2
2
1 n 2
2

dx
x cos
1
dx
x cos
x sin
1 n 2 1 n 2
2
} }
+
+ =
or

1 n 2
1 n 2
2
1 n 2
J dx
x cos
x sin
J

+
+
+ =
}


} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'
x cos
x sin
1 n 2 +

x sin
x cos
1
n 2
1
n 2

x cos

we get
= =
} }
+
dx
x cos
1
n 2
1
x cos
x sin
n 2
1
dx
x cos
x sin
1 n 2 n 2 1 n 2
2

1 n 2
n 2
J
n 2
1
x cos
x sin
n 2
1
=
Therefore

1 n 2
n 2
1 n 2
J
n 2
1
1
x cos
x sin
n 2
1
J
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
x cos
1
I
3
}
=
524
Solution. We have from the above reduction formula for 1 n =
1 2 3
J
2
1
1
x cos
x sin
2
1
J I
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
where (Example 2, 9.6)
| x sec x tan | ln dx
x cos
1
J
1
+ = =
}

C | x sec x tan | ln
2
1
x cos
x sin
2
1
J I
2 3
+ + + =
9.10. Tenth Category. Let
dx
x cos x sin
1
I
n m
n , m }
= (1)
We then have
=
+
= =
} }
dx
x cos x sin
x cos x sin
dx
x cos x sin
1
I
n m
2 2
n m
n , m

= + =
} }
dx
x cos x sin
x cos
dx
x cos x sin
x sin
n m
2
n m
2

= + =
} }

dx
x cos x sin
1
dx
x cos x sin
1
2 n m n 2 m

or

2 n , m n , 2 m
n m
n , m
I I dx
x cos x sin
1
I

+ =
}
(2)

} }
and the table

525

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'
x cos
x sin
n

x sin
1
1 m

x cos
1
1 n
1
1 n

x sin
x cos
) 1 m (
m

we get
dx
x cos x sin
1
1 n
1 m
x cos x sin
1
1 n
1
I
2 n m 1 n 1 m
n , 2 m }

=
or

2 n , m
1 n 1 m
n , 2 m
I
1 n
1 m
x cos x sin
1
1 n
1
I

= (3)
We find similarly

n , 2 m
1 n 1 m
2 n , m
I
1 m
1 n
x cos x sin
1
1 m
1
I

= (4)

2 n , m
1 n 1 m
n , m
I
1 n
1 m
1
x cos x sin
1
1 n
1
I

|
.
|
\
|
+ +
=

n , 2 m
1 n 1 m
n , m
I
1 m
1 n
1
x cos x sin
1
1 m
1
I

|
.
|
\
|
+ +
=
Case I. We consider the particular case
dx
x cos x sin
1
I
1 n 2 1 m 2
1 n 2 , 1 m 2 }
+ +
+ +
=
= =
}
+ +
+ +
dx
x cos x sin
1
I
1 n 2 1 m 2
1 n 2 , 1 m 2

= =
}
dx
) x (cos ) x )(sin x cos x (sin
1
n 2 m 2

526
= =
}
dx
) x (cos ) x )(sin x cos x sin 2 (
1
2
n 2 m 2

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

}
dx
x cos
1
x cos
1
x sin
1
) x 2 (sin
1
2
2
1 n
2
m
2

= +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
=

}
dx
x cos
1
) x tan 1 (
x tan
x tan 1
x tan
x tan 1
2
1 n 2
m
2
2 2

dx
x cos
1
) x (tan
) x tan 1 (
2 1 m 2
n m 2
}
+
+
+
=
x cos
1
du
2
= , the integral takes the form
du
u
) u 1 (
1 m 2
n m 2
}
+
+
+

which can be evaluated using elementary methods.
x cos x sin
1
I
3 3
}
=
Solution. We have
= =
}
dx
x cos x sin
1
I I
3 3 3 , 3

= =
}
dx
1
2 2

= =
}
dx
1
2
2 2

=
|
.
|
\
|
=
}
dx
x cos
1
x sin
1
) x 2 (sin
1
2
2 2

=
|
|
.
|
\
| + +
=
}
dx
x cos
1
x tan
x tan 1
x tan
x tan 1
2 2
2 2

dx
x cos
1
) x (tan
) x tan 1 (
2 3
2 2
}
+
=
527
x cos
1
du
2
=
+ +
=
+
} }
du
u
u u 2 1
du
u
) u 1 (
3
4 2
3
2 2

C
2
u
| u | ln 2
u 2
1
du u du
u
1
2 du
u
1
2
2 3
+ + + = + + =
} } }

C
2
x tan
| x tan | ln 2
x tan
1
2
1
dx
x cos x sin
1
I
2
2 3 3
+ + + = =
}

x cos x sin
1
I
3 5
}
=
Solution. We have
= =
}
dx
x cos x sin
1
I I
3 5 3 , 5

= =
}
dx
1
2 4

= =
}
dx
1
2
2 2 2

=
|
.
|
\
|
=
}
dx
x cos
1
x sin
1
) x 2 (sin
1
2
2
2
2

=
|
|
.
|
\
| + +
=
}
dx
x cos
1
x tan
x tan 1
x tan
x tan 1
2
2
2
2 2

dx
x cos
1
) x (tan
) x tan 1 (
2 5
3 2
}
+
=
x cos
1
du
2
=
+ + +
=
+
} }
du
u
u u 3 u 3 1
du
u
) u 1 (
5
6 4 2
5
3 2

528
= + + + =
} } } }
du u du
u
1
3 du
u
1
3 du
u
1
3 5

C u
2
1
| u | ln 3
u
1
2
3
u
1
4
1
2
2 4
+ + + =
= =
}
dx
x cos x sin
1
I
3 5

C x tan
2
1
| x tan | ln 3
x tan
1
2
3
x tan
1
4
1
2
2 4
+ + + =
x cos x sin
1
I
7 3
}
=
Solution. We have
= =
}
dx
x cos x sin
1
I I
7 3 7 , 3

= =
}
dx
1
6 2

= =
}
dx
1
2
3 2 2

=
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
}
dx
x cos
1
x cos
1
x sin
1
) x 2 (sin
1
2
2
2
2 2

= +
|
|
.
|
\
| + +
=
}
dx
x cos
1
) x tan 1 (
x tan
x tan 1
x tan
x tan 1
2
2 2
2
2 2

dx
x cos
1
) x (tan
) x tan 1 (
2 3
4 2
}
+
=
x cos
1
du
2
=
+ + + +
=
+
} }
du
u
u u 4 u 6 u 4 1
du
u
) u 1 (
3
8 6 4 2
3
4 2

= + + + + =
} } } } }
du u du u 4 du u 6 du
u
1
4 du
u
1
5 3
3

529
C
6
u
u u 3 | u | ln 4
u
1
2
1
6
4 2
2
+ + + + + =
= =
}
dx
x cos x sin
1
I
7 3

C x tan
6
1
x tan x tan 3 | x tan | ln 4
x tan
1
2
1
6 4 2
2
+ + + + + =
Case II. We consider the particular case
dx
x cos x sin
1
I
n 2 m 2
n 2 , m 2 }
=
= = =
} }

dx
x cos
1
x cos x sin
1
dx
x cos x sin
1
I
2 2 n 2 m 2 n 2 m 2
n 2 , m 2

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
}

dx
x cos
1
x cos
1
x sin
1
2
1 n
2
m
2

= +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
}

dx
x cos
1
) x tan 1 (
x tan
x tan 1
2
1 n 2
m
2
2

dx
x cos
1
) x (tan
) x tan 1 (
2 m 2
1 n m 2
}
+
+
=
x cos
1
du
2
du
u
) u 1 (
m 2
1 n m 2
}
+
+

which can be evaluated using elementary methods.
We find similarly that
n 2 , m 2
I can be expressed as
du
u
) u 1 (
n 2
1 n m 2
}
+
+

530
where x cot u = .
x cos x sin
1
I
6 4
}
=
Solution. We have
= = =
} }
dx
x cos
1
x cos x sin
1
dx
x cos x sin
1
I I
2 4 4 6 4 4 , 4

=
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
}
dx
x cos
1
x cos
1
x sin
1
2
2
2
2
2

= +
|
|
.
|
\
| +
=
}
dx
x cos
1
) x tan 1 (
x tan
x tan 1
2
2 2
2
2
2

dx
x cos
1
) x (tan
) x tan 1 (
2 2
4 2
}
+
=
x cos
1
du
2
=
+ + + +
=
+
} }
du
u
u u 4 u 6 u 4 1
du
u
) u 1 (
2
8 6 4 2
2
4 2

= + + + + =
} } } } }
du u du u 4 du u 6 du 4 du
u
1
6 4 2
2

C
7
u
5
u
4
3
u
6 u 4
u
1
7 5 3
+ + + + + =
= =
}
dx
x cos x sin
1
I
6 4

C x tan
7
1
x tan
5
4
x tan 2 x tan 4
x tan
1
7 5 2
+ + + + + =
x cos x sin
1
I
4 6
}
=
Solution. We have
531
= = =
} }
dx
x cos
1
x cos x sin
1
dx
x cos x sin
1
I I
2 2 6 4 6
4 , 6

= |
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
}
dx
x cos
1
x cos
1
x sin
1
2 2
3
2

= +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
}
dx
x cos
1
) x tan 1 (
x tan
x tan 1
2
2
3
2
2

dx
x cos
1
) x (tan
) x tan 1 (
2 2
4 2
}
+
=
x cos
1
du
2
=
+ + + +
=
+
} }
du
u
u u 4 u 6 u 4 1
du
u
) u 1 (
2
8 6 4 2
2
4 2

= + + + + =
} } } } }
du u du u 4 du u 6 du 4 du
u
1
6 4 2
2

C
7
u
5
u
4
3
u
6 u 4
u
1
7 5 3
+ + + + + =
= =
}
dx
x cos x sin
1
I
4 6

C x tan
7
1
x tan
5
4
x tan 2 x tan 4
x tan
1
7 5 2
+ + + + + =
Case III. We consider the particular case
dx
x cos x sin
1
I
n 2 1 m 2
n 2 , 1 m 2 }
+
+
=
= = =
} }
+ +
+
dx
x cos x sin
x sin
dx
x cos x sin
1
I
n 2 2 m 2 n 2 1 m 2
n 2 , 1 m 2

532
dx
) x (cos ) x cos 1 (
x sin
dx
) x (cos ) x (sin
x sin
n 2 1 m 2 n 2 1 m 2
} }
+ +

= =
Using the substitution x cos u = , dx x sin du = , the integral takes the form
du
u ) u 1 (
1
n 2 1 m 2
}
+

which can be evaluated using partial fractions. The calculations using this method
are rather involved.
x cos x sin
1
I
2 3
}
=
Solution. We have
= = =
} }
dx
x cos x sin
x sin
dx
x cos x sin
1
I I
2 4 2 3 2 , 3

dx
x sin
dx
) x (cos ) x (sin
x sin
2 2 2 2 2 2 } }

= =
du
u ) u 1 (
1
2 2 2 }

1 u
1
4
3
1 u
1
4
3
) 1 u (
1
4
1
) 1 u (
1
4
1
u
1
u ) u 1 (
1
2 2 2 2 2 2
+
+
+
+
+ =

Therefore
+
+
+
+ =
} } } }
du
) 1 u (
1
4
1
du
) 1 u (
1
4
1
du
u
1
du
) u 1 ( u
1
2 2 2 2 2 2

du
1 u
1
4
3
du
1 u
1
4
3
} }

+
+
C | 1 u | ln
4
3
| 1 u | ln
4
3
1 u
1
4
1
1 u
1
4
1
u
1
+ + +
+
=
C
1 u
1 u
ln
4
3
1 u
1
2
1
u
1
2
+
+
+
=
533
= =
}
dx
x cos x sin
1
I
2 3

C
1 x cos
1 x cos
ln
4
3
1 x cos
1
2
1
x cos
1
2
+
+ =
Case [3d]. We consider the particular case
dx
x cos x sin
1
I
1 n 2 m 2
1 n 2 , m 2 }
+
+
=
= =
}
+
+
dx
x cos x sin
1
I
1 n 2 m 2
1 n 2 , m 2

= =
}
+
dx
) x (cos ) x (sin
x cos
1 n 2 m 2

dx
) x sin 1 ( ) x (sin
x cos
1 n 2 m 2
}
+
=
Using the substitution x sin u = , dx x cos du = , the integral takes the form
du
) u 1 ( u
1
1 n 2 m 2
}
+

which can be evaluated using partial fractions. The calculations using this method
are rather involved.
x cos x sin
1
I
3 2
}
=
Solution. We have
= = =
} }
dx
x cos x sin
x cos
dx
x cos x sin
1
I I
4 2 3 2 3 , 2

dx
) x sin 1 ( x sin
x cos
2 2 2
}

=
Using the substitution x sin u = , dx x cos du = , the integral becomes
534
du
) u 1 ( u
1
2 2 2
}

1 u
1
4
3
1 u
1
4
3
) 1 u (
1
4
1
) 1 u (
1
4
1
u
1
) u 1 ( u
1
2 2 2 2 2 2

+
+
+
+
+ =

Therefore
+
+
+
+ =
} } } }
du
) 1 u (
1
4
1
du
) 1 u (
1
4
1
du
u
1
du
) u 1 ( u
1
2 2 2 2 2 2

du
1 u
1
4
3
du
1 u
1
4
3
} }

+
+
C | 1 u | ln
4
3
| 1 u | ln
4
3
1 u
1
4
1
1 u
1
4
1
u
1
+ + +
+
=
C
1 u
1 u
ln
4
3
1 u
1
2
1
u
1
2
+
+
+
=
= =
}
dx
x cos x sin
1
I
3 2

C
1 x sin
1 x sin
ln
4
3
1 x sin
1
2
1
x sin
1
2
+
+
+
=
C
1 x sin
1 x sin
ln
4
3
x cos
1
2
1
x sin
1
2
+
+
+ + =
9.11. Eleventh Category. Integrals of the form
dx
x cos
x sin
I
n
m
n , m }
=
This integral can be written as dx
x cos
x sin
) x (sin I
n
1 m
n , m }

= .

} }
535
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'
x cos
x sin
n

x sin
1 m

x cos
1
1 n
1
1 n

x sin ) x )(cos 1 m (
2 m

we get

= =

}
x cos
x sin
1 m
1
dx
x cos
x sin
I
1 n
1 m
n
m
n , m

}
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
dx x sin ) x )(cos 1 m (
x cos
1
1 n
1
2 m
1 n

}
=
dx
x cos
x sin
1 n
1 m
x cos
x sin
1 m
1
2 n
2 m
1 n
1 m

2 n , 2 m
1 n
1 m
I
1 n
1 m
x cos
x sin
1 m
1

=
We have therefore derived the reduction formula

2 n , 2 m
1 n
1 m
n
m
n , m
I
1 n
1 m
x cos
x sin
1 m
1
dx
x cos
x sin
I

= =
}

x cos
x sin
I
4
5
}
=
Solution. Using the reduction formula, we find for 5 m = and 4 n =

2 , 3
3
4
4 , 5
I
3
4
x cos
x sin
4
1
I I =
For 3 m = and 2 n = we find

0 , 1
2
2 , 3
I 2
x cos
x sin
2
1
I =
where
x cos dx x sin I
0 , 1
= =
}

536
=
(
(
= =
0 , 1
2
3
4
2 , 3
3
4
4 , 5
I 2
x cos
x sin
2
1
3
4
x cos
x sin
4
1
I
3
4
x cos
x sin
4
1
I I
C x cos 2
x cos
x sin
2
1
3
4
x cos
x sin
4
1
2
3
4
+
(
(
+ =
or
C x cos
3
8
x cos
x sin
3
2
x cos
x sin
4
1
I
2
3
4
+ =
9.12. Twelfth Category
We consider the integral dx
x sin
x cos
J
n
m
n , m }
=
The integral can be written as dx
x sin
x cos
x cos J
n
1 m
n , m }

= .

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

x sin
x cos
n

x cos
1 m

x sin
1
1 n
1
1 n

x cos ) x sin )( 1 m (
2 m

we get

= =

}
x sin
x cos
1 n
1
dx
x sin
x cos
J
1 n
1 m
n
m
n , m

}
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
dx x cos ) x sin )( 1 m (
x sin
1
1 n
1
2 m
1 n

}
=
dx
x sin
x cos
1 n
1 m
x sin
x cos
1 n
1
2 n
2 m
1 n
1 m

537

2 n , 2 m
1 n
1 m
J
1 n
1 m
x sin
x cos
1 n
1

=
We have therefore derived the reduction formula

2 n , 2 m
1 n
1 m
n
m
n , m
J
1 n
1 m
x sin
x cos
1 n
1
dx
x sin
x cos
J

= =
}

x sin
x cos
I
4
5
}
=
Solution. Using the reduction formula, we find for 5 m = and 4 n =
2 , 3
3
4
4
5
4 , 5
J
3
4
x sin
x cos
3
1
dx
x sin
x cos
J I + = =
}

For 3 m = and 2 n = we find

0 , 1
2
2 , 3
J 2
x sin
x cos
J + =
where
x sin dx x cos J
0 , 1
= =
}

Collecting everything together, we find the value of the integral
= + = =
} 2 , 3
3
4
4
5
J
3
4
x sin
x cos
3
1
dx
x sin
x cos
I
C x sin 2
x sin
x cos
3
4
x sin
x cos
3
1
2
3
4
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + =
or
C x sin
3
8
x sin
x cos
3
4
x sin
x cos
3
1
dx
x sin
x cos
I
2
3
4
4
5
+ + = =
}

9.13. Thirteenth Category. Integrals of the form

}
= dx x tan I
m
m
and
}
= dx x cot J
m
m

m
I we have
538
= = =
} }

dx x tan ) x (tan dx x tan I
2 m 2 m
m

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
}

dx x tan 1
x cos
1
2 m
2

} }

= dx x tan dx x tan
x cos
1
2 m 2 m
2

Using the substitution x tan t = , we get dx
x cos
1
dt
2
= . Therefore
x tan
1 m
1
1 m
t
dt t dx x tan
x cos
1
1 m
1 m
2 m 2 m
2

= =
} }

We also recognize that
2 m
2 m
I dx x tan

=
}
.
Therefore we get

2 m
1 m m
m
I x tan
1 m
1
dx x tan I

= =
}

For 1 m= , we have
| x cos | ln dx
x cos
) x (cos
dx
x cos
x sin
dx x tan I
1
=
'
= = =
} } }


}
= dx x tan I
5

Solution. Using the reduction formula for 5 m = , we find

3
4 5
5
I x tan
4
1
dx x tan I I = =
}

For 3 m = , we find

1
2
3
I x tan
2
1
I =
where | x cos | ln dx x tan I
1
= =
}

=
|
.
|
\
|
= = =
} 1
2 4
3
4 5
5
I x tan
2
1
x tan
4
1
I x tan
4
1
dx x tan I I
539
C | x cos | ln x tan
2
1
x tan
4
1
2 4
+ =
m
J we have
= = =
} }

dx x cot ) x (cot dx x cot J
2 m 2 m
m

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
}

dx x cot 1
x sin
1
2 m
2

} }

= dx x cot dx x cot
x sin
1
2 m 2 m
2

Using the substitution x cot t = we get dx
x sin
1
dt
2
= . Therefore
x cot
1 m
1
1 m
t
dt t dx x cot
x sin
1
1 m
1 m
2 m 2 m
2

= =
} }

We also recognize that
2 m
2 m
J dx x cot

=
}
.
Therefore we get

2 m
1 m m
m
J x cot
1 m
1
dx x cot J

= =
}

For 1 m= , we have
| x sin | ln dx
x sin
) x (sin
dx
x sin
x cos
dx x cot J
1 } } }
=
'
= = =

}
= dx x cot I
5

Solution. Using the reduction formula for 5 m = , we find

3
4 5
5
J x cot
4
1
dx x cot J I = =
}

For 3 m = , we find

1
2
3
J x cot
2
1
J =
where | x sin | ln dx x cot J
1
= =
}

540
= = =
} 3
4 5
5
J x cot
4
1
dx x cot J I
=
|
.
|
\
|
=
1
2 4
J x cot
2
1
x cot
4
1

C | x sin | ln x cot
2
1
x cot
4
1
2 4
+ + + =
9.14. Fourteenth Category. Integrals of the form
dx ) ax sin( x I
n
n }
= and dx ) ax cos( x J
n
n }
=
Case I. For the integral dx ) ax sin( x I
n
n }
= , using the formula (integration by
parts)

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

) ax sin(

n
x
) ax cos(
a
1

1 n
x n

we get

}

+ = dx ) ax cos( x
a
n
) ax cos( x
a
1
I
1 n n
n

For the integral of the above formula we have the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

) ax cos(

1 n
x

) ax sin(
a
1

2 n
x ) 1 n (

Therefore

} }

= dx ) ax sin( x
a
1 n
) ax sin( x
a
1
dx ) ax cos( x
2 n 1 n 1 n

2 n
1 n
I
a
1 n
) ax sin( x
a
1

=
541
We thus have

)
`

+ =

2 n
1 n n
n
I
a
1 n
) ax sin( x
a
1
a
n
) ax cos( x
a
1
I
or

2 n
2
1 n
2
n
n
I
a
) 1 n ( n
) ax sin( x
a
n
) ax cos( x
a
1
I

+ =
For the integral dx ) ax sin( x I
1 }
= , using similarly integration by parts, we find
) ax sin(
a
1
) ax cos( x
a
1
dx ) ax sin( x I
2 1
+ = =
}

dx ) x 2 sin( x I
3
}
=
Solution. For 3 n = and 2 a = we find from the reduction formula
= =
}
dx ) x 2 sin( x I I
3
3

1
2 3
I
2
3
) x 2 sin( x
4
3
) x 2 cos( x
2
1
+ =
where
) x 2 sin(
4
1
) x 2 cos( x
2
1
dx ) x 2 sin( x I
1
+ = =
}

= =
}
dx ) x 2 sin( x I
3

= + =
1
2 3
I
2
3
) x 2 sin( x
4
3
) x 2 cos( x
2
1

= +
|
.
|
\
|
+ + = C ) x 2 sin(
4
1
) x 2 cos( x
2
1
2
3
) x 2 sin( x
4
3
) x 2 cos( x
2
1
2 3

C ) x 2 sin(
8
3
x
4
3
) x 2 cos( x
4
3
x
2
1
2 3
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
Case II. For the integral dx ) ax cos( x J
n
n }
= we have the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'
542

) ax cos(

n
x

) ax sin(
a
1

1 n
x n

Therefore
} }

= = dx ) ax sin( x
a
n
) ax sin( x
a
1
dx ) ax cos( x J
1 n n n
n


) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

) ax sin(

1 n
x

) ax cos(
a
1

2 n
x ) 1 n (

Therefore

} }
=
+ =

dx ) ax cos( x
a
1 n
) ax cos( x
a
1
dx ) ax sin( x
2 n 1 n 1 n

2 n
1 n
J
a
1 n
) ax cos( x
a
1

+ =
We thus obtain

)
`

+ =

2 n
1 n n
n
J
a
1 n
) ax cos( x
a
1
a
n
) ax sin( x
a
1
J
or

2 n
2
1 n
2
n
n
J
a
) 1 n ( n
) ax cos( x
a
n
) ax sin( x
a
1
J

+ =
For the integral dx ) ax cos( x J
1 }
= , using similarly integration by parts, we find
) ax cos(
a
1
) ax sin( x
a
1
dx ) ax cos( x J
2 1
+ = =
}

dx ) x 2 cos( x I
3
}
=
Solution. For 3 n = and 2 a = we find from the reduction formula
= =
}
dx ) x 2 cos( x J I
3
3

1
2 3
J
2
3
) x 2 cos( x
4
3
) x 2 sin( x
2
1
+ =
543
where
) x 2 cos(
4
1
) x 2 sin( x
2
1
dx ) x 2 cos( x J
1
+ = =
}

= =
}
dx ) x 2 cos( x I
3

1
2 3
J
2
3
) x 2 cos( x
4
3
) x 2 sin( x
2
1
+ =
= +
|
.
|
\
|
+ + = C ) x 2 cos(
4
1
) x 2 sin( x
2
1
2
3
) x 2 cos( x
4
3
) x 2 sin( x
2
1
2 3

C ) x 2 cos(
8
3
x
4
3
) x 2 sin( x
4
3
x
2
1
2 3
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
9.15. Fifteenth Category. Integrals of the form

}
}
dx ) ax cos( ) x ( P
In this case we set
) ax sin( ) x ( R ) ax cos( ) x ( Q dx ) ax sin( ) x ( P
1 n n n
+ =
}

and
) ax cos( ) x ( R ) ax sin( ) x ( Q dx ) ax cos( ) x ( P
1 n n n
+ =
}

where, in an obvious notation, ) x ( P
n
is a given th n degree polynomial, while
) x ( Q
n
is th n degree polynomial, and ) x ( R
1 n
is th ) 1 n ( degree polynomial,
both with undetermined coefficients.
The undetermined coefficients are determined by differentiation of both sides of
the equations () and () and equating the coefficients of the similar powers of the
independent variable.

}
+ + = dx ) x 2 cos( ) 2 x x 6 x 5 x 3 ( I
2 3 4

Solution. We set
544
= + + =
}
dx ) x 2 cos( ) 2 x x 6 x 5 x 3 ( I
2 3 4

+ + + + + = ) x 2 sin( ) a x a x a x a x a (
4 3
2
2
3
1
4
0

) x 2 cos( ) b x b x b x b (
3 2
2
1
3
0
+ + + +
Differentiating both sides of the above identity, we find
= + + ) x 2 cos( ) 2 x x 6 x 5 x 3 (
2 3 4

+ + + + = ) x 2 sin( ) a x a 2 x a 3 x a 4 (
3 2
2
1
3
0

+ + + + + + ) x 2 cos( ) a x a x a x a x a ( 2
4 3
2
2
3
1
4
0

+ + + ) x 2 cos( ) b x b 2 x b 3 (
2 1
2
0

) x 2 sin( ) b x b x b x b ( 2
3 2
2
1
3
0
+ + +
= + + ) x 2 cos( ) 2 x x 6 x 5 x 3 (
2 3 4

+ + + + = ) x 2 sin( )} b 2 a ( x ) b 2 a 2 ( x ) b 2 a 3 ( x ) b 2 a 4 {(
3 3 2 2
2
1 1
3
0 0

) x 2 cos( )} b a 2 x ) b 2 a 2 ( x ) b 3 a 2 ( x a 2 x a 2 {
2 4 1 3
2
0 2
3
1
4
0
+ + + + + + + +
From the above identity we obtain
) b 2 a ( x ) b 2 a 2 ( x ) b 2 a 3 ( x ) b 2 a 4 ( 0
3 3 2 2
2
1 1
3
0 0
+ + + =
and
= + + 2 x x 6 x 5 x 3
2 3 4

2 4 1 3
2
0 2
3
1
4
0
b a 2 x ) b 2 a 2 ( x ) b 3 a 2 ( x a 2 x a 2 + + + + + + + =
0 b 2 a 4
0 0
= , 0 b 2 a 3
1 1
= , 0 b 2 a 2
2 2
= , 0 b 2 a
3 3
=
3 a 2
0
= , 5 a 2
1
= , 6 b 3 a 2
0 2
= + , 1 b 2 a 2
1 3
= + , 2 b a 2
2 4
= +
Solving the above system, we get the values

2
3
a
0
= ,
2
5
a
1
= ,
2
3
a
2
= ,
4
13
a
3
= ,
4
7
a
4
=
3 b
0
= ,
4
15
b
1
= ,
2
3
b
2
= ,
8
13
b
3
=
545
Therefore we find the value of the integral
= + + =
}
dx ) x 2 cos( ) 2 x x 6 x 5 x 3 ( I
2 3 4

+
|
.
|
\
|
+ + = ) x 2 sin(
4
7
x
4
13
x
2
3
x
2
5
x
2
3
2 3 4

C ) x 2 cos(
8
13
x
2
3
x
4
15
x 3
2 3
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ +

}
+ = dx ) x 3 sin( ) 2 x 4 x 2 x 3 ( I
2 3

Solution. We set

}
+ = dx ) x 3 sin( ) 2 x 4 x 2 x 3 ( I
2 3

+ + + + = ) x 3 cos( ) a x a x a x a (
3 2
2
1
3
0

) x 3 sin( ) b x b x b (
2 1
2
0
+ + +
= + ) x 3 sin( ) 2 x 4 x 2 x 3 (
2 3

+ + = ) x 3 cos( ) a x a 2 x a 3 (
2 1
2
0

+ + + + ) x 3 sin( ) a x a x a x a ( 3
3 2
2
1
3
0

) x 3 cos( ) b x b x b ( 3 ) x 3 sin( ) b x b 2 (
2 1
2
0 1 0
+ + + + +
= + ) x 3 sin( ) 2 x 4 x 2 x 3 (
2 3

+ + + + + + = ) x 3 cos( } b 3 a x ) b 3 a 2 ( x ) b 3 a 3 {(
2 2 1 1
2
0 0

) x 3 sin( } b a 3 x ) b 2 a 3 ( x a 3 x a 3 {
1 3 0 2
2
1
3
0
+ + + +
0 b 3 a x ) b 3 a 2 ( x ) b 3 a 3 (
2 2 1 1
2
0 0
= + + + + +
and
= + 2 x 4 x 2 x 3
2 3

546
1 3 0 2
2
1
3
0
b a 3 x ) b 2 a 3 ( x a 3 x a 3 + + + =
0 b 3 a 3
0 0
= + , 0 b 3 a 2
1 1
= + , 0 b 3 a
2 2
= +
3 a 3
0
= , 2 a 3
1
= , 4 b 2 a 3
0 2
= + , 2 b a 3
1 3
= +
Solving the above system, we obtain the values
1 a
0
= ,
3
2
a
1
= ,
3
2
a
2
= ,
27
14
a
3
=
1 b
0
= ,
9
4
b
1
= ,
9
2
b
2
=
}
+ = dx ) x 3 sin( ) 2 x 4 x 2 x 3 ( I
2 3

+
|
.
|
\
|
+ + = ) x 3 cos(
27
14
x
3
2
x
3
2
x
2 3

C ) x 3 sin(
9
2
x
9
4
x
2
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
9.16. Sixteenth Category. Integrals of the form

}

= dx
c x
) ax sin(
I and
}

= dx
c x
) ax cos(
J
Under the substitution c x t = ( c t x + = , dt dx = ), the integral
}

= dx
c x
) ax sin(
I
becomes
=
+
=
+
} }
dt
t
) ac sin( ) at cos( ) ac cos( ) at sin(
dt
t
) c t ( a sin

} }
+ = dt
t
) at cos(
) ac sin( dt
t
) at sin(
) ac cos(
Introducing further t a u = , we find

} }
= du
u
u sin
dt
t
) at sin(
and
} }
= du
u
u cos
dt
t
) at cos(

547
At this stage we remind the following definitions

}
=
x
0
dt
t
t sin
) x ( Si and
}
=
x
dt
t
t cos
) x ( Ci
where ) x ( Si and ) x ( Ci are the sine and cosine integrals respectively.
Therefore
}
du
u
u sin
and
}
du
u
u cos
can be identified, without loss of generality,
with ) u ( Si and ) u ( Ci respectively. Since ) c x ( a t a u = = , going to the original
variable, we obtain
) c a x a ( Ci ) c a sin( ) c a x a ( Si ) ac cos( dx
c x
) ax sin(
I + =
=
}

}

= dx
c x
) ax cos(
I
becomes
=
=
+
} }
dt
t
) ac sin( ) at sin( ) ac cos( ) at cos(
dt
t
) c t ( a cos

} }
= dt
t
) at sin(
) ac sin( dt
t
) at cos(
) ac cos(
Therefore, using the same reasoning as before, we obtain
) ac ax ( Si ) ac sin( ) ac ax ( Ci ) ac cos( dx
c x
) ax cos(
J =
=
}

9.17. Seventeenth Category. Integrals of the form

}
= dx
x
x sin
I
n
n
and
}
= dx
x
x cos
J
n
n

Using the formula

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'
548

n
x
1

x sin
1 n
x
1
1 n
1

x cos
we find
} }
= = dx
x
x cos
1 n
1
x
x sin
1 n
1
dx
x
x sin
I
1 n 1 n n n

Using again the formula

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

1 n
x
1

x cos

2 n
x
1
2 n
1

x sin
we find
} }

= dx
x
x sin
2 n
1
x
x cos
2 n
1
dx
x
x cos
2 n 2 n 1 n

2 n
2 n
I
2 n
1
x
x cos
2 n
1
=

} }

+
= = dx
x
x cos
1 n
1
x
x sin
1 n
1
dx
x
x sin
I
1 n 1 n n
n

)
`
=

2 n
2 n 1 n
I
2 n
1
x
x cos
2 n
1
1 n
1
x
x sin
1 n
1

or
= =
}
dx
x
x sin
I
n
n

2 n
2 n 1 n
I
) 2 n ( ) 1 n (
1
x
x cos
) 2 n ( ) 1 n (
1
x
x sin
1 n
1
=
The previous formula holds for 3 n > . For 2 n = , using the formula

} }
and the table
549

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

2
x
1

x sin

x
1

x cos
we find
} }
+ = = dx
x
x cos
x
x sin
dx
x
x sin
I
2
2

We next come to the integrals
}
= dx
x
x cos
J
n
n

Using the formula

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

n
x
1

x cos
1 n
x
1
1 n
1

x sin
we find
} }

= = dx
x
x sin
1 n
1
x
x cos
1 n
1
dx
x
x cos
J
1 n 1 n n
n

Using again the formula

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

1 n
x
1

x sin

2 n
x
1
2 n
1

x cos
we find
} }

+
= dx
x
x cos
2 n
1
x
x sin
2 n
1
dx
x
x sin
2 n 2 n 1 n

2 n
2 n
J
2 n
1
x
x sin
2 n
1
=
550

} }

= = dx
x
x sin
1 n
1
x
x cos
1 n
1
dx
x
x cos
J
1 n 1 n n
n

)
`
=

2 n
2 n 1 n
J
2 n
1
x
x sin
2 n
1
1 n
1
x
x cos
1 n
1

or
= =
}
dx
x
x cos
J
n
n

2 n
2 n 1 n
J
) 2 n ( ) 1 n (
1
x
x sin
) 2 n ( ) 1 n (
1
x
x cos
1 n
1
=

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

2
x
1

x cos

x
1

x sin
we find
} }
= = dx
x
x sin
x
x cos
dx
x
x cos
J
2
2

9.18. Eighteenth Category. Integrals of the form

}

dx
) c x (
) ax sin(
n
and
}

dx
) c x (
) ax cos(
n
, 3 n >
Using the formula

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

n
) c x (
1

) ax sin(

1 n
) c x (
1
1 n
1

) ax cos( a

551
we find
} }

+
= dx
) c x (
) ax cos(
1 n
a
) c x (
) ax sin(
1 n
1
dx
) c x (
) ax sin(
I
1 n 1 n n n

Using the formula

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

1 n
) c x (
1

) ax cos(

2 n
) c x (
1
2 n
1

) ax sin( a

we find
} }

dx
) c x (
) ax sin(
2 n
a
) c x (
) ax cos(
2 n
1
dx
) c x (
) ax cos(
2 n 2 n 1 n

2 n 2 n
I
2 n
a
) c x (
) ax cos(
2 n
1

=

} }

+
= dx
) c x (
) ax cos(
1 n
a
) c x (
) ax sin(
1 n
1
dx
) c x (
) ax sin(
I
1 n 1 n n n

)
`
=
2 n 2 n 1 n
I
2 n
a
) c x (
) ax cos(
2 n
1
1 n
a
) c x (
) ax sin(
1 n
1

or
=
=
}
dx
) c x (
) ax sin(
I
n
n

2 n
2
2 n 1 n
I
) 2 n )( 1 n (
a
) c x (
) ax cos(
) 2 n )( 1 n (
a
) c x (
) ax sin(
1 n
1
=

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'
552

2
) c x (
1

) ax sin(

) c x (
1

) ax cos( a

we find
} }

+
= dx
) c x (
) ax cos(
a
) c x (
) ax sin(
dx
) c x (
) ax sin(
I
2
2

We come next to the calculation of
}

= dx
) c x (
) x a cos(
J
n
n

Using the formula

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

n
) c x (
1

) ax cos(

1 n
) c x (
1
1 n
1

) ax sin( a

we find
} }

= dx
) c x (
) ax sin(
1 n
a
) c x (
) ax cos(
1 n
1
dx
) c x (
) ax cos(
J
1 n 1 n n
n

Using the formula

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

1 n
) c x (
1

) ax sin(

2 n
) c x (
1
2 n
1

) ax cos( a

we find
} }

dx
) c x (
) ax cos(
2 n
a
) c x (
) ax sin(
2 n
1
dx
) c x (
) ax sin(
2 n 2 n 1 n

2 n
2 n
J
2 n
a
) c x (
) ax sin(
2 n
1
=
553

} }

= dx
) c x (
) ax sin(
1 n
a
) c x (
) ax cos(
1 n
1
dx
) c x (
) ax cos(
J
1 n 1 n n
n

=

2 n
2 n 1 n
J
2 n
a
) c x (
) ax sin(
2 n
1
1 n
a
) c x (
) ax cos(
1 n
1

or
=
=
}
dx
) c x (
) ax cos(
J
n
n

2 n
2
2 n 1 n
J
) 2 n )( 1 n (
a
) c x (
) ax sin(
) 2 n )( 1 n (
a
) c x (
) ax cos(
1 n
1
=

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

2
) c x (
1

) ax cos(

) c x (
1

) ax sin( a

we find
} }

= dx
) c x (
) ax sin(
a
) c x (
) ax cos(
dx
) c x (
) ax cos(
J
2
2

9.19. Nineteenth Category. Integrals of the form

}
+ +
dx
c bx x a
) x m sin(
2
,
}
+ +
dx
) c bx x a (
) x m sin(
n 2

}
+ +
+
dx
c bx x a
) x m sin( ) B Ax (
2
,
}
+ +
+
dx
) c bx x a (
) x m sin( ) B Ax (
n 2

}
+ +
dx
c bx x a
) x m cos(
2
,
}
+ +
dx
) c bx x a (
) x m cos(
n 2

}
+ +
+
dx
c bx x a
) x m cos( ) B Ax (
2
,
}
+ +
+
dx
) c bx x a (
) x m cos( ) B Ax (
n 2

554
dx
c bx x a
) mx sin(
2 }
+ +
and dx
c bx x a
) mx sin( ) B x A (
2 }
+ +
+

2
> .
Case I. If 0 D > , using partial fraction decomposition, we have

|
|
.
|
\
|

=
+ +
2 1 2 1
2
x
1
x
1
) ( a
1
c bx x a
1

where
1
and
2
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
+ +
} } }
dx
x
) mx sin(
dx
x
) mx sin(
) ( a
1
dx
c bx x a
) mx sin(
2 1 2 1
2

+

= } ) a x m ( Ci ) m sin( ) m x m ( Si ) m cos( {
) ( a
1
1 1 1 1
2 1

} ) a x m ( Ci ) m sin( ) m x m ( Si ) m cos( {
) ( a
1
2 2 2 2
2 1
+

2 2 1
2
1 2 1
1
2 1
x
1 B A
x
1 B A
) x ( ) x (
B x A

+
=

+

we obtain
=
+ +
+
}
dx
c bx x a
) mx sin( ) B x A (
2

=
|
|
.
|
\
|

+

+

=
} }
dx
x
) mx sin(
) B A ( dx
x
) mx sin(
) B A (
) ( a
1
2
2
1
1
2 1

+

+
= } ) m x m ( Ci ) m sin( ) m x m ( Si ) m cos( {
) ( a
B A
1 1 1 1
2 1
1

} ) m x m ( Ci ) m sin( ) m x m ( Si ) m cos( {
) ( a
B A
2 2 2 2
2 1
2
+

+

We also find, using similar procedure as above, that
555
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
+ +
} } }
dx
x
) mx cos(
dx
x
) mx cos(
) ( a
1
dx
c bx x a
) mx cos(
2 1 2 1
2

= } ) m x m ( Si ) m sin( ) m x m ( Ci ) m cos( {
) ( a
1
1 1 1 1
2 1

} ) m x m ( Si ) m sin( ) m x m ( Ci ) m cos( {
) ( a
1
2 2 2 2
2 1

and
=
+ +
+
}
dx
c bx x a
) mx cos( ) B x A (
2

=
|
|
.
|
\
|

+

+

=
} }
dx
x
) mx cos(
) B A ( dx
x
) mx cos(
) B A (
) ( a
1
2
2
1
1
2 1

+
) ( a
B A
1 1 1 1
2 1
1

) ( a
B A
2 2 2 2
2 1
2

+

2 2
a 2
b
= is the double
dx
) x (
) mx sin(
a
1
dx
c bx x a
) mx sin(
2 2 } }

=
+ +

Using the reduction formula (see Section 9.18)

} }

+
dx
c x
) ax cos(
a
c x
) ax sin(
dx
) c x (
) ax sin(
2

we find
=

=
+ +
} }
dx
) x (
) mx sin(
a
1
dx
c bx x a
) mx sin(
2 2

=
)
`

+

=
}
dx
x
) mx cos(
m
x
) mx sin(
a
1

556
)} m mx ( Si ) m sin( ) m mx ( Ci ) m {cos(
a
m
) x ( a
) mx sin(
+

=
We also have
dx
) x (
) mx cos(
a
1
dx
c bx x a
) mx cos(
2 2
} }

=
+ +


} }

dx
c x
) ax sin(
a
c x
) ax cos(
dx
) c x (
) ax cos(
2

we find
=

=
+ +
} }
dx
) x (
) mx cos(
a
1
dx
c bx x a
) mx cos(
2 2

=
)
`

=
}
dx
x
) mx sin(
m
x
) mx cos(
a
1

)} m x m ( Ci ) m sin( ) m x m ( Si ) m {cos(
a
m
) x ( a
) mx cos(
+

=
We next consider integrals of the form
dx
) c bx x a (
) mx sin(
I
n 2
n }
+ +
= and
}
+ +
+
= dx
) c x b x a (
) mx sin( ) B Ax (
R
n 2
n

2
> .
Case I. We have
=
+ +
=
}
dx
) c x b x a (
) mx sin(
I
n 2
n

} }
+ +
+
+
+ +
=

dx
) c x b x a (
) mx sin( ) b x a 2 (
D
1
dx
) c x b x a (
) mx sin(
D
a 4
n 2
2
1 n 2

n 1 n
M
D
1
I
D
a 4
+ =

where

}
+ +
+
= dx
) c x b x a (
) mx sin( ) b x a 2 (
M
n 2
2
n

557
Using the formula

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f
n 2
) c bx x a (
b ax 2
+ +
+

) mx sin( ) b x a 2 ( +

1 n 2
) c bx ax (
1
) 1 n (
1
+ +

) mx cos( ) b ax 2 ( m ) mx sin( a 2 ) x ( g + + = '

we find
=
+ +
+
=
}
dx
) c x b x a (
) mx sin( ) b x a 2 (
M
n 2
2
n

=
+ +
+ +
+
+ +
+
=
}

dx
) c bx ax (
) mx cos( ) b ax 2 ( m ) mx sin( a 2
) 1 n (
1
) c bx ax (
) mx sin( ) b ax 2 (
) 1 n (
1
1 n 2 1 n 2

+
+ +
+
+ +
+
=
}

dx
) c bx ax (
) mx sin(
) 1 n (
a 2
) c bx ax (
) 1 n (
1
1 n 2 1 n 2

=
+ +
+
+
}

dx
) c bx ax (
) mx cos( ) b ax 2 (
) 1 n (
m
1 n 2

1 n 1 n
1 n 2
K
1 n
m
I
) 1 n (
a 2
) c bx ax (
) 1 n (
1

+
+ +
+
=
where

}

+ +
+
= dx
) c x b x a (
) mx cos( ) b x a 2 (
K
1 n 2
1 n

Using the formula

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

558
1 n 2
) c bx x a (
b x a 2
+ +
+

) mx cos(

2 n 2
) c bx ax (
1
) 2 n (
1
+ +

) mx sin( m

we find
=
+ +
+
=
}

dx
) c x b x a (
) mx cos( ) b x a 2 (
K
1 n 2
1 n

}

+ +
+ +
= dx
) c x b x a (
) mx sin(
) 2 n (
m
) c bx ax (
) mx cos(
) 2 n (
1
2 n 2 2 n 2

2 n
2 n 2
I
) 2 n (
m
) c bx ax (
) mx cos(
) 2 n (
1
+ +
=
= + =
+ +
=
} n 1 n
n 2
n
M
D
1
I
D
a 4
dx
) c x b x a (
) mx sin(
I
=
)
`
+
+ +
+
+ =

1 n 1 n
1 n 2
1 n
K
1 n
m
I
) 1 n (
a 2
) c bx ax (
) 1 n (
1
D
1
I
D
a 4

+
)
`
+
+ +
+
+ =

1 n
1 n 2
1 n
I
) 1 n (
a 2
) c bx ax (
) 1 n (
1
D
1
I
D
a 4

)
`
+ +
2 n
2 n 2
I
) 2 n (
m
) c bx ax (
) mx cos(
) 2 n (
1
D ) 1 n (
m

or finally
=
+ +
=
}
dx
) c x b x a (
) mx sin(
I
n 2
n

+

|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
2 n
2
1 n
I
D ) 2 n )( 1 n (
m
I
D ) 1 n (
a 2
D
a 4

+
+ +
+
+
1 n 2
) c bx ax (
) 1 n (
1
D
1

)
`
+ +
+
2 n 2
) c bx ax (
) mx cos(
) 2 n (
1
D ) 1 n (
m

559
We come now to the calculation of the integral

}
+ +
= dx
) c x b x a (
) mx cos(
J
n 2
n

We have
=
+ +
=
}
dx
) c x b x a (
) mx cos(
J
n 2 n

} }
+ +
+
+
+ +
=

dx
) c x b x a (
) mx cos( ) b x a 2 (
D
1
dx
) c x b x a (
) mx cos(
D
a 4
n 2
2
1 n 2

n 1 n
P
D
1
J
D
a 4
+ =

where

}
+ +
+
= dx
) c x b x a (
) mx cos( ) b x a 2 (
P
n 2
2
n

Using the formula

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f
n 2
) c bx x a (
b ax 2
+ +
+

) mx cos( ) b x a 2 ( +

1 n 2
) c bx ax (
1
) 1 n (
1
+ +

) mx sin( ) b ax 2 ( m ) mx cos( a 2 ) x ( g + = '

we find
=
+ +
+
=
}
dx
) c x b x a (
) mx cos( ) b x a 2 (
P
n 2
2
n

=
+ +
+
+
+ +
+
=
}

dx
) c bx ax (
) mx sin( ) b ax 2 ( m ) mx cos( a 2
) 1 n (
1
) c bx ax (
) 1 n (
1
1 n 2 1 n 2

+ +
+
+ +
+
=
}

dx
) c bx ax (
) mx cos(
) 1 n (
a 2
) c bx ax (
) 1 n (
1
1 n 2 1 n 2

560
=
+ +
+
}

dx
) c bx ax (
) 1 n (
m
1 n 2

1 n 1 n
1 n 2
Q
1 n
m
J
) 1 n (
a 2
) c bx ax (
) 1 n (
1

+
+ +
+
=
where

}

+ +
+
= dx
) c x b x a (
) mx sin( ) b x a 2 (
Q
1 n 2
1 n

Using the formula

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

1 n 2
) c bx x a (
b x a 2
+ +
+

) mx sin(

2 n 2
) c bx ax (
1
) 2 n (
1
+ +

) mx cos( m

we find
=
+ +
+
=
}

dx
) c x b x a (
) mx sin( ) b x a 2 (
Q
1 n 2
1 n

}

+ +
+
+ +
= dx
) c x b x a (
) mx cos(
) 2 n (
m
) c bx ax (
) mx sin(
) 2 n (
1
2 n 2 2 n 2

2 n
2 n 2
J
) 2 n (
m
) c bx ax (
) mx sin(
) 2 n (
1

+
+ +
=
= + =
+ +
=
} n 1 n
n 2
n
P
D
1
J
D
a 4
dx
) c x b x a (
) mx cos(
J
=
)
`
+
+ +
+
+ =

1 n 1 n
1 n 2
1 n
Q
1 n
m
J
) 1 n (
a 2
) c bx ax (
) 1 n (
1
D
1
I
D
a 4

+
)
`
+
+ +
+
+ =

1 n
1 n 2
1 n
J
) 1 n (
a 2
) c bx ax (
) 1 n (
1
D
1
I
D
a 4

561
)
`
+
+ +
2 n
2 n 2
J
) 2 n (
m
) c bx ax (
) mx sin(
) 2 n (
1
D ) 1 n (
m

or finally
=
+ +
=
}
dx
) c x b x a (
) mx cos(
J
n 2
n

+

+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
2 n
2
1 n
I
D ) 2 n )( 1 n (
m
J
D ) 1 n (
a 2
D
a 4

+
+ +
+
+
1 n 2
) c bx ax (
) 1 n (
1
D
1

)
`
+ +
+
2 n 2
) c bx ax (
) mx sin(
) 2 n (
1
D ) 1 n (
m


}
+ +
+
= dx
) c x b x a (
) mx sin( ) B Ax (
R
n 2
n

using the identity

a 2
bA aB 2
) b ax 2 (
a 2
A
B x A

+ + = +
we find
=
+ +
+
=
}
dx
) c x b x a (
) mx sin( ) B Ax (
R
n 2
n

} }
+ +
+
+ +
+
= dx
) c x b x a (
) mx sin(
a 2
bA aB 2
dx
) c x b x a (
) mx sin( ) b x a 2 (
a 2
A
n 2 n 2

or

n
n 2 n 2
n
I
a 2
bA aB 2
dx
) c x b x a (
) mx sin( ) b x a 2 (
a 2
A
dx
) c x b x a (
) mx sin( ) B Ax (
R

+
+ +
+
=
+ +
+
=
} }

Using the formula

} }
and the table
562

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

n 2
) c bx x a (
b x a 2
+ +
+

) mx sin(

1 n 2
) c bx ax (
1
) 1 n (
1
+ +

) mx cos( m

we find
=
+ +
+
}

dx
) c x b x a (
) mx sin( ) b x a 2 (
1 n 2

}

+ +
+
+ +
= dx
) c x b x a (
) mx cos(
) 1 n (
m
) c bx ax (
) mx sin(
) 1 n (
1
1 n 2 1 n 2

1 n
1 n 2
J
) 1 n (
m
) c bx ax (
) mx sin(
) 1 n (
1

+
+ +
=
where

}

+ +
= dx
) c x b x a (
) mx cos(
J
1 n 2
1 n

evaluated before.
Therefore
=
+ +
+
=
}
dx
) c x b x a (
) mx sin( ) B Ax (
R
n 2
n

n 1 n
1 n 2
I
a 2
bA aB 2
J
) 1 n (
m
) c bx ax (
) mx sin(
) 1 n (
1
a 2
A
+
)
`
+
+ +

or
=
+ +
+
=
}
dx
) c x b x a (
) mx sin( ) B Ax (
R
n 2
n

n 1 n
1 n 2
I
a 2
bA aB 2
J
) 1 n (
m
a 2
A
) c bx ax (
) mx sin(
) 1 n (
1
a 2
A
+
+
)
`
+ +

For the integrals
n
I and
n
J we have established reduction formulas previously in
this section.
For the integral
563

}
+ +
+
= dx
) c x b x a (
) mx cos( ) B Ax (
T
n 2
n

using the identity

a 2
bA aB 2
) b ax 2 (
a 2
A
B x A

+ + = +
we find
=
+ +
+
=
}
dx
) c x b x a (
) mx cos( ) B Ax (
T
n 2
n

} }
+ +
+
+ +
+
= dx
) c x b x a (
) mx cos(
a 2
bA aB 2
dx
) c x b x a (
) mx cos( ) b x a 2 (
a 2
A
n 2 n 2

or

n
n 2 n 2
n
J
a 2
A b B a 2
dx
) c x b x a (
) mx cos( ) b x a 2 (
a 2
A
dx
) c x b x a (
) mx cos( ) B Ax (
T

+
+ +
+
=
+ +
+
=
} }

Using the formula

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

n 2
) c bx x a (
b x a 2
+ +
+

) mx cos(

1 n 2
) c bx ax (
1
) 1 n (
1
+ +

) mx sin( m

we find
=
+ +
+
}

dx
) c x b x a (
) mx cos( ) b x a 2 (
1 n 2

}

+ +
+ +
= dx
) c x b x a (
) mx sin(
) 1 n (
m
) c bx ax (
) mx cos(
) 1 n (
1
1 n 2 1 n 2

1 n
1 n 2
I
) 1 n (
m
) c bx ax (
) mx cos(
) 1 n (
1
+ +
=
where
564

}

+ +
= dx
) c x b x a (
) mx sin(
I
1 n 2
1 n

evaluated before.
Therefore
=
+ +
+
=
}
dx
) c x b x a (
) mx cos( ) B Ax (
T
n 2
n

n 1 n
1 n 2
J
a 2
bA aB 2
I
) 1 n (
m
) c bx ax (
) mx cos(
) 1 n (
1
a 2
A
+
+ +

or
=
+ +
+
=
}
dx
) c x b x a (
) mx cos( ) B Ax (
T
n 2
n

n 1 n
1 n 2
J
a 2
bA aB 2
I
) 1 n (
m
a 2
A
) c bx ax (
) mx cos(
) 1 n (
1
a 2
A
+
+ +

For the integrals
n
I and
n
J we have established reduction formulas previously in
this section.
9.20. Twentieth Category. Integrals of the form

}
}
dx ) ax cos( ) x ( R
) x (
) x ( Q
) x ( P ) x ( R + =
) x (
) x ( Q
dx
a x
e
x p
}

, dx
) a x (
e
n
x p
}

,
565
dx
) a x (
e ) x ( P
n
x p
}

dx
c bx x a
e
2
x p
}
+ +
, dx
) c bx x a (
e
n 2
x p
}
+ +

and
dx
c bx x a
e ) B Ax (
2
x p
}
+ +
+
, dx
) c bx x a (
e ) B Ax (
n 2
x p
}
+ +
+

2
> .

566
9.21. Twenty First Category. Integrals of the form

}
= dx ) bx sin( e I
ax
and
}
= dx ) bx cos( e J
ax

First Method. Using the formula (integration by parts)

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

ax
e

) bx sin(

ax
e
a
1

) x b cos( b
we get

}
= dx ) bx cos( e
a
b
) bx sin( e
a
1
I
ax ax

or
J
a
b
) bx sin( e
a
1
I
ax
=
or
) bx sin( e
a
1
J
a
b
I
ax
= +
For the integral J we have the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

ax
e

) bx cos(

ax
e
a
1

) x b sin( b
Therefore

}
+ = dx ) bx sin( e
a
b
) bx cos( e
a
1
J
ax ax

or
I
a
b
) bx cos( e
a
1
J
ax
+ =
or
567
) bx cos( e
a
1
J I
a
b
ax
= +
Therefore we have arrived at the system
) bx sin( e
a
1
J
a
b
I
ax
= + , ) bx cos( e
a
1
J I
a
b
ax
= +
from which we determine I and J:
)] bx cos( b ) bx sin( a [ e
b a
1
I
ax
2 2

+
=
)] bx cos( a ) bx sin( b [ e
b a
1
J
ax
2 2
+
+
=
Second Method. Setting
)} bx cos( ) bx sin( { e dx ) bx sin( e I
x a x a
+ = =
}

and
)} bx cos( ) bx sin( { e dx ) bx cos( e J
x a ax
+ = =
}

Differentiating the above identities with respect to x, we arrive at

Example. Evaluate the integrals

}
= dx ) x 3 sin( e I
x 2
and
}
= dx ) x 3 cos( e J
x 2

Solution. For 2 a = and 3 b = , we obtain, using the two previous formulas
)] x 3 cos( 3 ) x 3 sin( 2 [ e
13
1
I
x 2
=
)] x 3 cos( 2 ) x 3 sin( 3 [ e
13
1
J
x 2
+ =
Note. The reader should repeat all the necessary steps in deriving the formulas
instead of simply using them.
9.22. Twenty Second Category. Integrals of the form

}
ax n
n
and
}
ax n
n

First Method. The integrals
568

}
= dx ) bx sin( e ) x ( I
ax
and
}
= dx ) bx cos( e ) x ( J
ax

have been evaluated in the previous Category.
Since ) bx sin( e ) x ( I
ax
= ' and ) bx cos( e ) x ( J
ax
= ' , using integration by parts we
find
= ' = =
} }
dx ) x ( I x dx ) bx sin( e x I
n ax n
n

}

= dx ) x ( I x n ) x ( I x
1 n n

and
= ' = =
} }
dx ) x ( J x dx ) bx cos( e x J
n ax n
n

}

= dx ) x ( J x n ) x ( J x
1 n n

) bx cos( e ) x ( Q ) bx sin( e ) x ( P dx ) bx sin( e x I
x a
n
x a
n
x a n
n
+ = =
}

and
) bx cos( e ) x ( Q ) bx sin( e ) x ( P dx ) bx cos( e x J
x a
n
x a
n
x a n
n
+ = =
}

where ) x ( P
n
and ) x ( Q
n
are th n degree polynomials.
The coefficients of these polynomials are determined by differentiation of the
above identities and equating the coefficients of similar powers of x.
Example. Evaluate the integrals

}
= dx ) x 3 sin( e x I
x 2 3
and
}
= dx ) x 3 cos( e x J
x 2 3

Solution. We find, using the second method:
= =
}
dx ) x 3 sin( e x I
x 2 3

+
|
.
|
\
|
+ = ) x 3 cos( e
28561
720
x
2197
54
x
169
36
x
13
3
x 2 2 3

) x 3 sin( e
28561
714
x
2197
276
x
169
15
x
13
2
x 2 2 3
|
.
|
\
|
+ + +
and
569
= =
}
dx ) x 3 sin( e x J
x 2 3

+
|
.
|
\
|
+ + = ) x 3 cos( e
28561
714
x
2197
276
x
169
15
x
13
2
x 2 2 3

) x 3 sin( e
28561
720
x
2197
54
x
169
36
x
13
3
x 2 2 3
|
.
|
\
|
+ + +
9.23. Twenty Third Category. Integrals of the form

}
ax
n
and
}
ax
n

We set
) bx cos( e ) x ( R ) bx sin( e ) x ( Q dx ) bx sin( e ) x ( P I
x a
n
x a
n
x a
n n
+ = =
}

and
) bx cos( e ) x ( R ) bx sin( e ) x ( Q dx ) bx cos( e ) x ( P J
x a
n
x a
n
x a
n n
+ = =
}

where ) x ( Q
n
and ) x ( R
n

}
+ = dx ) x 3 sin( e ) 7 x 3 x 2 ( I
x 2 2

Solution.
) x 3 sin( e
2197
1987
x
169
58
x
13
4
) x 3 cos( e
2197
4053
x
169
165
x
13
6
x 2 2 x 2 2
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
|
.
|
\
|
+

}
+ = dx ) x 2 sin( e ) 5 x 2 x 3 ( I
x 3 2

Solution.
) x 2 sin( e
2197
2611
x
169
108
x
13
9
) x 2 cos( e
2197
2278
x
169
124
x
13
6
x 3 2 x 3 2
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
|
.
|
\
|
+

570

9.24. Twenty Fourth Category. Integrals of the form

}
= dx ) x b sin( e ) x ( R I
x a
and
}
= dx ) x b cos( e ) x ( R J
x a

) x (
) x ( Q
) x ( P ) x ( R + =
) x (
) x ( Q
dx
c x
) bx sin( e
x a
}

, dx
) c x (
) bx sin( e
n
x a
}

,
dx
c x
) bx cos( e
x a
}

, dx
) c x (
) bx cos( e
n
x a
}

dx
) c x (
) bx sin( e ) x ( P
n
x a
}

, dx
) c x (
) bx cos( e ) x ( P
n
x a
}

, where n ) x ( P deg <
dx
c bx x a
) x p sin( e
2
x m
}
+ +
, dx
) c bx x a (
) px sin( e
n 2
x m
}
+ +

dx
c bx x a
) x p cos( e
2
x m
}
+ +
, dx
) c bx x a (
) px cos( e
n 2
x m
}
+ +

and
dx
c bx x a
) x p sin( e ) B Ax (
2
x m
}
+ +
+
, dx
) c bx x a (
n 2
x m
}
+ +
+

dx
c bx x a
) x p cos( e ) B Ax (
2
x m
}
+ +
+
, dx
) c bx x a (
n 2
x m
}
+ +
+

571
2
> .
In all the previous cases we use the formulas
) e e (
i 2
1
) x m sin(
x m i x m i
= and ) e e (
2
1
) x m cos(
x m i x m i
+ =
to transform ) x m sin( and ) x m cos( to exponential form and then proceed along
the methods introduced in 7.3-7.7.
For example we find
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
} } }

dx
c x
e e
dx
c x
e e
i 2
1
dx
c x
) bx sin( e
x b i x a x b i x a x a

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
} }
+
dx
c x
e
dx
c x
e
i 2
1
x ) b i a ( x ) b i a (

))} c x )( b i a (( Ei e )) c x )( b i a (( Ei e {
i 2
1
c ) b i a ( c ) b i a (
+ =
+

We are not going to consider more examples in this category.
9.25. Supplementary Exercises
Exercise 1. Evaluate the integral dx
1 x sec 4
x sec
I
2
}
+
=
Solution. Multiplying both numerator and denominator of the integrand by x cos
2

we obtain
=
+
=
+
=
+ ) x sin 1 ( 4
x cos
x cos 4
x cos
1 x sec 4
x sec
2 2 2

5 x sin
x cos
x sin 5
x cos
2 2

=
=
Therefore the integral takes the form
dx
5 x sin
x cos
I
2 }

=
Using the substitution x sin u = , since dx x cos du = , we get
572
du
5 u
1
I
2 }

=
The last integral has been evaluated before (6.3.1a, Exercise 12).

5 u
5 u
ln
5 2
1
du
5 u
1
2
+
}

Therefore the value of the original integral is given by
C
5 x sin
5 x sin
ln
5 2
1
dx
1 x sec 4
x sec
I
2
+
+
=
+
=
}

1 x tan 4
x sec
I
2
}
+
=
Solution. Multiplying both numerator and denominator of the integrand by x cos
2

we obtain
=
+
=
+
=
+ ) x sin 1 ( x sin 4
x cos
x cos x sin 4
x cos
1 x tan 4
x sec
2 2 2 2 2

1 x sin 3
x cos
2
+
=
dx
1 x sin 3
x cos
dx
1 x tan 4
x sec
I
2 2
} }
+
=
+
=
Under the substitution x sin u = , since dx x cos du = , the integral takes the form

}
+1 u 3
du
2

The last integral has been evaluated before (6.3.3a, Example 15):
) u 3 arctan(
3
3
1 u 3
du
2
=
+
}

Therefore we obtain for the original integral:
C ) x sin 3 arctan(
3
3
dx
1 x tan 4
x sec
I
2
+ =
+
=
}

573
}
+
=
x cos x sin
dx
I
3 3

Solution. We have the series of identities
= + + = + ) x cos x cos x sin x (sin ) x cos x (sin x cos x sin
2 2 3 3

= + = ) x cos x sin 1 ( ) x cos x (sin
=
|
.
|
\
|
+ = ) x cos x sin 2 (
2
1
1 ) x cos x (sin

|
.
|
\
|
+ = x 2 sin
2
1
1 ) x cos x (sin
Using the identities
|
.
|
\
|
= x
2
sin x cos and

2
B A
cos
2
B A
sin 2 B sin A sin
+
= +
we obtain that
|
.
|
\
|
= +
4
x cos 2 x cos x sin .

Therefore under the substitution

4
x t =
we have
t cos 2 x cos x sin = +
and
=
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
2
t 2 sin
2
1
1
4
t 2 sin
2
1
1 x 2 sin
2
1
1
) t 2 cos 2 (
2
1
t 2 cos
2
1
1 = =
and so
t cos ) t 2 cos 2 (
2
2
x cos x sin
3 3
= +
574
dt
t cos ) t 2 cos 2 (
t cos
2
t cos ) t 2 cos 2 (
2
2
dt
I
2 } }

=
=
=

=
}
dt
) t sin 1 ( )] t sin 2 1 ( 2 [
t cos
2
2 2

dt
) t sin 1 ( ) t sin 2 1 (
t cos
2
2 2 }
+
=
Using the substitution t sin u = , dt t cos du = , the last integral becomes
du
) u 1 ( ) u 2 1 (
1
2 I
2 2 }
+
=

2 2 2
u 2 1
1
2
3
1 u
1
6
1
1 u
1
6
1
) u 2 1 ( ) u 1 (
1
+
+
+
=
+

Therefore
=
+
=
}
du
) u 2 1 ( ) u 1 (
1
2 I
2 2

=
+
+
+
=
} } } 2
u 2 1
du
2
2 3
du
1 u
du
6
2
du
1 u
du
6
2

= + + + = C ) u 2 arctan(
2
2
2
2 3
| 1 u | ln
6
2
| 1 u | ln
6
2

C ) u 2 arctan(
2
3
1 u
1 u
ln
6
2
+ +
+
=
|
.
|
\
|
t
= =
4
x sin t sin u , we obtain the
value of the integral
=
+
=
}
x cos x sin
dx
I
3 3

575
C
4
x sin 2 arctan
2
3
1
4
x sin
1
4
x sin
ln
6
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
t
+
|
.
|
\
|
t
+
|
.
|
\
|
t
=
x cos x sin
x 2 cos
I
4 4
}
+
=
Solution. We have the series of identities
x cos x sin 2 ) x cos x (sin x cos x sin
2 2 2 2 2 4 4
+ = +
= = =
2 2 2
) x cos x sin 2 (
2
1
1 ) x cos x sin 4 (
2
1
1
) x 2 sin 2 (
2
1
) x 2 (sin
2
1
1
2 2
= =
dx
x 2 sin 2
x 2 cos 2
dx
) x 2 sin 2 (
2
1
x 2 cos
I
2
2
} }

=
=
Under the substitution x 2 sin u = , dx x 2 cos 2 du = , the integral takes the form

}

=
2
u 2
du
I
Using the partial fraction decomposition,

2 u
1
4
2
2 u
1
4
2
u 2
1
2

+
=

we find
=
+
=
=
} } }
2 u
du
4
2
2 u
du
4
2
u 2
du
I
2

= + + = C | 2 u | ln
4
2
| 2 u | ln
4
2

C
2 u
2 u
ln
4
2
+
+
=
576
C
2 x 2 sin
2 x 2 sin
ln
4
2
I +
+
=

9.26. Generalizations
We shall find the general expressions for the integrals
[1] dx x sin
1 n 2
}
+
[2] dx x cos
1 n 2
}
+

[3] dx x sin
n 2
}
[4] dx x cos
n 2
}

using Newtons binomial expansion.
[1] We have
= = =
} } }
+
n 2 n 2 1 n 2

n 2
}
=
Using the substitution x cos t = , we find dx x sin dt = . Therefore the integral
takes the form
dt ) t 1 (
n 2
}

which can be evaluated by expanding the binomial.
We consider Newtons binomial expansion,
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
= +
n
0 k
k n
a
k
n
) a 1 ( , where n is a positive integer.
For
2
t a = , we find

=

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
n
0 k
k 2 n 2
) t (
k
n
) t 1 (
or
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
n
0 k
k 2 k n 2
t
k
n
) 1 ( ) t 1 (

577
Therefore
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

} }
=
+
n
0 k
k 2 1 k n 2
dt t
k
n
) 1 ( dt ) t 1 (

[2] We have
= = =
} } }
+
n 2 n 2 1 n 2

n 2
}
=
Using the substitution x sin t = we find dx x cos dt = . Therefore the integral takes
the form
dt ) t 1 (
n 2
}

which can be evaluated by expanding the binomial.

[3] dx x sin
n 2
}
and [4] dx x cos
n 2
}

These two integrals can be evaluated using the expansions

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

x ) 2 n ( 2 cos
2
n 2
x ) 1 n ( 2 cos
1
n 2
nx 2 cos
2
) 1 (
x sin
1 n 2
n
n 2

)
`
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+

n
n 2
2
1
) 1 ( x 2 cos
1 n
n 2
) 1 (
1 n 1 n

+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =

x ) 2 n ( 2 cos
2
n 2
x ) 1 n ( 2 cos
1
n 2
nx 2 cos
2
1
x cos
1 n 2
n 2

)
`
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
n
n 2
2
1
x 2 cos
1 n
n 2

The previous two expansions can be written as
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

n
n 2
2
1
x ) k n ( 2 cos
k
n 2
) 1 (
2
1
x sin
n 2
1 n
0 k
k n
1 n 2
n 2

578
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

n
n 2
2
1
x ) k n ( 2 cos
k
n 2
2
1
x cos
n 2
1 n
0 k
1 n 2
n 2

We also have the formulas
x ) 1 k 2 n 2 sin(
k
1 n 2
) 1 (
2
1
x sin
n
0 k
k n
n 2
1 n 2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=

=
+

x ) 1 k 2 n 2 cos(
k
1 n 2
2
1
x cos
n
0 k
n 2
1 n 2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=

=
+

9.27. Use of Complex Numbers
Using complex numbers, we can convert to trigonometric numbers of multiple
angles expressions like x sin
m
, x cos
n
and x cos x sin
n m
.
Let
sin i cos z + =
Then
sin i cos z
1
=

Adding and subtracting the two previous relations we get
cos 2 z z
1
= +

and sin i 2 z z
1
=

Therefore
) z z (
2
1
cos
1
+ = and ) z z (
i 2
1
sin
1
=
We also have, using DeMoivres formula
) n sin( i ) n cos( ) sin i (cos z
n n
+ = + =
) n sin( i ) n cos( z
n
=

Adding and subtracting the last two relations, we get
) n cos( 2 z z
n n
= +

and ) n sin( i 2 z z
n n
=

Therefore
) z z (
2
1
) n cos(
n n
+ = and ) z z (
i 2
1
) n sin(
n n
=
Using the previous formulas we can convert any expression of the form
x sin
m
, x cos
n
and x cos x sin
n m

579
into a sum of sines or cosines of multiple angles using the following algorithms:

ALGORITHM I. Conversion of x sin
m

Step 1. Consider the expression

m 1 m
) z z ( ) x sin i 2 (

=
Step 2. Expand the binomial in the rhs of the previous relation,
and collect together the terms of the form

p p
z z

+ and
p p
z z

Step 3. Substitute
p p
z z

+ by ) p cos( 2 and
p p
z z

by ) p sin( i 2
Step 4. Simplify the resulting expression.

Example 1. Convert x sin
7
into a sum of trigonometric numbers of multiple
angles.
Solution. Consider the expression

7 1 7
) z z ( ) x sin i 2 (

=
Since

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
=

7
7
5
5
3
3 7 1
z
1
z
z
1
z 7
z
1
z 21
z
1
z 35 ) z z (
we have
) x 7 sin i 2 ( ) x 5 sin i 2 ( 7 ) x 3 sin i 2 ( 21 ) x sin i 2 ( 35 ) x sin i 2 (
7
+ + =
x 7 sin ) i 2 ( x 5 sin ) i 2 ( 7 x 3 sin ) i 2 ( 21 x sin ) i 2 ( 35 x sin ) i ( 2
7 7
+ + =
x 7 sin x 5 sin 7 x 3 sin 21 x sin 35 x sin 2
7 6
+ =
Example 2. Convert x sin
8
angles.

8 1 8
) z z ( ) x sin i 2 (

=

Since

|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =

4
4
2
2 8 1
z
1
z 28
z
1
z 56 ) z z (
70
z
1
z
z
1
z 8
8
8
6
6
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
we have
580
70 x 8 cos 2 ) x 6 cos 2 ( 8 ) x 4 cos 2 ( 28 ) x 2 cos 2 ( 56 ) x sin i 2 (
8
+ + + =
35 x 8 cos x 6 cos 8 x 4 cos 28 x 2 cos 56 x sin 2
8 7
+ + + =
ALGORITHM II. Conversion of x cos
n


n 1 n
) z z ( ) x cos 2 (

+ =
Step 2. Expand the binomial in the rhs of the previous relation,

p p
z z

+ and
p p
z z

Step 3. Substitute
p p
z z

+ by ) p cos( 2 and
p p
z z

by ) p sin( i 2

Example 1. Convert x cos
7
angles.

7 1 7
) z z ( ) x cos 2 (

+ =
Since

|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
|
.
|
\
|
+ = +

7
7
5
5
3
3 7 1
z
1
z
z
1
z 7
z
1
z 21
z
1
z 35 ) z z (
we have
x 7 cos 2 ) x 5 cos 2 ( 7 ) x 3 cos 2 ( 21 ) x cos 2 ( 35 ) x cos 2 (
7
+ + + =
x 7 cos x 5 cos 7 x 3 cos 21 x cos 35 x cos 2
7 6
+ + + =
Example 2. Convert x cos
8
angles.

8 1 8
) z z ( ) x cos 2 (

+ =
Since
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = +

4
4
2
2 8 1
z
1
z 28
z
1
z 56 ) z z (
70
z
1
z
z
1
z 8
8
8
6
6
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
we have
70 x 8 cos 2 ) x 6 cos 2 ( 8 ) x 4 cos 2 ( 28 ) x 2 cos 2 ( 56 x cos 2
8 8
+ + + + =
581
35 x 8 cos x 6 cos 8 x 4 cos 28 x 2 cos 56 x cos 2
8 7
+ + + + =

ALGORITHM III. Conversion of the product x cos x sin
n m


n 1 m 1 n m
) z z ( ) z z ( ) x cos 2 ( ) x sin i 2 (

+ =
Step 2. Perform the operations in the rhs of the previous relation,

p p
z z

+ and
p p
z z

Step 3. Substitute
p p
z z

+ by ) p cos( 2 and
p p
z z

by ) p sin( i 2

Example 1. Convert the product x cos x sin
4 7
into a sum of trigonometric
numbers of multiple angles.
Solution. We have
= + =
4 1 7 1 4 7
) z z ( ) z z ( ) x cos 2 ( ) x sin i 2 (
9
9
7
7
5
5
3
3
11
11
z
3
z 3
z
1
z
z
11
z 11
z
6
z 6
z
1
z
14
z z 14 + + + + + + =
The previous relation can be written as
=
4 7
) x cos 2 ( ) x sin i 2 (

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

|
.
|
\
|
=
5
5
3
3
z
1
z 11
z
1
z 6
z
1
z 14

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

|
|
.
|
\
|

11
11
9
9
7
7
z
1
z
z
1
z 3
z
1
z
Since ) p sin( i 2
z
1
z
p
p
= , we get from the previous relation
= x cos x sin ) i ( 2
4 7 11

+ = x 5 sin ) i 2 ( 11 x 3 sin ) i 2 ( 6 x sin ) i 2 ( 14
x 11 sin ) i 2 ( x 9 sin ) i 2 ( 3 x 7 sin ) i 2 ( +
= x cos x sin 2
4 7 11

+ + = x 5 sin 22 x 3 sin 12 x sin 28
x 11 sin 2 x 9 sin 6 x 7 sin 2 + +
or
582
= x cos x sin 2
4 7 10

+ + = x 5 sin 11 x 3 sin 6 x sin 14
x 11 sin x 9 sin 3 x 7 sin + +
9.28 More cases of Integrals of Trigonometric Functions.

There are integrals of trigonometric functions, which are evaluated using a clever
use of trigonometric transformations. This use supposes a deep knowledge of the
trigonometric identities.

dx
x cos x sin
x tan
I
}
=
Solution. We have the obvious identity

x cos x tan
x tan
x cos x sin
x tan
2
=
dx
x cos x tan
x tan
dx
x cos x sin
x tan
I
2
} }
= =
Under the substitution x tan u = , since dx
x cos
1
du
2
into
C u 2 du
u
1
du
u
u
+ = =
} }

C x tan 2 dx
x cos x sin
x tan
I + = =
}

dx
x 3 cos x sin
x cos
I
2
}
=
583
Solution. We have the identity x cos 3 x cos 4 x 3 cos
3
= . Therefore
=
=
) x cos 3 x cos 4 ( x sin
x cos
x 3 cos x sin
x cos
3
2 2

=
=
) 3 x cos 4 ( x sin
x cos
x cos ) 3 x cos 4 ( x sin
x cos
2 2
2

) x sin 4 1 ( x sin
x cos
] 3 ) x sin 1 ( 4 [ x sin
x cos
2 2

=

=
We thus have to evaluate the integral
dx
) x sin 4 1 ( x sin
x cos
I
2
}

=
Under the substitution x sin u = , since dx x cos du = , the integral transforms to

}
) u 4 1 ( u
du
2


1 u 2
1
1 u 2
1
u
1
) u 4 1 ( u
1
2
+

Therefore
=
+
} } } }
1 u 2
du
1 u 2
du
u
du
) u 4 1 ( u
du
2

= + + = C | 1 u 2 | ln
2
1
| 1 u 2 | ln
2
1
| u | ln
= + + + = C } | 1 u 2 | ln | 1 u 2 | ln {
2
1
| u | ln
= + + + = C } | 1 u 2 | ln | 1 u 2 | ln { | u | ln 2 [
2
1

= + = C ] | 1 u 4 | ln u ln [
2
1
2 2

584
C
| 1 u 4 |
u
ln
2
1
2
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
C
| 1 x sin 4 |
x sin
ln
2
1
dx
x 3 cos x sin
x cos
I
2
2 2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
}


dx
x 2 cos
x cot
I
}
=
Solution. We have
) x sin 2 1 ( x sin
x cos
x 2 cos x sin
x cos
x 2 cos
x cot
2
= =
dx
) x sin 2 1 ( x sin
x cos
dx
x 2 cos
x cot
I
2
} }

= =
Under the substitution x sin u = , since dx x cos du = , the integral transforms into

}
) u 2 1 ( u
du
2


2 u 2
2
2
1
2 u 2
2
2
1
u
1
) u 2 1 ( u
1
2

+
=

We thus find
du
2 u 2
2
2
1
du
2 u 2
2
2
1
u
du
) u 2 1 ( u
du
2
} } } }

+
=

= + + = C | 2 u 2 | ln
2
1
| 2 u 2 | ln
2
1
| u | ln
= + + + = C } | 2 u 2 | ln | 2 u 2 | ln {
2
1
| u | ln
= + + = C } | 2 u 2 | | 2 u 2 ln{|
2
1
| u | ln
585
= + = C | 2 u 4 | ln
2
1
| u | ln
2

= + = C } | 2 u 4 | ln | u | ln 2 {
2
1
2

= + = C } | 2 u 4 | ln u ln {
2
1
2 2

C
| 2 u 4 |
u
ln
2
1
2
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
Going back to the original variable, we find that the value of the integral is given
by
C
| 2 x sin 4 |
x sin
ln
2
1
dx
x 2 cos
x cot
I
2
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
}


}

=
x sin 1
dx
I
4

Solution. We have

) x sin 1 ( x cos ) x sin 1 ( ) x sin 1 ( x sin 1
2 2 2 2 4
+ = + =
Since

x tan 1
x tan
x sin
2
2
2
+
=
we obtain

x tan 1
x tan 2 1
x cos
x tan 1
x tan
1 x cos x sin 1
2
2
2
2
2
2 4
+
+
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ =
Therefore

x tan 2 1
x tan 1
x cos
1
x sin 1
1
2
2
2 4
+
+
=

and the integral now becomes
dx
x tan 2 1
x tan 1
x cos
1
x sin 1
dx
I
2
2
2 4
} }
+
+
=
=
586
Under the substitution x tan u = , since dx
x cos
1
du
2
into
=
+
+
=
+
+
=
+
+
} } }
du
u 2 1
u 2 2
2
1
du
u 2 1
) u 1 ( 2
2
1
du
u 2 1
u 1
2
2
2
2
2
2

=
+
+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ =
} } }
du
u 2 1
1
2
1
du
2
1
du
u 2 1
1
1
2
1
2 2

C ) u 2 arctan(
2
2
2
1
u
2
1
+ + =
C ) x tan 2 arctan(
4
2
x tan
2
1
x sin 1
dx
I
4
+ + =
=
}


}
+
=
x tan x sin
dx
I
2 2

Solution. We have
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+
=
+
x cos
1
1 x sin
1
x cos
x sin
x sin
1
x tan x sin
1
2
2
2
2
2
2 2

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
x cot
x cot 1
1 x sin
1
x cos
1
1 x sin
1
2
2
2
2
2

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=
x cot
x cot 2 1
x sin
1
x cot
x cot 1
1 x sin
1
2
2
2
2
2
2

) x cot 2 1 ( x sin
x cot
2 2
2
+
=
587
dx
) x cot 2 1 ( x sin
x cot
x tan x sin
dx
I
2 2
2
2 2
} }
+
=
+
=
Under the substitution x cot u = , since dx
x sin
1
du
2
into
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+
=
+
} } }
du
u 2 1
1
1
2
1
du
u 2 1
u 2
2
1
du
u 2 1
u
2 2
2
2
2

C ) u 2 arctan(
2
2
2
1
u
2
1
du
u 2 1
1
2
1
du
2
1
2
+ + =
+
+ =
} }

C ) x cot 2 arctan(
4
2
x cot
2
1
x tan x sin
dx
I
2 2
+ + =
+
=
}


dx
x cos x sin
x 2 sin
I
4 4
}
+
=
Solution. We have
= + = + x cos x sin 2 ) x cos x (sin x cos x sin
2 2 2 2 2 4 4

= = =
2 2 2
) x cos x sin 2 (
2
1
1 x cos x sin 2 1
= + = = = x 2 cos
2
1
2
1
) x 2 cos 1 (
2
1
1 x 2 sin
2
1
1
2 2 2

) x 2 cos 1 (
2
1
2
+ =
dx
x 2 cos 1
x 2 sin 2
dx
x cos x sin
x 2 sin
I
2 4 4
} }
+
=
+
=
Under the substitution x 2 cos u = , since dx x 2 sin du = , the integral transforms
into
588
C u arctan
u 1
du
2
+ =
+
}

Going back to the original variable, we find the value of the integral:
C ) x 2 arctan(cos dx
x cos x sin
x 2 sin
I
4 4
+ =
+
=
}

dx
x 2 cos
x cos x sin
I
4 4
}
+
=
Solution. We have the identity
) x 2 cos 1 (
2
1
x cos x sin
2 4 4
+ = +
established in the previous example. Therefore the integral becomes
=
+
=
+
=
} }
dx
x 2 cos
x 2 cos 1
2
1
dx
x 2 cos
x cos x sin
I
2 4 4

= + =
} }
dx
x 2 cos
x 2 cos
2
1
dx
x 2 cos
1
2
1
2

= + =
} }
dx x 2 cos
2
1
dx
x 2 cos
1
2
1

2
x 2 sin
2
1
dx
x 2 cos
1
2
1
+ =
}

At this stage we use the known value of the integral
| u sec u tan | ln
u cos
du
+ =
}

established before (Example 2, 9.6), providing the value (using the substitution
x 2 u = )
| x 2 sec x 2 tan | ln
2
1
dx
x 2 cos
dx
+ =
}

We thus find the value of the integral
589
C x 2 sin
4
1
| x 2 sec x 2 tan | ln
4
1
dx
x 2 cos
x cos x sin
I
4 4
+ + + =
+
=
}

dx x sin 1 I
}
+ =
Solution. Under the substitution x sin 1 u + = , we find
) 1 u arcsin( x = and du
u u 2
1
du
) 1 u ( 1
1
dx
2 2

=

=
C u 2 2 du
u 2
1
du
u u 2
u
du
u u 2
u
2
2
+ =
} } }

C x sin 2 2 dx x sin 1 I + = + =
}

dx x tan I
}
=
Solution. Under the substitution x tan u = , we find
2
u x tan = . Therefore
inverting the function, we find
) u arctan( x
2
= and du
u 1
u 2
dx
4
+
=
The integral then transforms into
du
u 1
u 2
du
u 1
u 2
u
4
2
4
+
=
+
} }

The above integral has been evaluated previously (Example 2, 6.9.4)
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
+
=
+
}
1 u 2 u
1 u 2 u
ln
4
2
du
u 1
u 2
2
2
4
2

C ) 1 u 2 arctan(
2
2
) 1 u 2 arctan(
2
2
+ + + +
590
Going back to the original variable, we find the value of the integral:
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
+
= =
}
1 x tan 2 x tan
1 x tan 2 x tan
ln
4
2
dx x tan I
C ) 1 x tan 2 arctan(
2
2
) 1 x tan 2 arctan(
2
2
+ + + +

591
9.29

Trigonometric Functions

In both the above cases we use the substitution b x a u + = . Since dx a du = , we
obtain C ) b x a cos(
a
1
C u cos
a
1
du u sin
a
1
dx ) b x a sin( + + = + = = +
} }

and C ) b x a sin(
a
1
C u sin
a
1
du u cos
a
1
dx ) b x a cos( + + = + = = +
} }

1)
}
+ dx ) 5 x 4 sin( 2)
}
+ dx ) 2 x cos(
3)
}
dx ) 3 x 5 sin( 4)
}
dx ) 8 x 7 cos(
5)
}
dx x 5 sin 6)
}
dx x 9 cos
(1) Hint. Use the substitution 5 x 4 u + = . Answer. C ) 5 x 4 cos(
4
1
+ +
(2) Hint. Use the substitution 2 x u + = . Answer. C ) 2 x sin( + +
(3) Hint. Use the substitution 2 x 5 u = . Answer. C ) 2 x 5 cos(
5
1
+
(4) Hint. Use the substitution 8 x 7 u = . Answer. C ) 8 x 7 sin(
7
1
+
}
}
+ dx ) b x a cos( .
592
(5) Hint. Use the substitution x 5 u = . Answer. C x 5 cos
5
1
+
(6) Hint. Use the substitution x 9 u = . Answer. C x 9 sin
9
1
+

First Method
First Case. Integrals of the form dx x sin
1 m 2
}
+
(odd exponent)
= = =
} } }
+
m 2 m 2 1 m 2

m 2
}
=
dx ) u 1 (
m 2
}
which can be evaluated by expanding the binomial and
Second Case. Integrals of the form dx x sin
m 2
}
(even exponent)
In this case the integrand is converted to a trigonometric number of multiple angle.
2
x 2 cos 1
x sin
2

=
Second Method. Using the Reduction Formula:
dx x sin
m
1 m
m
x sin x cos
dx x sin
2 m
1 m
m
} }

+ =
Third Method. Using Multiple Angles (see 9.27 Algorithm I)
1) dx x sin
5
}
2) dx x sin
9
}

3) dx x sin
6
}
4) dx x sin
8
}

Exercise 2 contains integrals of the form dx x sin
m
}

593
(1) Hint. dx x sin ) x cos 1 ( dx x sin x sin dx x sin
2 2 4 5
} } }
= = .
Use the substitution x cos u = . The integral becomes =
}
du ) u 1 (
2 2

du u du u 2 du du ) u u 2 1 (
4 2 4 2
} } } }
+ = + =
Answer. C x cos
5
1
x cos
3
2
x cos
5 3
+ +
Using the reduction formula, we find
dx x sin
5
4
5
x sin x cos
dx x sin
3
4
5
} }
+ =
x cos
3
2
3
x sin x cos
dx x sin
3
2
3
x sin x cos
dx x sin
2 2
3
= + =
} }

Therefore C x cos
3
2
3
x sin x cos
5
4
5
x sin x cos
dx x sin
2 4
5
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
}

or C
15
x cos 8
15
x sin x cos 4
5
x sin x cos
dx x sin
2 4
5
+ =
}

Expanding in multiple angles, we find according to Algorithm I of 9.27
x 5 sin
16
1
x 3 sin
16
5
x sin
8
5
x sin
5
+ =
Therefore = + =
} } } }
dx x 5 sin
16
1
dx x 3 sin
16
5
dx x sin
8
5
dx x sin
5

C x 5 cos
80
1
x 3 cos
48
5
x cos
8
5
+ + =
Using simple trigonometric identities, we can prove that the three answers are
equivalent.
(2) Hint. Using the reduction formula, we find
dx x sin
9
8
9
x sin x cos
dx x sin
7
8
9
} }
+ =
dx x sin
7
6
7
x sin x cos
dx x sin
5
6
7
} }
+ =
594
where dx x sin
5
}
has been evaluated previously. Therefore we obtain the
following
Answer. C x cos
315
128
315
x sin 64
105
x sin 16
63
x sin 8
9
x sin
2 4 6 8
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + + +
Note. When the exponent is large, we prefer to use successively the reduction
formula.
We also have expanding in multiple angles
C x 9 sin
256
1
x 7 sin
256
9
x 5 sin
64
9
x 3 sin
64
21
x sin
128
63
x sin
9
+ + + =
The reader can also integrate term by term the previous identity.
(3) Hint. Using the reduction formula, we obtain
dx x sin
6
5
6
x sin x cos
dx x sin
4
5
6
} }
+ =
dx x sin
4
3
4
x sin x cos
dx x sin
2
3
4
} }
+ =

2
x
2
x sin x cos
dx
2
1
2
x sin x cos
dx x sin
2
+ = + =
} }

Collecting the three previous relations, we obtain the following
Answer. C
16
x 5
x cos
16
x sin 5
24
x sin 5
6
x sin
3 5
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
x 6 cos
32
1
x 4 cos
16
3
x 2 cos
32
15
16
5
x sin
6
+ =
dx x sin
8
7
8
x sin x cos
dx x sin
6
7
8
} }
+ =
where dx x sin
6
}
has been evaluated previously.
595
Answer. C
128
x 35
x cos
128
x sin 35
192
x sin 35
48
x sin 7
8
x sin
3 5 7
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + +
x 8 cos
128
1
x 6 cos
16
1
x 4 cos
32
7
x 2 cos
16
7
128
35
x sin
8
+ + =

First Method
First Case. Integrals of the form dx x cos
1 n 2
}
+
(odd exponent)
= = =
} } }
+
n 2 n 2 1 n 2

n 2
}
=
Using the substitution x sin u = , dx x cos du = , the integral transforms into
dx ) u 1 (
n 2
}
which can be evaluated by expanding the binomial and integrating
term by term.
Second Case. Integrals of the form dx x cos
n 2
}
(even exponent)
In this case the integrand can be converted to a sum of cosines of multiple angles.
2
x 2 cos 1
x cos
2
+
=
Second Method. Using the Reduction Formula
dx x cos
m
1 m
m
x cos x sin
dx x cos
2 m
1 m
m
} }

+ =
Third Method. Using Multiple Angles. (Algorithm II of 9.27).
Exercise 3 contains integrals of the form dx x cos
m
}

596
1) dx x cos
5
}
2) dx x cos
9
}

3) dx x cos
6
}
4) dx x cos
8
}

(1) Hint. dx x cos ) x sin 1 ( dx x cos x cos dx x cos
2 2 4 5
} } }
= = . Under the
substitution x sin u = the integral transforms into
du u du u 2 du du ) u u 2 1 ( du ) u 1 (
4 2 4 2 2 2
} } } } }
+ = + =
Answer. C
5
x sin
3
x sin 2
x sin
5 3
+ +
Using Algorithm II of 9.27, we find
) x 5 cos x 3 cos 5 x cos 10 (
16
1
x cos
5
+ + =
(2) Hint. Using the reduction formula, we obtain successively
dx x cos
9
8
9
x cos x sin
dx x cos
7
8
9
} }
+ =
dx x cos
7
6
7
x cos x sin
dx x cos
5
6
7
} }
+ =
where the last integral was evaluated before.
Answer. C x sin
315
128
315
x cos 64
105
x cos 16
63
x cos 8
9
x cos
2 4 6 8
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + + +
) x 9 cos x 7 cos 9 x 5 cos 36 x 3 cos 84 x cos 126 (
256
1
x cos
9
+ + + + =
(3) Hint. Using the reduction formula, we obtain successively
dx x cos
6
5
6
x cos x sin
dx x cos
4
5
6
} }
+ =
dx x cos
4
3
4
x cos x sin
dx x cos
2
3
4
} }
+ =
597
x
2
1
2
x cos x sin
dx
2
1
2
x cos x sin
dx x cos
2
+ = + =
} }

Answer. C
16
x 5
x sin
16
x cos 5
24
x cos 5
6
x cos
3 5
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
) x 6 cos x 4 cos 6 x 2 cos 15 10 (
32
1
x cos
6
+ + + =
(4) Hint. Using the reduction formula, we obtain
dx x cos
8
7
8
x cos x sin
dx x cos
6
7
8
} }
+ =
where the last integral was evaluated before.
Answer. C
128
x 35
x sin 128
192
x cos 35
48
x cos 7
8
x cos
3 5 7
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + +
) x 8 cos x 6 cos 8 x 4 cos 28 x 2 cos 56 35 (
128
1
x cos
8
+ + + + =

Method 1.
First Case. Integrals of the form
[1] dx x cos x sin
1 n 2 m 2
}
+
, [2] dx x cos x sin
n 2 1 m 2
}
+

[3] dx x cos x sin
1 n 2 1 m 2
}
+ +

where m and n are non-negative integers.
In this case we use the method of substitution.
[1] = =
} }
+
n 2 m 2 1 n 2 m 2

Exercise 4 contains integrals of the form dx x cos x sin
n m
}

598
n 2 m 2
}
=
Using the substitution x sin u = , dx x cos du = , the integral transforms into
du ) u 1 ( u
n 2 m 2
}
which can be evaluated by expanding the binomial,
performing the operations and integrating term by term.
[2] = =
} }
+
n 2 m 2 n 2 1 m 2

n 2 m 2
}
=
}
du u ) u 1 (
n 2 m 2
, which can be evaluated by expanding the binomial,
[3] = =
} }
+ + +
n 2 1 m 2 1 n 2 1 m 2

n 2 1 m 2
}
=
+

du ) u 1 ( u
n 2 1 m 2
}

+
We can also use another route:
= =
} }
+ + +
1 n 2 m 2 1 n 2 1 m 2

1 n 2 m 2
}
+
=
du u ) u 1 (
1 n 2 m 2
}
+
Second Case. Integrals of the form dx x cos x sin
n 2 m 2
}

In this case belong integrals where both of the exponents m or n are even integers
599
In this case the integrand should be converted to a trigonometric number of
multiple angle. This can be done using the formulas

2
x 2 cos 1
x sin
2

= and
2
x 2 cos 1
x cos
2
+
=
Method 2. Reduction Formulas.
We have two reduction formulas for the integral dx x cos x sin I
n m
n , m }
=
2 n , m
1 n 1 m
n , m
I
n m
1 n
x cos x sin
n m
1
I

+
+
+
+
= (lowers the exponent of cosine)
n , 2 m
1 n 1 m
n , m
I
n m
1 m
x cos x sin
n m
1
I

+
+
+
+
= (lowers the exponent of sine)
These two reduction formulas can be used interchangeably.
Method 3. Using multiple angles.
In this case we use the Algorithm III of 9.27.
1) dx x cos x sin
3 4
}
2) dx x cos x sin
6 7
}

3) dx x cos x sin
5 7
}
4) dx x cos x sin
8 6
}

(1) Hint. We write the integral as =
}
dx x cos x cos x sin
2 4

dx x cos ) x sin 1 ( x sin
2 4
}
= . We then use the substitution x sin u = .
The integral becomes
7
u
5
u
du u du u du ) u 1 ( u
7 5
6 4 2 4
= =
} } }
.
Answer. C
7
x sin
5
x sin
7 5
+
Using Algorithm III of 9.27, we have
) x 7 cos x 5 cos x 3 cos 3 x cos 3 (
64
1
x cos x sin
3 4
+ =
(2) Hint. Using Algorithm III of 9.27, we have
600
+ + = x 7 sin 6 x 5 sin 15 x 3 sin 15 x sin 20 (
4096
1
x cos x sin
6 7

) x 13 sin x 11 sin x 9 sin 6 + +
Answer. + + x 7 cos
7
6
x 5 cos 3 x 3 cos 5 x cos 20 (
4096
1

C ) x 13 cos
13
1
x 11 cos
11
1
x 9 cos
3
2
+ +
+ + = x 8 sin 4 x 6 sin 10 x 4 sin 5 x 2 sin 20 (
2048
1
x cos x sin
5 7

) x 12 sin x 10 sin 2 +
Answer. + + x 8 cos
2
1
x 6 cos
3
5
x 4 cos
4
5
x 2 cos 10 (
2048
1

C ) x 12 cos
12
1
x 10 cos
5
1
+ +
+ + + = x 8 cos 12 x 6 cos 9 x 4 cos 30 x 2 cos 5 20 (
8192
1
x cos x sin
8 6

) x 14 cos x 12 cos 2 x 10 cos 5 +
Answer. + + + x 8 sin
2
3
x 6 sin
2
3
x 4 sin
2
15
x 2 sin
2
5
x 20 (
8192
1

C ) x 14 sin
14
1
x 12 sin
6
1
x 10 sin
2
1
+ +

In this category we convert the product into sum (or difference) of sines and
cosines according to the formulas
x ) b a sin( x ) b a sin( ) bx cos( ) ax sin( 2 + + =
Exercise 5 contains integrals of the form dx ) x b cos( ) x a sin(
}
,
dx ) x b sin( ) x a sin(
}
and dx ) x b cos( ) x a cos(
}

601
x ) b a cos( x ) b a cos( ) bx sin( ) ax sin( 2 + =
x ) b a cos( x ) b a cos( ) bx cos( ) ax cos( 2 + + =
1) dx x 3 cos x 6 sin
}
2) dx x 4 cos x 7 cos
}

3) dx x 8 sin x 5 sin
}
4) dx x 6 sin x 4 cos x 3 cos
}

(1) Hint. We have, using the formulas listed above,
dx x 9 sin
2
1
dx x 3 sin
2
1
dx ) x 9 sin x 3 (sin
2
1
dx x 3 cos x 6 sin
} } } }
+ = + =
Answer. C x 9 cos
18
1
x 3 cos
6
1
+
dx x 11 cos
2
1
dx x 3 cos
2
1
2
1
dx x 4 cos x 7 cos
} } } }
+ = + =
Answer. C x 11 sin
22
1
x 3 sin
6
1
+ +
dx x 13 cos
2
1
dx x 3 cos
2
1
2
1
dx x 8 sin x 5 sin
} } } }
= =
Answer. C x 13 sin
26
1
x 3 sin
6
1
+
dx ) x 13 sin x 7 sin x 5 sin x sin (
4
1
dx x 6 sin x 4 cos x 3 cos
} }
+ + + =
Answer. C ) x 13 cos
13
1
x 7 cos
7
1
x 5 cos
5
1
x (cos
4
1
+

Exercise 6 contains integrals of the form dx ) x cos , x (sin R I
}
= , where
) x cos , x (sin R is a rational function of x sin and x cos
602
In this case we express x sin and x cos in terms of the
2
x
tan using the formulas
2
x
tan 1
2
x
tan 2
x sin
2
+
= and
2
x
tan 1
2
x
tan 1
x cos
2
2
+
= . We then use the substitution

2
x
tan u =
In order to find dx, since
2
x
u arctan = , we get u arctan 2 x = , from which by
differentiation we obtain du
u 1
2
dx
2
+
= . We then express x sin and x cos in
terms of u, obtaining
2
u 1
u 2
x sin
+
= and
2
2
u 1
u 1
x cos
+
= .
1) dx
x cos 5 x sin 3
x sin x cos 2
}
+
2) dx
x cos 5 x sin 2
x cos 4
}

3) dx
x cos 3 x sin
x sin 2
}

4) dx
x cos 3 x sin 8
x sin 7 x cos 2
}

+

(1) Hint. Under the substitution
2
x
tan u = ,
2
u 1
u 2
x sin
+
= ,
2
2
u 1
u 1
x cos
+
= and
du
u 1
2
dx
2
+
= , the integral becomes = =
+
+
+
}
du
u 1
2
u 1
u 1
5
u 1
u 2
3
u 1
u 2
u 1
u 1
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
2

=
+
+
=
} } }
du
1 u
7 u 11
du
5 u 6 u 5
33 u 55
17
1
du
) 1 u )( 5 u 6 u 5 (
) 1 u u ( 4
2 2 2 2
2

We also have ) 5 u 6 u 5 ln(
2
11
du
5 u 6 u 5
33 u 55
2
2
=

}
and =
+
}
du
1 u
7 u 11
2

u arctan 7 ) 1 u ln(
2
11
2
+ = .
603
Answer. C
34
x 7
1
2
x
tan
5
2
x
tan 6
2
x
tan 5
ln
34
11
2
2
+ +
+
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|

2
x
tan u = ,
2
u 1
u 2
x sin
+
= ,
2
2
u 1
u 1
x cos
+
= and
du
u 1
2
dx
2
+
+
}
du
u 1
2
u 1
u 1
5
u 1
u 2
2
u 1
u 1
4
2
2
2
2
2
2

u arctan
29
40
1 u
5 u 4 u 5
ln
29
8
du
) 1 u )( 5 u 4 u 5 (
) u 1 ( 8
2
2
2 2
2
+
+
=
+ +

=
}

Answer. C
29
x 20
1
2
x
tan
5
2
x
tan 4
2
x
tan 5
ln
29
8
2
2
+
+
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|

2
x
tan u = ,
2
u 1
u 2
x sin
+
= ,
2
2
u 1
u 1
x cos
+
= and
du
u 1
2
dx
2
+
+

+
+
}
du
u 1
2
u 1
u 1
3
u 1
u 2
u 1
u 2
2
2
2
2
2
2

u arctan
5
2
1 u
3 u 2 u 3
ln
5
3
du
) 1 u )( 3 u 2 u 3 (
u 8
2
2
2 2
+
+
+
=
+ +
=
}

Answer. C
5
x
1
2
x
tan
3
2
x
tan 2
2
x
tan 3
ln
5
3
2
2
+ +
+
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|

604
2
x
tan u = ,
2
u 1
u 2
x sin
+
= ,
2
2
u 1
u 1
x cos
+
= and
du
u 1
2
dx
2
+
+
+
+
+
}
du
u 1
2
u 1
u 1
3
u 1
u 2
8
u 1
u 2
7
u 1
u 1
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
2

u arctan
73
100
1 u
3 u 16 u 3
ln
73
37
du
) 1 u )( 3 u 16 u 3 (
) 1 u 7 u ( 4
2
2
2 2
2
+
+
+
=
+ +
+ +
=
}

Answer. C
73
x 50
1
2
x
tan
3
2
x
tan 16
2
x
tan 3
ln
73
37
2
2
+ +
+
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|

The integrals in this case are evaluated using the substitution x tan u = . The
integrand has to be converted to the form
x cos
1
) x (tan f
2

1) dx
x sin 3 x cos x sin 2 x cos
1
2 2
}
+
2)
}
+5 x cos 3
dx
2

3)
}
x cos x sin
dx
3 7
4)
}
x cos x sin
dx
6 4
5) dx
x cos x sin
1
5 3
}

(1) Hint. The integrand is invariant under the substitutions x sin x sin and
x cos x cos . The integrand can be written as
) x tan 3 x tan 2 1 ( x cos
1
2 2
+

Exercise 7 contains integrals of the form dx ) x cos , x (sin R I
}
= , where
) x cos , x (sin R is a rational function of x sin and x cos satisfying the
condition ) v , u ( R ) v , u ( R =
605
Therefore, introducing the substitution x tan u = , since dx
x cos
1
du
2
= , the
integral becomes
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
}
2
1 u 3
arctan
2
2
u 3 u 2 1
du
2

Answer. C
2
1 x tan 3
arctan
2
2
+ |
.
|
\
|

x cos x cos . We have, under some obvious transformations
=
+ +
=
+ +
} } }
)} x tan 1 ( 5 3 { x cos
dx
) x sec 5 3 ( x cos
dx
5 x cos 3
dx
2 2 2 2 2

}
+
=
) 8 x tan 5 ( x cos
dx
2 2
. Using the substitution x tan u = , since dx
x cos
1
du
2
= ,
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
}
4
u 10
arctan
20
10
8 u 5
du
2
.
Answer. C
4
x tan 10
arctan
20
10
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

= = =
} } }
x cos x tan
dx
x cos x cos
x cos
x sin
dx
x cos x sin
dx
10 7
3 7
7
7 3 7

dx
x cos
1
) x tan 1 (
x tan
1
dx
x cos
1
x cos x tan
1
2
4 2
7 2 8 7
} }
+ = =
Remember x tan 1
x cos
1
2
2
+ = . The substitution x tan u = ,
x cos
dx
du
2
= , converts
the integral into
} }
|
.
|
\
|
+ + + + =
+
du u
u
4
u
6
u
4
u
1
du
u
) u 1 (
3 5 7 7
4 2

606
Answer. C
2
x tan
| x tan | ln 4
x tan
3
x tan
1
x tan 6
1
2
2 4 6
+ + +
= = =
} } }
x cos x tan
dx
x cos x cos
x cos
x sin
dx
x cos x sin
dx
10 4
6 4
4
4 6 4

dx
x cos
1
) x tan 1 (
x tan
1
dx
x cos
1
x cos x tan
1
2
4 2
4 2 8 4
+ = =
} }

x cos
dx
du
2
= , converts the integral into
} } } }
+ + =
+
du du
u
1
2 du
u
1
du
u
) u 1 (
2 4 4
2 2

Answer. C x tan
x tan
2
x tan 3
1
3
+ +
= = =
} } }
dx
x cos x tan
1
dx
x cos x cos
x cos
x sin
1
dx
x cos x sin
1
8 3
5 3
3
3 5 3

= = =
} }
dx
x cos
1
x cos x tan x tan
1
x cos x tan x tan
dx
2 2 4

dx
x cos
1
x tan x tan
x tan 1
2
2
+
=
}
. Using the substitution x tan u = ,
x cos
dx
du
2
= , the
last integral takes on the form
u 3
) 3 u ( 2
du
u u
u 1
2 2

=
+
}
.
Answer. C
x tan 3
) 3 x (tan 2
2
+

607

Case I. Let dx
x sin
1
I
m 2
m 2 }
= . In this case we use the formula (9.8)
dx
x sin
1
) x cot 1 ( I
2
1 m 2
m 2 }

+ = . Using the substitution x cot u = ,
dx
x sin
1
du
2
= , we obtain du ) u 1 ( I
1 m 2
m 2 }

+ = , which can be evaluated
using elementary methods (expanding the binomial and integrating term by term).
Case II. Let dx
x sin
1
I
1 m 2
1 m 2 }
+
+
= . In this case we use the reduction formula
1 m 2
m 2
1 m 2
I
m 2
1
1
x sin
x cos
m 2
1
I
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ = (9.8).
1) dx
x sin
1
8
}
2) dx
x sin
1
10
}

3) dx
x sin
1
7
}
4) dx
x sin
1
9
}

(1) Hint. dx
x sin
1
) x cot 1 ( dx
x sin
1
2
3 2
8
} }
+ = . Under the substitution x cot u = ,
since dx
x sin
1
du
2
= the integral becomes
7 5 3 3 2
u
7
1
u
5
3
u u du ) u 1 ( = +
}

Answer. C x cot
7
1
x cot
5
3
x cot x cot
7 5 3
+
}
x sin
dx
m
,
3 m >

608
(2) Hint. dx
x sin
1
) x cot 1 ( dx
x sin
1
2
4 2
10
} }
+ = . Under the substitution x cot u = ,
since dx
x sin
1
du
2
= the integral becomes

9 7 5 3 4 2
u
9
1
u
7
4
u
5
6
u
3
4
u du ) u 1 ( = +
}

Answer. C x cot
9
1
x cot
7
4
x cot
5
6
x cot
3
4
x cot
9 7 5 3
+
5
6 7
7
I
6
5
x sin
x cos
6
1
dx
x sin
1
I + = =
}

3
4
5
I
4
3
x sin
x cos
4
1
I + = ,
1
2
3
I
2
1
x sin
x cos
2
1
I + =
where | ecx cos x cot | ln dx
x sin
1
I
1
+ = =
}

Answer. C | ecx cos x cot | ln
16
5
x sin
x cos
16
5
x sin
x cos
24
5
x sin
x cos
6
1
2 4 6
+ +
7
8 9
9
I
8
7
x sin
x cos
8
1
dx
x sin
1
I + = =
}

where
7
I has been evaluated before.

Case I. Let dx
x cos
1
J
n 2
n 2 }
= .In this case we have (9.9)
dx
x cos
1
J
n
n }
=
,
3 n >

609
dx
x cos
1
) x tan 1 ( J
2
1 n
2
n 2

}
+ = .Using the substitution x tan u = ,
dx
x cos
1
du
2
= , we find du ) u 1 ( J
1 n
2
n 2

}
+ = , which can be evaluated by
elementary methods (expanding the binomial and integrating term by term).
Case II. Let dx
x cos
1
J
1 n 2
1 n 2 }
+
+
1 n 2
n 2
1 n 2
J
n 2
1
1
x cos
x sin
n 2
1
J
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ = (9.9)
1) dx
x cos
1
8
}
2) dx
x cos
1
10
}

3) dx
x cos
1
7
}
4) dx
x cos
1
9
}

(1) Hint. dx
x cos
1
) x tan 1 ( dx
x cos
1
J
2
3
2
8
8 } }
+ = = . Using the substitution
x tan u = , since dx
x cos
1
du
2
= , the integral transforms into
7 5 3 3 2
u
7
1
u
5
3
u u du ) u 1 ( + + + = +
}

Answer. C x tan
7
1
x tan
5
3
x tan x tan
7 5 3
+ + + +
(2) Hint. dx
x cos
1
) x tan 1 ( dx
x cos
1
J
2
4
2
10
10 } }
+ = = . Using the substitution
x tan u = , since dx
x cos
1
du
2
9 7 5 3 4 2
u
9
1
u
7
4
u
5
6
u
3
4
u du ) u 1 ( + + + + = +
}

Answer. C x tan
9
1
x tan
7
4
x tan
5
6
x tan
3
4
x tan
9 7 5 3
+ + + + +
610
5
6 7
7
J
6
5
x cos
x sin
6
1
dx
x cos
1
J + = =
}

3
4
5
J
4
3
x cos
x sin
4
1
J + = and
1
2
3
J
2
1
x cos
x sin
2
1
J + =
where | x sec x tan | ln dx
x cos
1
J
1
+ = =
}

Answer.
7
8 9
9
J
8
7
x cos
x sin
8
1
dx
x cos
1
J + = =
}

where
7
J has been evaluated before.

Let dx
x cos x sin
1
I
n m
n , m }
= . In this case we use either one of the reduction
formulas (9.10)
2 n , m
1 n 1 m
n , m
I
1 n
1 m
1
x cos x sin
1
1 n
1
I

|
.
|
\
|
+ +
=
n , 2 m
1 n 1 m
n , m
I
1 m
1 n
1
x cos x sin
1
1 m
1
I

|
.
|
\
|
+ +
=
Alternatively, we can use one of the special cases:
Case I. The integral dx
x cos x sin
1
I
1 n 2 1 m 2
1 n 2 , 1 m 2 }
+ +
+ +
=
In this case we have dx
x cos
1
) x (tan
) x tan 1 (
I
2 1 m 2
n m 2
1 n 2 , 1 m 2 }
+
+
+ +
+
= .
dx
x cos x sin
1
I
n m
n , m }
=

611
x cos
1
du
2
du
u
) u 1 (
1 m 2
n m 2
}
+
+
+
, which can be evaluated using elementary methods.
Case II. The integral dx
x cos x sin
1
I
n 2 m 2
n 2 , m 2 }
=
x cos
1
) x (tan
) x tan 1 (
I
2 m 2
1 n m 2
n 2 , m 2 }
+
+
= . Using the
substitution x tan u = , dx
x cos
1
du
2
du
u
) u 1 (
m 2
1 n m 2
}
+
+
, which can be evaluated using elementary methods.
Case III. We consider the particular case dx
x cos x sin
1
I
n 2 1 m 2
n 2 , 1 m 2 }
+
+
=
x sin
I
n 2 1 m 2
n 2 , 1 m 2 }
+
+
=
du
u ) u 1 (
1
n 2 1 m 2
}
+
, which can be evaluated using partial fractions.

Case IV. We consider the particular case dx
x cos x sin
1
I
1 n 2 m 2
1 n 2 , m 2 }
+
+
=
x cos
I
1 n 2 m 2
1 n 2 , m 2 }
+
+
= . Using the
substitution x sin u = , dx x cos du = , the integral takes the form
du
) u 1 ( u
1
1 n 2 m 2
}
+
, which can be evaluated using partial fractions.

612
1) dx
x cos x sin
1
6 4
}
2) dx
x cos x sin
1
5 4
}

3) dx
x cos x sin
1
6 3
}
4) dx
x cos x sin
1
7 5
}

(1) Hint. The integral can be written as dx
x cos
1
) x (tan
) x tan 1 (
2 4
4 2
}
+
. Using the
substitution x tan u = , dx
x cos
1
du
2
= , the integral takes on the form
3
5 3
4
4 2
u 3
1
u
4
u
5
1
u
3
4
u 6 du
u
) u 1 (
+ + =
+
}
.
Answer. Substitute x tan u = in the above expression.
x cos
3 2 4
}

. Using the
substitution x sin u = , dx x cos du = , the integral takes on the form
1 u
1 u
ln
16
35
) 1 u ( u 24
8 u 56 u 175 u 105
) u 1 ( u
du
2 2 3
2 4 6
3 2 4

+
+
+ +
=
}
.
Answer. Substitute x sin u = in the above expression
x sin
6 2 2
}

1 u
1 u
ln
4
7
) 1 u ( u 30
6 u 14 u 70 u 105
u ) u 1 (
du
2 5
2 4 6
6 2 2
+
}
.
Answer. Substitute x cos u = in the above expression
x cos
1
) x (tan
) x tan 1 (
2 5
5 2
}
+
.
x cos
1
du
2
613
| u | ln 10
u 12
3 u 30 u 60 u 15 u 2
du
u
) u 1 (
4
2 6 8 10
5
5 2
+
+ +
=
+
}
.
Answer. Substitute x tan u = in the above expression.

Let dx
x cos
x sin
I
n
m
n , m }
= . In this case we use the reduction formula (9.11)

2 n , 2 m
1 n
1 m
n
m
n , m
I
1 n
1 m
x cos
x sin
1 m
1
dx
x cos
x sin
I

= =
}

1) dx
x cos
x sin
6
3
}
2) dx
x cos
x sin
5
6
}

3) dx
x cos
x sin
7
5
}
4) dx
x cos
x sin
8
4
}

(1) Hint. For 6 n , 3 m = = we find from the reduction formula

4 , 1
5
2
6
3
6 , 3
I
5
2
x cos
x sin
2
1
dx
x cos
x sin
I = =
}

The integral dx
x cos
x sin
I
4
4 , 1 }
= is evaluated using the substitution x cos u = . We
find
x cos 3
1
u 3
1
u
du
dx
x cos
x sin
I
3 3 4 4
4 , 1
= = = =
} }

Answer.
3 , 4
4
5
5
6
5 , 6
I
4
5
x cos
x sin
5
1
dx
x cos
x sin
I = =
}

dx
x cos
x sin
I
n
m
n , m }
=

614
For 3 n , 4 m = = we find from the reduction formula
1 , 2
2
3
3
4
3 , 4
I
2
3
x cos
x sin
3
1
dx
x cos
x sin
I = =
}

The last integral is evaluated as follows:
= =
= =
} } } }
dx x cos dx
x cos
dx
dx
x cos
x cos 1
dx
x cos
x sin
I
2 2
1 , 2

x sin | x sec x tan | ln + =
Answer.
5 , 3
6
4
7
5
7 , 5
I
3
2
x cos
x sin
4
1
dx
x cos
x sin
I = =
}


3 , 1
4
2
5
3
5 , 3
I
2
1
x cos
x sin
2
1
dx
x cos
x sin
I = =
}

The last integral is dx
x cos
x sin
I
3
3 , 1 }
= and evaluated using the substitution
x cos u = :
x cos 2
1
u 2
1
u
du
dx
x cos
x sin
I
2 2 3 3
3 , 1
= = = =
} }

Answer.

6 , 2
7
3
8
4
8 , 4
I
7
3
x cos
x sin
3
1
dx
x cos
x sin
I = =
}


4 , 0
5 6
2
6 , 2
I
5
1
x cos
x sin
dx
x cos
x sin
I = =
}

The last integral is evaluated using the substitution x tan u = , as follows:
615

3
x tan
x tan
3
u
u du ) u 1 ( dx
x cos
x tan 1
x cos
dx
I
3 3
2
2
2
4
4 , 0
+ = + = + =
+
= =
} } }

Answer.

Let dx
x sin
x cos
J
n
m
n , m }

2 n , 2 m
1 n
1 m
n
m
n , m
J
1 n
1 m
x sin
x cos
1 n
1
dx
x sin
x cos
J

= =
}

1) dx
x sin
x cos
4
5
}
2) dx
x sin
x cos
5
3
}

3) dx
x sin
x cos
8
5
}
4) dx
x sin
x cos
4
6
}


2 , 3
3
4
4
5
4 , 5
J
3
4
x sin
x cos
3
1
dx
x sin
x cos
J + = =
}


0 , 1
2
2
3
2 , 3
J 2
x sin
x cos
dx
x sin
x cos
J + = =
}

where x sin dx x cos J
0 , 1
= =
}
.
Answer.
3 , 1
4
2
5
3
5 , 3
J
2
1
x sin
x cos
4
1
dx
x sin
x cos
J + = =
}

dx
x sin
x cos
J
n
m
n , m }
=

616
The last integral is evaluated using the substitution x sin u = as follows:

x sin 2
1
u 2
1
u
du
dx
x sin
x cos
J
2 2 3 3
3 , 1
= = = =
} }

Answer.

6 , 3
7
4
8
5
8 , 5
J
7
4
x sin
x cos
7
1
dx
x sin
x cos
J + = =
}


4 , 1
5
2
6
3
6 , 3
J
5
2
x sin
x cos
5
1
dx
x sin
x cos
J + = =
}

The last integral is evaluated using the substitution x sin u = :
x sin 3
1
u 3
1
u
du
dx
x sin
x cos
J
3 3 4 4
4 , 1
= = = =
} }

Answer.


2 , 4
3
5
4
6
4 , 6
J
3
5
x sin
x cos
3
1
dx
x sin
x cos
J + = =
}


0 , 2
3
2
4
2 , 4
J 3
x sin
x cos
dx
x sin
x cos
J + = =
}

where
4
x 2 sin
2
x
dx x cos J
2
0 , 2
+ = =
}
.
Answer.

m
I we have the reduction formula (9.13)
2 m
1 m m
m
I x tan
1 m
1
dx x tan I

= =
}
. For 1 m= , we have
}
= dx x tan I
m
m
and
}
= dx x cot J
m
m

617
| x cos | ln dx x tan I
1
= =
}

m
J we use the reduction formula (9.13)
2 m
1 m m
m
J x cot
1 m
1
dx x cot J

= =
}
. For 1 m= , we have
| x sin | ln dx x cot J
1
= =
}

1)
}
dx x cot
4
2)
}
dx x cot
7

3)
}
dx x tan
4
4)
}
dx x tan
7

(1) Hint. For 4 m= we obtain from the reduction formula

2
3 4
4
J x cot
3
1
dx x cot J = =
}

For 2 m= we obtain from the reduction formula
x x cot J x cot dx x cot J
0
2
2
= = =
}

Answer.
(2) Hint. For 7 m = we obtain from the reduction formula

5
6 7
7
J x cot
6
1
dx x cot J = =
}

For 5 m = we obtain from the reduction formula

3
4 5
5
J x cot
4
1
dx x cot J = =
}

| x sin | ln x cot
2
1
J x cot
2
1
dx x cot J
2
1
2 3
3
= = =
}

Answer.
(3) Hint. For 4 m= we obtain from the reduction formula

2
3 4
4
I x tan
3
1
dx x tan I = =
}

For 2 m= we obtain from the reduction formula
618
x x tan I x tan dx x tan I
0
2
2
= = =
}

Answer.
(4) Hint. For 7 m = we obtain from the reduction formula
5
6 7
7
I x tan
6
1
dx x tan I = =
}

3
4 5
5
I x tan
4
1
dx x tan I = =
}

| x cos | ln x tan
2
1
I x tan
2
1
dx x tan I
2
1
2 3
3
+ = = =
}

Answer.

Case I. For the integral dx ) ax sin( x I
n
n }
= , we use the reduction formula

2 n
2
1 n
2
n
n
I
a
) 1 n ( n
) ax sin( x
a
n
) ax cos( x
a
1
I

+ =
For the integral dx ) ax sin( x I
1 }
= , we find (using integration by parts)
) ax sin(
a
1
) ax cos( x
a
1
dx ) ax sin( x I
2 1
+ = =
}

Case II. For the integral dx ) ax cos( x J
n
n }
= we use the reduction formula
2 n
2
1 n
2
n
n
J
a
) 1 n ( n
) ax cos( x
a
n
) ax sin( x
a
1
J

+ =
For the integral dx ) ax cos( x J
1 }
= , we find (using integration by parts)
dx ) ax sin( x I
n
n }
=
and
dx ) ax cos( x J
n
n }
=

619
) ax cos(
a
1
) ax sin( x
a
1
dx ) ax cos( x J
2
1
+ = =
}

1) dx ) x 3 sin( x
4
}
2) dx ) x 4 cos( x
3
}

(1) Hint. For 3 a , 4 n = = we find from the reduction formula

2
3 4
4
I
3
4
) x 3 sin( x
9
4
) x 3 cos( x
3
1
I + =
For 3 a , 2 n = = we find from the reduction formula

0
2
2
I
9
2
) x 3 sin( x
9
2
) x 3 cos( x
3
1
I + =
where ) x 3 cos(
3
1
dx ) x 3 sin( I
0
= =
}

Answer.
(2) Hint. For 4 a , 3 n = = we find from the reduction formula

1
2 3
3
J
8
3
) x 4 cos( x
16
3
) x 4 sin( x
4
1
J + =
where ) x 4 cos(
16
1
) x 4 sin( x
4
1
dx ) x 4 cos( x J
1
+ = =
}

Answer.

620

In this case we set
) ax sin( ) x ( R ) ax cos( ) x ( Q dx ) ax sin( ) x ( P
1 n n n
+ =
}
(1)
and
) ax cos( ) x ( R ) ax sin( ) x ( Q dx ) ax cos( ) x ( P
1 n n n
+ =
}
(2)
where, in an obvious notation, ) x ( P
n
is a given th n degree polynomial, while
) x ( Q
n
is th n degree polynomial, and ) x ( R
1 n
is th ) 1 n ( degree
polynomial, both with undetermined coefficients. The undetermined coefficients
are determined by differentiation of both sides of the equations (1) and (2) and
equating the coefficients of the similar powers of the independent variable.
1)
}
+ + dx ) x 2 cos( ) 7 x 5 x 2 x 3 x 2 (
2 3 4

2)
}
+ dx ) x 3 sin( ) 4 x x 3 x 5 (
2 3

(1) Hint. We set
= + +
}
dx ) x 2 cos( ) 7 x 5 x 2 x 3 x 2 (
2 3 4

+ + + + + = ) x 2 sin( ) a x a x a x a x a (
4 3
2
2
3
1
4
0

) x 2 cos( ) b x b x b x b (
3 2
2
1
3
0
+ + + +
= + + ) x 2 cos( ) 7 x 5 x 2 x 3 x 2 (
2 3 4

+ + + + = ) x 2 sin( ) a x a 2 x a 3 x a 4 (
3 2
2
1
3
0

+ + + + + + ) x 2 cos( ) a x a x a x a x a ( 2
4 3
2
2
3
1
4
0

}
}
dx ) ax cos( ) x ( P , where ) x ( P is an th n degree polynomial.
621
+ + + ) x 2 cos( ) b x b 2 x b 3 (
2 1
2
0

) x 2 sin( ) b x b x b x b ( 2
3 2
2
1
3
0
+ + +
= + + ) x 2 cos( ) 7 x 5 x 2 x 3 x 2 (
2 3 4

+ + + + = ) x 2 sin( )} b 2 a ( x ) b 2 a 2 ( x ) b 2 a 3 ( x ) b 2 a 4 {(
3 3 2 2
2
1 1
3
0 0

) x 2 cos( )} b a 2 x ) b 2 a 2 ( x ) b 3 a 2 ( x a 2 x a 2 {
2 4 1 3
2
0 2
3
1
4
0
+ + + + + + + +
) b 2 a ( x ) b 2 a 2 ( x ) b 2 a 3 ( x ) b 2 a 4 ( 0
3 3 2 2
2
1 1
3
0 0
+ + + =
and
= + + 7 x 5 x 2 x 3 x 2
2 3 4

2 4 1 3
2
0 2
3
1
4
0
b a 2 x ) b 2 a 2 ( x ) b 3 a 2 ( x a 2 x a 2 + + + + + + + =
0 b 2 a 4
0 0
= , 0 b 2 a 3
1 1
= , 0 b 2 a 2
2 2
= , 0 b 2 a
3 3
=
2 a 2
0
= , 3 a 2
1
= , 2 b 3 a 2
0 2
= + , 5 b 2 a 2
1 3
= + , 7 b a 2
2 4
= +
Solving the above system, we get the values
1 a
0
= ,
2
3
a
1
= , 2 a
2
= ,
4
1
a
3
= ,
4
9
a
4
=
2 b
0
= ,
4
9
b
1
= , 2 b
2
= ,
8
1
b
3
=
= + + =
}
dx ) x 2 cos( ) 7 x 5 x 2 x 3 x 2 ( I
2 3 4

+
|
.
|
\
|
+ = ) x 2 sin(
2
9
x
4
1
x 2 x
2
3
x
2 3 4

C ) x 2 cos(
8
1
x 2 x
4
9
x 2
2 3
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
(2) Hint. We set
622

}
+ = dx ) x 3 sin( ) 4 x x 3 x 5 ( I
2 3

+ + + + = ) x 3 cos( ) a x a x a x a (
3 2
2
1
3
0

) x 3 sin( ) b x b x b (
2 1
2
0
+ + +
= + ) x 3 sin( ) 4 x x 3 x 5 (
2 3

+ + = ) x 3 cos( ) a x a 2 x a 3 (
2 1
2
0

+ + + + ) x 3 sin( ) a x a x a x a ( 3
3 2
2
1
3
0

) x 3 cos( ) b x b x b ( 3 ) x 3 sin( ) b x b 2 (
2 1
2
0 1 0
+ + + + +
= + ) x 3 sin( ) 4 x x 3 x 5 (
2 3

+ + + + + + = ) x 3 cos( } b 3 a x ) b 3 a 2 ( x ) b 3 a 3 {(
2 2 1 1
2
0 0

) x 3 sin( } b a 3 x ) b 2 a 3 ( x a 3 x a 3 {
1 3 0 2
2
1
3
0
+ + + +
0 b 3 a x ) b 3 a 2 ( x ) b 3 a 3 (
2 2 1 1
2
0 0
= + + + + +
and
= + 4 x x 3 x 5
2 3

1 3 0 2
2
1
3
0
b a 3 x ) b 2 a 3 ( x a 3 x a 3 + + + =
0 b 3 a 3
0 0
= + , 0 b 3 a 2
1 1
= + , 0 b 3 a
2 2
= +
5 a 3
0
= , 3 a 3
1
= , 1 b 2 a 3
0 2
= + , 4 b a 3
1 3
= +

3
5
a
0
= , 1 a
1
= ,
9
7
a
2
= ,
9
10
a
3
=

3
5
b
0
= ,
3
2
b
1
= ,
27
7
b
2
=
623
}
+ = dx ) x 3 sin( ) 4 x x 3 x 5 ( I
2 3

+
|
.
|
\
|
+ + + = ) x 3 cos(
9
10
x
9
7
x x
3
5
2 3

C ) x 3 sin(
27
7
x
3
2
x
3
5
2
+
|
.
|
\
|
+

}

= dx
c x
) ax sin(
I
becomes
=
+
=
+
} }
dt
t
) ac sin( ) at cos( ) ac cos( ) at sin(
dt
t
) c t ( a sin

} }
+ = dt
t
) at cos(
) ac sin( dt
t
) at sin(
) ac cos(
Introducing further t a u = , we find

} }
= du
u
u sin
dt
t
) at sin(
and
} }
= du
u
u cos
dt
t
) at cos(

At this stage we remind the following definitions

}
=
x
0
dt
t
t sin
) x ( Si and
}
=
x
dt
t
t cos
) x ( Ci
where ) x ( Si and ) x ( Ci are the sine and cosine integrals respectively.
}

= dx
c x
) ax sin(
I and
}

= dx
c x
) ax cos(
J
624
Therefore
}
du
u
u sin
and
}
du
u
u cos
can be identified, without loss of generality,
with ) u ( Si and ) u ( Ci respectively. Since ) c x ( a t a u = = , going to the original
variable, we obtain
) c a x a ( Ci ) c a sin( ) c a x a ( Si ) ac cos( dx
c x
) ax sin(
I + =
=
}

}

= dx
c x
) ax cos(
I
becomes
=
=
+
} }
dt
t
) ac sin( ) at sin( ) ac cos( ) at cos(
dt
t
) c t ( a cos

} }
= dt
t
) at sin(
) ac sin( dt
t
) at cos(
) ac cos(
Therefore, using the same reasoning as before, we obtain
) ac ax ( Si ) ac sin( ) ac ax ( Ci ) ac cos( dx
c x
) ax cos(
J =
=
}

1)
}

dx
3 x
) x 2 sin(
2)
}
+
dx
2 x
) x 3 sin(

3)
}

dx
1 x
) x 2 cos(
4)
}
+
dx
5 x
) x 3 cos(

(1) Hint. For 2 a = and 3 c = we find
) 6 x 2 ( Ci ) 6 sin( ) 6 x 2 ( Si ) 6 cos( dx
3 x
) x 2 sin(
+ =
}

) 6 x 3 ( Ci ) 6 sin( ) 6 x 3 ( Si ) 6 cos( dx
2 x
) x 3 sin(
+ + =
+
}

) 2 x 2 ( Si ) 2 sin( ) 2 x 2 ( Ci ) 2 cos( dx
1 x
) x 2 cos(
=
}

625
) 15 x 3 ( Si ) 15 sin( ) 15 x 3 ( Ci ) 15 cos( dx
5 x
) x 3 cos(
+ + + =
+
}

For the integral
n
I we use the reduction formula
2 n
2 n 1 n
n
I
) 2 n )( 1 n (
1
x
x cos
) 2 n )( 1 n (
1
x
x sin
1 n
1
I

= , 3 n > .
} }
+ = = dx
x
x cos
x
x sin
dx
x
x sin
I
2
2

For the integral
n
J we use the reduction formula
= =
}
dx
x
x cos
J
n
n

2 n
2 n 1 n
J
) 2 n ( ) 1 n (
1
x
x sin
) 2 n ( ) 1 n (
1
x
x cos
1 n
1
= , 3 n >
} }
= = dx
x
x sin
x
x cos
dx
x
x cos
J
2
2

1)
}
dx
x
x sin
4
2)
}
dx
x
x sin
5

3) =
}
dx
x
x cos
4
4) =
}
dx
x
x cos
5

(1) Hint. For 4 n = we find from the reduction formula
2
2 3 4
4
I
6
1
x
x cos
6
1
x
x sin
3
1
dx
x
x sin
I = =
}

where
} }
+ = = dx
x
x cos
x
x sin
dx
x
x sin
I
2
2

}
= dx
x
x sin
I
n
n
and
}
= dx
x
x cos
J
n
n

626
Answer.

3
3 4 5
5
I
12
1
x
x cos
12
1
x
x sin
4
1
dx
x
x sin
I = =
}

For 3 n = we find from the reduction formula
}
= = dx
x
x sin
2
1
x
x cos
2
1
x
x sin
2
1
I
2
1
x
x cos
2
1
x
x sin
2
1
I
2
1
2
3

Answer.
2
2 3 4
4
J
6
1
x
x sin
6
1
x
x cos
3
1
dx
x
x cos
J + = =
}

where
} }
= = dx
x
x sin
x
x cos
dx
x
x cos
J
2
2
.
Answer.
3
3 4 5
5
J
12
1
x
x sin
12
1
x
x cos
4
1
dx
x
x cos
J + = =
}

For 3 n = we find from the reduction formula
}
+ = + = dx
x
x cos
2
1
x
x sin
2
1
x
x cos
2
1
J
2
1
x
x sin
2
1
x
x cos
2
1
J
2
1
2
3

Answer.

For these integrals we use the reduction formulas
=
=
}
dx
) c x (
) ax sin(
I
n
n

}

dx
) c x (
) ax sin(
n
and
}

dx
) c x (
) ax cos(
n
,
3 n >
627

2 n
2
2 n 1 n
I
) 2 n )( 1 n (
a
) c x (
) ax cos(
) 2 n )( 1 n (
a
) c x (
) ax sin(
1 n
1
= , 3 n >
} }

+
= dx
) c x (
) ax cos(
a
) c x (
) ax sin(
dx
) c x (
) ax sin(
I
2
2

=
=
}
dx
) c x (
) ax cos(
J
n
n

2 n
2
2 n 1 n
J
) 2 n )( 1 n (
a
) c x (
) ax sin(
) 2 n )( 1 n (
a
) c x (
) ax cos(
1 n
1
= , 3 n >
} }

= dx
) c x (
) ax sin(
a
) c x (
) ax cos(
dx
) c x (
) ax cos(
J
2
2

1)
}

dx
) 3 x (
) x 2 sin(
3
2)
}
+
dx
) 2 x (
) x 3 sin(
4

3)
}

dx
) 3 x (
) x 2 cos(
3
4)
}
+
dx
) 2 x (
) x 3 cos(
4

(1) Hint. For 2 a = , 3 c = and 3 n = , we find from the reduction formula
1
2 3
3
I 2
3 x
) x 2 cos(
) 3 x (
) x 2 sin(
2
1
dx
) 3 x (
) x 2 sin(
I
=
}

where
}

= dx
3 x
) x 2 sin(
I
1

Answer.
2
2 3 4
4
I
2
3
) 2 x (
) x 3 cos(
2
1
) 2 x (
) x 3 sin(
3
1
dx
) 2 x (
) x 3 sin(
I
+

+
=
+
=
}

where
} }
+
+
+
=
+
= dx
2 x
) x 3 cos(
3
2 x
) x 3 sin(
dx
) 2 x (
) x 3 sin(
I
2
2

Answer.
628
1
2 3
3
J 2
3 x
) x 2 sin(
) 3 x (
) x 2 cos(
2
1
dx
) 3 x (
) x 2 cos(
J
=
}

where
}

= dx
3 x
) x 2 cos(
J
1

Answer.

2
2 3 4
4
J
2
3
) 2 x (
) x 3 sin(
2
1
) 2 x (
) x 3 cos(
3
1
dx
) 2 x (
) x 3 cos(
J
+
+
+
=
+
=
}

where
} }
+
+
=
+
= dx
2 x
) x 3 sin(
3
2 x
) x 3 cos(
dx
) 2 x (
) x 3 cos(
J
2
2

Answer.


}
+ +
dx
c bx x a
) x m sin(
2
,
}
+ +
dx
) c bx x a (
) x m sin(
n 2

}
+ +
+
dx
c bx x a
) x m sin( ) B Ax (
2
,
}
+ +
+
dx
) c bx x a (
) x m sin( ) B Ax (
n 2

}
+ +
dx
c bx x a
) x m cos(
2
,
}
+ +
dx
) c bx x a (
) x m cos(
n 2

}
+ +
+
dx
c bx x a
) x m cos( ) B Ax (
2
,
}
+ +
+
dx
) c bx x a (
) x m cos( ) B Ax (
n 2

(A) Integrals of the form
}
+ +
dx
c bx x a
) x m sin(
2
,
}
+ +
dx
) c bx x a (
) x m sin(
n 2
,
}
+ +
+
dx
c bx x a
) x m sin( ) B Ax (
2
,
}
+ +
+
dx
) c bx x a (
) x m sin( ) B Ax (
n 2
and
similar ones where ) x m cos( takes the place of ) x m sin( .
629
dx
c bx x a
) mx sin(
2
}
+ +
and dx
c bx x a
) mx sin( ) B x A (
2
}
+ +
+

2
> .
Case I. If 0 D > , using partial fraction decomposition, we have

|
|
.
|
\
|

=
+ +
2 1 2 1
2
x
1
x
1
) ( a
1
c bx x a
1

where
1
and
2
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
+ +
} } }
dx
x
) mx sin(
dx
x
) mx sin(
) ( a
1
dx
c bx x a
) mx sin(
2 1 2 1
2

+

) ( a
1
1 1 1 1
2 1

) ( a
1
2 2 2 2
2 1
+

(F1)
2 2 1
2
1 2 1
1
2 1
x
1 B A
x
1 B A
) x ( ) x (
B x A

+
=

+

we obtain
=
+ +
+
}
dx
c bx x a
) mx sin( ) B x A (
2

=
|
|
.
|
\
|

+

+

=
} }
dx
x
) mx sin(
) B A ( dx
x
) mx sin(
) B A (
) ( a
1
2
2
1
1
2 1

+

+
) ( a
B A
1 1 1 1
2 1
1

) ( a
B A
2 2 2 2
2 1
2
+

+
(F2)
We also have
630
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
+ +
} } }
dx
x
) mx cos(
dx
x
) mx cos(
) ( a
1
dx
c bx x a
) mx cos(
2 1 2 1
2

) ( a
1
1 1 1 1
2 1

) ( a
1
2 2 2 2
2 1

(F3)
and
=
+ +
+
}
dx
c bx x a
) mx cos( ) B x A (
2

=
|
|
.
|
\
|

+

+

=
} }
dx
x
) mx cos(
) B A ( dx
x
) mx cos(
) B A (
) ( a
1
2
2
1
1
2 1

+
) ( a
B A
1 1 1 1
2 1
1

) ( a
B A
2 2 2 2
2 1
2

+
(F4)
2 2
) x ( a c x b x a = + + , where
a 2
b
= is the double
dx
) x (
) mx sin(
a
1
dx
c bx x a
) mx sin(
2 2
} }

=
+ +


} }

+
dx
c x
) ax cos(
a
c x
) ax sin(
dx
) c x (
) ax sin(
2

we find
=

=
+ +
} }
dx
) x (
) mx sin(
a
1
dx
c bx x a
) mx sin(
2 2

=
)
`

+

=
}
dx
x
) mx cos(
m
x
) mx sin(
a
1

631
)} m x m ( Si ) m sin( ) m x m ( Ci ) m {cos(
a
m
) x ( a
) mx sin(
+

= (F5)
Therefore in this case the integral transforms into
dx
) x (
) mx cos(
a
1
dx
c bx x a
) mx cos(
2 2
} }

=
+ +


} }

dx
c x
) ax sin(
a
c x
) ax cos(
dx
) c x (
) ax cos(
2

we find
=

=
+ +
} }
dx
) x (
) mx cos(
a
1
dx
c bx x a
) mx cos(
2 2

=
)
`

=
}
dx
x
) mx sin(
m
x
) mx cos(
a
1

)} m x m ( Ci ) m sin( ) m x m ( Si ) m {cos(
a
m
) x ( a
) mx cos(
+

= (F6)
(B) Integrals of the form
dx
) c bx x a (
) mx sin(
I
n 2
n }
+ +
= and
}
+ +
+
= dx
) c x b x a (
) mx sin( ) B Ax (
R
n 2
n

2
> .
n
I we have the reduction formula
=
+ +
=
}
dx
) c x b x a (
) mx sin(
I
n 2
n

+

|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
2 n
2
1 n
I
D ) 2 n )( 1 n (
m
I
D ) 1 n (
a 2
D
a 4

+
+ +
+
+
1 n 2
) c x b x a (
) mx sin( ) b x a 2 (
) 1 n (
1
D
1

+ +
+
2 n 2
) c x b x a (
) mx cos(
) 2 n (
1
D ) 1 n (
m
(F7)
632
For the integral
n
J we have the reduction formula
=
+ +
=
}
dx
) c x b x a (
) mx cos(
J
n 2
n

+

+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
2 n
2
1 n
I
D ) 2 n )( 1 n (
m
J
D ) 1 n (
a 2
D
a 4

+
+ +
+
+
1 n 2
) c x b x a (
) mx cos( ) b x a 2 (
) 1 n (
1
D
1

+ +
+
2 n 2
) c x b x a (
) mx sin(
) 2 n (
1
D ) 1 n (
m
(F8)

}
+ +
+
= dx
) c x b x a (
) mx sin( ) B Ax (
R
n 2
n

we have the reduction formula
=
+ +
+
=
}
dx
) c x b x a (
) mx sin( ) B Ax (
R
n 2
n

n 1 n
1 n 2
I
a 2
bA aB 2
J
) 1 n (
m
a 2
A
) c bx ax (
) mx sin(
) 1 n (
1
a 2
A
+
+
)
`
+ +
(F9)
For the integral

}
+ +
+
= dx
) c x b x a (
) mx cos( ) B Ax (
T
n 2
n

=
+ +
+
=
}
dx
) c x b x a (
) mx cos( ) B Ax (
T
n 2
n

n 1 n
1 n 2
J
a 2
bA aB 2
I
) 1 n (
m
a 2
A
) c bx ax (
) mx cos(
) 1 n (
1
a 2
A
+
+ +
(F10)
For the integrals
n
I and
n
J we use the corresponding reduction formulas.

633

1) (a)
}

dx
3 x 2 x
) x 2 sin(
2
(b)
}

dx
3 x 2 x
) x 2 cos(
2

2) (a)
}

dx
3 x 2 x
) x 2 sin( ) 4 x 3 (
2
(b)
}

dx
3 x 2 x
) x 2 cos( ) 4 x 3 (
2

3) (a)
}

dx
) 3 x 2 x (
) x 2 sin(
2 2
(b)
}

dx
) 3 x 2 x (
) x 2 cos(
2 2

4) (a)
}

dx
) 3 x 2 x (
) x 2 sin( ) 4 x 3 (
2 2
(b)
}

dx
) 3 x 2 x (
) x 2 cos( ) 4 x 3 (
2 2

5) (a)
}

dx
) 3 x 2 x (
) x 2 sin(
3 2
(b)
}

dx
) 3 x 2 x (
) x 2 cos(
3 2

6) (a)
}

dx
) 3 x 2 x (
) x 2 sin( ) 4 x 3 (
3 2
(b)
}

dx
) 3 x 2 x (
) x 2 cos( ) 4 x 3 (
3 2

(1a) Hint. Use formula (F1) for 2 m= , 1 a = , 3
1
= , 1
2
=
(1b) Hint. Use formula (F3) for 2 m= , 1 a = , 3
1
= , 1
2
=
1
= , 1
2
=
1
= , 1
2
=
1
= , 1
2
= , 2 n =
1
= , 1
2
= , 2 n =
1
= , 1
2
= , 2 n =
1
= , 1
2
= , 2 n =
1
= , 1
2
= , 3 n =
1
= , 1
2
= , 3 n =
1
= , 1
2
= , 3 n =
1
= , 1
2
= , 3 n =

634

In

) x (
) x ( Q
) x ( P ) x ( R + = where ) x ( P
is the proper part (a polynomial) and
) x (
) x ( Q
dx
a x
e
x p
}

, dx
) a x (
e
n
x p
}

, dx
) a x (
e ) x ( P
n
x p
}

dx
c bx x a
e
2
x p
}
+ +
, dx
) c bx x a (
e
n 2
x p
}
+ +

and
dx
c bx x a
e ) B Ax (
2
x p
}
+ +
+
, dx
) c bx x a (
e ) B Ax (
n 2
x p
}
+ +
+

2
> .
1)
}
+ +
+
dx
) c bx x a (
) x m sin( ) B Ax (
n 2
2)
}
+ +
+
dx
) c bx x a (
) x m cos( ) B Ax (
n 2

(1) Hint.

}
}
dx ) ax cos( ) x ( R , where ) x ( R is a rational function
635

First Method. Using integration by parts, we find
J
a
b
) bx sin( e
a
1
I
ax
= and I
a
b
) bx cos( e
a
1
J
ax
+ =
Solving the system, we determine I and J:
)] bx cos( b ) bx sin( a [ e
b a
1
I
ax
2 2

+
=
)] bx cos( a ) bx sin( b [ e
b a
1
J
ax
2 2
+
+
=
Second Method. Set
)} bx cos( ) bx sin( { e dx ) bx sin( e I
x a x a
+ = =
}

and
)} bx cos( ) bx sin( { e dx ) bx cos( e J
x a ax
+ = =
}

Differentiating the above identities with respect to x, we determine and .
1)
}
dx ) x 4 sin( e
x 3
and 2)
}
dx ) x 4 cos( e
x 3

Solution. For 3 a = and 4 b = , we obtain, using the two previous formulas
] ) x 4 cos( 4 ) x 4 sin( 3 [ e
25
1
I
x 3
=
)] x 4 cos( 3 ) x 4 sin( 4 [ e
25
1
J
x 3
+ =
Note. The reader should repeat all the necessary steps in deriving the formulas
instead of simply using them.

}
= dx ) bx sin( e I
x a
and
}
= dx ) bx cos( e J
x a

636

First Method. The integrals

}
= dx ) bx sin( e ) x ( I
x a
and
}
= dx ) bx cos( e ) x ( J
x a

have been evaluated in the previous Category.
Since ) bx sin( e ) x ( I
ax
= ' and ) bx cos( e ) x ( J
ax
= ' , using integration by parts we
find
= ' = =
} }
dx ) x ( I x dx ) bx sin( e x I
n ax n
n

}

= dx ) x ( I x n ) x ( I x
1 n n

and
= ' = =
} }
dx ) x ( J x dx ) bx cos( e x J
n ax n
n

}

= dx ) x ( J x n ) x ( J x
1 n n

) bx cos( e ) x ( Q ) bx sin( e ) x ( P dx ) bx sin( e x I
x a
n
x a
n
x a n
n
+ = =
}

and
) bx cos( e ) x ( Q ) bx sin( e ) x ( P dx ) bx cos( e x J
x a
n
x a
n
x a n
n
+ = =
}

where ) x ( P
n
and ) x ( Q
n
The coefficients of these polynomials are determined by differentiation of the
above identities and equating the coefficients of similar powers of x.

}
x 3 3
and
}
x 3 3

}
ax n
n
and
}
ax n
n

637
Solution. We find, using the second method:
}
x 3 3

+
|
.
|
\
|
+ + = ) x 2 cos( e
28561
720
x
2197
276
x
169
36
x
13
2
x 3 2 3

) x 2 sin( e
28561
714
x
2197
54
x
169
15
x
13
3
x 3 2 3
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
and
}
x 3 3

+
|
.
|
\
|
+ = ) x 2 cos( e
28561
714
x
2197
54
x
169
15
x
13
2
x 3 2 3

) x 2 sin( e
28561
720
x
2197
276
x
169
36
x
13
2
x 3 2 3
|
.
|
\
|
+ +

We set
) bx cos( e ) x ( R ) bx sin( e ) x ( Q dx ) bx sin( e ) x ( P I
x a
n
x a
n
x a
n n
+ = =
}

and
) bx cos( e ) x ( R ) bx sin( e ) x ( Q dx ) bx cos( e ) x ( P J
x a
n
x a
n
x a
n n
+ = =
}

where ) x ( Q
n
and ) x ( R
n
1)
}
+ dx ) x 4 sin( e ) 8 x 5 x 4 (
x 3 2

2)
}
+ dx ) x 4 cos( e ) 11 x 7 x 5 (
x 2 2

}
ax
n
and
}
ax
n
, where ) x ( P is an th n degree polynomial
638
(1) Hint. Use the above identities
Answer.
) x 4 sin( e
15625
15061
x
625
431
x
25
12
) x 4 cos( e
15625
22648
x
625
308
x
25
16
x 3 2 x 3 2
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
|
.
|
\
|
+
(2) Hint. Use the above identities
Answer.
) x 4 sin( e
50
123
x
5
9
x ) x 4 cos( e
50
39
x
5
2
x
2
1
x 2 2 x 2 2
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
|
.
|
\
|
+

) x (
) x ( Q
) x ( P ) x ( R + = where ) x ( P is
the proper part (a polynomial) and
) x (
) x ( Q
dx
c x
) bx sin( e
x a
}

, dx
) c x (
) bx sin( e
n
x a
}

,
dx
c x
) bx cos( e
x a
}

, dx
) c x (
) bx cos( e
n
x a
}

dx
) c x (
) bx sin( e ) x ( P
n
x a
}

, dx
) c x (
) bx cos( e ) x ( P
n
x a
}

, where n ) x ( P deg <
dx
c bx x a
) x p sin( e
2
x m
}
+ +
, dx
) c bx x a (
) px sin( e
n 2
x m
}
+ +

}
= dx ) x b sin( e ) x ( R I
x a
and
}
= dx ) x b cos( e ) x ( R J
x a
, where ) x ( R is a rational function
639
dx
c bx x a
) x p cos( e
2
x m
}
+ +
, dx
) c bx x a (
) px cos( e
n 2
x m
}
+ +

and
dx
c bx x a
2
x m
}
+ +
+
, dx
) c bx x a (
n 2
x m
}
+ +
+

dx
c bx x a
2
x m
}
+ +
+
, dx
) c bx x a (
n 2
x m
}
+ +
+

2
> .
In all the previous cases we use the formulas
) e e (
i 2
1
) x m sin(
x m i x m i
= and ) e e (
2
1
) x m cos(
x m i x m i
+ =
to transform ) x m sin( and ) x m cos( to exponential form and then proceed along
the methods introduced in 7.3-7.7.
For example we find
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
} } }

dx
c x
e e
dx
c x
e e
i 2
1
dx
c x
) bx sin( e
x b i x a x b i x a x a

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
} }
+
dx
c x
e
dx
c x
e
i 2
1
x ) b i a ( x ) b i a (

))} c x )( b i a (( Ei e )) c x )( b i a (( Ei e {
i 2
1
c ) b i a ( c ) b i a (
+ =
+

We are not going to consider more examples in this category.

10

Integrals of
Hyperbolic Functions

Learning Objectives

integrals involving hyperbolic functions.


We first list some known facts from the theory:
Definitions. The hyperbolic functions are defined by
Hyperbolic sine:
2
e e
x sinh
x x
=
Hyperbolic cosine:
2
e e
x cosh
x x
+
=
Hyperbolic tangent:
x x
x x
e e
e e
x cosh
x sinh
x tanh

= =
Hyperbolic cotangent:
x x
x x
e e
e e
x sinh
x cosh
x coth

+
= =
Chapter 10-Integrals of hyberbolic functions
641
Hyperbolic Secant:
x cosh
1
hx sec =
Hyperbolic Cosecant:
x sinh
1
hx sec c =
Useful Identities.
Some properties of the hyperbolic functions we shall use are the following
1 x sinh x cosh
2 2
=
1 x tanh x h sec
2 2
= +
1 x ech cos x coth
2 2
=
y sinh x sinh y cosh x cosh ) y x cosh( =
y sinh x cosh y cosh x sinh ) y x sinh( =
) y x sinh( ) y x sinh( y cosh x sinh 2 + + =
) y x cosh( ) y x cosh( y cosh x cosh 2 + + =
) y x cosh( ) y x cosh( y sinh x sinh 2 + =
1 x sinh 2 1 x cosh 2 x sinh x cosh x 2 cosh
2 2 2 2
+ = = + =

2
x 2 cosh 1
x cosh
2
+
= ,
2
1 x 2 cosh
x sinh
2

=
x cosh x sinh 2 x 2 sinh =

2
x
tanh 1
2
x
tanh 2
x sinh
2
= ,
2
x
tanh 1
2
x
tanh 1
x cosh
2
2
+
=
The above identities are proved using the definitions.
Derivatives
x sinh ) x (cosh = ' , x cosh ) x (sinh = '
x h sec
x cosh
1
) x (tanh
2
2
= '
,
642
x ech cos
x sinh
1
) x (coth
2
2
= '
The above formulas are proved using the definitions.
Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
|
.
|
\
|
+ + =
1 x x ln x sinh
2 1

|
.
|
\
|
+ =
1 x x ln x cosh
2 1
, 1 | x | >

x 1
x 1
ln
2
1
x tanh
1
+
=
, 1 | x | <

1 x
1 x
ln
2
1
x coth
1
+
=
, 1 | x | <
Derivatives of the Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

1 x
1
) x (sinh
2
1
+
= '
,
1 x
1
) x (cosh
2
1
= '
, 1 | x | >

2
1
x 1
1
) x (tanh
= '
, 1 | x | <
The Basic Integrals
Using the formulas of the derivatives, we get the following basic integrals of the
hyperbolic functions:
C x cosh dx x sinh + =
}
C x sinh
1 x
dx
1
2
+ =
+

}

C x sinh dx x cosh + =
}
C x cosh
1 x
dx
1
2
+ =

}

C x tanh dx
x cosh
1
2
+ =
}
C x tanh
x 1
dx
1
2
+ =

}

C x coth dx
x sinh
1
2
+ =
}

643
The techniques we use in evaluating integrals of the hyperbolic functions are very
similar to the ones in evaluating integrals of trigonometric functions.
}
= dx x sinh x cosh I
4 3

Solution. In this example, in analogy to the case of trigonometric functions, we
shall use the method of substitution. We first transform the integral into
= = =
} }
dx x cosh x sinh x cosh dx x sinh x cosh I
4 2 4 3

}
+ = dx x cosh x sinh ) x sinh 1 (
4 2

Using the substitution x sinh t = , dx x cosh dt = we get
= + = + = + =
} } } }
dt t dt t dt ) t t ( dt t ) t 1 ( I
6 4 6 4 4 2

C x sinh
7
1
x sinh
5
1
C
7
t
5
t
7 5
7 5
+ + = + + =
}
= dx x sinh x cosh I
4 2

Solution. We first transform the integrand into an expression containing multiple
arguments as follows:
= = x sinh ) x sinh x (cosh x sinh x cosh
2 2 4 2

= =
|
.
|
\
|
= x sinh ) x 2 (sinh
4
1
x sinh x 2 sinh
2
1
2 2 2
2

= =
= ) 1 x 2 (cosh ) 1 x 4 (cosh
16
1
2
1 x 2 cosh
2
1 x 4 cosh
4
1

= + = ) 1 x 2 cosh x 4 cosh x 2 cosh x 4 (cosh
16
1

= + + =
16
1
x 2 cosh
16
1
x 4 cosh
16
1
) x 2 cosh x 6 (cosh
2
1
16
1

16
1
x 4 cosh
16
1
x 2 cosh
32
1
x 6 cosh
32
1
+ =
644
= =
}
dx x sinh x cosh I
4 2

= + =
} } } }
dx
16
1
dx x 4 cosh
16
1
dx x 2 cosh
32
1
dx x 6 cosh
32
1

= + + = C x
16
1
4
x 4 sinh
16
1
2
x 2 sinh
32
1
6
x 6 sinh
32
1

C x
16
1
x 4 sinh
64
1
x 2 sinh
64
1
x 6 sinh
192
1
+ + =
}
+
= dx
5 x h sec 4
hx sec
I
2

Solution. Multiplying both numerator and denominator by x cosh
2
we obtain
=
+ +
=
+
=
+ ) x sinh 1 ( 5 4
x cosh
x cosh 5 4
x cosh
5 x h sec 4
hx sec
2 2 2

9 x sinh 5
x cosh
2
+
=
Therefore we have to evaluate the integral

}
+
= dx
9 x sinh 5
x cosh
I
2

Under the substitution x sinh u = , since dx x cosh du = , the previous integral
transforms into
}
+ 9 u 5
du
2
. This integral has been evaluated before (6.3.3a,
Example 18):

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
}
u
3
5
arctan
5 3
1
9 u 5
du
2

C x sinh
3
5
arctan
5 3
1
dx
5 x h sec 4
hx sec
I
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
=
}

}
+
=
5 x cosh 4
dx
I
2

645
Solution. We have the known identity

x tanh 1
1
x cosh
2
2
=
Under the substitution x tanh u = , since u tanh x
1
= and du
u 1
1
dx
2
= ,

} } }

=
+
=
+
9 u 5
du
) u 1 ( 5 4
du
5
u 1
1
4
du
u 1
1
2 2
2
2


3 u 5
3 u 5
ln
5 6
1
9 u 5
du
2
+
}

C
3 x tanh 5
3 x tanh 5
ln
5 6
1
5 x cosh 4
dx
I
2
+
+
=
+
=
}

}
+
=
5 x sinh 4
dx
I
2

Solution. We have the known identity

x tanh 1
x tanh
x sinh
2
2
2
=
Under the substitution x tanh u = , since u tanh x
1
= and du
u 1
1
dx
2
= ,

} } }

=
+
=
+
5 u
du
) u 1 ( 5 u 4
du
5
u 1
u
4
du
u 1
1
2 2 2
2
2
2

646

5 u
5 u
ln
5 2
1
5 u
du
2
+
}

C
5 x tanh
5 x tanh
ln
5 2
1
5 x sinh 4
dx
I
2
+
+
=
+
=
}

x cosh 1
x sinh 1
I
}

+
=
Solution. Since

2
x
tanh 1
2
x
tanh 2
x sinh
2
= and
2
x
tanh 1
2
x
tanh 1
x cosh
2
2
+
=
under the substitution
2
x
tanh t = we have

2
t 1
t 2
x sinh
= ,
2
2
t 1
t 1
x cosh
+
=
and also t h arctan
2
x
= from which we get dt
t 1
2
dx
2
= .
=
+
=
+
=
} }
dt
t 1
2
t 1
t 1
1
t 1
t 2
1
dx
x cosh 2
x sinh 1
I
2
2
2
2

dt
) 1 t ( t
t t 2 1
dt
t 1
2
) t 1 ( ) t 1 (
t 2 t 1
2 2
2
2 2 2
2
} }

+
=
+
+
=

1 t
1
1 t
1
t
1
t
2
) 1 t ( t
t t 2 1
2 2 2
2
+
+
+ =
+

we find
647

} } } } }
=
+
+
+ =
+
1 t
dt
1 t
dt
t
dt
t
dt
2 dt
) 1 t ( t
t t 2 1
2 2 2
2

C | 1 t | ln | 1 t | ln
t
1
| t | ln 2 + + + + + =
C
t
1
1 ln
t
1
C
t
1 t
ln
t
1
2 2
2
+ + = +
+ =
C
2
x
coth 1 ln
2
x
coth I
2
+ + =
(1)
}
+
=
x sinh b a
dx
I (2) dx
x sinh b a
x cosh
J
2
}
+
=
(3) dx
x sinh b a
x sinh x cosh
K
2
}
+
=
Solution. (1) We have the formula
2
x
tanh 1
2
x
tanh 2
x sinh
2
= . Under the substitution

2
x
tanh t = , we have
2
t 1
t 2
x sinh
= . Since t h arctan
2
x
= , we obtain for the
differential dt
t 1
2
dx
2

dt
t 1
2
t 1
t 2
b a
1
I
2
2

+
=
}
, which can be written as dt
t b 2 ) t 1 ( a
2
I
2
}
+
=
and finally dt
a t b 2 t a
2
I
2
}

= .
648
Since
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
2 2
2
2
a
b a
a
b
t a a t b 2 t a , the last integral under the
substitution u
a
b a
a
b
t
2 2
+
= , takes on the form

} }

+
=
+
+
=
2
2 2
2 2
2
2
2 2
u 1
du
b a
2
du
a
b a
) 1 u (
a
b a
a
2
I
Therefore C u tanh
b a
2
I
1
2 2
+
+
=

. Since
2 2 2 2
b a
b
2
x
tanh a
b a
b t a
u
+
=
+
= , going
back to the original variable, we obtain the value of the integral:
C
b a
b
2
x
tanh a
tanh
b a
2
x sinh b a
dx
I
2 2
1
2 2
+
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=
+
=

}

(2) Since x sinh 1 x cosh
2 2
+ = , the integral becomes
=
+
+
+
=
+
+
=
} } }
dx
x sinh b a
x sinh
dx
x sinh b a
1
dx
x sinh b a
x sinh 1
J
2 2

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ + =
+
+ =
} }
dx
x sinh b a
1
b
a
b
a
x sinh
b
1
I dx
x sinh b a
x sinh b
b
1
I
2 2

} } }
=
+
+ + =
x sinh b a
dx
b
a
dx
b
a
dx x sinh
b
1
I
2
2
2

C x
b
a
x cosh
b
1
I
b
a
1
2 2
2
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
where I is the value of the integral calculated before.
(3) We have the obvious identity
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+ x sinh b a
a
1
b
1
x sinh b a
x sinh
.
649
Therefore
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+ x sinh b a
cosh a
cosh
b
1
x sinh b a
x sinh x cosh
2
2
2
. We thus obtain
dx
x sinh b a
x cosh
b
a
dx x cosh
b
1
dx
x sinh b a
x sinh x cosh
K
2
2
2
} } }
+
=
+
=
Using the formula
2
x 2 cosh 1
x cosh
2
+
= , we have

4
x sinh
2
x
dx
2
x 2 cosh 1
dx x cosh
2
+ =
+
=
} }

We thus obtain J
b
a
4
x sinh
2
x
b
1
dx
x sinh b a
x sinh x cosh
K
2
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
+
=
}

where J is the value of the integral evaluated before.
Note. The three integrals
(1)
}

=
x sinh b a
dx
I (2) dx
x sinh b a
x cosh
J
2
}

=
(3) dx
x sinh b a
x sinh x cosh
K
2
}

=
can also be evaluated similarly. It suffices however to substitute b by b in the
above derived results.
(i)
}
=
x sinh
dx
I and (ii)
}
=
x cosh
dx
J
Solution. We have
(i) dx
1 e
e 2
dx
e e
2
x sinh
dx
I
x 2
x
x x
} } }

=
= =

x
e u = , the integral transforms into
C
1 u
1 u
ln du
1 u
1
1 u
1
du
1 u
2
2
+
+
=
|
.
|
\
|
+
} }

650
C
1 e
1 e
ln
x sinh
dx
I
x
x
+
+
= =
}

(ii) dx
1 e
e 2
dx
e e
2
x cosh
dx
J
x 2
x
x x
} } }
+
=
+
= =

x
e u = , the integral transforms into
C u arctan 2 du
1 u
2
2
+ =
+
}

C ) e arctan( 2
x cosh
dx
J
x
+ = =
}

(i)
}
=
x sinh
dx
I
3
and (ii)
}
=
x cosh
dx
J
3

Solution. We have
(i) =
= =
} }
dx
x sinh
x sinh x cosh
x sinh
dx
I
3
2 2
3

2 1
3
2
I I dx
x sinh
1
dx
x sinh
x cosh
= =
} }

For the integral dx
x sinh
x cosh
x cosh dx
x sinh
x cosh
I
3 3
2
1 } }
= = , using the formula

} }
and the table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

x sinh
x cosh
3

x cosh
x sinh 2
1
2

x sinh
we have
= + = =
} }
dx
x sinh
1
2
1
x sinh 2
x cosh
dx
x sinh
x cosh
I
2 3
2
1

651

2
2
I
2
1
x sinh 2
x cosh
+ =
Therefore
= + = = =
} 2 2
2
2 1
3
I I
2
1
x sinh 2
x cosh
I I
x sinh
dx
I
C
1 e
1 e
ln
2
1
x sinh 2
x cosh
I
2
1
x sinh 2
x cosh
x
x
2
2
2
+
+
= =
where we used the fact that

1 e
1 e
ln
x sinh
dx
I
x
x
2
+
= =
}

evaluated in the previous Example.
(ii) =
= =
} }
dx
x cosh
x sinh x cosh
x cosh
dx
J
3
2 2
3

2 1
3
2
J J dx
x cosh
x sinh
dx
x cosh
1
= =
} }

For the integral dx
x cosh
x sinh
x sinh dx
x cosh
x sinh
J
3 3
2
2 } }
= = , using the formula

} }
and the table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g ) x ( f ) x ( g'

x cosh
x sinh
3

x sinh
x cosh 2
1
2

x cosh
we have
= + = =
} }
dx
x cosh
1
2
1
x cosh 2
x sinh
dx
x cosh
x sinh
J
2 3
2
2

1
2
J
2
1
x cosh 2
x sinh
+ =
Therefore
652
= |
.
|
\
|
+ = = =
} 1
2
1 2 1
3
J
2
1
x cosh 2
x sinh
J J J
x cosh
dx
J
C ) e arctan(
x cosh 2
x sinh
J
2
1
x cosh 2
x sinh
x
2
1
2
+ + = + =
where we used the fact that
) e arctan( 2
x cosh
dx
J
x
1
= =
}

evaluated in the previous Example.

We define

}
=
x
0
dt
t
t sinh
) x ( Shi

11

Integrals of
Irrational Functions

Learning Objectives

integrals involving irrational functions.


- First Category. Integrals of expressions containing x or
n
m
x .
- Second Category. Integrals of the form
dx ) b x a , x ( R I
}
+ =
dx
d cx
b ax
, x R I
}
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=
Chapter 11-Integrals of irrational functions
654
}
+ + = dx ) d cx , b ax , x ( R I .
dx
d x c
b x a
, ,
d x c
b x a
,
d x c
b x a
, x R I
k
k
2
2
1
1
q
p
q
p
q
p
}
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=
- Sixth Category. The Chebyshev Substitutions

These substitutions apply to integrals of the form
dx ) x b a ( x I
p
n m
}
+ =
where m, n and p are rational numbers.
dx ) x a , x ( R
2 2
}
+
dx ) x a , x ( R
2 2
}

dx ) a x , x ( R
2 2
}

- Eighth Category. Integrals of the form

}
+ +
=
2 2 2 2
1
x a ) p x (
dx
J ,
}
+
=
2 2 2 2
2
x a ) p x (
dx
J

}
+
=
2 2 2 2
3
a x ) p x (
dx
J
- Ninth Category. Integrals of the form dx ) c x b x a , x ( R
2
}
+ +
- Tenth Category. Integrals of the form
dx
c x b x a
) x ( P
2
}
+ +
, 0 a = and 0 D =
655
where ) x ( P is a polynomial of n-th degree.
- Eleventh Category. Integrals of the form

}
+ + c x b x a ) m x (
x d
2 n

where n is a positive integer ( 1 n > ).

- Twelfth Category. Integrals of the form
dx
b x a ) B x A (
x
I
2 2
}
+ +
=
dx
b x a ) B x A (
1
J
2 2
}
+ +
=
- Thirteenth Category. Integrals of the form
dx
c x b x a ) p x (
B x A
2 2 2
}
+ + +
+

- Fourteenth Category. Integrals of the form
dx
c x b x a ) C x B x A (
M x L
2 2
}
+ + + +
+

- Fifteenth Category. Integrals of the form
dx
c x b x a ) p x (
B x A
2 n 2 2
}
+ + +
+

- Sixteenth Category. Integrals of the form
dx
M x L
2 n 2
}
+ + + +
+

- Seventeenth Category

}
dx ) y , x ( R where the pair ) y , x ( satisfies a relation
of the form 0 ) y , x ( F = and may be rationalized.

656

11.1 First Category. Integrals of expressions containing x or
n
m
x .
In all these cases we either convert the roots into powers of rational exponent:

2
1
x x = and
n
m
n
m
x x = (m, n are positive integers)
or use the substitutions
u x = , i.e.
2
u x = and du u 2 dx =
u x
n
= , i.e.
n
u x = ,
n m
n
m
u x = and du u n dx
1 n
=
11.1.1 First Case.
(A) C x x
3
2
C
2
3
x
C
1
2
1
x
dx x dx x
2
3
1
2
1
2
1
+ = + = +
+
= =
+
} }

Using the substitution u x = , i.e.
2
transforms to
C u
3
2
C
3
u
2 du u 2 du u 2 u
3
3
2
+ = + = =
} }

Going back to the original variable, we obtain again that
C x x
3
2
C ) x (
3
2
dx x
3
+ = + =
}

(B) C x 2 C
2
1
x
C
1
2
1
x
dx x dx
x
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
+ = + = +
+
= =
+
} }

2
transforms to
C u 2 du 2 du u 2
u
1
+ = =
} }

657
Going back to the original variable, we obtain again that
C x 2 dx
x
1
+ =
}

(C) = +
+
= +
+ +
= =
+ + + +
+
} }
C
2
3 n 2
x
C
1
2
1
n
x
dx x dx x x
2
1
1 n 1
2
1
n
2
1
n
n

C x x
3 n 2
2
1 n
+
+
=
+

2
u x = ,
n 2 n
u x = and du u 2 dx = , the
integral transforms to
= +
+
= +
+ +
= =
+ + +
+
} }
C
3 n 2
u
2 C
1 2 n 2
u
2 du u 2 du u 2 u u
3 n 2 1 2 n 2
2 n 2 n 2

C u
3 n 2
2
3 n 2
+
+
=
+

= +
+
= +
+
=
+ +
}
C x ) x (
3 n 2
2
C ) x (
3 n 2
2
dx x x
2 n 2 3 n 2 n

C x x
3 n 2
2
C x ) x (
3 n 2
2
1 n ) 1 n ( 2
+
+
= +
+
=
+ +

(D) = +
+
= +
+
= =
+ +
} }
C
2
1 n 2
x
C
1
2
1
n
x
dx x dx
x
x
2
1
n 1
2
1
n
2
1
n
n

C x x
1 n 2
2
n
+
+
=
2
u x = ,
n 2 n
658
C u
1 n 2
2
C
1 n 2
u
2 du u 2 du u 2
u
u
1 n 2
1 n 2
n 2
n 2
+
+
= +
+
= =
+
+
} }

= +
+
= +
+
=
+
}
C x ) x (
1 n 2
2
C ) x (
1 n 2
2
dx
x
x
n 2 1 n 2
n

C x x
1 n 2
2
n
+
+
=
(E) = +
= +
+
= =
+ + +
} }
C
2
n 2 3
x
C
1 n
2
1
x
dx x dx
x
x
2
1
1 n 1 n
2
1
n
2
1
n

C
x
x
n 2 3
2
1 n
+
=

2
u x = ,
n 2 n
C u
n 2 3
2
C
1 n 2 2
u
2 du u 2 du u 2
u
u
n 2 3
1 n 2 2
n 2 2
n 2
+
= +
+
= =

+
} }

= +
= +
}
C
) x (
x
n 2 3
2
C ) x (
n 2 3
2
dx
x
x
2 n 2
n 2 3
n

C
x
x
n 2 3
2
1 n
+
=

Example 1. Evaluate the integral dx x x
3
}

Solution. We have
= + = +
+ +
= =
+ + +
+
} }
C
2
9
x
C
1
2
1
3
x
dx x dx x x
2
1
4 1
2
1
3
2
1
3
3

659
C x x
9
2
4
+ =
2
u x = ,
6 3
transforms to
C u
9
2
C
9
u
2 du u 2 du u 2 u u
9
9
8 6
+ = + = =
} }

= + = + =
}
C x ) x (
9
2
C ) x (
9
2
dx x x
8 9 3

C x x
9
2
4
+ =
x
x
5
}

Solution.
= + = +
+
= =
+ +
} }
C
2
11
x
C
1
2
1
5
x
dx x dx
x
x
2
1
5 1
2
1
5
2
1
5
5

C x x
11
2
5
+ =
2
u x = ,
10 5
C u
11
2
C
11
u
2 du u 2 du u 2
u
u
11
11
10
10
+ = + = =
} }

= + = + =
}
C x ) x (
11
2
C ) x (
11
2
dx
x
x
10 11
5

C x x
11
2
5
+ =
660
x
x
4
}

Solution.
= +
= +
+
= =
+ +
} }
C
2
5
x
C
1 4
2
1
x
dx x dx
x
x
2
1
3 1 4
2
1
4
2
1
4

C
x
x
5
2
3
+ =
2
u x = ,
8 4
transforms to
C u
5
2
C
1 6
u
2 du u 2 du u 2
u
u
5
1 6
6
8
+ = +
+
= =

+
} }

C x ) x (
5
2
C ) x (
5
2
dx
x
x
6 5
n
+ = + =

}

C
x
x
5
2
C
) x (
x
5
2
3 6
+ = + =
11.1.2 Second Case. Integrals of the form
dx x ) x ( P
}
, dx x ) x , x ( R
}
, dx
x
) x ( P
}

dx
x
) x , x ( R
}
, dx
x x
) x ( P
p
}
, dx
x x
) x , x ( R
p
}

In all the above cases it is instructive to use the substitution u x = . Each one of
the integrals then transforms to an integral of a rational function.
Example 1. Evaluate the integral dx x ) 1 x x 2 ( I
2
}
+ =
661
Solution. Using the substitution u x = , i.e.
2
u x = ,
4 2
u x = and du u 2 dx = ,
= + = +
} }
du ) u u u 2 ( 2 du u 2 u ) 1 u u 2 (
2 4 6 2 4

= + =
} } }
du u 2 du u 2 du u 4
2 4 6

C
3
u
2
5
u
2
7
u
4
3 5 7
+ + =
and going back to the original variable, we find the value of the integral
= + + = C x ) x (
3
2
x ) x (
5
2
x ) x (
7
4
I
2 4 6

C x x
3
2
x x
5
2
x x
7
4
2 3
+ + =
Example 2. Evaluate the integral dx x ) 2 x 3 x 2 x x 5 ( I
2
}
+ + =
2
u x = ,
4 2
= + + = + +
} }
du ) u 2 u 3 u 2 u 5 ( 2 du u 2 u ) 2 u 3 u 2 u 5 (
2 3 4 7 2 5

= + + =
} } } }
du u 4 du u 6 du u 4 du u 10
2 3 4 7

= + + + = C
3
u
4
4
u
6
5
u
4
8
u
10
3 4 5 8

C u
3
4
u
2
3
u
5
4
u
4
5
3 4 5 8
+ + + =
= + + =
}
dx x ) 2 x 3 x 2 x x 5 ( I
2

= + + + = C ) x (
3
4
) x (
2
3
) x (
5
4
) x (
4
5
3 4 5 8

= + + + = C x ) x (
3
4
x
2
3
x ) x (
5
4
x
4
5
2 2 4 4

662
C x x
3
4
x
2
3
x x
5
4
x
4
5
2 2 4
+ + + =
x
1 x x 2
I
2
}
+
=
2
u x = ,
4 2
= + =
+
} }
du ) 1 u u 2 ( 2 du u 2
u
1 u u 2
2 4
2 4

= + =
} } }
du 2 du u 2 du u 4
2 4

C u 2 u
3
4
u
5
4
C u 2
3
u
4
5
u
4
3 5
3 5
+ + = + + =
= + + =
+
=
}
C x 2 ) x (
3
4
) x (
5
4
dx
x
1 x x 2
I
3 5
2

= + + = C x 2 x ) x (
3
4
x ) x (
5
4
2 4

C x 2 x x
3
4
x x
5
4
2
+ + =
x x
2 x 3 x 2 x x 5
I
2
}
+ +
=
2
u x = ,
we have
4 2
=
+ +
=
+ +
} }
du
u
2 u 3 u 2 u 5
2 du u 2
u
2 u 3 u 2 u 5
2 5
2
2 5

663
=
|
.
|
\
|
+ + =
}
du
u
2
3 u 2 u 5 2
4

= + + =
} } } }
u
du
4 du 6 du u 4 du u 10
4

= + + + = C | u | ln 4 u 6
2
u
4
5
u
10
2 5

C | u | ln 4 u 6 u 2 u 2
2 5
+ + + =
=
+ +
=
}
dx
x x
2 x 3 x 2 x x 5
I
2

= + + + = C | x | ln 4 x 6 ) x ( 2 ) x ( 2
2 5

C | x | ln 4 x 6 x 2 x x 2
2
+ + + =
11.1.3 Third Case. Integrals of the form
dx x
n
m
}
, dx
x
1
n
m
}
, dx x x
n
m p
}
, dx
x
x
n
m
p
}

In all these cases we use the transformation

n
x u = , i.e.
n
u x = ,
p n p
u x = and du u n dx
1 n
=
Example 1. Evaluate the integral dx x I
n
m
}
=
Solution. Under the transformation

n
x u = , i.e.
n
u x = ,
we have
m
n
m
u x = and du u n dx
1 n
=
= +
+
= =
+
+
} }
C
n m
u
n du u n du u n u
n m
1 n m 1 n m

664
C u
n m
n
n m
+
+
=
+

= +
+
= =
+
}
C ) x (
n m
n
dx x I
n m
n
n
m

= +
+
= +
+
= C x x
n m
n
C ) x ( ) x (
n m
n
n
m n
n
m
n

C x x
n m
n
n
m
+
+
=
x
1
I
n
m
}
=
n
x u = , i.e.
n
u x = , we have
m
n
m
u x = and du u n dx
1 n
=
= +
= = =

} }
C
m n
u
n du u n du u n
u
1
I
m n
1 m n 1 n
m

C u
m n
n
m n
+
=

= +
= =

}
C ) x (
m n
n
dx
x
1
I
m n
n
n
m

C
x
x
m n
n
C
) x (
) x (
m n
n
n
m
m
n
n
n
+
= +
=
Example 3. Evaluate the integral dx x x
n
m p
}

n
x u = , i.e.
n
u x = , we have
665
m
n
m
u x = ,
n p p
u x = and du u n dx
1 n
=
= =
} }
+ +
du u n du u n u u
1 n m n p 1 n m n p

C u
n m n p
n
C
n m n p
u
n
n m n p
n m n p
+
+ +
= +
+ +
=
+ +
+ +

= +
+ +
=
+ +
}
C ) x (
n m n p
n
dx x x
n m n p
n
m
n
m p

= +
+ +
=
+ +
C ) x (
n m n p
n
m n ) 1 p (
n
m

= +
+ +
=
+
C ) x ( ) x (
n m n p
n
m
n
m n ) 1 p (
n
m

C x x
n m n p
n
n
m 2 ) 1 p ( m
+
+ +
=
+

x
x
n
m
p
}

n
x u = , i.e.
n
u x = ,
m
n
m
u x = ,
n p p
u x = and du u n dx
1 n
=
= =
} }
+
du u n du u n
u
u
1 n m n p 1 n
m
n p

C u
n m n p
n
C
n m n p
u
n
n m n p
n m n p
+
+
= +
+
=
+
+

= +
+
=
+
}
C ) x (
n m n p
n
dx
x
x
n m n p
n
m
n
m
p

666
= +
+
=
+
C ) x (
n m n p
n
m n ) 1 p (
n
m

= +
+
=
+
C
) x (
1
) x (
n m n p
n
m
n
m
n ) 1 p (
n
m

C
x
x
n m n p
n
n
m 2
) 1 p ( m
+
+
=
+

11.1.4 Fourth case. Integrals of the form
dx x ) x ( P
n
m
}
, dx x ) x , x ( R
n
m
q
p
}

dx x ) x , , x , x ( R
n
m
q
p
q
p k
k
1
1
}
, dx
x
) x ( P
n
m
}

dx
x x
) x ( P
n
m s
}
, dx
x
) x , x ( R
n
m
q
p
}
, dx
x x
) x , x ( R
n
m s
q
p
}

dx
x
) x , , x , x ( R
n
m
q
p
q
p k
k
1
1
}

, dx
x x
) x , , x , x ( R
n
m s
q
p
q
p k
k
1
1
}

- For integrals of the form
dx x ) x ( P
n
m
}
, dx
x
) x ( P
n
m
}
, dx
x x
) x ( P
n
m s
}

we use the substitution
n
x u = , i.e.
n
u x = ,
m
n
m
u x = and du u n dx
1 n
=
dx x ) x , x ( R
n
m
q
p
}
, dx
x
) x , x ( R
n
m
q
p
}
, dx
x x
) x , x ( R
n
m s
q
p
}

r
x u = , where ) q , n ( LCM r = .
667
dx x ) x , , x , x ( R
n
m
q
p
q
p k
k
1
1
}

dx
x
) x , , x , x ( R
n
m
q
p
q
p k
k
1
1
}

dx
x x
) x , , x , x ( R
n
m s
q
p
q
p k
k
1
1
}

r
x u = , where ) q , , q , q , n ( LCM r
k 2 1
= .
Example 1. Evaluate the integral dx x ) 5 x 4 x 3 ( I
3
2 2
}
+ =

3
x u = , i.e.
3
u x = ,
we have
2
3
2
u x = ,
6 2
u x = and du u 3 dx
2
=
= +
}
du u 3 u ) 5 u 4 u 3 (
2 2 3 6

= + =
} } }
du u 15 du u 12 du u 9
4 7 10

C
5
u
15
8
u
12
11
u
9
5 8 11
+ + =
C u 3 u
2
3
u
11
9
5 8 11
+ + =
= + =
}
dx x ) 5 x 4 x 3 ( I
3
2 2

= + + = C ) x ( 3 ) x (
2
3
) x (
11
9
5
3
8
3
11
3

= + + = C ) x ( ) x ( 3 ) x ( ) x (
2
3
) x ( ) x (
11
9
2
3
3
3
2
3
6
3
2
3
9
3

668
C x x 3 x x
2
3
x x
11
9
3
2
3
2 2
3
2 3
+ + =
C x x 3 x
2
3
x
11
9
3
2 2 3
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
dx x ) 7 x 3 x x 2 x x 5 ( I
3
2
3
2
3
2
}
+ =

3
x u = , i.e.
3
u x = ,
we have
2
3
2
u x = ,
6 2
u x = and du u 3 dx
2
=
= + =
}
du u 3 u ) 7 u 3 u 2 u 5 ( I
2 2 3 5 7

= + =
} } } }
du u 21 du u 9 du u 6 du u 15
4 7 9 11

C
5
u
21
8
u
9
10
u
6
12
u
15
5 8 10 12
+ + =
C u
5
21
u
8
9
u
5
3
u
4
5
5 8 10 12
+ + =
dx x ) 7 x 3 x x 2 x x 5 ( I
3
2
3
2
3
2
}
+ =
= + + = C ) x (
5
21
) x (
8
9
) x (
5
3
) x (
4
5
5 3 8 3 10 3 12 3

= + + = C ) x ( ) x (
5
21
) x ( ) x (
8
9
) x ( ) x (
5
3
x
4
5
3 3 3 2 3 6 3 3 9 3 4

C x x
5
21
x x
8
9
x x
5
3
x
4
5
3
3
2 2 3 3 4
+ + =
669
x
5 x 4 x 3
I
3
2
2
}
+
=

3
x u = , i.e.
3
u x = ,
we have
2
3
2
u x = ,
6 2
u x = and du u 3 dx
2
=
= + =
+
} }
du ) 5 u 4 u 3 ( 3 du u 3
u
5 u 4 u 3
3 6 2
2
3 6

= + =
} } }
du 15 du u 12 du u 9
3 6

= + + = C u 15
4
u
12
7
u
9
4 7

C u 15 u 3 u
7
9
4 7
+ + =
= + + =
+
=
}
C ) x ( 15 ) x ( 3 ) x (
7
9
dx
x
5 x 4 x 3
I
3 4 3 7 3
3
2
2

= + + = C ) x ( 15 ) x ( ) x ( 3 ) x ( ) x (
7
9
3 3 3 3 3 6 3

= + + = C x 15 x x 3 x x
7
9
3 3 3 2

C x 15 x 3 x
7
9
3 2
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
dx
x x
7 x 3 x x 2 x x 5
I
3
2
3
2
3
2
}
+
=
670

3
x u = , i.e.
3
u x = ,
we have
2
3
2
u x = ,
6 2
u x = and du u 3 dx
2
=
=
+
}
du u 3
u
7 u 3 u 2 u 5
2
5
3 5 7

=
+
=
}
du
u
7 u 3 u 2 u 5
3
3
3 5 7

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
}
du
u
7
3 u 2 u 5 3
3
2 4

= + =
} } } }
du
u
1
21 du 3 du u 6 du u 15
3
2 4

= +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = C
u 2
1
21 u 3
3
u
6
5
u
15
2
3 5

C
u
1
2
21
u 3 u 2 u 3
2
3 5
+ + + =
=
+
=
}
dx
x x
7 x 3 x x 2 x x 5
I
3
2
3
2
3
2

= + + + = C
) x (
1
2
21
) x ( 3 ) x ( 2 ) x ( 3
2 3
3 3 3 5 3

= + + + = C
x
1
2
21
x 3 x 2 ) x ( ) x ( 3
3
2
3 2 3 3 3

C
x
1
2
21
x 3 x 2 x x 3
3
2
3
3
2
+ + + =
671
11.1.5 Fifth Case. Integrals of the form
dx ) b x a (
n m
}
+
where n is a positive integer and m is a rational exponent,
q
p
m = .
In this case we expand the binomial using Newtons binomial formula:

k n
n
0 k
k m n m
b ) x a ( ) b x a (

=
= +

and then integrate term by term. We might also consider making some obvious
substitutions.
4
3
=
}

Solution. Expanding the binomial we find
16 x 96 x 216 x 216 x x 81 ) 2 x 3 (
3
3
2
3
4
3
+ + =
Using the substitution u x
3
= , i.e.
3
u x = , we have

2
3
2
u x = and du u 3 dx
2
=
= + +
}
du u 3 ) 16 u 96 u 216 u 216 u 81 (
2 2 3 4

= + + =
} } } } }
du u 48 du u 288 du u 648 du u 648 du u 243
2 3 4 5 6

C
3
u
48
4
u
288
5
u
648
6
u
648
7
u
243
3 4 5 6 7
+ + + =
C u 16 u 72 u
5
648
u 108 u
7
243
3 4 5 6 7
+ + + =
= =
}
dx ) 2 x 3 ( I
4
3

C ) x ( 16 ) x ( 72 ) x (
5
648
) x ( 108 ) x (
7
243
3
3
4
3
5
3
6
3
7
3
+ + + =
672
+ =
2
3
3
3
6
3 3
6
3
) x ( ) x (
5
648
) x ( 108 ) x ( ) x (
7
243

= + + C ) x ( 16 ) x ( ) x ( 72
3
3 3
3
3

C x 16 x x 72 x x
5
648
x 108 x x
7
243 3
3
2 2
3
2
+ + + =
11.2 Second Category
First Case. Integrals of the form
dx ) b x a , x ( R I
}
+ =
In this case we use the substitution u b x a = + . Therefore

2
u b x a = + and then
a
b u
x
2

= , du u
a
2
dx =
Second Case. Integrals of the form
dx ) b x a , x ( R J
n
}
+ =
In this case we use the substitution t b x a
n
= + . Therefore

n
a
b u
x
n

= , du u
a
n
dx
1 n
=
2 x
1 x
I
}

+
=
Solution. Put u 2 x = . Then
2
u 2 x = and 2 u x
2
+ = , du u 2 dx = .
Therefore
=
+ +
=
+
=
} }
du u 2
u
1 ) 2 u (
dx
2 x
1 x
I
2

= + + = + = + =
} } }
C u 6
3
u
2 du 6 du u 2 du ) 3 u ( 2
3
2 2

C 2 x 6 2 x ) 2 x (
3
2
C 2 x 6 ) 2 x (
3
2
3
+ + = + + =
673
1 x 1
2 x 3
I
3
}
+

=
Solution. Put u 1 x
3
= . Then
3
u 1 x = , 1 u x
3
+ = and du u 3 dx
2
= .
Therefore
=
+
+
=
+

=
} }
du u 3
u 1
2 ) 1 u ( 3
dx
1 x 1
2 x 3
I
2
3
3

du
u 1
u u 3
3 du u
u 1
1 u 3
3
2 5
2
3
} }
+
+
=
+
+
=
Since

1 u
2
2 u 2 u 3 u 3 u 3
u 1
u u 3
2 3 4
2 5
+
+ + =
+
+

we get
=
+
+ + =
+

=
} } }
1 u
du
6 du ) 2 u 2 u 3 u 3 u 3 ( 3 dx
1 x 1
2 x 3
I
2 3 4
3

C | 1 u | ln 6 u 2
2
u
2
3
u
3
4
u
3
5
u
3 3
2 3 4 5
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + =
+ + =
3
2
3
4
3
5
) 1 x ( 3 ) 1 x ( 3 ) 1 x (
4
9
) 1 x (
5
9

C 1 1 x ln 6 1 x 6
3 3
+ + +

11.3 Third Category. Integrals of the form
dx
d cx
b ax
, x R I
}
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=
In this case we put u
d cx
b ax
=
+
+
. Therefore
2
u
d cx
b ax
=
+
+
. We have further
+ = + =
+
+
) d cx ( u b ax u
d cx
b ax
2 2

674

2
2
u c a
b u d
x

=
From the previous relation we get the differential
du
) u c a (
u
) bc ad ( 2 dx
2 2

=
du
) u c a (
u
u ,
u c a
b u d
R ) bc ad ( 2 I
2 2 2
2

|
|
.
|
\
|

=
}

which is the integral of a rational function.
}

+
= dx
2 x
1 x
I
Solution. Put u
2 x
1 x
=
+
. Then
2
u
2 x
1 x
=
+
from which we get
) 2 x ( u 1 x
2
= + which is equivalent to
= = +
2 2 2 2
u 2 1 x u x u 2 x u 1 x
1 u
1 u 2
x u 2 1 x ) u 1 (
2
2
2 2
+
+
= =
From the last relation we get by differentiation
du
) 1 u (
u 2
dx
2 2
+
= .
Therefore
du
) 1 u (
u
2 du
) 1 u (
u 2
u dx
2 x
1 x
I
2 2
2
2 2
} } }
+
=
+
=
+
=

2 2 2 2 2
2
) 1 u (
1
1 u
1
) 1 u (
u
+
+
=
+

Therefore
675
=
+
+
=
+
=
} } }
du
) 1 u (
1
2 du
1 u
1
2 dx
2 x
1 x
I
2 2 2

= +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
= C u arctan
2
1
1 u
u
2
1
2 u arctan 2
2

= +
+
+

+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
= +
+
= C
1
2 x
1 x
2 x
1 x
2 x
1 x
arctan C
1 u
u
u arctan
2

= +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
= C
2 x
1 x 2
2 x
1 x
2 x
1 x
arctan
= +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
= C
1 x 2
2 x
1 x
) 2 x (
2 x
1 x
arctan
= +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
= C
1 x 2
) 1 x )( 2 x (
2 x
1 x
arctan
C
1 x 2
2 x x
2 x
1 x
arctan
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
}

+
= dx
x 1
x 1
I
Solution. We have the obvious identity
2
x 1
x 1
x 1
x 1
+
=
+
. Therefore
} } } }

+
+
=
+
= dx
x 1
x
dx
x 1
1
dx
x 1
x 1
dx
x 1
x 1
I
2 2 2

C x 1 x arcsin
2
+ =
We thus see from the above example that under some circumstances the evaluation
of integrals can be simplified considerably using some obvious identities.
676
11.4 Fourth Category. Integrals of the form
dx
d cx
b ax
, x R J
n
}
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=
In this case we put u
d cx
b ax
n
=
+
+
. Therefore
n
u
d x c
b x a
=
+
+
. We have further
+ = + =
+
+
) d x c ( u b x a u
d x c
b x a
n n

n
n
u c a
b u d
x

=
From the last equation we calculate the differential
du
) u c a (
u
) bc ad ( n dx
2 n
1 n

=

du
) u c a (
u
u ,
u c a
b u d
R ) bc ad ( n J
2 n
1 n
n
n

|
|
.
|
\
|

=

}

which is evaluated using the methods of integration for rational functions.
1 x
1 x
J
3
}
+
=
Solution. Set u
1 x
1 x
3
=
+
. We then have
3
u
1 x
1 x
=
+
which is equivalent to the

equation
+ = + = + = 1 u x u x u x u 1 x ) 1 x ( u 1 x
3 3 3 3 3

1 u x ) u 1 (
3 3
+ =
from which, solving with respect to x we get

1 u
1 u
x
3
3
+
= (1)
677
from The previous equation we get by differentiation
du
) 1 u (
u 6
dx
2 3
2
=
The integral therefore becomes

} } }
=
=
+
= du
) 1 u (
u 6
du
) 1 u (
u 6
u dx
1 x 2
1 x
J
2 3
3
2 3
2
3


2 2 2 2 2 3
3
) 1 u u (
1 u
2
1 u u
3 u
3
2
) 1 u (
1
3
2
1 u
1
3
2
) 1 u (
u 6
+ +
+
+
+ +
+

(Another method is using Ostrogradskys Algorithm, 6.10).
Since
| 1 u | ln
1 u
du
=
}
,
1 u
1
) 1 u (
du
2

=
}

|
.
|
\
| +
+ + + =
+ +
+
}
3
1 u 2
arctan
3
3 5
) 1 u u ln(
2
1
du
1 u u
3 u
2
2

|
.
|
\
| +
+
+ +
=
+ +
+
}
3
1 u 2
arctan
9
3 2
) 1 u u ( 3
1 u
du
) 1 u u (
1 u
2 2 2

we find that
+ +
}
) 1 u u ln(
3
1
1 u
1
3
2
| 1 u | ln
3
2
du
) 1 u (
u 6
2
2 3
3

C
1 u u
1 u
3
2
3
1 u 2
arctan
3
3 2
2
+
+ +
+ |
.
|
\
| +

We then have to substitute u by
3
1 x
1 x
+
.
11.5 Fifth Category
}
+ + = dx ) d x c , b x a , x ( R I .
678
This is a rather difficult case, since we have to introduce a substitution, which
would convert the first-degree polynomials (under the square roots)
simultaneously into perfect squares.
First Method. In this case we try to convert both square roots into rational
expressions. We suppose there are functions ) t ( X X and ) t ( Y Y for which

2
X b ax = + (1)

2
Y d x c = + (2)
We eliminate x between equations (1) and (2), by multiplying equation (1) by c
and equation (2) by a and then adding the resulting expressions. The equation we
obtain is

2 2
aY X c ad bc + = +
ad bc aY X c
2 2
= (3)
Let d a c b D . Equation (3) then can be written as
= = 1 Y
D
a
X
D
c
D aY X c
2 2 2 2

1 Y
D
a
X
D
c
2 2
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|

or
1 Y
~
X
~
2 2
= (4)
where X
D
c
X
~
= and X
D
a
Y
~
= . We do not care about the signs of the
quantities under the square roots, as it will be apparent later on.
Equation (4) can be factorized to give
1 ) Y
~
X
~
( ) Y
~
X
~
( = + (5)
Putting
679
t Y
~
X
~
= + (6)
we obtain from (6) that

t
1
Y
~
X
~
= (7)
Solving the simultaneous equations (6) and (7) we obtain

t
1
t X
~
2 + = and
t
1
t Y
~
2 = (8)
Going back to the original variables X and Y we get

|
.
|
\
|
+ =
t
1
t
c
D
X 2 and
|
.
|
\
|
=
t
1
t
a
D
Y 2
Therefore

2
2
t
1
t
c
D
X 4
|
.
|
\
|
+ = (9)

2
2
t
1
t
a
D
Y 4
|
.
|
\
|
= (10)
From (1) and (2) we get

a
b
X
a
1
x
2
= and
c
d
Y
c
1
x
2
=
or using (9) and (10),

a
b 4
t
1
t
c a
D
x 4
2
|
.
|
\
|
+ = and
c
d 4
t
1
t
c a
D
x 4
2
|
.
|
\
|
=
Adding the previous two equations we get

c
d 4
a
b 4
t
1
t
t
1
t
c a
D
x 8
2 2

|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ =

)
`
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = ) ad bc ( 2
t
1
t D
ac 4
1
x
2
2
(11)
This is the required transformation.
680
Note. A similar transformation, i.e.

2 2
t
1
t
c
d
t
1
t
a
b
x 4
|
.
|
\
|

|
.
|
\
|
+ =
is given by Hardy ([9], 141, Examples XLIX.13, p.260).
2 x 1
1 x 2 1
I
}
+
+
=
Solution. In our case we have 1 b , 2 a = = and 2 d , 1 c = = .
Therefore (11) gives us the transformation ( 5 ad bc D = )

)
`
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = 6
t
1
t 5
8
1
x
2
2

Under the above transformation we get

2
t
1
t
4
5
1 x 2
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + and
2
t
1
t
8
5
2 x
|
.
|
\
|
=
Since dt
t
1
t
4
5
dx
3
|
|
.
|
\
|
dt
t
1
t
4
5
t
1
t
4
10
1
t
1
t
2
5
1
dx
2 x 1
1 x 2 1
I
3
|
|
.
|
\
|

|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+
+
=
} }

or
dt
t
1
t
5 t 10 2 t 5
10 t 5 2 t 5
4
2 5
3 2
2
|
|
.
|
\
|

+
+
}

We thus have succeeded in converting the integrand into a rational function.
The last integral can be evaluated in principle. However because of the radicals
involved the rest of the calculations are rather tedious and we omit the details.
The final result is
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

+ =
5
) 2 x ( 2
h arcsin
2
2 9
2 x 3 x 2 2 x 2 1 x 2 2 I
2

681
C ) ) 1 x 2 ( 7 2 x 2 5 ( ln 7 2 ) 2 x 1 ln( ) 1 7 ( 2 + + + + +
where | 1 x x | ln ) x ( h arcsin
2
+ + = .
Second Method. Under a linear transformation
+ = y x (1)
we have
b a y ) a ( b ax b ) y ( a b ax + + = + + + = + (2)
and
d c y ) c ( d x c d ) y ( c d x c + + = + + + = + (3)
We choose and such that
a 2 b a = + and c 2 d c = + (4)
For this choice of and we convert b ax + and d cx+ to
) 2 y ( a b x a + = + and ) 2 y ( c d x c = + (5)
The system (4) is equivalent to

= +
=
= +
=
c
d
2
a
b
2
d c 2 c
b a 2 a
(6)
Solving with respect to and we find

|
.
|
\
|
=
c
d
a
b
4
1
and
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
c
d
a
b
2
1
(7)
After converting b x a + and d x c + to relations (5), we use the substitution

2
2
t
1
t y + = or
2
2
t
1
t y =
3 x 2 3 2
1 x 3 1
I
}
+
+
=
Solution. Using the previous analysis and identifying
1 x 3 b ax = + and 3 x 2 d cx + = +
682
we get ) 1 b , 3 a ( = = and ) 3 d , 2 c ( = = .
Using (7) we find
24
11
= and
12
7
= .
Therefore the transformation (1) becomes

12
7
y
24
11
x =
Under the above transformation we get
) 2 y (
8
11
1 x 3 + = and ) 2 y (
12
11
3 x 2 = +

2
2
t
1
t y =
we get

2
t
1
t
8
11
1 x 3
|
.
|
\
|
= and
2
t
1
t
12
11
3 x 2
|
.
|
\
|
+ = +
We also have
dy
24
11
dx = and dt
t
2
t 2 dy
3
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
Therefore
dt
t
1
t
12
11
dx
3
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
The integral takes the form ( 1 t > )
dt
t
t
t
12
11
t
1
t
12
11
2
t
1
t
8
11
1
I
3
|
|
.
|
\
|

|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
}

The previous integral can be written as
dt
t
1
t
) 1 t ( 22 3 t 24 2
) 1 t ( 33 t 24
12
11
I
3 2
2
|
|
.
|
\
|

+
=
}

683
or
dt
t
1
t
3 t b 4 t 3
1 t a 2 t
2
3
12
11
I
3 2
2
|
|
.
|
\
|

+
=
}

where

11
2
a = and
11
3
b =
We thus have succeeded in converting the integrand into a rational function.
The last integral can be evaluated in principle. However because of the radicals
involved, the rest of the calculations are rather tedious and we omit the details.
The final result is
+ + + = 3 x 7 x 6
6
1
1 x 3
9
2
3 x 2
3
1
I
2

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
) 1 x 3 ( 58
3 11 ) 3 x 2 ( 3 2
arctan
27
174

C | ) 1 x 3 ( 6 3 x 2 3 | ln
108
6 25
| 2 3 x 2 3 | ln
9
2
+ + + + +
}
+ +
=
5 x 1 x
dx
I
Solution. Using the substitution 3 u x = , we find 2 u 1 x = + and
2 u 5 x + = + . Therefore

}
+
=
2 u 2 u
du
I
Using now the substitution
2
2
t
1
t u + = we get

2
2
2
t
1
t 2
t
1
t 2 u
|
.
|
\
|
= + = and
2
2
2
t
1
t 2
t
1
t 2 u
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + + = +
Since dt
t
1
t 2 du
3
|
|
.
|
\
|
= , we obtain ( 1 t > )
684
=
|
|
.
|
\
|

|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|

=
}
dt
t
1
t 2
t
1
t
t
1
t
1
I
3

= + =
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
} } }
dt
t
1
dt t dt
t
1
t t
2
2
3

C
t
1
3
t
3
+ =
Third Method.
}
+ + dx ) b x , a x , x ( R , we may proceed as follows:
Under the substitutions u a x = + and v b x = + , i.e.

2
u a x = + and
2
v b x = + ,
we find, by subtracting the two previous equations, that b a v u
2 2
= which is
equivalent to b a ) v u )( v u ( = + .
Under the substitution t v u = , we find
t
b a
v u

= + .
Solving the system

= +
=
t
b a
v u
t v u

we find

|
.
|
\
|

+ =
t
b a
t
2
1
u and
|
.
|
\
|

+ =
t
b a
t
2
1
v .
Therefore
a
t
b a
t
4
1
a u x
2
2

|
.
|
\
|

+ = =
or

+ = ) b a ( 2
t
) b a (
t
4
1
x
2
2
2

685
From the above equation we can find the differential
dt
t
) b a (
t
2
1
dx
3
2

=
}
+ + = dx ) d x c , b x a , x ( R I can always be
reduced to integrals of the form
}
+ + dx ) x , x , x ( R .
5 1 x
2 x 2
I
}

+
=
Solution. Since 2 a = and 1 b = , we try the transformation

|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = 2
t
9
t
4
1
x
2
2
(1)
Therefore

|
.
|
\
|
+ = +
t
3
t
2
1
2 x and
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
t
3
t
2
1
1 x (2)
Since
dt
t
9
t
2
1
dx
3
|
|
.
|
\
|
= (3)
dt
t
9
t
2
1
5
t
3
t
2
1
t
3
t
2
1
2
3
|
|
.
|
\
|

|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
}

dt
t
9
t
3 t 10 t
3 t 4 t
2
1
3 2
2
|
|
.
|
\
|

+
+
}

and can be evaluated to be
+ + +
+
| 3 t 10 t | ln 20 | t | ln 33
t 4
) 1 t 4 ( 9
t 7
2
2

686
C
5 7 2 t
5 7 2 t
ln 7 20 +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
+

The variable t then has to be substituted by 1 x 2 x t + = . This last
equation can be derived by subtracting the two equations appearing in (2).
Important Notice (Fourth Method). Integrals of the form
}
+ + = dx ) d x c , b x a , x ( R I
need not be converted into integrals of a rational function under a single
substitution. Using the substitution
t b x a = +
we get, squaring both members
2
t b x a = + and then solving with respect to x we
find

a
b t
x
2

=
Therefore
B t A
a
c b
d t
a
c
d
a
b t
c d x c
2 2
2
+ = + = +
= +
where

a
c
A = and
a
c b
d B =
Since dt t
a
2
dx = , the integral transforms into

}
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
= dt t B t A , t ,
a
b t
R
a
2
I
2
2

which can be evaluated using some of the methods to appear in next sections (for
example in 11.10.1, Eulers substitutions).

687

11.6 Sixth Category. Integrals of the form
dx
d x c
b x a
, ,
d x c
b x a
,
d x c
b x a
, x R I
k
k
2
2
1
1
q
p
q
p
q
p
}
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=
In this case we put
u
d cx
b ax
n
=
+
+

where
) q , , q , q ( LCM n
k 2 1
=
) q , , q , q ( LCM
k 2 1
= the least common multiplier of the denominators.
Therefore we have
+ = + =
+
+
) d x c ( u b x a u
d cx
b ax
n n

1 x
1 x
I
3
}
+
=
Solution. We put u x
6
= . Therefore

2
3
u x = ,
3
u x = ,
6
u x = and du u 6 dx
5
=
The integral takes the form
du
1 u
u u
6 du
1 u
u ) 1 u (
6 du u 6
1 u
1 u
I
2
5 8
2
5 3
5
2
3
} } }
+
=
+
=
+
= (1)
Performing the division
1 u
u u
2
5 8
+
we have
1 u
1 u
1 u u u u u
1 u
u u
2
2 3 4 6
2
5 8
+
+
+ + + =
+

Therefore
688
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+ + + =
}
du
1 u
1 u
1 u u u u u 6 I
2
2 3 4 6

} }
+
+
+ + + = du
1 u
1 u
6 du ) 1 u u u u u ( 6
2
2 3 4 6

du
1 u
1
6 du
1 u
u 2
3 u
2
u
3
u
4
u
5
u
7
u
6
2 2
2 3 4 5 7
} }
+
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + =
C u arctan 6 ) 1 u ln( 3 u
2
u
3
u
4
u
5
u
7
u
6
2
2 3 4 5 7
+ + +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + =
Going back to the original variable x, we get
+ + =
6
6
2
6
3
6
4
6
5
6
7
x 6 x 3 x 2 x
2
3
x
5
6
x
7
6
I
C x arctan 6 ) 1 x ln( 3
6
6
2
+ + +
The previous expression can further be simplified to give
+ + =
6 3
3
2
6
5
6
7
x 6 x 3 x 2 x
2
3
x
5
6
x
7
6
I
C x arctan 6 ) 1 x ln( 3
6 3
+ + +
11.7 Seventh Category. The Chebyshev Substitutions

These substitutions apply to integrals of the form
dx ) x b a ( x I
p
n m
}
+ =
where m, n and p are rational numbers. The expression
p n m
) x b a ( x + is called
differential binomial.
[I] If p is a positive integer, we may expand the binomial
p n
) x b a ( + into a
finite number of terms, using Newtons binomial expansion

k p n k
p
0 k
p n
) x b ( a
k
p
) x b a (

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
= +
689
we can convert the integral into a finite sum of elementary integrals.
[2] If
n
1 m+
is integer, no matter if positive or negative, we use the substitution

s n
t x b a = +
where s is the denominator of p:
s
r
p =
[3] If p
n
1 m
+
+
is integer, no matter if positive or negative, we use the
substitution

s n
t b x a = +

s
r
p =
Algorithm (Chebyshev)
Step 1. Identify m, n and p.
Step 2. If p is a positive integer, expand
p n
) x b a ( + using Newtons binomial
expansion

k p n k
p
0 k
p n
) x b ( a
k
p
) x b a (

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
= +
If p is not a positive integer, then
Step 3. Calculate
n
1 m+
or p
n
1 m
+
+

Step 4. If
n
1 m+
is an integer, no matter if positive or negative, we use the
substitution

s n
t x b a = +
s
r
p =
690
Step 5. If p
n
1 m
+
+
substitution

s n
t b x a = +

s
r
p =
Step 6. Express t in terms of x
Step 7. Express x in terms of t.
Step 8. Express the integrand in terms of t
Step 9. Integrate with respect to t.
Step 10. Express the final expression in terms of the original variable x.
) x 2 1 (
x
I
3 2
3
}
+
=
Solution. The integral may be put in the equivalent form
dx ) x 2 1 ( x I
2
3
2 3
}

+ =
3 m = , 2 n = and
2
3
p =
Step 2. Find
n
1 m+
.
We have 2
2
1 3
n
1 m
=
+
=
+
which is an integer.
Step 3. Introduce the substitution

2 2
t x 2 1 = + since 2 s =
Step 4. Determine x in terms of t.
From
2 2
t x 2 1 = + we find 1 t x 2
2 2
= which is equivalent to
2
1 t
x
2
2

=
691
from which we get

2
1
2
2
1 t
x
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
Step 5. Determine t in terms of x.
From
2 2
t x 2 1 = + we find
2
1
2
) x 2 1 ( t + =
Step 6. We determine dx
We get dt
2
1 t
2
t 2
2
1
dx
1
2
1
2

|
|
.
|
\
|

= or dt
2
1 t
t
2
1
dx
2
1
2

|
|
.
|
\
|

=
Step 7. We express the integrand in terms of the variable t.
We find

2
3
2
3
2
1 t
x
|
|
.
|
\
|

= and
3
2
3
2
t ) x 2 1 (

= +
Step 8. Express the integral in terms of t.
We have

} }
=
|
|
.
|
\
|

|
|
.
|
\
|

= + =

dt
2
1 t
t
2
1
t
2
1 t
dx ) x 2 1 ( x I
2
1
2
3
2
3
2
2
3
2 3

} }

=
|
|
.
|
\
|

=

dt
t
1 t
4
1
dt t
2
1 t
2
1
2
2
2
2

We have
= =
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
=
} } } }
dt
t
1
4
1
dt t
4
1
dt
t
1
1
4
1
dt
t
1 t
4
1
I
2 2 2
2

C
t
1 t
4
1
C
t
1
t
4
1
C
t
1
4
1
t
4
1
2
+
+
= +
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + + =
692
Step 10. Express the result in terms of the original variable x.
Since

2 2
x 2 1 t + = and
2
x 2 1 t + =
we get the final expression
C
x 2 1
1 ) x 2 1 (
4
1
dx
) x 2 1 (
x
I
2
2
3 2
3
+
+
+ +
=
+
=
}

or
C
x 2 1 2
x 1
dx
) x 2 1 (
x
I
2
2
3 2
3
+
+
+
=
+
=
}

x 1 x
1
I
3 4
3 3
}
+
=
dx x 1 x I
3
1
4
3
2
3
}

|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
We have

2
3
m = ,
4
3
n = and
3
1
p =
Step 2. Find
n
1 m+
.
We have
3
2
4
3
2
1
4
3
1
2
3
n
1 m
=
=
+
=
+
which is not an integer.
Step 3. Find p
n
1 m
+
+
.
693
We have 1
3
1
3
2
p
n
1 m
= = +
+
Step 4. We introduce the substitution

3
4
3
t 1 x = +

We have
3
4
3
t 1 x = +
from which we get 1 t x

3
4
3
=
and then raising both

members to the
|
.
|
\
|
3
4
power, we get
3
4
3
) 1 t ( x

=
Step 6. Express t in terms of x.
Since
3
4
3
t 1 x = +
, by raising both members to the

|
.
|
\
|
3
1
power, we obtain

3
1
4
3
1 x t
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =

Step 7. Find dx
Since
3
4
3
) 1 t ( x

= , we get dt ) 1 t ( ) t 3 (
3
4
dx
1
3
4
3 2

|
.
|
\
|
= or
dt ) 1 t ( t 4 dx
3
7
3 2

=
Step 8. Express the integrand in terms of t.
Since
3
4
3
) 1 t ( x

= , we find by raising both members to the power |
.
|
\
|
2
3

2 3
2
3
) 1 t ( x =
.
694
From
3
4
3
) 1 t ( x

= we get
1 3
4
3
) 1 t ( x

= . Therefore
1 t
t
1 t
1
1 x 1
3
3
3
4
3
+ = + from which we have

3
1
3 1
3
1
4
3
) 1 t ( t x 1 =
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+

We have
=
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
}

dx x 1 x I
3
1
4
3
2
3

dt ) 1 t ( t 4 ) 1 t ( t ) 1 t (
3
7
3 2
3
1
3 1 2 3
}
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

C t 2 dt t 4
2
+ = =
}

Since
3
1
4
3
1 x t
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =

we find
3
2
4
3
3
2
4
3
2
1 x 1 x t
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =

Therefore
C 1 x 2 dx x 1 x I
3
2
4
3
3
1
4
3
2
3
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =

}

x
x 1
I
3 4
}
+
=
695
dx x 1 x I
3
1
4
1
2
1
}
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =


2
1
m = ,
4
1
n = and
3
1
p =
Step 2. Find
n
1 m+
. We have 2
4
1
1
2
1
n
1 m
=
+
=
+
3
4
t x 1 = + since 2 s =
Step 4. Determine x in terms of t. From
3
4
t x 1 = + we find 1 t x
3
4
= from
which we get
4 3
) 1 t ( x =
Step 5. Determine t in terms of x. From
3
4
t x 1 = + , we find
3
1
4
) x 1 ( t + =
Step 6. We determine dx. We obtain dt ) 1 t ( t 12 dx
3 3 2
=
We have
2 3
2
1
) 1 t ( x

= and t x 1
3
1
4
1
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
We have
= =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
} }

dt ) 1 t ( t 12 t ) 1 t ( dx x 1 x I
3 3 2 2 3
3
1
4
1
2
1

dt ) 1 t ( t 12
3 3
=
}

We have
696
C
4
t
7
t
12 dt ) t t ( 12 dt ) 1 t ( t 12 I
4 7
3 6 3 3
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
= = =
} }

Since
3
1
4
) x 1 ( t + = we have
3
7
4
7
) x 1 ( t + = and
3
4
4
4
) x 1 ( t + =
Therefore we get the final expression for the value of the integral
C 3 ) x 1 (
7
12
) x 1 ( dx
x
x 1
I
4
3
4
4
3 4
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ + =
+
=
}

or
C ) 3 x 4 ( ) x 1 (
7
3
dx
x
x 1
I
4
3
4
4
3 4
+ + =
+
=
}

x 1 x
dx
I
3
5
}
+
=
dx ) x 1 ( x I
3
1
5 1
}

+ =
1 m = , 5 n = and
3
1
p =
Step 2. Find
n
1 m+
. We have 0
5
0
n
1 m
= =
+
3 5
t x 1 = + since 3 s =
Step 4. Determine x in terms of t. From
3 5
t x 1 = + we find 1 t x
3 5
= from
which we get
5
1
3
) 1 t ( x =
Step 5. Determine t in terms of x. From
3 5
t x 1 = + , we find
3
1
5
) x 1 ( t + =
697
Step 6. We determine dx. We obtain dt ) 1 t ( t 3
5
1
dx
5
4
3 2

=
We have
5 / 1 3 1
) 1 t ( x

= and
1
3
1
5
t ) x 1 (

= +
We have
= = + =

} }
dt ) 1 t ( t
5
3
t ) 1 t ( dx ) x 1 ( x I
5
4
3 2 1
5
1
3
3
1
5 1

dt
1 t
t
5
3
3
}

=
We have
C
3
1 t 2
arctan
3
3
1 t t
) 1 t (
ln
6
1
5
3
dt
1 t
t
5
3
I
2
2
3
+
|
.
|
\
| +
+
+ +
=
}

Since
3
1
5
) x 1 ( t + = we have
3
2
5 2
) x 1 ( t + =
Therefore we get the final expression for the value of the integral
+
+ + + +
+ + +
=
+
=
}
1 ) x 1 ( ) x 1 (
1 ) x 1 ( 2 ) x 1 (
ln
10
1
dx
x 1 x
dx
I
3
1
5
3
2
5
3
1
5
3
2
5
3
5

C
3
1 ) x 1 ( 2
arctan
5
3
3
1
5
+
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
+
}
+
=
3
5 3 2
) x 2 ( x
dx
I
698
dx ) x 2 ( x I
3
5
3 2
}

+ =
We have
2 m = , 3 n = and
3
5
p =
Step 2. Find
n
1 m+
.
We have
3
1
3
1 2
n
1 m
=
+
=
+
Step 3. Find p
n
1 m
+
+
.
We have 2
3
5
3
1
p
n
1 m
= = +
+

3 3
t 1 x 2 = +

We have
3 3
t 1 x 2 = +
from which we get 1 t x 2

3 3
=

members to the
|
.
|
\
|
3
1
power, we get
3
1
3
2
1 t
x

|
|
.
|
\
|

=
Since
3 3
t 1 x 2 = +
, by raising both members to the |

.
|
\
|
3
1
power, we obtain

3
1
3
) 1 x 2 ( t + =

Step 7. Find dx
Since
3
1
3
2
1 t
x

|
|
.
|
\
|

= , we get dt
2
1 t
2
t 3
3
1
dx
1
3
1
3 2

|
|
.
|
\
|

|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
= or
699
dt
2
1 t
t
2
1
dx
3
4
3
2

|
|
.
|
\
|

|
.
|
\
|
=
Since
3
1
3
2
1 t
x

|
|
.
|
\
|

= , we find by raising both members to the power ) 2 (
3
2
3
2
2
1 t
x
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
.
From
3
1
3
2
1 t
x

|
|
.
|
\
|

= we get
1
3
3
2
1 t
x

|
|
.
|
\
|

= . Therefore
1 t
t 2
1 t
2
2
2
1 t
2 x 2
3
3
3
1
3
3
+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|

+ = +

from which we have
5
3
5
3
3
5
3
3
3
5
3
t
2
1 t
1 t
t 2
) x 2 (

|
|
.
|
\
|

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
= +
We have
dx ) x 2 ( x I
3
5
3 2
}

+ =
=
|
|
.
|
\
|

|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|

|
|
.
|
\
|

=
}

dt
2
1 t
t
2
1
t
2
1 t
2
1 t
3
4
3
2 5
3
5
3
3
2
3

C
t 2
1
t
4
1
dt
t
1 t
4
1
dt t
2
1 t
2
1
2 3
3
3
3
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
=
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
} }

Since
3
1
3
) 1 x 2 ( t + =

we find
3
2
3 2
) 1 x 2 ( t + =

700
Therefore
C ) 1 x 2 (
2
1
) 1 x 2 (
4
1
) x 2 ( x
dx
I
3
2
3
3
1
3
3
5 3 2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + + =
+
=

}

}
+
=
4
4
x 1
dx
I
dx ) x 1 ( x I
4
1
4 0
}

+ =
We have
0 m = , 4 n = and
4
1
p =
Step 2. Find
n
1 m+
.
We have
4
1
4
1 0
n
1 m
=
+
=
+
Step 3. Find p
n
1 m
+
+
.
We have 0
4
1
4
1
p
n
1 m
= = +
+

4 4
t 1 x = +

We have
4 4
t 1 x = +

4 4
=

members to the
|
.
|
\
|
4
1
power, we get

4
1
4
) 1 t ( x

=
701
Since
4 4
t 1 x = +

|
.
|
\
|
4
1
power, we obtain

4
1
4
) 1 x ( t + =

or
4
1
4 1
) 1 x ( x t + =

Step 7. Find dx
Since
4
1
4
) 1 t ( x

= , we get dt ) 1 t ( ) t 4 (
4
1
dx
1
4
1
4 3

|
.
|
\
|
= or
dt ) 1 t ( t dx
4
5
4 3

=
Since
4
1
4 1
) 1 x ( x t + =

, we find
4
1
4
4
1
4
) 1 t ( t x t ) 1 x (

= = + and then
4
1
4 1
4
1
4
) 1 t ( t ) 1 x ( = +

We have
dx ) x 1 ( x I
4
1
4 0
}

+ =
dt ) 1 t ( t ) 1 t ( t
4
5
4 3
4
1
4 1
}
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

C t arctan
2
1
1 t
1 t
ln
4
1
dt
1 t
t
4
2
+
+
=
=
}

Since
4
1
4 1
) 1 x ( x t + =

, we find
C ) 1 x ( x arctan
2
1
1 ) 1 x ( x
1 ) 1 x ( x
ln
4
1
x 1
dx
I
4
1
4 1
4
1
4 1
4
1
4 1
4
4
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+ +
=
+
=

}

702
or
C
x
) 1 x (
arctan
2
1
x ) 1 x (
x ) 1 x (
ln
4
1
x 1
dx
I
4
1
4
4
1
4
4
1
4
4
4
+
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+ +
=
+
=
}

}
+
=
2 4
x 1 x
dx
I
dx ) x 1 ( x I
2
1
2 4
}

+ =
We have
4 m = , 2 n = and
2
1
p =
Step 2. Find
n
1 m+
.
We have
2
3
2
1 4
n
1 m
=
+
=
+
Step 3. Find p
n
1 m
+
+
.
We have 2
2
1
2
3
p
n
1 m
= = +
+

2 2
t 1 x = +

We have
2 2
t 1 x = +

2 2
=

members to the
|
.
|
\
|
2
1
power, we get
2
1
2
) 1 t ( x

=
703
Since
2 2
t 1 x = +

|
.
|
\
|
2
1
power, we obtain

2
1
2
) 1 x ( t + =

Step 7. Find dx
Since
2
1
2
) 1 t ( x

= , we get dt ) 1 t ( ) t 2 (
2
1
dx
1
2
1
2

|
.
|
\
|
= or
dt ) 1 t ( t dx
2
3
2

=
Since
2
1
2
) 1 t ( x

= , we find by squaring both members,
1 2 2
) 1 t ( x

= and
then
1 2 2
2
2
2
2
) 1 t ( t
1 t
t
1 t
1
1 x 1

=
+ = + , from which we obtain

2
1
2 1
2
1
2
) 1 t ( t ) x 1 ( = +

On the other hand, again from
2
1
2
) 1 t ( x

= , we get
2 2 4
) 1 t ( x =

We have
dx ) x 1 ( x I
2
1
2 4
}

+ =
dt ) 1 t ( t ) 1 t ( t ) 1 t (
2
3
2
2
1
2 1 2 2
}
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

C ) 3 t ( t
3
1
C t
3
t
dt ) 1 t (
2
3
2
+ = + + = =
}

Since
2
1
2
) 1 x ( t + =

we find 1 x t
2 2
+ =

704
Therefore
C ) 2 x ( ) 1 x (
3
1
dx ) x 1 ( x I
2
2
1
2
2
1
2 4
+ + = + =

}

11.7.1 More Examples on Chebyshevs Method
We consider as before the integral
dx ) x b a ( x I
p
n m
}
+ =
where m, n and p are rational numbers.
We make the substitution

n
x t =
We thus have

n
1
t x = ,
n
m
m
t x =
and
dt t
n
1
dx
1
n
1
=
= + = +
} }

+
dt ) t b a ( t
n
1
dt t
n
1
) t b a ( t
p
1
n
1 m
1
n
1
p
n
m

dt ) t b a ( t
n
1
p q
}
+ =
where 1
n
1 m
q
+
= .
We are considering the following cases:
Case I. Suppose that p is an integer (either positive or integer).
Since q is a rational number, we denote it by
s
r
. In this case we make the
substitution
s
u t = .
705
Case II. Suppose that
n
1 m+
is an integer. Then 1
n
1 m
q
+
= is also an integer.
Since p is rational,
p = , we make the substitution
u t b a = + .
Case III. Suppose that p
n
1 m
+
+
is an integer. Then p q p 1
n
1 m
+ = +
+
is also
an integer. Since
p
p q p q
t
t b a
t ) t b a ( t
|
.
|
\
|
+
= +
+
and p rational,
p = , we make
the substitution
u
t
t b a
=
+
.
Example 1. Evaluate the integral dx x 2 1 x I
2
5
2
5
2
}

|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
5
2
x t = , we have
2
5
t x = and dt t
2
5
dx
2
3
= .
dt ) t 2 1 ( t
2
5
dt t
2
5
) t 2 1 ( t
2
2
5
2
3
2
} }

+ = +
According to the Case I above, we make the substitution
2
1
t u = . We then have
2
u t = and du u 2 dt = . The integral takes the form
= + = +
} }

du u 2 ) u 2 1 ( u
2
5
dt ) t 2 1 ( t
2
5
2 2 5 2
2
5

du
) u 2 1 (
u 4
4
5
2 2
6
}
+
=
For the last integral, since
2 2
2
2
2 2
6
) u 2 1 (
1 u 3
1 u
) u 2 1 (
u 4
+
+
+ =
+
,
706
we have to evaluate
du
) u 2 1 (
1 u 3
4
5
du ) 1 u (
4
5
2 2
2
2
} }
+
+
+
We have now
=
+
+
+
+
=
+
+
2 2
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
) u 2 1 (
u
) u 2 1 (
1 u 2
) u 2 1 (
1 u 3

2 2
2
2
) u 2 1 (
u
u 2 1
1
+
+
+
=
We thus have to evaluate
=
+
+
+
} }
du
) u 2 1 (
1 u 3
4
5
du ) 1 u (
4
5
2 2
2
2

=
+
+
+
+ =
} } }
du
) u 2 1 (
u
4
5
du
u 2 1
1
4
5
du ) 1 u (
4
5
2 2
2
2
2

2 1
3
I
4
5
I
4
5
u
3
u
4
5
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
where
du
u 2 1
1
I
2
1 }
+
= du
) u 2 1 (
u
I
2 2
2
2 }
+
=
For the integral
2
I , since du
) u 2 1 (
u 4
u
4
1
I
2 2
2 }
+
= , we use integration by parts.
Using the formula

} }
' = ' du ) u ( g ) u ( f ) u ( g ) u ( f du ) u ( g ) u ( f
and the table
) u ( f ' ) u ( g ) u ( f ) u ( g'

2 2
) u 2 1 (
u 4
+

u

2
u 2 1
1
+

1
707

we get

)
`
+
+
+
=
}
du
u 2 1
1
u 2 1
u
4
1
I
2 2
2

or

1
2
2
I
4
1
u 2 1
u
4
1
I +
+
=
Therefore the integral now becomes

)
`
+
+
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
1
2
1
3
I
4
1
u 2 1
u
4
1
4
5
I
4
5
u
3
u
4
5

or

1
2
3
I
16
25
u 2 1
u
16
5
u
3
u
4
5
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

For the integral
1
I , making the substitution u 2 w = , we find
) u 2 arctan(
2
1
I
1
=
Collecting everything together, we have the following result
C ) u 2 arctan(
2 16
25
u 2 1
u
16
5
u
3
u
4
5
I
2
3
+ +
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
In order to express the result in the original variable, we have to substitute u by
5
1
x .

Maple support:
> f:=x^(2/5)*(1+2*x^(2/5))^(-2);
:= f
x
( ) / 2 5
( ) + 1 2 x
( ) / 2 5
2

> int(f,x);
708
+
5 x
( ) / 3 5
12
5 x
( ) / 1 5
4
5 x
( ) / 1 5
16 ( ) + 1 2 x
( ) / 2 5
25
32
2 ( ) arctan x
( ) / 1 5
2

2
1
5
2
5
3
}
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
5
2
x t = , we have
2
5
t x = ,
2
3
5
3
t x = , and
dt t
2
5
dx
2
3
dt ) t 2 1 ( t
2
5
dt t
2
5
) t 2 1 ( t
2
1
3
2
3
2
1
2
3
} }
+ = +
According to Case II above, we make the substitution
2
u t 2 1 = + from which we
get
2
1 u
t
2

= and du u dt = . The integral then takes the form
= =
|
|
.
|
\
|

} }
du u ) 1 u (
16
5
du u u
2
1 u
2
5
2 3 2
3
2

= + =
}
du u ) 1 u 3 u 3 u (
16
5
2 2 4 6

= + =
}
du ) u u 3 u 3 u (
16
5
2 4 6 8

C
3
u
5
u
3
7
u
3
9
u
16
5
3 5 7 9
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
Since
5
2
2
1
5
2
2
1
x 2 1 x 2 1 ) t 2 1 ( u + =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + = , we can express the above result
in terms of the original variable x.
709
}
=
2
3
2
) x 1 (
dx
I
2
x t = , we have
2
1
t x = and dt t
2
1
dx
2
1
= .
dt ) t 1 ( t
2
1
dt
) t 1 (
t
2
1
I
2
3
2
1
2
3
2
1

=
} }

The exponents are both rational numbers, we write the integral, according to Case
III, as
dt
t
t 1
t
2
1
dt ) t 1 ( t t
2
1
2
3
2
2
3
2
3
2

} }
|
.
|
\
|

=
and consider the substitution
t
t 1
u

= , i.e.
t
t 1
u
2

= from which we get
dt t du u 2
2
= and
2
u 1
1
t
+
C
u
1
du u 2 u
2
1
3
+ =
}

C
x 1
x
C
x 1
x
C
t 1
t
I
2
2
2
+
= +
= +
=
) x 1 (
x
I
2
3
2
2
}
=
710
2
x t = , we have
2
1
t x = and dt t
2
1
dx
2
1
= .
dt ) t 1 ( t
2
1
dt
) t 1 (
t
2
1
t
I
2
3
2
1
2
3
2
1
=
} }

The exponents are both rational numbers, we write the integral, according to Case
III, as
dt ) t 1 (
t 1
t
2
1
dt ) t 1 ( ) t 1 ( t
2
1
1 2
1
1
2
1
2
1

|
.
|
\
|
=
} }

and consider the substitution
t 1
t
u
= , i.e.
t 1
t
u
2
=
from which we get

2
2
u 1
u
t
+
= ,
2
u 1
1
t 1
+
= and du
) u 1 (
u 2
dt
2 2
+
= .
=
+
=
+
+
} }
du
u 1
u
du
) u 1 (
u 2
u ) u 1 (
2
1
2
2
2 2
2

=
+
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
} } }
du
u 1
1
du du
u 1
1
1
2 2

C u arctan u + =
C
x 1
x
arctan
x 1
x
C
t 1
t
arctan
t 1
t
I
2
2
2
2
+
= +
=
or
711
C
x 1
x
arctan
x 1
x
I
2 2
+
=
2
9
5
2
5
2
}

|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
5
2
x t = , we have
2
5
t x = and dt t
2
5
dx
2
3
= .
dt ) t 2 1 ( t
2
5
dt t
2
5
) t 2 1 ( t
2
9
2
5
2
3
2
9
} }

+ = +
We write the integral, according to the Case III above, as
dt
t 2 1
t
t
2
5
dt ) t 2 1 ( t t
2
5
2
9
2
2
9
2
9
2
} }
|
.
|
\
|
+
= +

We consider the substitution u
t 2 1
t 2
1
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
, i.e.
2
u
t 2 1
t
=
+
.
We then have
2
2
u 2 1
u
t
= ,
2 2 1 2
) u 2 1 ( u t =

and du
) u 2 1 (
u 2
dt
2 2
= .
Therefore the integral takes the form expressed in terms of u:
C u
2
1
du u 5 du
) u 2 1 (
u 2
u ) u 2 1 ( u
2
5
10 9
2 2
9 2 2 1
+ = =
} }

Since
5
2
5
2
2
1
5 / 2
5 / 2
2
1
x 2 1
x
x 2 1
x
t 2 1
t
u
+
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
integral expressed in terms of the original variable:
C
) x 2 1 (
x
2
1
C
x 2 1
x
2
1
dx x 2 1 x I
5
5
2
2
5
5
2
5
2 2
9
5
2
5
2
+
+
= +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
}

712
Example 6. Show that the integral
}
+ + dx ) c x b x a ( x
p 2 m
with m positive
integer and p a rational number, can be expressed as a sum of integrals of
differential binomials.
Solution. Since
) x ( a
a 4
D
a 2
b
x a c x b x a
2
2
2
+ + =
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + +
where

a 2
b
= and
a 4
D
=

}
+ + dx ] ) x ( a [ x
p 2 m

Using the substitution x u + = , the last integral becomes

}
+ dx ) u a ( ) u (
p 2 m

The binomial
m
) u ( can be expanded using Newtons binomial expansion

k k m
m
0 k
m
) ( u
k
m
) u (
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

=

Therefore the integral is been converted to a sum of integrals of the form

}
+
dx ) u a ( u
p 2 k m
, m , , 2 , 1 , 0 k =
11.8 Eighth Category. Integrals of the form
dx ) x a , x ( R
2 2
}
+
dx ) x a , x ( R
2 2
}

dx ) a x , x ( R
2 2
}

In this case we use two types of substitutions: Trigonometric and Hyperbolic
functions.
713
Case 1. Integrals of the form dx ) x a , x ( R
2 2
}
+
[1] Trigonometric substitution.
Put t tan a x = . We then have
= + = + = + t tan a a ) t tan a ( a x a
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

t sec a ) t tan 1 ( a
2 2 2 2
= + = ,
t sec a x a
2 2
= +
and dt t sec a dx
2
=
[2] Hyperbolic substitution
Put t sinh a x = . We then have
= + = + = + t sinh a a sinh) a ( a x a
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

t cosh a ) t sinh 1 ( a
2 2 2 2
= + = ,
t cosh a x a
2 2
= +
and t cosh a dx =
4 x
x
2
2
}
+

Solution. Using the substitution t tan 2 x = , we get
dt
t cos
2
dx
2
=
and
= + = + = + 4 t tan 4 4 ) t tan 2 ( 4 x
2 2 2

t cos
1
4 ) 1 t (tan 4
2
2
= + =
Therefore

t cos
2
4 x
2
= +
714
= =
} }
dt
t cos
1
t tan 4 dt
t cos
2
t cos
2
) t tan 2 (
2
2
2

=
= = =
} } }
dt
t cos
t cos 1
4 dt
t cos
t sin
4 dt
t cos
1
t cos
t sin
4
3
2
3
2
2
2

= = =
} } } }
dt
t cos
1
4 dt
t cos
1
4 dt
t cos
t cos
4 dt
t cos
1
4
3 3
2
3

=
(
+ =
} }
dt
t cos
1
4 dt
t cos
1
2
1
t cos 2
t sin
4
2

C | t sec t tan | ln 2
t cos
t sin
2 dt
t cos
1
2
t cos
t sin
2
2 2
+ + = =
}

where we have used the formula (9.9, Case II, Example 1)
dt
t cos
1
2
1
t cos 2
t sin
dt
t cos
1
2 3
} }
+ =
We have now to return to the original variable x. Since
2
x
t tan = , using the
following Figure

we find

4 x
x
t sin
2
+
= ,
4 x
2
t cos
2
+
= and
2
4 x
t sec
2
+
=
Therefore the value of the integral becomes
715
C
2
4 x
2
x
ln 2
4 x
2
4 x
x
2 dx
4 x
x
2
2
2
2
2
2
+
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=
+
}

or
C 4 x x ln 2 4 x x
2
1
dx
4 x
x
2 2
2
2
+ + + + =
+
}

Example 2. Evaluate the integral dx a x I
2 2
}
+ =
Solution.
Method 1. Using the substitution t tan a x = , we have
= + = + = + t tan a a ) t tan a ( a x a
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2
= + = ,
t sec a x a
2 2
= +
and
dt t sec a dx
2
=
Therefore
= = +
} }
dt t sec a ) t sec a ( dx a x
2 2 2

=
|
.
|
\
|
+ = =
} }
dt
t cos
1
2
1
t cos 2
t sin
a dt
t cos
1
a
2
2
3
2
(9.9, Case II, Example 1)
C | t sec t tan | ln
2
a
t cos
t sin
2
a
2
2
2
+ + + =
Since
a
x
t tan = , we have

2 2
a x
x
t sin
+
= and
2 2
a x
a
t cos
+
= , using the previous Figure.
716
= +
+
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
= +
}
C
a
a x
a
x
ln
2
a
a x
a
a x
x
2
a
dx a x
2 2 2
2
2 2
2 2
2
2 2

= + + + + + = C ) a ln a x x ln (
2
a
a x x
2
1
2 2
2
2 2

A a x x ln
2
a
a x x
2
1
2 2
2
2 2
+ + + + + =
where C a ln
2
a
A
2
+ = is another arbitrary constant.
Method 2. Using the substitution t sinh a x = , we have
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2
= + = ,
t cosh a x a
2 2
= +
and t cosh a dx =
= = +
} }
dt t cosh a ) t cosh a ( dx a x
2 2

=
+
= =
} }
dt
2
t 2 cosh 1
a dt t cosh a
2 2 2

C
2
t 2 sinh
2
a
t
2
a
dt t 2 cosh
2
a
dt
2
a
2 2 2 2
+ + = + =
} }

Since t sinh a x = , we have
a
x
t sinh = and then

a
a x
a
x
ln
a
x
sinh t
2 2
1
+
+
|
.
|
\
|
=

,

a
x a
a
x
1 t sinh 1 t cosh
2 2
2
2
+
=
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + =
717
and

2 2
2
2 2
x a x
a
2
a
x a
a
x
2 t cosh t sinh 2 t 2 sinh + =
+
= =
Therefore going back to the original variable, we obtain the following value of the
integral
= +
+
+
+
+ = +
}
C
2
x a x
a
2
2
a
a
a x
a
x
ln
2
a
dx a x
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
2 2

= + + + + + = C x a x
2
1
) a ln | a x x | ln (
2
a
2 2 2 2
2

A x a x
2
1
| a x x | ln
2
a
2 2 2 2
2
+ + + + + =
where C a ln
2
a
A
2
+ = is another arbitrary constant.
Method 3. We set (11.11)
} } }
+
+ + + =
+
+
= +
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
a x
dx
a x ) B Ax ( dx
a x
a x
dx a x (1)
Differentiating the previous identity with respect to x, we get

2 2
2 2 2 2
a x
1
} a x ) B Ax ( {
dx
d
a x
+
+ + + = +
or

2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
a x
1
a x
x
) B x A ( a x A a x
+
+
+
+ + + = +
or, multiplying through by
2 2
a x + , we obtain
+ + + + = + x ) B x A ( ) a x ( A a x
2 2 2 2

+ + + = +
2 2 2 2
a A x B x A 2 a x
Equating the coefficients of the similar powers of x, we obtain from the above
identity the system of equations
718
1 A 2 = , 0 B= and
2 2
a a A = +
The previous system admits the unique solution
2
1
A = , 0 B= and
2
a
2
= .
Therefore identity (1) becomes
=
+
+ + = +
} }
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
a x
dx
2
a
a x x
2
1
dx a x
C | a x x | ln
2
a
a x x
2
1
2 2
2
2 2
+ + + + + =
Method 4. Integration by parts. Using the formula

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'
1

2 2
a x +
x

2 2
a x
x
+
we have
=
+
+ = + =
} }
dx
a x
x
a x x dx a x I
2 2
2
2 2 2 2

=
+
+
+ =
}
dx
a x
a ) a x (
a x x
2 2
2 2 2
2 2

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
+ =
}
dx
a x
a
a x
a x
a x x
2 2
2
2 2
2 2
2 2

dx
a x
a
dx a x a x x
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
} }
+
+ + + =
or
dx
a x
a
I a x x I
2 2
2
2 2
}
+
+ + =
Solving with respect to I, we get
719
=
+
+ + =
}
2 2
2
2 2
a x
dx
2
a
a x x
2
1
I
C | a x x | ln
2
a
a x x
2
1
2 2
2
2 2
+ + + + + =
Method 5. Using the substitution u a x = , we get 1 u a a x
2 2 2
+ = + and
du a dx = . Therefore the integral becomes
du 1 u a du a 1 u a dx a x
2 2 2 2 2
} } }
+ = + = +
|
.
|
\
|
=
t
1
t
2
1
u , 0 t > we obtain (11.8.1, [I])

|
.
|
\
|
+ = +
t
1
t
2
1
1 u
2
, dt
t
1
1
2
1
du
2
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
=
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ = +
} }
dt
t
1
1
2
1
t
1
t
2
1
a du 1 u a
2
2 2 2

C
t 2
1
| t | ln 2
2
t
4
a
dt
t
1
t
2
t
4
a
2
2 2
3
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
|
.
|
\
|
+ + =
}

or
= + +
|
.
|
\
|
= +
}
C | t | ln
4
a
t
1
t
8
a
du 1 u a
2
2
2
2
2 2

C | t | ln
2
a
t
1
t
t
1
t
8
a
2 2
+ +
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
Since
a
a x
a
x
1 u u t
2 2
2
+
+ = + + = ,

a
x
2
t
1
t =
|
.
|
\
|

a
a x
2 1 u 2
t
1
t
2 2
2
+
= + =
|
.
|
\
|
+
720
going back to the original variable, we obtain the value of the integral
C
a
a x
a
x
ln
2
a
a
a x
2
a
x
2
8
a
dx a x
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2
+
+
+ +
+
= +
}

or
A | a x x | ln
2
a
a x x
2
1
dx a x
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
+ + + + + = +
}

where A is another constant defined by
a ln
2
a
C A
2
=
Case 2. Integrals of the form dx ) x a , x ( R
2 2
}

Put t cos a x = . We then have
= = = t cos a a ) t cos a ( a x a
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

t sin a ) t cos 1 ( a
2 2 2 2
= = ,
t sin a x a
2 2
=
and dt t sin a dx =
Put t tanh a x = . We then have
= = = t tanh a a ) t tanh a ( a x a
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

t h sec a ) t tanh 1 ( a
2 2 2 2
= = ,
ht sec a x a
2 2
=
and dt t h sec a dx
2
=
x 25
x
2
2
}

t cos 5 x =
721
we find
= = = t cos 25 25 ) t cos 5 ( 25 x 25
2 2 2

t sin 25 ) t cos 1 ( 25
2 2
= =
from which there follows
t sin 5 x 25
2
=
We also have dt t sin 5 dx =
= =
} }
dt t cos 25 dt ) t sin 5 (
t sin 5
) t cos 5 (
2
2

= + =
+
=
} }
dt ) t 2 cos 1 (
2
25
dt
2
t 2 cos 1
25
C
2
t 2 sin
2
25
t
2
25
dt t 2 cos
2
25
dt
2
25
+ = =
} }

We have now to express the result of the integration in terms of the original
variable x. Since

5
x
t cos =
we find by inverting the function

|
.
|
\
|
=
5
x
arccos t
and using the next Figure

we have
5
x 25
t sin
2
= and
5
x
t cos =
Therefore
722
2
2
x 25 x
25
2
5
x
5
x 25
2 t cos t sin 2 t 2 sin =
= =
The value of the integral is
C x 25 x
2
1
5
x
arccos
2
25
dx
x 25
x
2
2
2
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
}

Example 2. Evaluate the integral dx x a I
2 2
}
=
Solution.
Method 1. Put t cos a x = . We then have
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2
= = ,
t sin a x a
2 2
=
and
dt t sin a dx =
= =
} }
dt ) t sin a ( ) t sin a ( dx x a
2 2

=
= =
} }
dt
2
t 2 cos 1
a dt ) t (sin a
2 2 2

C
2
t 2 sin
2
a
t
2
a
dt t 2 cos
2
a
dt
2
a
2 2 2 2
+ + = + =
} }

Since
a
x
t cos = , we find

a
x a
t cos 1 t sin
2 2
2

= =

2
2 2
2 2
a
x a x
a
x
a
x a
t cos t sin
2
t 2 sin

=
= =

|
.
|
\
|
t
=
|
.
|
\
|
=
a
x
arcsin
2 a
x
arccos t
723
Going back to the
C
a
x a x
2
a
a
x
arcsin
2 2
a
dx x a
2
2 2
2 2
2 2
+
+
)
`
|
.
|
\
|
t
=
}

or
A x a x
2
1
a
x
arcsin
2
a
dx x a
2 2
2
2 2
+ +
|
.
|
\
|
=
}

C
2 2
a
A
2
+
t
=
Method 2. Put t tanh a x = . We then have
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2
= = ,
ht sec a x a
2 2
=
and
dt t h sec a dx
2
=
dt t h sec a dt t h sec a ) ht sec a ( dx x a
3 2 2 2 2
} } }
= =
We also have (10, Example 8)
) e arctan(
t cosh 2
t sinh
t cosh
dt
dt t h sec
t
2 3
3
+ = =
} }

and

2 2
2
2 2
2
x a
a
a
x
1
1
t tanh 1
1
t cosh
=
|
.
|
\
|
=

2 2
2
x a
x
1 t cosh t sinh
= =

2 2
t
x a
x a
e
+
=
724
We remark that
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
2 2
t
x a
x a
arctan ) e arctan( . Introducing the function
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
2 2
x a
x a
arctan ) x ( g , we find
2 2
x a 2
1
) x ( g
= ' and since

2 2
x a
1
a
x
arcsin
dx
d
=
|
.
|
\
|
, the functions ) x ( g and
|
.
|
\
|
a
x
arcsin
2
1
will differ by a
constant. In other words, C
a
x
arcsin
2
1
x a
x a
arctan
2 2
=
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
.
Therefore going back to the original variable, we find the following value of the
integral

+
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
}
C
a
x
arcsin
2
1
x a
a
2
x a
x
a dx x a
2 2
2
2 2
2 2 2

or
A
a
x
arcsin
2
a
x a x
2
1
dx x a
2
2 2 2 2
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
}

Note. In proving the relation
2 2
t
x a
x a
e
+
= we have used the following series of
equivalent relations

+
= =
+
=
+
x a
x a
e
a
x
1 e
1 e
a
x
e e
e e
a
x
t tanh
t 2
t 2
t 2
t t
t t

2 2
t
2 2
2
t 2 t 2
x a
x a
e
x a
) x a (
e
x a
x a
e
+
=
+
=
+
=
} } }

+ + =
=
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
x a
dx
x a ) B x A ( dx
x a
x a
dx x a (1)
725

2 2
2 2 2 2
x a
1
} x a ) B x A ( {
dx
d
x a
+ + =
or

2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
x a
1
x a
x
) B x A ( x a A x a
+ =
2 2
x a , we obtain
+ + = x ) B x A ( ) x a ( A x a
2 2 2 2

+ + =
2 2 2 2
a A x B x A 2 x a
1 A 2 = , 0 B= and
2 2
a a A = +
2
1
A = , 0 B= and
2
a
2
= .

} }

+ =
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
x a
dx
2
a
x a x
2
1
dx x a
C
a
x
arcsin
2
a
x a x
2
1
2
2 2
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ =

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'
1

2 2
x a

x

2 2
x a
x

we have
726
=
+ = =
} }
dx
x a
x
x a x dx x a I
2 2
2
2 2 2 2

=

=
}
dx
x a
a ) x a (
x a x
2 2
2 2 2
2 2

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
}
dx
x a
a
x a
x a
x a x
2 2
2
2 2
2 2
2 2

dx
x a
a
dx x a x a x
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
} }

+ =
or
dx
x a
a
I x a x I
2 2
2
2 2
}

+ =
=
+ =
}
2 2
2
2 2
x a
dx
2
a
x a x
2
1
I
C
a
x
arcsin
2
a
x a x
2
1
2
2 2
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
Method 5. Using the substitution u a x = , the integral transforms to
du u 1 a dx x a
2 2 2 2
} }
=
We use the substitution (11.8.1, [III])

2
t 1
t 2
u
+
= , 1 t 1 < <
The above expression can be inverted and solved with respect to u.
In fact we find

u
u 1 1
t
2

= , 1 u 1 < <
We can express
2
u 1 in terms of t. We find

2
2
2
t 1
t 1
u 1
+
=
727
We also have
dt
) t 1 (
) t 1 ( 2
du
2 2
2
+
=
We then obtain
=
+
=
} }
dt
) t 1 (
) t 1 ( 2
t 1
t 1
a du u 1 a
2 2
2
2
2
2 2 2

dt
) t 1 (
) t 1 (
a 2
3 2
2 2
2
}
+
=

2 3 2 2 2 3 2
2 2
t 1
1
) t 1 (
4
) t 1 (
4
) t 1 (
) t 1 (
+
+
+
+
+
=
+

Using the reduction formula (6.7)

1 n 2 2 2
1 n
2
n
) a x (
x
a ) 1 n ( 2
1
I
a ) 1 n ( 2
3 n 2
I

+
+
=

}
+
=
n 2 2 n
) a x (
dx
I , 2 n >
we find

)
`
+
+
+
+
+
=
+
} } } }
dt
t 1
1
dt
) t 1 (
4
dt
) t 1 (
4
a 2 dt
) t 1 (
) t 1 (
a 2
2 3 2 2 2
2
3 2
2 2
2

= + + = ) I I 4 I 4 ( a 2
1 3 2
2

=
)
`
+
+
+
=
2 2 2 1
2
) t 1 (
t 2
t 1
t
I a

2
2
2
2
2
t 1
t 1
t 1
t 2
2
a
t arctan a
+
+
+ =
We now have

a
x
u
t 1
t 2
2
= =
+
,
a
x a
u 1
t 1
t 1
2 2
2
2
2
= =
+

On the other hand, since
x
x a a
u
u 1 1
t
2 2 2

=

= , we have
728
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
x
x a a
arctan t arctan
2 2
. Denoting by
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
x
x a a
arctan ) x ( g
2 2
,
we find
2 2
x a 2
1
) x ( g
= ' and since

2 2
x a
1
a
x
arcsin
dx
d
=
|
.
|
\
|
, the functions
) x ( g and
|
.
|
\
|
a
x
arcsin
2
1
will differ by a constant:
C
a
x
arcsin
2
1
x
x a a
arctan
2 2
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|

Taking all these into account, we can now express the value of the integral in
terms of the variable x:
=
}
dx x a
2 2

C
a
x a
a
x
2
a
a
x
arcsin
2
1
a
2 2 2
2
+
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
or
C x a x
2
1
a
x
arcsin
2
a
dx x a
2 2
2
2 2
+ +
|
.
|
\
|
=
}

Note. Using the reduction formulas, we have found

2 1 2 2 2
t 1
t
2
1
I
2
1
) t 1 (
dt
I
+
+ =
+
=
}

2 2 2 1 3 2 3
) t 1 (
t
4
1
t 1
t
8
3
I
8
3
) t 1 (
dt
I
+
+
+
+ =
+
=
}

where
t arctan
t 1
dt
I
2 1
=
+
=
}

Case 3. Integrals of the form dx ) a x , x ( R
2 2
}

Put t sec a x = . We then have
729
= = =
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
a t sec a a ) t sec a ( a x
t tan a ) 1 t (sec a
2 2 2 2
= = ,
t tan a a x
2 2
=
and dt t sec t sin a dx
2
=
Put t cosh a x = . We then have
= = =
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
a t cosh a a ) h cosh a ( a x
t sinh a ) 1 t (cosh a
2 2 2 2
= = ,
t sinh a a x
2 2
=
and dt t sinh a dx =
25 x
x
2
3
}


t cos
5
x =
we have
= =
|
.
|
\
|
= 25
t cos
25
25
t cos
5
25 x
2
2
2

t tan 25 1
t cos
1
25
2
2
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
from which we get
t tan 5 25 x
2
=
We also have
dt
t cos
t sin 5
dx
2
=
730
= =
|
.
|
\
|
} }
dt
t cos
t sin 5
t tan 5
t cos
125
dt
t cos
t sin 5
t tan 5
t cos
5
2
3
2
3

= = =
} }
dt
t cos
t sin
t cos
t cos
t sin
1
125 dt
t cos
t sin
t cos t tan
1
125
2
3
2 3

= = =
} }
dt
t cos
1
t cos
1
125 dt
t cos
1
125
2 2 4

dt
t cos
1
) t tan 1 ( 125
2
2
}
+ =
Using the substitution t tan u = , dt
t cos
1
du
2
= , we find that the last integral is
been transformed to
= + = +
} } }
du u 125 du 125 du ) u 1 ( 125
2 2

C t tan
3
125
t tan 125 C
3
u
125 u 125
3
3
+ + = + + =
Since

x
5
t cos =
we find, using the next Figure,

that

5
25 x
t tan
2

=
Therefore the value of the integral, expressed in the original variable x is given by
731
C
5
25 x
3
125
5
25 x
125 dx
25 x
x
3
2 2
2
3
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

+
}

or
C 25 x ) 25 x (
3
1
25 x 25 dx
25 x
x
2 2 2
2
3
+ + =
}

Example 2. Evaluate the integral dx a x I
2 2
}
=
Solution.
Method 1. Put t sec a x = . We then have
= = =
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
= = ,
t tan a a x
2 2
=
and
dt t sec t sin a dx
2
=
= =
} }
dt
t cos
t sin
a dt ) t sec t sin a ( ) t tan a (
3
2
2 2

= =
=
} } }
dt
t cos
1
a dt
t cos
1
a dt
t cos
t cos 1
a
2
3
2
3
2
2

dt
t cos
1
a dt
t cos
1
2
1
t cos 2
t sin
a
2
2
2
} }

|
.
|
\
|
+ = (9.9, Case II, Example 1)
2
a
t cos
t sin
2
a
dt
t cos
1
2
a
t cos
t sin
2
a
2
2
2 2
2
2
+ + = =
}

Since
x
a
t cos = and
x
a x
t sin
2 2
= ,
a
a x
t tan
2 2
= , going back to the

original variable, we find the value of the integral
C
a
x
a
a x
ln
2
a
a x x
2
1
dx a x
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
+ +
=
}

732
or
A | x a x | ln
2
a
a x x
2
1
dx a x
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
+ + =
}

where
a ln
2
a
C A
2
+ =
Method 2. Put t cosh a x = . We then have
= = =
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
= = ,
t sinh a a x
2 2
=
and
dt t sinh a dx =
= =
} }
dt t sinh a dt ) t sinh a ( ) t sinh a (
2 2

= =
=
} } }
dt
2
a
dt t 2 cosh
2
a
dt
2
1 t 2 cosh
a
2 2
2

C t
2
a
2
t 2 sinh
2
a
2 2
+ =
We now have

a
x
t cosh = ,
a
a x
1 t cosh t sinh
2 2
2

= =
and

2
2 2
a
a x x 2
t cosh t sinh 2 t 2 sinh

= =
We also get that
a ln | a x x | ln
a
a x
a
x
ln
a
x
cosh t
2 2
2 2
1
+ =
+ = =

Therefore going back to the original variable, we obtain the value of the integral:
733
A | a x x | ln
2
a
a x x
2
1
dx a x I
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
+ + = =
}

where a ln
2
a
C A
2
+ = .
} } }

+ + =
=
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
a x
dx
a x ) B Ax ( dx
a x
a x
dx a x (1)

2 2
2 2 2 2
a x
1
} a x ) B Ax ( {
dx
d
a x
+ + =
or

2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
a x
1
a x
x
) B x A ( a x A a x
+ + + =
2 2
a x , we obtain
+ + + = x ) B x A ( ) a x ( A a x
2 2 2 2

+ + =
2 2 2 2
a A x B x A 2 a x
1 A 2 = , 0 B= and
2 2
a a A = +
2
1
A = , 0 B= and
2
a
2
= .
=
=
} }
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
a x
dx
2
a
a x x
2
1
dx a x
C | a x x | ln
2
a
a x x
2
1
2 2
2
2 2
+ + =
734

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'
1

2 2
a x
x

2 2
a x
x

we have
=
= =
} }
dx
a x
x
a x x dx a x I
2 2
2
2 2 2 2

=
+
=
}
dx
a x
a ) a x (
a x x
2 2
2 2 2
2 2

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
}
dx
a x
a
a x
a x
a x x
2 2
2
2 2
2 2
2 2

dx
a x
a
dx a x a x x
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
} }

=
or
dx
a x
a
I a x x I
2 2
2
2 2
}

=
=
=
}
2 2
2
2 2
a x
dx
2
a
a x x
2
1
I
C | a x x | ln
2
a
a x x
2
1
2 2
2
2 2
+ + =
Method 5. Using the substitution u a x = , the integral transforms to
du 1 u a dx a x
2 2 2 2
} }
=
We use the substitution (11.8.1, [II])

|
.
|
\
|
+ =
t
1
t
2
1
u , 1 t >
The above expression can be inverted and solved with respect to x.
In fact we find
735
1 u u t
2
+ =
We can express 1 u
2
in terms of t. We find

|
.
|
\
|
=
t
1
t
2
1
1 u
2

We also have the following expression for the differential
dt
t
1
1
2
1
du
2
|
.
|
\
|
=
Therefore we get
=
|
.
|
\
|

|
.
|
\
|
=
} }
dt
t
1
1
2
1
t
1
t
2
1
a du 1 u a
2
2 2 2

C
t 2
1
| t | ln 2
2
t
4
a
dt
t
1
t
2
t
4
a
2
2 2
3
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
}

or
C | t | ln
2
a
t
1
t
8
a
du 1 u a
2
2
2
2
2 2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
}

C | t | ln
2
a
t
1
t
t
1
t
8
a
2 2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
Since
a
x a
a
x
1 u u t
2 2
2

+ = + = ,
a
x a
2 1 u 2
t
1
t
2 2
2

= =
|
.
|
\
|

and
a
x
2 u 2
t
1
t = =
|
.
|
\
|
+ ,
going back to the original variable, we obtain the value of the integral
=
}
du a x
2 2

736
C
a
x a
a
x
ln
2
a
a
x
2
a
x a
2
8
a
2 2 2 2 2 2
+
=
or
A | x a x | ln
2
a
x a x
2
1
du a x
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
+ + =
}

a ln
2
a
C A
2
+ =

737
11.8.1 Further Substitutions

[I] For integrals of the form dx ) 1 x , x ( R
2
}
+ we use the substitution

|
.
|
\
|
=
t
1
t
2
1
x , 0 t >
In fact we find
0 1 t x 2 t 1 t xt 2
t
1
t x 2
2 2
= = =
The discriminant of the above quadratic equation is
) 1 x ( 4 4 x 4 ) 1 ( 1 4 ) x 2 ( D
2 2 2
+ = + = =
Therefore, the roots are given by the known formula
1 x x
2
1 x 2 x 2
t
2
2
+ =
+
=
and since 0 t > , we take the positive root:
1 x x t
2
+ + =
We can express 1 x
2
+ in terms of t. We find

|
.
|
\
|
= = +
t
1
t
2
1
t x t 1 x
2


|
.
|
\
|
+ = +
t
1
t
2
1
1 x
2

We also have
dt
t
1
1
2
1
dx
2
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
x
1 x
2
}
+

738
|
.
|
\
|
=
t
1
t
2
1
x , 0 t > and the expressions derived
above,

|
.
|
\
|
+ = +
t
1
t
2
1
1 x
2
, dt
t
1
1
2
1
dx
2
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
=
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|

|
.
|
\
|
+
=
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|

|
.
|
\
|
+
} }
dt
t
1
1
t
1
t
t
1
t
2
1
dt
t
1
1
2
1
t
1
t
2
1
t
1
t
2
1
2 2

=
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=
} }
dt
t
1
1
1 t
2 ) 1 t (
2
1
dt
t
1
1
1 t
1 t
2
1
2 2
2
2 2
2

=
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
}
dt
t
1
1
1 t
2
1
2
1
2 2

dt
t ) 1 t (
2
1 t
2
t
1
1
2
1
2 2 2 2 } |
|
.
|
\
|
+ + = (1)
Using partial fraction decomposition, we obtain

1 t
1
1 t
1
1 t
2
2
+

and

1 t
1
1 t
1
t
2
t ) 1 t (
2
2 2 2
+
+ =

the integral in (1) becomes
=
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
} }
dt
1 t
2
1 t
2
t
1
1
2
1
dt
t ) 1 t (
2
1 t
2
t
1
1
2
1
2 2 2 2 2

=
+
+ =
} } } }
dt
1 t
2
2
1
dt
1 t
2
2
1
dt
t
1
2
1
dt
2
1
2

= + + +
|
.
|
\
|
= C | 1 t | ln 2
2
1
| 1 t | ln 2
2
1
t
1
2
1
t
2
1

739
C
1 t
1 t
ln
t
1
2
1
t
2
1
+
+
+ + =
Going back to the original variable x, using 1 x x t
2
+ + = , we obtain the value of
the integral
+
+ +
+ + + =
+
}
1 x x
1
2
1
) 1 x x (
2
1
dx
x
1 x
2
2
2

C
1 1 x x
1 1 x x
ln
2
2
+
+ + +
+ +
+
[II] For integrals of the form dx ) 1 x , x ( R
2
}

|
.
|
\
|
+ =
t
1
t
2
1
x , 1 t >
In fact we find
0 1 t x 2 t 1 t xt 2
t
1
t x 2
2 2
= + + = + =
) 1 x ( 4 4 x 4 1 1 4 ) x 2 ( D
2 2 2
= = =
1 x x
2
1 x 2 x 2
t
2
2
=

=
and since 1 t > , we take the positive root:
1 x x t
2
+ =
We can express 1 x
2
in terms of t. We find

|
.
|
\
|
+ = =
t
1
t
2
1
t x t 1 x
2


|
.
|
\
|
=
t
1
t
2
1
1 x
2

740
We also have the following expression for the differential
dt
t
1
1
2
1
dx
2
|
.
|
\
|
=
x
1 x
2
}

|
.
|
\
|
+ =
t
1
t
2
1
x , 1 t > and the expressions derived
above,

|
.
|
\
|
=
t
1
t
2
1
1 x
2
, dt
t
1
1
2
1
dx
2
|
.
|
\
|
=
=
|
.
|
\
|

|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|

=
|
.
|
\
|

|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|

} }
dt
t
1
1
t
1
t
t
1
t
2
1
dt
t
1
1
2
1
t
1
t
2
1
t
1
t
2
1
2 2

=
|
.
|
\
|

+
+
=
|
.
|
\
|

+
=
} }
dt
t
1
1
1 t
2 ) 1 t (
2
1
dt
t
1
1
1 t
1 t
2
1
2 2
2
2 2
2

=
|
.
|
\
|

|
.
|
\
|
+
=
}
dt
t
1
1
1 t
2
1
2
1
2 2

dt
t ) 1 t (
2
1 t
2
t
1
1
2
1
2 2 2 2 } |
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
= (1)
Using partial fraction decomposition, we obtain

1 t
1
t
1
t ) 1 t (
1
2 2 2 2
+
=
+

the integral in (1) becomes
=
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+

} }
dt
1 t
4
t
1
1
2
1
dt
t ) 1 t (
2
1 t
2
t
1
1
2
1
2 2 2 2 2 2

=
+
+ =
} } }
dt
1 t
4
2
1
dt
t
1
2
1
dt
2
1
2 2

741
C t arctan 2
t
1
2
1
t
2
1
C t arctan 2
t
1
2
1
t
2
1
+ + = + +
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
Going back to the original variable x, using 1 x x t
2
+ = , we obtain the value of
the integral
+
+
+ =
}
1 x x
1
2
1
) 1 x x (
2
1
dx
x
1 x
2
2
2

C ) 1 x x ( arctan 2
2
+ + +
[III] For integrals of the form dx ) x 1 , x ( R
2
}

2
t 1
t 2
x
+
= , 1 t 1 < <
In fact we find
0 1 t
x
2
t t
x
2
t 1
2 2
= + = +
) x 1 (
x
4
4
x
4
1 1 4
x
2
D
2
2 2
2
= =
|
.
|
\
|
=

x
x 1 1
2
x 1
x
2
x
2
t
2
2

=

=
and since 1 t 1 < < , we take the root:

x
x 1 1
t
2

= , 1 x 1 < <
We can express
2
x 1 in terms of t. We find

2
2
t 1
t 2
t 1 x t 1 x 1
+
= =
742

2
2
2
t 1
t 1
x 1
+
=
We also have
dt
) t 1 (
) t 1 ( 2
dx
2 2
2
+
=
x
x 1
2
}

2
t 1
t 2
x
+
= , 1 t 1 < < and the expressions derived
above,

2
2
2
t 1
t 1
x 1
+
= , dt
) t 1 (
) t 1 ( 2
dx
2 2
2
+
=
dt
) t 1 ( t
) t 1 (
dt
) t 1 (
) t 1 ( 2
t 2
t 1
dt
) t 1 (
) t 1 ( 2
t 1
t 2
t 1
t 1
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2
2
2
2
} } }
+
=
+

=
+
+
+
(1)
Using partial fraction decomposition, we get

t
1
) t 1 (
t 4
) t 1 ( t
) t 1 (
2 2 2 2
2 2
+
+
=
+

The integral in (1) then becomes

C | t | ln
t 1
2
t
dt
dt
) t 1 (
t 4
dt
) t 1 ( t
) t 1 (
2 2 2 2 2
2 2
+ +
+
= +
+
=
+
} } }

Going back to the original variable x, using the substitution
x
x 1 1
t
2

=
the original integral takes the form
C
x
x 1 1
ln
x
x 1 1
1
2
dx
x
x 1
2
2
2
2
+

+
|
|
.
|
\
|

+
=
}

or
743
C
x
x 1 1
ln
) x 1 1 ( x
x 2
dx
x
x 1
2
2 2 2
2 2
+

+
+
=
}

or
C
x
x 1 1
ln
x 1 1
x
dx
x
x 1
2
2
2 2
+

+

=
}

and finally
C
x
x 1 1
ln x 1 1 dx
x
x 1
2
2
2
+

+ + =
}

11.8.2 Further Reduction Formulas
[I] Find a reduction formula for the integral dx 1 x x I
2 1 n
n }
+ =
+

Solution. Using the formula (integration by parts)

} }
and the table

) x ( f ' ) x ( g

) x ( f ) x ( g'
1 x x
2
+
n
x
1 x ) 1 x (
3
1
2 2
+ +
1 n
x n

we have
+ + = + =
}
+
1 x ) 1 x ( x
3
1
dx 1 x x I
2 2 n 2 1 n
n

dx 1 x ) 1 x ( x
3
n
2 2 1 n
+ +
}

or
dx 1 x ) x x (
3
n
1 x ) 1 x ( x
3
1
I
2 1 n 1 n 2 2 n
n
+ + + + =
+
}

or
+ + + =
+
}
dx 1 x x
3
n
1 x ) 1 x ( x
3
1
I
2 1 n 2 2 n
n

744
dx 1 x x
3
n
2 1 n
+

}

2 n n
2 2 n
n
I
3
n
I
3
n
1 x ) 1 x ( x
3
1
I

+ + =
The above integral can be further converted to
2 n
2 2 n
n n
I
3
n
1 x ) 1 x ( x
3
1
I
3
n
I

+ + = +
2 n
2 2 n
n
I
3
n
1 x ) 1 x ( x
3
1
I
3
n
1

+ + =
|
.
|
\
|
+
2 n
2 2 n
n
I
3
n
1 x ) 1 x ( x
3
1
I
3
3 n
+ + =
+

from which we get

2 n
2 2 n
n
I
3 n
n
1 x ) 1 x ( x
3 n
1
I

+
+ +
+
=
Note. The above integral can be expressed in terms of the hypergeometric
function:

|
.
|
\
|
+ +
+
= + =
+
+
}
2
1 2
2 n
2 1 n
n
x ;
2
n
2 ;
2
n
1 ,
2
1
F
2 n
x
dx 1 x x I
[II] Find a reduction formula for the integral dx
1 x
x
J
2
1 n
n }
+
=
+

Solution. Using the Using the formula (integration by parts)

} }
and the table

) x ( f ' ) x ( g

) x ( f ) x ( g'
1 x
x
2
+

n
x
1 x
2
+
1 n
x n

we have
dx 1 x x n 1 x x dx
1 x
x
J
2 1 n 2 n
2
1 n
n
+ + =
+
=

+
} }

745
or

2 n
2 n
n
I n 1 x x J

+ =
Note. The above integral can be expressed in terms of the hypergeometric
function:

|
.
|
\
|
+ +
+
=
+
=
+ +
}
2
1 2
2 n
2
1 n
n
x ;
2
n
2 ;
2
n
1 ,
2
1
F
2 n
x
dx
1 x
x
J

11.9 Ninth Category

}
+ +
=
2 2 2 2
1
x a ) p x (
dx
J

}
+
=
2 2 2 2
2
x a ) p x (
dx
J

}
+
=
2 2 2 2
3
a x ) p x (
dx
J
In this case we use three types of substitutions: Trigonometric, Hyperbolic and
Abel type of substitutions.
Case 1. Integrals of the form
}
+ +
=
2 2 2 2
1
x a ) p x (
dx
J
Put t tan a x = . We then have
= + = + = + t tan a a ) t tan a ( a x a
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2
= + = ,
t sec a x a
2 2
= +
and dt t sec a dx
2
=
We also have
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
p t tan a p ) t tan a ( p x + = + = +
746
=
+
=
+ +
=
} }
dt
) t sec a ( ) p t tan a (
t sec a
dx
x a ) p x (
dx
J
2 2 2
2
2 2 2 2
1

=
+
=
+
=
+
=
} } }
dt
t cos p t sin a
t sec t cos
dt
p
t cos
t sin
a
t sec
dt
p t tan a
t sec
2 2 2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2 2

dt
t sin ) p a ( p
t cos
dt
) t sin 1 ( p t sin a
t cos
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
} }
+
=
+
=
If
2 2 2
b p a = , then the integral takes the form
dt
t sin b p
t cos
dx
x a ) p x (
dx
J
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
1 } }
+
=
+ +
=
which can be evaluated using the substitution t sin
b
p
u = .
If
2 2 2
b p a = , then the integral takes the form
dt
t sin b p
t cos
dx
x a ) p x (
dx
J
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
1 } }

=
+ +
=
which can be evaluated using the substitution t sin
b
p
u =
If 0 p a
2 2
= , then the integral takes the form
t sin
p
1
dt t cos
p
1
dx
x a ) p x (
dx
J
2 2
2 2 2 2
1
= =
+ +
=
} }

Put t sinh a x = . We then have
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2
= + = ,
t cosh a x a
2 2
= +
747
and t cosh a dx =
We also have = +
2 2
p x

[3] Abels Substitution
Abels substitution is given by
2 2
x a
x
u
+
= .
Step1. Solving with respect to x.
Squaring both sides of
2 2
x a
x
u
+
= we find
2 2
2
2
x a
x
u
+
= which is equivalent
to

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x a u x u x ) a x ( u = + = +

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
a u x ) 1 u ( a u x x u = =
1 u
a u
x
2
2 2
2
=
which can be put further into the form

1 u
u
a x
2
2
2 2
=
Step2. Expressing
2 2
a x + in terms of u.
We have

1 u
) 1 u ( a u a
a
1 u
u
a a x
2
2 2 2 2
2
2
2
2 2 2
+
= +
= +
or finally

1 u
1
a a x
2
2 2 2
= +
Step 3. Expressing
2 2
p x + in terms of u.
We have
748

1 u
) 1 u ( p u a
p
1 u
u
a p x
2
2 2 2 2
2
2
2
2 2 2
+
= +
= +
or finally

1 u
p u ) p a (
p x
2
2 2 2 2
2 2
+
= +
Step 4. Finding
2 2
a x
dx
+
.
We have
=
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
|
.
|
\
|
=
2 2
2 2 2 2
a x
a x
dx
d
x a x ) x (
dx
d
dx
du

=
+
+
+
=
+
+
+
=
2 2
2 2
2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
a x
a x
x
a x
a x
a x 2
x 2
x a x

2 2 2 2
2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
a x ) a x (
a
a x ) a x (
x ) a x (
+ +
=
+ +
+
=
from which we get

2 2
2 2
2
a x
dx
du ) a x (
a
1
+
= +
Using the expression for
2 2
a x + found in Step 2, we get

2 2
2
2
2
a x
dx
du
1 u
1
a
a
1
+
=
|
|
.
|
\
|

which gives us finally
du
1 u
1
a x
dx
2
2 2

=
+

Step 5. Transforming the integral in terms of the new variable u.
We have
749
=
+ +
=
}
dx
x a ) p x (
1
J
2 2 2 2
1

du
1 u
1
1 u
p u ) p a (
1
2
2
2 2 2 2
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
}

or finally

}
+
=
2 2 2 2
1
p u ) p a (
du
J
Step 6. Evaluating the transformed integral.
Case 1. If
2 2 2
b p a = then
Case 2. If
2 2 2
b p a = then

}
+ +
2 2
x 16 ) 4 x (
dx

t tan 4 x =
we find
) 1 t tan 4 ( 4 4 x
2 2
+ = +
t sec 4 x 16
2
= +
dt t sec 4 dx
2
=
=
+
=
+ +
} }
t sec 4 ) 1 t tan 4 ( 4
dt t sec 4
x 16 ) 4 x (
dx
2
2
2 2

dt
1 t tan 4
t sec
4
1
2
}
+
=
The last integral has been evaluated before (9.25, Exercise 2):
750
) t sin 3 arctan(
3
3
dt
1 t tan 4
t sec
2
=
+
}

We have now to express the integral in terms of the original variable x.
Since

4
x
t tan =
we find

16 x
x
t sin
2
+
=
Therefore we obtain the following value for the integral
C
16 x
x 3
arctan
12
3
x 16 ) 4 x (
dx
2 2 2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+ +
}

}
+ +
2 2
x 4 ) 5 x (
dx

t sinh 2 x =
we find
5 t sinh 4 5 x
2 2
+ = +
t cosh 2 x 4
2
= +
dt t cosh 2 dx =
=
+
=
+ +
} }
dt
t cosh 2 ) 5 t sinh 4 (
t cosh 2
x 4 ) 5 x (
dx
2
2 2

dt
5 t sinh 4
1
2
}
+
=
The last integral has been evaluated before (10, Example 5):
751

5 t tanh
5 t tanh
ln
5 2
1
dt
5 t sinh 4
1
2
+
=
+
}

We have now to express the value of the integral in terms of the variable x.
Since

2
x
t sinh =
we find

2 2 2
x 4
x
2
x
1
2
x
t sinh 1
t sinh
t cosh
t sinh
t tanh
+
=
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+
= =
Therefore
C
5
x 4
x
5
x 4
x
ln
5 2
1
x 4 ) 5 x (
dx
2
2
2 2
+
+
=
+ +
}

or
C
) x 4 ( 5 x
) x 4 ( 5 x
ln
5 2
1
x 4 ) 5 x (
dx
2
2
2 2
+
+ +
+
=
+ +
}

}
+ +
2 2
x 5 ) 7 x (
dx


2
x 5
x
u
+
=
we find

1 u
7 u 2
7 x
2
2
2
= + and du
1 u
1
x 5
dx
2
2

=
+

752
=
=
+ +
} }
du
1 u
7 u 2
1 u
1
x 5 ) 7 x (
dx
2
2
2
2 2

du
7 u 2
1
2
}

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
}
14 u 2
14 u 2
ln
14 2
1
du
7 u 2
1
2

C
14
x 5
x
2
14
x 5
x
2
ln
14 2
1
x 5 ) 7 x (
dx
2
2
2 2
+
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
=
+ +
}

or
C
) x 5 ( 14 x 2
) x 5 ( 14 x 2
ln
14 2
1
x 5 ) 7 x (
dx
2
2
2 2
+
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=
+ +
}

}
+
=
2 2 2 2
2
x a ) p x (
dx
J
Put t cos a x = . We then have
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2
= = ,
t sin a x a
2 2
=
and dt t sin a dx =
We also have
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
p t cos a p ) t cos a ( p x + = + = +
753
=
+

=
+
=
} }
) t sin a ( ) p t cos a (
dt t sin a
dx
x a ) p x (
dx
J
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2

}
+
=
2 2 2
p t cos a
dt

Since
t tan 1
1
t cos
2
2
+
= , we use the substitution t tan u = . Therefore
2
2
u 1
1
t cos
+
= and since u arctan t = , du
u 1
1
dt
2
+
= .
Then we obtain the integral
=
+
=
+
=
} }
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2
p t cos a
dt
dx
x a ) p x (
dx
J
=
+ +
=
+
+
+
=
} }
du
) u 1 ( p a
1
du
u 1
1
p
u 1
1
a
1
2 2 2 2
2
2
2

du
u p p a
1
2 2 2 2
}
+ +
=
and introducing the notation
2 2 2
p a b + = , we have
du
u p b
1
J
2 2 2
2 }
+
=
The last integral can be evaluated using the substitution w
p
b
u = . The integral
then gives us
=
+
=
+
=
} }
dw
w 1
1
p b
1
dw
p
b
w
p
b
p b
1
J
2
2
2
2
2 2
2

C w arctan
p b
1
+ =
754

Put t tanh a x = . We then have
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2
= = ,
ht sec a x a
2 2
=
and dt t h sec a dx
2
=
We also have = +
2 2
p x

2 2
x a
x
u
= .
2 2
x a
x
u
= we find
2 2
2
2
x a
x
u
to

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x x u a u x ) x a ( u = =

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
a u x ) 1 u ( a u x x u = + =
1 u
a u
x
2
2 2
2
+
=
which can be put further into the form

1 u
u
a x
2
2
2 2
+
=
Step2. Expressing
2 2
x a in terms of u.
755
We have

1 u
u a ) 1 u ( a
1 u
u
a a x a
2
2 2 2 2
2
2
2 2 2 2
+
+
=
+
=
or finally

1 u
1
a x a
2
2 2 2
+
=
Step 3. Expressing
2 2
We have

1 u
) 1 u ( p u a
p
1 u
u
a p x
2
2 2 2 2
2
2
2
2 2 2
+
+ +
= +
+
= +
or finally

1 u
p u ) p a (
p x
2
2 2 2 2
2 2
+
+ +
= +
Step 4. Finding
2 2
x a
dx
.
We have
=

=
2 2
2 2 2 2
x a
x a
dx
d
x x a ) x (
dx
d
dx
du

=

=
2 2
2 2
2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
x a
x a
x
x a
x a
x a 2
x 2
x x a

2 2 2 2
2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
x a ) x a (
a
x a ) x a (
x ) x a (

=

=
from which we get

2 2
2 2
2
x a
dx
du ) x a (
a
1
=
756
2 2
x a found in Step 2, we get

2 2
2
2
2
x a
dx
du
1 u
1
a
a
1
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+

du
1 u
1
x a
dx
2
2 2
+
=

We have
=
+
=
}
dx
x a ) p x (
1
J
2 2 2 2
2

du
1 u
1
1 u
p u ) p a (
1
2
2
2 2 2 2
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+ +
=
}

or finally

}
+ +
=
2 2 2 2
2
p u ) p a (
du
J
Put
2 2 2
b p a = + . Then the integral becomes
}
+
=
2 2 2
2
p u b
du
J .
}
+
2 2
x 16 ) 4 x (
dx

t cos 4 x =
we find
) 1 t cos 4 ( 4 4 x
2 2
+ = +
t sin 4 x 16
2
=
dt t sin 4 dx =
757
=
+
=
+
} }
dt
t sin 4 ) 1 t cos 4 ( 4
t sin 4
x 16 ) 4 x (
dx
2
2 2

dt
1 t cos 4
1
4
1
2
}
+
=
The last integral has been evaluated before (9.7, Example 2):

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
}
t tan
5
5
arctan
5
5
dt
1 t cos 4
1
2

Since
4
x
t cos = , we find
x
x 16
t tan
2
= . Therefore the value of the integral,

expressed in terms of the original variable x, is given by
C
x
x 16
5
5
arctan
20
5
x 16 ) 4 x (
dx
2
2 2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
+
}

}
+
2 2
x 4 ) 5 x (
dx

t tanh 2 x =
we find
5 t tanh 4 5 x
2 2
+ = +
ht sec 2 x 4
2
=
dt t h sec 2 dx
2
=
=
+
=
+
} }
dt
ht sec 2 ) 5 t tanh 4 (
t h sec 2
x 4 ) 5 x (
dx
2
2
2 2

dt
5 t tanh 4
ht sec
2
}
+
=
758

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
}
t sinh
3
5
arctan
5 3
1
dt
5 t tanh 4
ht sec
2

Since
2
x
t tanh = , we find
2 2
x 4
x
t tanh 1
t tanh
t sinh
= .
Therefore the value of the integral expressed in terms of the original
variable x, is given by
C
x 4
x
3
5
arctan
5 3
1
x 4 ) 5 x (
dx
2 2 2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
}

}
+
2 2
x 7 ) 5 x (
dx


2
x 7
x
u
=
we find

1 u
5 u 12
5 x
2
2
2
+
+
= +

1 u
du
x 7
dx
2
2
+
=


} } }
+
=
+
+
+
=
+
5 u 12
du
1 u
5 u 12
1 u
du
x 7 ) 5 x (
dx
2
2
2
2
2 2

C u
5
15 2
arctan
15 2
1
5 u 12
du
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
}

Therefore, going back to the original variable, we obtain the value of the integral:
759
C
x 7
x
5
15 2
arctan
15 2
1
x 7 ) 5 x (
dx
2 2 2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
}

}
+
=
2 2 2 2
3
a x ) p x (
dx
J
Put t sec a x = . We then have
= = =
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
= = ,
t tan a a x
2 2
=
and dt t sec t sin a dx
2
=
We also have
2 2 2 2 2
p t sec a p x + = +
Therefore we get
dt
) t tan a ( ) p t sec a (
t sec t sin a
a x ) p x (
dx
J
2 2 2
2
2 2 2 2
3 } }
+
=
+
=
dt
p
t cos
1
a
t cos
1
dt
p t sec a
t sec
2
2
2
2 2 2
} }
+
=
+
=
dt
) t sin 1 ( p a
t cos
dt
t cos p a
t cos
2 2 2 2 2 2
} }
+
=
+
=
dt
t sin p p a
t cos
2 2 2 2
}
+
=
Introducing the notation
2 2 2
p a b + = , we have finally
dt
t sin p b
t cos
a x ) p x (
dx
J
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
3 } }

=
+
=
760
The substitution u
p
b
t sin = , du
p
b
dt t cos = , converts the last integral to

} }

=
+
=
2
2 2 2 2
3
u 1
du
bp
1
a x ) p x (
dx
J

Put t cosh a x = . We then have
= = =
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
= = ,
t sinh a a x
2 2
=
and dt t sinh a dx =
We also have
2 2 2 2 2
p t cosh a p x + = +
=
+
=
+
=
} }
dt
t sinh a ) p t cosh a (
t sinh a
a x ) p x (
dx
J
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
3

dt
p t cosh a
1
2 2 2
}
+
=
The last integral can be evaluated

2 2
a x
x
u
= .
2 2
a x
x
u
= we find
2 2
2
2
a x
x
u
to
761

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x a u x u x ) a x ( u = =

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
a u x ) 1 u ( a u x x u = =
1 u
a u
x
2
2 2
2
=
which can further be put into the form

1 u
u
a x
2
2
2 2
=
Step2. Expressing
2 2
a x in terms of u.
We have

1 u
) 1 u ( a u a
a
1 u
u
a a x
2
2 2 2 2
2
2
2
2 2 2
=
or finally

1 u
1
a a x
2
2 2 2
=
Step 3. Expressing
2 2
We have

1 u
) 1 u ( p u a
p
1 u
u
a p x
2
2 2 2 2
2
2
2
2 2 2
+
= +
= +
or finally

1 u
p u ) p a (
p x
2
2 2 2 2
2 2
+
= +
Step 4. Finding
2 2
a x
dx
.
We have
=

=
2 2
2 2 2 2
a x
a x
dx
d
x a x ) x (
dx
d
dx
du

762
=

=
2 2
2 2
2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
a x
a x
x
a x
a x
a x 2
x 2
x a x

2 2 2 2
2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
a x ) a x (
a
a x ) a x (
x ) a x (

=

=
from which we get

2 2
2 2
2
a x
dx
du ) a x (
a
1
=
2 2
a x found in Step 2, we get

2 2
2
2
2
a x
dx
du
1 u
1
a
a
1
=
|
|
.
|
\
|

du
1 u
1
a x
dx
2
2 2

=

We have
=
+
=
}
dx
a x ) p x (
1
J
2 2 2 2
3

du
1 u
1
1 u
p u ) p a (
1
2
2
2 2 2 2
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
}

or finally

}
+
=
2 2 2 2
3
p u ) p a (
du
J
Put
2 2 2
b p a = + . The integral then takes the form
763
}

=
2 2 2
3
p u b
du
J .
The last integral may be evaluated using partial fraction decomposition.

}
+ 16 x ) 4 x (
dx
2 2

t sec 4 x =
we find
) 1 t sec 4 ( 4 4 x
2 2
+ = +
t tan 4 16 x
2
=
dt t sec t sin 4 dx
2
=
=
+
=
+
} }
dt
t tan 4 ) 1 t sec 4 ( 4
t sec t sin 4
16 x ) 4 x (
dx
2
2
2 2

dt
1 t sec 4
t sec
4
1
dt
t tan ) 1 t sec 4 (
t sec t sin
4
1
2 2
2
} }
+
=
+
=
The last integral has been evaluated before (9.25, Exercise 1):
C
5 t sin
5 t sin
ln
5 2
1
dx
1 t sec 4
t sec
2
+
+
=
+
}

Since
x
4
t cos = , we have
x
16 x
t sin
2

= . Therefore the value of the integral in
terms of the original variable x is given by
764
C
5
x
16 x
5
x
16 x
ln
5 2
1
16 x ) 4 x (
dx
2
2
2 2
+
+
=
+
}

or
C
x 5 16 x
x 5 16 x
ln
5 2
1
16 x ) 4 x (
dx
2
2
2 2
+
+

=
+
}

}
+ 4 x ) 5 x (
dx
2 2

t cosh 2 x =
we find
5 t cosh 4 5 x
2 2
+ = +
t sinh 2 4 x
2
=
dt t sinh 2 dx =
=
+
=
+
} }
dt
t sinh 2 ) 5 t cosh 4 (
t sinh 2
4 x ) 5 x (
dx
2
2 2

dt
5 t cosh 4
1
2
}
+
=

3 t tanh 5
3 t tanh 5
ln
5 6
1
dt
5 t cosh 4
1
2
+
=
+
}

Since
2
x
t cosh = , we find
x
4 x
t cosh
1 t cosh
t tanh
2 2

=
= .
Therefore the value of the integral in terms of the original variable x is
given by
765
C
3
x
4 x
5
3
x
4 x
5
ln
5 6
1
4 x ) 5 x (
dx
2
2
2 2
+
+
=
+
}

or
C
x 3 ) 4 x ( 5
x 3 ) 4 x ( 5
ln
5 6
1
4 x ) 5 x (
dx
2
2
2 2
+
+

=
+
}

}
+ 7 x ) 5 x (
dx
2 2


7 x
x
u
2

=
we find

1 u
5 u 12
5 x
2
2
2
= +
du
1 u
1
7 x
dx
2
2

=


} } }

=
=
+
5 u 12
du
1 u
5 u 12
du
1 u
1
7 x ) 5 x (
dx
2
2
2
2
2 2


15 u 6
15 u 6
ln
15 4
1
5 u 12
du
2
+
}

Therefore the original integral expressed in terms of the original variable x is
given by
766
C
15
7 x
x
6
15
7 x
x
6
ln
15 4
1
7 x ) 5 x (
dx
2
2
2 2
+
+
=
+
}

or
C
) 7 x ( 15 x 6
) 7 x ( 15 x 6
ln
15 4
1
7 x ) 5 x (
dx
2
2
2 2
+
+

=
+
}

767

11.10 Tenth Category. Integrals of the form
dx ) c x b x a , x ( R
2
}
+ +
In this case we try to transform the trinomial under the square root into a sum or a
difference of two squares, depending on the sign of the leading coefficient a or
the sign of the discriminant D. The integral then take one of the forms
dx ) x a , x ( R
2 2
}
+ , dx ) x a , x ( R
2 2
}
, dx ) a x , x ( R
2 2
}

treated in a previous section (11.8).
We may use either the known method of completing the square or the formula

(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + +
2
2
2
a 4
D
a 2
b
x a c x b x a
where D is the discriminant of the trinomial: ac 4 b D
2
= .
I) If 0 a > then

2
2
2
a 4
D
a 2
b
x a c x b x a
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + +
Ia) If 0 D > , we use the substitutions
u
a 2
b
x = + and
a 2
D
= ( 0 > )
The square root then transforms into
2 2 2
u a c x b x a = + +
Ib) If 0 D< ( 0 D > ), we use the substitutions
u
a 2
b
x = + and
a 2
D
= ( 0 > )
2 2 2
u a c x b x a + = + +
II) If 0 a < then
768

(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + +
2
2
2
a 2
b
x
a 4
D
) a ( c x b x a
and then

2
2
2
a 2
b
x
a 4
D
a c x b x a
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + +
IIa) If 0 D > , we use the substitutions
u
a 2
b
x = + and
a 2
D
= ( 0 > )
2 2 2
u a c x b x a = + +
IIb) If 0 D < , we use the substitution
u
a 2
b
x = + and
a 2
D
= ( 0 > )
2 2 2
u a c x b x a = + +
We may also use the Euler substitutions described in the next section.
}
+
=
2
x x 2 5
dx
I
Solution. Since 4 ) 1 x ( x x 2 5
2 2
+ = + , we use the substitution t 2 1 x = .
We then have
) 1 t ( 4 4 t 4 4 ) t 2 ( 4 ) 1 x ( x x 2 5
2 2 2 2 2
+ = + = + = + = +
and dt 2 dx = . The integral becomes
=
+
=
+
=
+
=
} } }
1 t
dt
) 1 t ( 4
dt 2
x x 2 5
dx
I
2 2 2

C | 1 t t | ln
2
+ + + =
769
C 1
2
1 x
2
1 x
ln I
2
+ +
|
.
|
\
|

+
=
C
2
5 x 2 x
2
1 x
ln I
2
+
+
+
=
C
2
5 x 2 x
2
1 x
ln I
2
+
+
+
=

C
2
1
ln 5 x 2 x 1 x ln I
2
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ + + =
and redefining the constant C we obtain finally
A 5 x 2 x 1 x ln I
2
+ + + =
}
+
=
2
x x 2 5
dx
I
Solution. We have
= + = + + = + 6 ) 1 x ( 6 ) 1 x 2 x ( x x 2 5
2 2 2

2
) 1 x ( 6 =
Introducing the substitution t 6 1 x = , we have
) t 1 ( 6 t 6 6 ) t 6 ( 6 ) 1 x ( 6 x x 2 5
2 2 2 2 2
= = = = +
and
dt 6 dx =
Therefore
=
=
+
=
} } }
2 2 2
t 1
dt
) t 1 ( 6
dt 6
x x 2 5
dx
I
C t arcsin + =
770
C
6
1 x
arcsin I + |
.
|
\
|
=
1 x x
1
I
2
}
+
=
Solution. We have
2
2
2
2
3
2
1
x 1 x x
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= + . Introducing the substitution
t
2
3
2
1
x = , we obtain
) 1 t (
4
3
4
3
t
4
3
2
3
t
2
3
1 x x
2 2
2 2
2
+ = + =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
= +
Therefore
1 t
2
3
1 x x
2 2
+ = +
We also have dt
2
3
=
+
=
+
=
+
=
} } }
1 t
dt
1 t
2
3
dt
2
3
dx
1 x x
1
I
2
2
2

C 1 t t ln
2
+ + + =
We have now to express the integral in terms of the original variable. Since
t
2
3
2
1
x = , multiplying by 2 we get t 3 1 x 2 = and so
3
1 x 2
t

= .
C 1
3
1 x 2
3
1 x 2
ln dx
1 x x
1
I
2
2
+ + |
.
|
\
|
+
=
+
=
}

771
The previous relation can be written as
C
3
3 ) 1 x 2 (
3
1 x 2
ln dx
1 x x
1
I
2
2
+
+
+
=
+
=
}

C
3
1
ln 1 x x 2 1 x 2 ln dx
1 x x
1
I
2
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ + + =
+
=
}

which, by redefining the constant C, can be written as
A 1 x x 2 1 x 2 ln dx
1 x x
1
I
2
2
+ + + =
+
=
}

11.10.1 The Euler Substitutions
The Euler substitutions are applied to integrals of the form
dx c x b x a , x R
2
}
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
where 0 a = and the trinomial c x b x a
2
+ + is not a perfect square ( 0 D = )
I) If 0 a > then put
t x a c x b x a
2
= + +
In this text we shall consider the substitution:
) t x ( a c x b x a
2
= + +
II) If 0 c > then put
c x t c x b x a
2
= + +
c x t c x b x a
2
+ = + +
III) If 0 D > where c a 4 b D
2
is the discriminant, then put
772
t ) x ( c x b x a
1
2
= + +
t ) x ( c x b x a
1
2
= + +
where
1
is one of the roots of the trinomial c x b x a
2
+ + .
We remind the formula for the roots of the trinomial when 0 D > :

a 2
D b
2 , 1

=
We are now considering the details for each one of the above substitutions:

Substitution I. If 0 a > then put
) t x ( a c x b x a
2
= + + (1)
Step 1. We have to solve (1) with respect to x.
Squaring both sides of (1), in order to get rid of the square root, we get

2 2
) t x ( a c x b x a = + +
) t t x 2 x ( a c x b x a
2 2 2
+ = + +
2 2 2
t a t x a 2 x a c x b x a + = + +

2
t a t x a 2 c x b + = +
c t a t x a 2 x b
2
= +
c t a x ) t a 2 b (
2
= +

Solving the previous equation with respect to x we find

t a 2 b
c t a
x
2
+

= (4)
Step 2. We are now in a position to express the right hand side of (1) in terms of t
only. In fact, substituting x by the expression given by (4), we find
773

|
|
.
|
\
|
+

= + + t
t a 2 b
c t a
a c x b x a
2
2


|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
= + +
t a 2 b
) t a 2 b ( t c t a
a c x b x a
2
2

|
|
.
|
\
|
+

= + +
t a 2 b
t a 2 t b c t a
a c x b x a
2 2
2

|
|
.
|
\
|
+

= + +
t a 2 b
t b c t a
a c x b x a
2
2

from which we get

b t a 2
c t b t a
a c x b x a
2
2
+
+ +
= + + (5)
We thus see that we have succeeded in deriving a rational expression for the
trinomial under the square root.
Step 3. From equation (4) we can evaluate
dt
dx
. In fact, using the derivative rule
for the quotient, we find

2
2 2
) b t a 2 (
) b t a 2 (
dt
d
) c t a ( ) b at 2 ( ) c t a (
dt
d
dt
dx
+
+ +
=
2
2
) b t a 2 (
) a 2 ( ) c t a ( ) b at 2 ( t a 2
dt
dx
+
+
=
2
2 2 2 2
) b t a 2 (
c a 2 t a 2 t b a 2 t a 4
dt
dx
+
+ +
=
2
2 2
) b t a 2 (
c a 2 t b a 2 t a 2
dt
dx
+
+ +
=
2
2
) b t a 2 (
c t b t a
a 2
dt
dx
+
+ +
=

From the last expression we get
774

dt
) b t a 2 (
c t b t a
a 2 x d
2
2
+
+ +
= (6)

Step 4. We also have from (1) that
t x c x b x a
a
1
2
= + +
and solving with respect to t we get
c x b x a
a
1
x t
2
+ + = (7)

Conclusions.
) t x ( a c x b x a
2
= + +
provided 0 c a 4 b D
2
= and 0 a > , we get
t a 2 b
c t a
x
2
+

=

b t a 2
c t b t a
a c x b x a
2
2
+
+ +
= + +
c x b x a
a
1
x t
2
+ + =
dt
) b t a 2 (
c t b t a
a 2 x d
2
2
+
+ +
=

Note. The previous calculations should serve as a guide to the calculations and not
as ready-to-used formulas.
}
+
=
3 x 2 x x
dx
I
2

2
is
0 16 12 4 ) 3 ( 1 4 ) 2 ( D
2
= = + = =
while 0 1 a > = . Therefore we can apply Eulers first substitution.
Put
775
t x 3 x 2 x
2
= (1)
In order to evaluate the integral, we use the following steps.
Squaring both members of (1), we get
2 2
) t x ( 3 x 2 x = , which is equivalent
to
+ = + =
2 2 2 2
t t x 2 3 x 2 t t x 2 x 3 x 2 x
3 t x ) 1 t ( 2 3 t x 2 t x 2
2 2
+ = + =


) 1 t ( 2
3 t
x
2
+
= (2)
Step 2. Express the square root in terms of t.

) 1 t ( 2
t ) 1 t ( 2 3 t
t
) 1 t ( 2
3 t
t x 3 x 2 x
2 2
2
+
=
+
= =
or

) 1 t ( 2
3 t 2 t
3 x 2 x
2
2

= (3)
Step 3. Determine
dt
dx

We have from (2) that
=
+ +
=
2
2 2
) 1 t (
) 1 t (
dt
d
) 3 t ( ) 1 t ( ) 3 t (
dt
d
2
1
dt
dx

2
2
2
2
) 1 t (
3 t 2 t
2
1
) 1 t (
) 3 t ( ) 1 t ( ) t 2 (
2
1
+
=
from which we get
776
dt
) 1 t ( 2
3 t 2 t
dx
2
2

= (4)
We have
3 x 2 x x t
2
= (5)
Step 5. Express the integral in terms of the variable t.
We have
=
+

=
+
=
} }
dt
) 1 t ( 2
3 t 2 t
) 1 t ( 2
3 t
) 1 t ( 2
3 t 2 t
3 x 2 x x
dx
I
2 2
2
2
2

} }
+

=
+

= dt
3 t 2 t
3 t 2 t
2
1
dt
) 6 t 2 ( ) 1 t (
3 t 2 t
2
2 2

Since
3 t 2 t
t 4
1
3 t 2 t
3 t 2 t
2 2
2
+
=
+

and
1 t
1
3 t
3
3 t 2 t
t 4
2

+
+
=
+
,
The last integral becomes
=
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+
=
} } } }
dt
1 t
1
dt
3 t
1
3 dt
2
1
3 x 2 x x
dx
I
2

C | 1 t | ln
2
1
| 3 t | ln
2
3
t
2
1
+ + =
and using (5), we get finally
+
|
.
|
\
|
= 3 x 2 x 3 x ln
2
3
3 x 2 x x
2
1
I
2 2

C 3 x 2 x 1 x ln
2
1
2
+
Maple support. Using Maple, we obtain

777

Substitution II. If 0 c > then put
c x t c x b x a
2
+ = + + (1)
2 2
) c x t ( c x b x a + = + +
c x t c 2 x t c x b x a
2 2 2
+ + = + +
x t c 2 x t x b x a
2 2 2
+ = +
t c 2 x t b x a
2
+ = +
b t c 2 x t x a
2
=
b t c 2 x ) t a (
2
=

2
t a
b t c 2
x

=
or

a t
b t c 2
x
2

+
= (2)
c
a t
b t c 2
t c x b x a
2
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
= + +

a t
) a t ( c ) b t c 2 ( t
c x b x a
2
2
2
+ +
= + +
a t
a c t c t b t c 2
c x b x a
2
2 2
2
+ +
= + +
a t
a c t b t c
c x b x a
2
2
2
+
= + +
from which we get

a t
a c t b t c
c x b x a
2
2
2
+
= + + (3)
778
dt
dx
2 2
2 2
) a t (
) a t (
dt
d
) b t c 2 ( ) a t ( ) b t c 2 (
dt
d
dt
dx
+ +
=

2 2
2
) a t (
) t 2 ( ) b t c 2 ( ) a t ( ) c 2 (
dt
dx
+
=

2 2
2 2
) a t (
t b 2 t c 4 a c 2 t c 2
dt
dx
+ +
=

2 2
2
) a t (
a c 2 t b 2 t c 2
dt
dx
+
=

2 2
2
) a t (
) a c t b t c ( 2
dt
dx
+
=
from which we get
dt
) a t (
) a c t b t c ( 2
dx
2 2
2
+
= (4)

Step 4. We also have from (1) that

x t c c x b x a
2
= + +
and solving with respect to t we get

x
c c x b x a
t
2
+ +
= (5)
Conclusions.
c x t c x b x a
2
+ = + +
provided 0 c a 4 b D
2
= and 0 c > , we get
a t
b t c 2
x
2

+
=
779
a t
a c t b t c
c x b x a
2
2
2
+
= + +
x
c c x b x a
t
2
+ +
=
dt
) a t (
) a c t b t c ( 2
dx
2 2
2
+
=

}
+ +
=
1 x x x
dx
I
2

Solution. Since 0 1 c > = , we may use Eulers second substitution

1 t x 1 x x
2
+ = + + (1)


Squaring both members of (1) we get
2 2
) 1 t x ( 1 x x + = + + which is equivalent to
+ = + + + = + + t x 2 t x x x 1 t x 2 t x 1 x x
2 2 2 2 2 2

1 t 2 x ) t 1 ( 1 t 2 t x x t 2 t x 1 x
2 2 2
= = + = +

from which we get

2
t 1
1 t 2
x
= (2)
Using (1) and (2) we get

2
2
2
2
t 1
t 1 t ) 1 t 2 (
1 t
t 1
1 t 2
1 x x
+
= +
= + +
or

2
2
2
t 1
1 t t
1 x x
+
= + + (3)
780
Step 3. Find
dt
dx

We obtain from (2)
=

=
2 2
2 2
) t 1 (
) t 1 (
dt
d
) 1 t 2 ( ) t 1 ( ) 1 t 2 (
dt
d
dt
dx

2 2
2
2 2
2
) t 1 (
) 1 t t ( 2
) t 1 (
) t 2 ( ) 1 t 2 ( ) t 1 ( 2
+
=

=
from which there follows
dt
) t 1 (
) 1 t t ( 2
dx
2 2
2
+
= (4)
We get from (1) that 1 1 x x t x
2
+ + = and then

x
1 1 x x
t
2
+ +
= (5)
We have
=

+
=
+ +
=
} }
dt
t 1
1 t t
t 1
1 t 2
) t 1 (
) 1 t t ( 2
1 x x x
dx
I
2
2
2
2 2
2
2

C | 1 t 2 | ln dt
1 t 2
2
+ =
=
}

Going back to the original variable, we get finally
C 1
x
1 1 x x
2 ln I
2
+
+ +
=
Mathematica support.
781
I n[ 1] : =
1
x x
2
x 1
x
Out [ 1] = Log x Log 2 x 2 1 x x
2

or
I n[ 2] : = Integrate 1 x Sqrt x^2 x 1 , x
Out [ 2] = Log x Log 2 x 2 1 x x
2

Substitution III. If 0 D > where c a 4 b D
2
is the discriminant, then put
t ) x ( c x b x a
1
2
= + + (1)
where
1
2
+ + .
2 2
1
2
t ) x ( c x b x a = + +

2 2
1 2 1
t ) x ( ) x )( x ( a =

2
1 2
t ) x ( ) x ( a =

2
1
2
2
t xt a x a =

2
1 2
2
t a t x x a =

2
1 2
2
t a x ) t a ( =

2
2
1 2
t a
t a
x
=
or

a t
a t
x
2
2
2
1
= (2)
782
t
a t
a t
c x b x a
1
2
2
2
1 2
|
|
.
|
\
|
= + +
t
a t
) a t ( a t
c x b x a
2
2
1 2
2
1 2
|
|
.
|
\
|

= + +
t
a t
) a t a t
c x b x a
2
1
2
1 2
2
1 2
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
= + +
t
a t
) a a
c x b x a
2
1 2 2
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
= + +
t
a t
) ( a
c x b x a
2
2 1 2
|
|
.
|
\
|
= + +
from which we get

a t
t
) ( a c x b x a
2
2 1
2
= + + (3)
dt
dx
2 2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
) a t (
) a t (
dt
d
) a t ( ) a t ( ) a t (
dt
d
dt
dx

=
2 2
2
2
1
2
1
) a t (
) t 2 ( ) a t ( ) a t ( ) t 2 (
dt
dx

=
2 2
2
3
1 1
3
1
) a t (
t a 2 t 2 t a 2 t 2
dt
dx
+
=
2 2
2 1
) a t (
t ) ( a 2
dt
dx

=
from which we get
dt
) a t (
t
) ( a 2 dx
2 2
2 1
= (4)
Step 4. We can solve now (1) with respect to t:

783

1
2
x
c x b x a
t
+ +
= (5)
Conclusions.
t ) x ( c x b x a
1
2
= + +
where
1
2
+ + , provided 0 D > ,
we get

a t
a t
x
2
2
2
1
=

a t
t
) ( a c x b x a
2
2 1
2
= + +

1
2
x
c x b x a
t
+ +
=
dt
) a t (
t
) ( a 2 dx
2 2
2 1
=

x 3 x
2 x
I
2
}

+
=
Solution. Since the roots of the trinomial are 0 and 3 , we may use Eulers
third substitution
t ) 3 x ( x 3 x
2
+ = (1)
Squaring both members of (1) we get
2 2 2
t ) 3 x ( x 3 x + = , which is equivalent
to
+ = + = +
2 2 2
t ) 3 x ( x t ) 3 x ( ) 3 x ( x
= + =
2 2 2 2
t 3 t x x t 3 t x x
784
2 2
t 3 x ) t 1 ( = +

from which we get

2
2
t 1
t 3
x
+
= (2)
We have, using (1) and (2) that
t 3
t 1
t 3
x 3 x
2
2
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=
from which we get

2
2
t 1
t 3
x 3 x
+
= (3)
Step 3. Find
dt
dx

We obtain from (2)
=
+
+ +
=
2 2
2 2 2 2
) t 1 (
) t 1 (
dt
d
t ) t 1 ( ) t (
dt
d
3
dt
dx

2 2 2 2
2 2
) t 1 (
t 2
3
) t 1 (
) t 2 ( t ) t 1 ( t 2
3
+
=
+
+
=
or
dt
) t 1 (
t 6
dx
2 2
+
= (4)
We obtain from (1) that

3 x
x 3 x
t
2
+

= (5)
We have
785
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
+
=

+
=
} }
dt
) t 1 (
t 6
t 1
t 3
2
t 1
t 3
dx
x 3 x
2 x
I
2 2
2
2
2
2

dt
) t 1 (
2 t
2
2 2
2
}
+

=
Using partial fraction decomposition we get

2 2 2 2 2
2
) t 1 (
3
t 1
1
) t 1 (
2 t
+
+
=
+

Therefore
=
+
+
=
} }
dt
) t 1 (
1
6 dt
t 1
1
2 I
2 2 2

C t arctan
2
1
t 1
t
2
1
6 t arctan 2
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=
Note. If 0 D > and
2 1
, are the two real roots of the trinomial (where
2 1
x < < ), then we may use the substitution

x
x
t
2
1
=
}
+
=
3 x 4 x
dx
I
2

Solution. We have that ) x 3 )( 1 x ( 3 x 4 x
2
= + (the roots of the trinomial are
3 , 1
2 1
= = ). We consider now the substitution
x 3
1 x
t
= from which we get

x 3
1 x
t
2
= . Therefore, solving with respect to x we find

1 t
1 t 3
x
2
2
+
+
= and dt
) 1 t (
t 4
dx
2 2
+
=
We also get
786

1 t
t 2
1
1 t
1 t 3
1 x
2
2
2
2
+
=
+
+
=
and

1 t
2
1 t
1 t 3
3 x 3
2 2
2
+
=
+
+
=
Therefore

2 2
2
) 1 t (
t 4
) x 3 )( 1 x (
+
= and then
1 t
t 2
) x 3 )( 1 x (
2
+
= .
C t arctan 2 dt
1 t
1
2 dt
1 t
t 2
) 1 t (
t 4
2
2
2 2
+ =
+
=
+
+
} }

C
x 3
1 x
arctan 2
3 x 4 x
dx
I
2
+
=
+
=
}

11.11 Eleventh Category. Integrals of the form
dx
c x b x a
) x ( P
2
}
+ +
, 0 a = and 0 D =
where ) x ( P is a polynomial of n-th degree.
In this case we use the formula
dx
c x b x a
1
c x b x a ) x ( Q dx
c x b x a
) x ( P
2
2
2
} }
+ +
+ + + =
+ +
(1)
where ) x ( Q is a polynomial of ) 1 n ( th degree (less by one of ) x ( P ) with
coefficients to be determined and is also a constant to be determined.
787
The coefficients of ) x ( Q and the constant are determined by differentiation of
(1) with respect to x and multiplying through by c x b x a
2
+ + . We then turn to
the evaluation of the integral dx
c x b x a
1
2
}
+ +
.
1 x x
x
I
2
2
}
+
=
Solution. We have

dx
1 x x
1
1 x x ) B Ax ( dx
1 x x
x
2
2
2
2
} }
+
+ + + =
+
(1)

Differentiating the previous identity, we get
1 x x
1
1 x x ) B Ax (
dx
d
1 x x
x
2
2
2
2
+
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ + =
+

1 x x
1
1 x x 2
1 x 2
) B Ax ( 1 x x A
1 x x
x
2 2
2
2
2
+
+
+
+ + + =
+

Multiplying through by 1 x x
2
) 1 x 2 ( ) B Ax (
2
1
) 1 x x ( A x
2 2
+ + + + =
The previous identity can take the form
2 B A 2 x ) B 2 A 3 ( Ax 4 x 2
2 2
+ + + =
and since it is true for every x, equating the similar powers of x, we obtain the
system
A 4 2 = , B 2 A 3 0 + = , 2 B A 2 0 + =
Solving the previous system, we get

2
1
A = ,
4
3
B = and
8
1
=
788
dx
1 x x
1
8
1
1 x x
4
3
x
2
1
dx
1 x x
x
I
2
2
2
2
} }
+
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
+
=
The last integral of (2) has been calculated previously (11.10, Example 3) and we
have found that

C 1 x x 2 1 x 2 ln dx
1 x x
1
2
2
+ + + =
+
}

Therefore we have
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
+
=
}
1 x x
4
3
x
2
1
dx
1 x x
x
I
2
2
2

C 1 x x 2 1 x 2 ln
8
1
2
+ + +
Maple support:
> f:=x^2/sqrt(x^2-x+1);
:= f
x
2
+ x
2
x 1

> int(f,x);
+
x + x
2
x 1
2
3 + x
2
x 1
4
1
8
|
\
|
.
|
|
|
||
arcsinh
2 3
|
\
|
.
|
|
x
1
2
3

x 1
x
I
2
2
}

=
Solution. We have

dx
x 1
1
x 1 ) B Ax ( dx
x 1
x
2
2
2
2
} }

+ + =
(1)

Differentiating the previous identity, we get
2
2
2
2
x 1
1
} x 1 ) B Ax ( {
dx
d
x 1
x
+ + =

789
2 2
2
2
2
x 1
1
x 1 2
x 2
) B Ax ( x 1 A
x 1
x
+ + =

2
x 1 we get the identity
+ + = x ) B Ax ( ) x 1 ( A x
2 2

The previous identity can take the form
+ + = A x B x A 2 x
2 2

and since it is true for every x, equating the similar powers of x, we obtain the
system
A 2 1 = , B 0 = , + = A 0
Solving the previous system, we get

2
1
A = , 0 B= and
2
1
=

} }

+ =
=
2
2
2
2
x 1
dx
2
1
x 1 x
2
1
dx
x 1
x
I
C x arcsin
2
1
x 1 x
2
1
2
+ + =
Maple support:
> f:=x^2/sqrt(1-x^2);
:= f
x
2
1 x
2

> int(f,x);
+
x 1 x
2
2
1
2
( ) arcsin x
Note. An integral of the form
dx c x b x a ) x ( P
2
}
+ +
can be expressed as
dx
c x b x a
) c x b x a ( ) x ( P
2
2
}
+ +
+ +

790
and therefore can be treated using the same method.
Example 2. Evaluate the integral dx 5 x x I
2 2
}
+ =
Solution. Since
5 x
x 5 x
5 x
) 5 x ( x
5 x x
2
2 4
2
2 2
2 2
+
+
=
+
+
= + , we have the analysis

+ + + + + =
+
+
}
5 x ) D x C x B x A ( dx
5 x
x 5 x
2 2 3
2
2 4

dx
5 x
1
2
}
+
+ (1)
+ + + + =
+
+
5 x ) C x B 2 x A 3 (
5 x
x 5 x
2 2
2
2 4

5 x
1
5 x
x
) D x C x B x A (
2 2
2 3
+
+
+
+ + + + (2)
Multiplying (2) by 5 x
2
+ , we get the identity
+ + + + = + ) 5 x ( ) C x B 2 x A 3 ( x 5 x
2 2 2 4

x ) D x C x B x A (
2 3
+ + + + +
C 5 x ) D B 10 ( x ) C 2 A 15 ( x B 3 x A 4 x 5 x
2 3 4 2 4
+ + + + + + + = +
Equating the coefficients of the similar powers of x, we obtain the system of
simultaneous equations
1 A 4 = , 0 B 3 = , 5 C 2 A 15 = + , 0 D B 10 = + , 0 C 5 = +
The previous equations have unique solution

4
1
A = , 0 B= ,
8
5
C = , 0 D = and
8
25
=
Identity (1) then becomes
791
dx
5 x
1
8
25
5 x x
8
5
x
4
1
dx
5 x
x 5 x
2
2 3
2
2 4
} }
+
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
+
+
(3)
The last integral is elementary and has the value
5 x x ln dx
5 x
1
2
2
+ + =
+
}

Therefore the original integral has value
C 5 x x ln
8
25
5 x x
8
5
x
4
1
dx 5 x x
2 2 3 2 2
+ + + +
|
.
|
\
|
+ = +
}

Maple support:
> f:=x^2*sqrt(x^2+5);
:= f x
2
+ x
2
5
> int(f,x);

x ( ) + x
2
5
( ) / 3 2
4
5 x + x
2
5
8
25
8
|
\
|
.
|
|
arcsinh
5 x
5

Example 3. Calculate the integral dx ) 1 x x ( ln x I
2 n
n }
+ + =
Solution. Using the formula (integration by parts)

} }
and the table
) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'
n
x
) 1 x x ( ln
2
+ +

1 n
x
1 n
+
+

1 x
1
2
+

we find
+ +
+
= + + =
+
}
) 1 x x ( ln
1 n
x
dx ) 1 x x ( ln x I
2
1 n
2 n
n

=
+
+
}
+
dx
1 x
1
1 n
x
2
1 n

792
dx
1 x
x
1 n
1
) 1 x x ( ln
1 n
x
2
1 n
2
1 n
}
+
+
+ +
+
=
+ +

We consider the integral
dx
1 x
x
J
2
1 n
n }
+
=
+

This integral can be evaluated using the method of this section:
dx
1 x
1
1 x ) x ( P dx
1 x
x
2
2
2
1 n
} }
+
+ + =
+
+

where ) x ( P is an n-th degree polynomial.
We may however reduce the integral into another form. In fact using the table
) x ( f ' ) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'
1 x
x
2
+

n
x
1 x
2
+
1 n
x n

we find
} }
+ + =
+
=

+
dx 1 x x n 1 x x dx
1 x
x
J
2 1 n 2 n
2
1 n
n

integrating by parts.
1 x
x
2
n
}
+
can be expressed in terms of the
hypergeometric function:

|
.
|
\
|

+ +
+
=
+
+
}
2
1 2
1 n
2
n
x ;
2
3 n
;
2
1 n
,
2
1
F
1 n
x
dx
1 x
x

11.12 Twelfth Category

793

}
+ + c x b x a ) m x (
x d
2 n

where n is a positive integer ( 1 n > ).
In this case we use the substitution
m x
1
t
=
}

=
2
x 1 x
dx
I
x
1
t = , we find
t
1
x = and dt
t
1
dx
2
=

=
} } }
1 t
dt
t
1
1 t
dt
t
1
1
t
1
dt
t
1
2
2 2
2

C | 1 t t | ln
2
+ + =

Going back to the original variable (we substitute t by
x
1
) we obtain the value of
the integral
= + + =
=
}
C 1
x
1
x
1
ln
x 1 x
dx
I
2
2

C
x
x 1 x
ln
2
+
+
=
Maple support:
> f:=1/x/sqrt(1-x^2);
:= f
1
x 1 x
2

> int(f,x);
|
\
|
.
|
|
|
arctanh
1
1 x
2

}
+ +
=
1 x 2 x 3 x
dx
I
2

794
x
1
t = , we find
t
1
x = and dt
t
1
dx
2
=
=
+ +
=
+ +
=
} }
1
t
1
2
t
1
3
t
1
dt
t
1
1 x 2 x 3 x
dx
I
2
2
2

=
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
=
+ +
=
} }
1
t
1
2
t
1
3 t
dt
1
t
1
2
t
1
3 t
dt
2
2
2

}
+ +
=
2
t t 2 3
dt

Since
2 ) 1 t ( 3 t 2 t
2 2
+ + = + +
under the substitution tan 2 1 t = + , we have
sec 2 ) 1 (tan 2 2 tan 2 3 t 2 t
2 2 2 2
= + = + = + +
sec 2 3 t 2 t
2
= + +
d sec 2 dt
2
=
the last integral becomes
= =
+ +
=
+ +
=
} } }
sec 2
d sec 2
t t 2 3
dt
1 x 2 x 3 x
dx
I
2
2 2

C | sec tan | ln d sec + + = =
}

Since
2
1 t
tan
+
= and
2
3 t 2 t
sec
2
+ +
= , the expression of the integral becomes
=
+ +
=
+ +
=
} }
2 2
t t 2 3
dt
1 x 2 x 3 x
dx
I
795
= +
+ +
+
+
= + + = C
2
3 t 2 t
2
1 t
ln C | sec tan | ln
2

A 3 t 2 t 1 t ln
2
+ + + + + =
We substitute t by
x
1
and then we get
A 3
x
1
2
x
1
1
x
1
ln I
2
+ + + + + =
which can be put into the equivalent form
A
x
x 3 x 2 1 x 1
ln I
2
+
+ + + +
=
Maple support:
> f:=1/x/sqrt(3*x^2+2*x+1);
:= f
1
x + + 3 x
2
2 x 1

> int(f,x);
|
\
|
.
|
|
|
arctanh
+ 2 2 x
2 + + 3 x
2
2 x 1

}

=
1 x x
dx
I
2 5

x
1
t = , we find
t
1
x = and

t
t 1
1 x
t
t 1
1
t
1
1 x
2
2
2
2
2
2

=
= =
dt
t
1
dx
2
=
796
The integral then becomes dt
t 1
t
t
t 1
t
1
dt
t
1
2
4
2
5
2
} }

=

Under the substitution cos t = , we have sin t 1
2
= and d sin dt = .
Therefore the last integral takes the form
= =
} }
d cos d ) sin (
sin
cos
4
4

Since

8
4 cos 2 cos 4 3
cos
4
+ +
=
we have
= + + =
} } } }
d 4 cos
8
1
d 2 cos
8
4
d
8
3
d cos
4

C
4
4 sin
8
1
2
2 sin
2
1
8
3
+ + + =
C 4 sin
32
1
2 sin
4
1
8
3
+ + + =
Since t cos = , we find
2 2
t 1 cos 1 sin = = and thus

2
t 1 t 2 cos sin 2 2 sin = =
) 1 t 2 ( t 1 t 2 2 2 cos 2 sin 2 4 sin
2 2

|
.
|
\
|
= =
since
=
|
.
|
\
|
= =
2
2 2
t 1 t 2 1 2 sin 1 2 cos
= + = = 1 t 4 t 4 ) t 1 ( t 4 1
2 4 2 2

1 t 2 ) 1 t 2 (
2 2 2
= =
797
Therefore the integral expressed in terms of t, is given by
C ) 1 t 2 ( t 1 t 2 2
32
1
t 1 t 2
4
1
t arccos
8
3
2 2 2
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
and making the substitution
x
1
t = , we obtain the value of the integral:
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
=
}
2
2 5
x
1
1
x
1
2
4
1
x
1
arccos
8
3
1 x x
dx
I
C 1
x
1
2
x
1
1
x
1
2 2
32
1
2 2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
or
C
x 8
1 x ) x 2 (
x 2
1 x
x
1
arccos
8
3
1 x x
dx
I
4
2 2
2
2
2 5
+

+
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
=
}

Maple support:
> f:=1/x^5/sqrt(x^2-1);
:= f
1
x
5
+ 1 x
2

> int(f,x);

+
+ 1 x
2
4 x
4
3 + 1 x
2
8 x
2
3
8
|
\
|
.
|
|
|
arctan
1
+ 1 x
2

798

11.13 Thirteenth Category
dx
b x a ) B x A (
x
I
2 2
}
+ +
=
dx
b x a ) B x A (
1
J
2 2
}
+ +
=
Case 1. For the integral
dx
b x a ) B x A (
x
I
2 2
}
+ +
=

b x a
1
t
2
+
= (1)
In order to transform integral I under (1), we use the following steps:
Step 1. Squaring both sides of (1), we find

b x a
1
t
2
2
+
=
b
t
1
x a
t
1
b x a 1 ) b x a ( t
2
2
2
2 2 2
= = + = +
from which we get

a
b
t
1
a
1
x
2
2
= (2)
Step 2. Using (2), we find B
a
b
t
1
a
1
A B x A
2
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
= + , from which we get
B
a
b A
t
1
a
A
B x A
2
2
+ = + (3)
799
Step3. By differentiation, we get from (2) that dt
t
1
a
2
dx x 2
3
= , which is
equivalent to
dt
t
1
a
1
dx x
3
= (4)
Step 4. The integral I, because of (1), (3) and (4), becomes
=
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+ +
=
} }
t
1
B
a
b A
t
1
a
A
dt
t
1
a
1
dx
b x a ) B x A (
x
I
2
3
2 2

} }
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
B
a
b A
t
1
a
A
t
dt
a
1
t
1
B
a
b A
t
1
a
A
t
dt
a
1
2
2
2
3

from which we get

}
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
2
t
a
b A
B
a
A
dt
a
1
I (5)
or

}
+
=
2
t ) b A B a ( A
dt
I
Case 2. For the integral
dx
b x a ) B x A (
1
J
2 2
}
+ +
=

b x a
x
t
2
+
= (6)
In order to transform integral J under (6), we use the following steps:
800

b x a
x
t
2
2
2
+
=
= + = +
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x t b x t a x ) b x a ( t

2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x ) t a 1 ( t b x t a x t b = =
and solving with respect to
2
x we find

2
2
2
t a 1
t b
x
= (7)
Step 2. Using (7), we find

2
2 2
2
2
2
t a 1
) t a 1 ( b t b a
b
t a 1
t b
a b x a
+
= +
= +
from which we get

2
2
t a 1
b
b x a
= + (8)

2
2 2
2
2
2
t a 1
) t a 1 ( B t b A
B
t a 1
t b
A B x A
+
= +
= +
from which we get

2
2
2
t a 1
B t ) aB b A (
B x A
+
= + (9)
Step 4. Differentiating (6) with respect to x we have

b x a
b x a
dx
d
x b x a ) x (
dx
d
dx
dt
2
2 2
+
+ +
=
801

b x a ) b x a (
x a ) b x a (
dx
dt
b x a
b x a 2
x a 2
x b x a
dx
dt
2 2
2 2
2
2
2
+ +
+
=
+
+
+
=
or

b x a ) b x a (
b
dx
dt
2 2
+ +
= (10)
From the previous relation, taking into account (8), we derive

b x a
dx
dt
t a 1
1
2
2
+
=
(11)
Step 5. Using (8), (9) and (11) we get
dt
t a 1
1
t a 1
B t ) aB b A (
1
dx
b x a ) B x A (
1
J
2
2
2
2 2

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+ +
=
} }

which, after simplifications, gives
dt
B t ) B a b A (
1
dx
b x a ) B x A (
1
J
2
2 2
} }
+
=
+ +
= (12)
9 x 11 ) 9 x (
x
I
2 2
}
+ +
=

9 x 11
1
t
2
+
= (1)
In order to transform integral I under (1), we use the following steps:

9 x 11
1
t
2
2
+
=
9
t
1
x 11
t
1
9 x 11 1 ) 9 x 11 ( t
2
2
2
2 2 2
= = + = +
802
from which we get

11
9
t
1
11
1
x
2
2
= (2)
Step 2. Using (2), we find 9
11
9
t
1
11
1
9 x
2
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
= + , from which we get

11
90
t
1
11
1
9 x
2
2
+ = + (3)
Step3. By differentiation, we get from (2) that dt
t
1
11
2
dx x 2
3
= , which is
equivalent to
dt
t
1
11
1
dx x
3
= (4)
Step 4. The integral I, because of (1), (3) and (4), becomes
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+ +
=
} }
t
1
11
90
t
1
11
1
dt
t
1
11
1
dx
9 x 11 ) 9 x (
x
I
2
3
2 2

} }
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
11
90
t
1
11
1
t
dt
11
1
t
1
11
90
t
1
11
1
t
dt
11
1
2
2
2
3

from which we get

}
+
=
2
t 90 1
dt
I (5)
The above integral can be evaluated to give (using the substitution t 10 3 u = )
) t 10 3 arctan(
30
10
I =
803
C
9 x 11
10 3
arctan
30
10
I
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
Maple support:
> f:=x/sqrt(11*x^2+9)/(x^2+9);
:= f
x
+ 11 x
2
9 ( ) + x
2
9

> int(f,x);
1
30
10
|
\
|
.
|
|
|
arctan
+ 11 x
2
9 10
30

9 x 11 ) 9 x (
1
J
2 2
}
+ +
=

9 x 11
x
t
2
+
= (6)
In order to transform integral J under (6), we use the following steps:

9 x 11
x
t
2
2
2
+
=
= + = +
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x t 9 x t 11 x ) 9 x 11 ( t

2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x ) t 11 1 ( t 9 x t 11 x t 9 = =
and solving with respect to
2
x we find

2
2
2
t 11 1
t 9
x
= (7)
804

2
2 2
2
2
2
t 11 1
) t 11 1 ( 9 t 99
9
t 11 1
t 9
11 9 x 11
+
= +
= +
from which we get

2
2
t 11 1
9
9 x 11
= + (8)

2
2 2
2
2
2
t 11 1
) t 11 1 ( 9 t 9
9
t 11 1
t 9
9 x
+
= +
= +
from which we get

2
2
2
t 11 1
9 t 90
9 x
+
= + (9)
Step 4. Differentiating (6) with respect to x we have

9 x 11
9 x 11
dx
d
x 9 x 11 ) x (
dx
d
dx
dt
2
2 2
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
|
.
|
\
|
=

9 x 11 ) 9 x 11 (
x 11 ) 9 x 11 (
dx
dt
9 x 11
9 x 11 2
x 22
x 9 x 11
dx
dt
2 2
2 2
2
2
2
+ +
+
=
+
+
+
=
or

9 x 11 ) 9 x 11 (
9
dx
dt
2 2
+ +
= (10)
From the previous relation, taking into account (8), we derive

9 x 11
dx
dt
t 11 1
1
2
2
+
=
(11)
Step 5. Using (8), (9) and (11) we get
805
dt
t 11 1
1
t 11 1
9 t 90
1
dx
9 x 11 ) 9 x (
1
J
2
2
2
2 2

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+ +
=
} }

which, after simplifications, gives
dt
9 t 90
1
dx
9 x 11 ) 9 x (
1
J
2
2 2
} }
+
=
+ +
=
dt
1 t 10
1
9
1
2
}

= (12)

The last integral can be evaluated to give

10 t
10 t
ln
18
1
J
+
=

10
9 x 11
x
10
9 x 11
x
ln
18
1
J
2
2
+
+
+
=
or
C
) 9 x 11 ( 10 x
) 9 x 11 ( 10 x
ln
18
1
J
2
2
+
+ +
+
=
Maple support:
> f:=1/sqrt(11*x^2+9)/(x^2+9);
:= f
1
+ 11 x
2
9 ( ) + x
2
9

> int(f,x);
1
90
10
|
\
|
.
|
|
|
arctanh
10 x
+ 11 x
2
9

5 x ) 3 x 2 (
x
I
2 2
}
+ +
=
806

5 x
1
t
2
+
= (1)
Squaring the previous equation and solving with respect to x we find

2
2
2
t
t 5 1
x

= (2)
from which there follows by differentiation
dt
t
1
dx x
3
=
We also find, using (2) again, that

2
2
2
2
2
t
t 7 2
3
t
t 5 1
2 3 x 2

= +
= + (3)
Therefore the original integral becomes
=
=
} } }
2 2 2
2
2
3
a t
dt
7
1
2 t 7
dt
t
1
t
t 7 2
dt
t
1
I
C
a t
a t
ln
a 14
1
+
+
= ,
where
7
2
a = , using the partial fraction decomposition

|
.
|
\
|
+
a t
1
a t
1
a 2
1
a t
1
2 2


C
7
2
5 x
1
7
2
5 x
1
ln
2
7
14
1
I
2
2
+
+
+
+
=
or
C
) 5 x ( 14 7
) 5 x ( 14 7
ln
28
14
I
2
2
+
+ +
+
=
Maple support:
807
> f:=x/sqrt(x^2+5)/(2*x^2+5);
:= f
x
+ x
2
5 ( ) + 2 x
2
5

> int(f,x);
1
10
10
|
\
|
.
|
|
|
arctanh
+ x
2
5 10
5

5 x ) 3 x 2 (
1
I
2 2
}
+ +
=

5 x
x
t
2
+
= (1)
Squaring the previous equation and solving with respect to x we find

2
2
2
t 1
t 5
x
= (2)
from which there follows by differentiation
dt
) t 1 (
t 5
dx x
2 2
= (3)
We also find, using (2) again, that

2 2
2
2
t 1
5
5
t 1
t 5
5 x
= +
= + (3)
and

2
2
2
2
2
t 1
3 t 7
3
t 1
t 5
2 3 x 2
+
= +
= + (4)
Since 5 x t x
2
+ = , we find using (3), that

2
t 1
5
t x
= (5)
Combining (3) and (5) we find
dt
) t 1 (
t 1
5 dx
2 2
2
= (6)
Therefore the original integral becomes
808

} } }
=
+
=
+
=
2 2 2
2
2
2
2 2
2
a t
dt
7
1
3 t 7
dt
t 1
5
t 1
3 t 7
dt
) t 1 (
t 1
5

C
a
t
arctan
a 7
1
+ =
where
7
3
a =

C
5 x
x
3
7
arctan
3
7
7
1
I
2
+
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
or
C
5 x
x
3
21
arctan
21
21
I
2
+
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
x 4 9 ) 4 x (
x
I
2 2
}
+
=

2
x 4 9
1
t
= (1)
Squaring both members of (1) we find

2
2
x 4 9
1
t
=
from which we get, solving with respect to x:

2
2
2
t 4
1 t 9
x

= (2)
Therefore, using (2), we find

2
2
2
2
2
t 4
1 t 25
4
t 4
1 t 9
4 x

= +
= + (3)
809
Differentiating (1) with respect to x we find

2
2
x 4 9
x
x 4 9
4
dx
dt
=
2
2
x 4 9
x
t 4
dx
dt
=
from which we get
dx
x 4 9
x
t 4
dt
2
2
= (4)
Therefore the integral transforms to

2
2
2
t 4
dt
t 4
1 t 25
1
}

dt
1 t 25
1
2
}

(5)
1 t 5
1
2
1
1 t 5
1
2
1
1 t 25
1
2
+

the integral in (5) can be evaluated to be
=
+
} } }
dt
1 t 5
1
2
1
dt
1 t 5
1
2
1
dt
1 t 25
1
2

=
+
=
} }
dt
1 t 5
5
10
1
dt
1 t 5
5
10
1

= + + = C | 1 t 5 | ln
10
1
| 1 t 5 | ln
10
1

C
1 t 5
1 t 5
ln
10
1
+
+
=
Since t is expressed in terms of x by (1), we get the following expression for the
value of the original integral:
810
C
1
x 4 9
1
5
1
x 4 9
1
5
ln
10
1
dx
x 4 9 ) 4 x (
x
I
2
2
2 2
+
+
=
+
=
}

which can be simplified to be
C
x 4 9 5
x 4 9 5
ln
10
1
dx
x 4 9 ) 4 x (
x
I
2
2
2 2
+
+

=
+
=
}

x 4 9 ) 4 x (
1
I
2 2
}
+
=

2
x 4 9
x
t
= (1)
Squaring both members of (1) we find

2
2
2
x 4 9
x
t
=
from which we get, solving with respect to x:

1 t 4
t 9
x
2
2
2
+
= (2)
Therefore, using (2), we find

1 t 4
4 t 25
4
1 t 4
t 9
4 x
2
2
2
2
2
+
+
= +
+
= + (3)
Differentiating (1) with respect to x we find

2
2
x 4 9
1
x 4 9
9
dx
dt
= (4)
Since (using (2))

1 t 4
9
1 t 4
t 9
4 9 x 4 9
2 2
2
2
+
=
+
=
relation (4) can be written as
811
2
2
x 4 9
x
) 1 t 4 (
dx
dt
+ =
from which we get
dx
x 4 9
x
1 t 4
dt
2
2
=
+
(4)
Therefore the integral transforms to

1 t 4
dt
1 t 4
4 t 25
1
2
2
2
+
+
+
}

C t
2
5
arctan
10
1
dt
4 t 25
1
2
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
}
(5)
Since t is expressed in terms of x by (1), we get the following expression for the
value of the original integral:
C
x 4 9
x
2
5
arctan
10
1
dx
x 4 9 ) 4 x (
1
I
2 2 2
+
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
=
}

11.14 Fourteenth Category

dx
c x b x a ) p x (
B x A
2 2 2
}
+ + +
+


1 t
t
x
2 1
+
+
= (1)
where
2 1
, satisfy the system of equations

b
) c p a ( 2

2
2 1

= + ,
2
2 1
p = (2)
Equations (1) and (2) convert the integral into an integral of the form
812
dx
c x a ) p x (
B x A
1
2
1
2 2
1 1
}
+ +
+

since they succeed to make zero the coefficient of b in the trinomial under the
square root.
Let us try to prove equations (2). Using (1), we have
= + |
.
|
\
|
+
+
+ |
.
|
\
|
+
+
= + + c
1 t
t
b
1 t
t
a c x b x a
2 1
2
2 1 2

= +
+
+
+
+
+
= c
1 t
) t (
b
) 1 t (
) t (
a
2 1
2
2
2 1

] ) 1 t ( c ) 1 t )( t ( b ) t ( a [
) 1 t (
1
2
2 1
2
2 1
2
+ + + + + +
+
=
+ + +
+
= + +
2
1
2
1
2
2
t ) c b a ( {
) 1 t (
1
c x b x a
)} c b a ( t ] c 2 ) ( b a 2 [
2
2
2 2 1 2 1
+ + + + + + + (3)
We also get
= +
+
+
= + |
.
|
\
|
+
+
= +
2
2
2
2 1 2
2
2 1 2 2
p
) 1 t (
) t (
p
1 t
t
p x
} ) 1 t ( p ) t {(
) 1 t (
1
2 2 2
2 1
2
+ + +
+
=
or
} p t ) p ( 2 t ) p {(
) 1 t (
1
p x
2 2
2
2
2 1
2 2 2
1
2
2 2
+ + + + +
+
= + (4)
We want the coefficient of t in the previous two expressions (3) and (4) to
become zero:
0 c 2 ) ( b a 2
2 1 2 1
= + + + (5)
0 p
2
2 1
= + (6)
813
From (5) and (6) we find

b
) c p a ( 2

2
2 1

= +
2
2 1
p =
Therefore
2 1
, are the roots of the quadratic equation
0 p
b
) c p a ( 2
2
2
2
=

5 x 3 x ) 1 x (
189 x 52
I
2 2
}
+ +

=
1 t
t
x
2 1
+
+
= , we have
= +
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
= + 5
1 t
t
3
1 t
t
5 x 3 x
2 1
2
2 1 2

= +
+
+
+
+
= 5
1 t
) t (
3
) 1 t (
) t (
2 1
2
2
2 1

] ) 1 t ( 5 ) 1 t ( ) t ( 3 ) t ( [
) 1 t (
1
2
2 1
2
2 1
2
+ + + + +
+
=
+ +
+
= +
2
1
2
1
2
2
t ) 5 3 ( {
) 1 t (
1
5 x 3 x
)} 5 3 ( t ] 10 ) ( 3 2 [
2
2
2 2 1 2 1
+ + + + + (1)
We also get
= +
+
+
= + |
.
|
\
|
+
+
= + 1
) 1 t (
) t (
1
1 t
t
1 x
2
2
2 1
2
2 1 2

} ) 1 t ( ) t {(
) 1 t (
1
2 2
2 1
2
+ + +
+
=
or
814
} 1 t ) 1 ( 2 t ) 1 {(
) 1 t (
1
1 x
2
2 2 1
2 2
1
2
2
+ + + + +
+
= + (2)
become zero:
0 10 ) ( 3 2
2 1 2 1
= + + (3)
0 1
2 1
= + (4)
3
8

2 1
= + and 1
2 1
= . Therefore
2 1
,
are the roots of the quadratic equation 0 1
3
8
2
= . The two roots of the above
quadratic equation are
3
1
and 3. Under the choice
3
1
1
= and 3
2
=

we
have
1 t
3 t
3
1
x
+
+
= or
1 t
9 t
3
1
x
+
= (5)
For this choice of
1
and
2
, we get from (1) and (2) that

2
2
2
) 1 t (
9 t 11
9
5
5 x 3 x
+
+
= + and
2
2
2
) 1 t (
9 t
9
10
1 x
+
+
= +
On the other hand we get from (5) that
dt
) 1 t (
1
3
10
dx
2
+
=
The original integral now becomes
dt
) 1 t (
1
3
10
) 1 t (
9 t 11
9
5
) 1 t (
9 t
9
10
189
1 t
9 t
3
1
52
2
2
2
2
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
+
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
}

or
815
dt
9 t 11 ) 9 t (
99 t 619
5
3
2 2
}
+ +
+

(6)
The above integral can be written as
dt
9 t 11 ) 9 t (
1
5
297
dt
9 t 11 ) 9 t (
t
5
1857
2 2 2 2
} }
+ +
+
+ +

The integral
dt
9 t 11 ) 9 t (
t
2 2
}
+ +

has been evaluated before (11.12, Example 1):

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+ +
}
9 t 11
10 3
arctan
30
10
dt
9 t 11 ) 9 t (
t
2 2 2

The integral
dt
9 t 11 ) 9 t (
1
2 2
}
+ +

has also been evaluated before (11.12, Example 2):

) 9 t 11 ( 10 t
) 9 t 11 ( 10 t
ln
18
1
dt
9 t 11 ) 9 t (
1
2
2
2 2
+ +
+
=
+ +
}

Therefore, putting everything together, we find for the integral appearing in (6):
=
+ +
+
}
dt
9 t 11 ) 9 t (
99 t 619
5
3
2 2

) 9 t 11 ( 10 t
) 9 t 11 ( 10 t
ln
18
1
5
297
9 t 11
10 3
arctan
30
10
5
1857
2
2
2
+ +
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
or
=
+ +
+
}
dt
9 t 11 ) 9 t (
99 t 619
5
3
2 2

) 9 t 11 ( 10 t
) 9 t 11 ( 10 t
ln
10
5 33
9 t 11
10 3
arctan
30
2 1857
2
2
2
+ +
+
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
= (7)
816
Solving (5) with respect to t we find

1 x 3
9 x 3
t
+
=
we substitute t by the above expression into (7) in order to express the value of
the original integral I in terms of the original variable x:
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
9
1 x 3
9 x 3
11
10 3
arctan
30
2 1857
I
2

(
(
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
(
(
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
9
1 x 3
9 x 3
11 10
1 x 3
9 x 3
9
1 x 3
9 x 3
11 10
1 x 3
9 x 3
ln
10
5 33
2
2

or, using the fact that

2
2
2
) 1 x 3 (
) 5 x 3 x ( 180
9
1 x 3
9 x 3
11
+
+
= +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
,
we find:
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=
2
2
) 1 x 3 (
) 5 x 3 x ( 180
10 3
arctan
30
2 1857
I
2
2
2
2
) 1 x 3 (
) 5 x 3 x ( 180
10
1 x 3
9 x 3
) 1 x 3 (
) 5 x 3 x ( 180
10
1 x 3
9 x 3
ln
10
5 33
+
+
+
+
+
+

which can be written in a more simplified form as
817
+
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=
) 5 x 3 x ( 2
1 x 3
arctan
30
2 1857
I
2

C
) 5 x 3 x ( 2 10 3 x
) 5 x 3 x ( 2 10 3 x
ln
10
5 33
2
2
+
+
+ +

assuming that 0 1 x 3 > + .

11.15. Fifteenth Category

dx
M x L
2 2
}
+ + + +
+


1 t
t
x
2 1
+
+
= (1)
Using (1), we have
= + |
.
|
\
|
+
+
+ |
.
|
\
|
+
+
= + + c
1 t
t
b
1 t
t
a c x b x a
2 1
2
2 1 2

= +
+
+
+
+
+
= c
1 t
) t (
b
) 1 t (
) t (
a
2 1
2
2
2 1

] ) 1 t ( c ) 1 t )( t ( b ) t ( a [
) 1 t (
1
2
2 1
2
2 1
2
+ + + + + +
+
=
+ + +
+
= + +
2
1
2
1
2
2
t ) c b a ( {
) 1 t (
1
c x b x a
)} c b a ( t ] c 2 ) ( b a 2 [
2
2
2 2 1 2 1
+ + + + + + + (2)
We also get
+ + +
+
= + +
2
1
2
1
2
2
t ) C B A ( {
) 1 t (
1
C x B x A
818
)} C B A ( t ] C 2 ) ( B A 2 [
2
2
2 2 1 2 1
+ + + + + + + (3)
become zero:
0 c 2 ) ( b a 2
2 1 2 1
= + + + (4)
0 C 2 ) ( B A 2
2 1 2 1
= + + + (5)

B a b A
) c A C a ( 2

2 1
= + and
B a b A
C b c B

2 1
=
Therefore
2 1
, are the two (real!) roots of the quadratic equation
0
B a b A
C b c B
B a b A
) c A C a ( 2
2
=

7 x 2 x 5 ) 8 x 12 x 5 (
1
2 2
}
+ + +

1 t
t
x
2 1
+
+
= , we find
+ + +
+
= + +
2
1
2
1
2
2
t ) 8 12 5 ( {
) 1 t (
1
8 x 12 x 5
)} 8 12 5 ( t ] 16 ) ( 12 10 [
2
2
2 2 1 2 1
+ + + + + + +
and
+ +
+
= +
2
1
2
1
2
2
t ) 7 2 5 ( {
) 1 t (
1
7 x 2 x 5
)} 7 2 5 ( t ] 14 ) ( 2 10 [
2
2
2 2 1 2 1
+ + + + +
Equating the coefficients of t to zero, we get the system
0 16 ) ( 12 10
2 1 2 1
= + + +
0 14 ) ( 2 10
2 1 2 1
= + +
From the above system we obtain 3
2 1
= + and 2
2 1
= .
819
Therefore the numbers
2 1
, are the roots of the quadratic equation
0 2 3
2
= + +
In other words, 2 , 1
2 1
= = or 1 , 2
2 1
= = .
(I) The choice 2 , 1
2 1
= = corresponds to the substitution

1 t
2 t
x
+
+
=
from which we also get dt
) 1 t (
1
dx
2
+
= and

2
2
2
) 1 t (
4 t
8 x 12 x 5
+
+
= + + ,
2
2
2
) 1 t (
t 4 9
7 x 2 x 5
+
= +
(II) The choice 1 , 2
2 1
= = corresponds to the substitution

1 t
1 t 2
x
+
+
=
from which we also get dt
) 1 t (
1
dx
2
+
= and

2
2
2
) 1 t (
1 t 12
8 x 12 x 5
+
+
= + + ,
2
2
2
) 1 t (
4 t 9
7 x 2 x 5
+

= +
- Under the choice I, the integral transforms to
dt
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
1 t
dt
) 1 t (
t 4 9
) 1 t (
4 t
) 1 t (
1
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
} }
+
+
=
+
+
+
+

- Under the choice II, the integral transforms to
dt
4 t 9 ) 1 t 12 (
1 t
dt
) 1 t (
4 t 9
) 1 t (
1 t 12
) 1 t (
1
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
} }
+
+
=
+

+
+
+

820
11.16. Sixteenth Category
dx
c x b x a ) p x (
B x A
2 n 2 2
}
+ + +
+
(1)


=
+ + +
+
}
dx
c x b x a ) p x (
B x A
2 n 2 2

+ + +
+
+ + +
=

c x b x a
) p x (
A x A x A
2
1 n 2 2
3 n 2
4 n 2
1
3 n 2
0

dx
c x b x a ) p x (
M x L
2 2 2
}
+ + +
+
+ (2)
The unknown coefficients
3 n 2 1 0
A , , A , A

and L, M are determined by
differentiation of (2) with respect to x and equating the coefficients of the similar
powers of the variable x
5 x 3 x ) 1 x (
3 x 2
2 2 2
}
+ +
+

=
+ +
+
}
dx
5 x 3 x ) 1 x (
3 x 2
2 2 2

dx
5 x 3 x ) 1 x (
M x L
5 x 3 x
1 x
A x A
2 2
2
2
1 0
}
+ +
+
+ +
+
+
=
We differentiate the previous identity with respect to x and we get

+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=
+ +
+
5 x 3 x
1 x
A x A
dx
d
5 x 3 x ) 1 x (
3 x 2
2
2
1 0
2 2 2

5 x 3 x ) 1 x (
M x L
5 x 3 x 2
3 x 2
1 x
A x A
2 2 2
2
1 0
+ +
+
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
821
or

+ +
+
+
=
+ +
+
5 x 3 x
) 1 x (
A x A 2 x A
5 x 3 x ) 1 x (
3 x 2
2
2 2
0 1
2
0
2 2 2

5 x 3 x ) 1 x (
M x L
5 x 3 x 2
3 x 2
1 x
A x A
2 2 2
2
1 0
+ +
+
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
and multiplying by
2 2
2
) 1 x (
5 x 3 x 2
+
+
, we get the identity
+ + + = + ) 5 x 3 x ( ) A x A 2 x A ( 2 ) 3 x 2 ( 2
2
0 1
2
0

) 1 x )( M Lx ( 2 ) 1 x )( 3 x 2 )( A x A (
2 2
1 0
+ + + + + +

Collecting the terms together with respect to x, we get the identity
+ + + + + = +
2
1 0
3
1 0
x ) M 2 A 9 A 6 ( x ) L 2 A 2 A 3 ( 6 x 4
M 2 A 3 A 10 x ) L 2 A 18 A 9 (
1 0 1 0
+ + + +
Equating the similar powers of the coefficients of x, we derive the system of
linear equations:
0 L 2 A 2 A 3
1 0
= +
0 M 2 A 9 A 6
1 0
= + +
4 L 2 A 18 A 9
1 0
= +
6 M 2 A 3 A 10
1 0
= +
The previous system has a unique solution:

25
3
A
0
= ,
50
17
A
1
= ,
25
13
L = and
100
189
M =
Therefore we have the following decomposition
=
+ +
+
}
dx
5 x 3 x ) 1 x (
3 x 2
2 2 2

dx
5 x 3 x ) 1 x (
100
189
x
25
13
5 x 3 x
1 x
50
17
x
25
3
2 2
2
2
}
+ +
+
+ +
+
=
822
or
=
+ +
+
}
dx
5 x 3 x ) 1 x (
3 x 2
2 2 2

dx
5 x 3 x ) 1 x (
189 x 52
100
1
5 x 3 x
1 x
17 x 6
50
1
2 2
2
2
}
+ +

+
+
=
The last integral appearing above has been evaluated to be (11.13, Example)
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
) 5 x 3 x ( 2
1 x 3
arctan
30
2 1857
2

C
) 5 x 3 x ( 2 10 3 x
) 5 x 3 x ( 2 10 3 x
ln
10
5 33
2
2
+
+
+ +

Therefore we obtain the value of the integral:
=
+ +
+
}
dx
5 x 3 x ) 1 x (
3 x 2
2 2 2

+
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+ +
+
=
) 5 x 3 x ( 2
1 x 3
arctan
3000
2 1857
5 x 3 x
1 x
17 x 6
50
1
2
2
2

C
) 5 x 3 x ( 2 10 3 x
) 5 x 3 x ( 2 10 3 x
ln
1000
5 33
2
2
+
+
+ +
+

11.17 Seventeenth Category

dx
M x L
2 n 2
}
+ + + +
+

In this case we use the transformation

1 t
t
x
2 1
+
+
=
according to the lines of reasoning of the Fourteenth Category (11.14) explained
earlier. The integral then transforms into a linear combination of integrals of the
form
823
dx
K x N ) p x (
M x L
2 n 2 2
}
+ +
+

which are solved according to the methods appearing in the previous Sixteenth
Category (11.16).
7 x 2 x 5 ) 8 x 12 x 5 (
11 x 3
I
2 3 2
}
+ + +
+
=
Solution. Following the same method as in the Example of 11.14 (the details of
the calculation appear there), we get the following:
(I) Under the substitution
1 t
2 t
x
+
+
= , we find

2
2
2
) 1 t (
4 t
8 x 12 x 5
+
+
= + + ,
2
2
2
) 1 t (
t 4 9
7 x 2 x 5
+
= +
and
dt
) 1 t (
1
dx
2
+
=
dx
) 1 t (
t 4 9
) 1 t (
) 4 t (
11
1 t
2 t
3
2
2
6
3 2
}
+
+
+
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
+

which can further be simplified to give:
dx
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
) 1 t ( ) 5 t 8 (
2 3 2
4
}
+
+ +
(1)
(II) Under the substitution
1 t
1 t 2
x
+
+
= , we find

2
2
2
) 1 t (
1 t 12
8 x 12 x 5
+
+
= + + ,
2
2
2
) 1 t (
4 t 9
7 x 2 x 5
+

= +
and
824
dt
) 1 t (
1
dx
2
+
=
dx
) 1 t (
4 t 9
) 1 t (
) 1 t 12 (
11
1 t
1 t 2
3
2
2
6
3 2
}
+

+
+
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
+

which can further be simplified to give:
dx
4 t 9 ) 1 t 12 (
) 1 t ( ) 8 t 5 (
2 3 2
4
}
+
+ +
(2)

- For the integral in (1), we consider the partial fraction decomposition for
the rational part:

3 2 2 2 2 3 2
4
) 4 t (
349 t 116
) 4 t (
234 t 4
4 t
37 t 8
) 4 t (
) 1 t ( ) 5 t 8 (
+
+
+
+
=
+
+ +

Therefore we have to evaluate
+
+
+
=
+
+ +
} }
dt
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
37 t 8
dt
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
) 1 t ( ) 5 t 8 (
2 2 2 3 2
4

dt
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
349 t 116
dt
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
234 t 4
2 3 2 2 2 2
} }
+

+

+
Let
dt
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
37 t 8
I
2 2
1 }
+
+
=
dt
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
234 t 4
I
2 2 2
2 }
+

=

dt
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
349 t 116
I
2 3 2
3 }
+

=
(A) Evaluation of the Integral
3
I .
825
According to the identity (2) of the Fifteenth Category (11.15), we have the
analysis of the integral ( 3 n = )
+
+
+ + +
=
+

}
2
2 2
3 2
2
1
3
0
2 3 2
t 4 9
) 4 t (
A t A t A t A
dt
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
349 t 116

dt
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
M t L
2 2
}
+
+
+ (3)
Differentiating the previous identity with respect to t, we obtain
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

+
+ + +
=
+

2
2 2
3 2
2
1
3
0
2 3 2
t 4 9
) 4 t (
A t A t A t A
dt
d
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
349 t 116

2 2
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
M t L
+
+
+
=
+

2 3 2
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
349 t 116

2 2 2 3 2
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
M t L
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
) t ( P
+
+
+
+
= (4)
where
+ + + =
3
1 3
4
0 2
5
1
t ) A 66 A 12 ( t ) A 73 A 8 ( t A 4 ) t ( P

2 3 1
2
2 0
A 36 t ) A 52 A 72 ( t ) A 59 A 108 ( + + +
Multiplying both members of (4) by
2 3 2
t 4 9 ) 4 t ( + , we obtain

2 2
) 4 t ( ) M t L ( ) t ( P 349 t 116 + + + =
or finally
+ + + + + +
3
1 3
4
0 2
5
1
t ) L 8 A 66 A 12 ( t ) M A 73 A 8 ( t ) L A 4 (
+ + + + + t ) 116 L 16 A 52 A 72 ( t ) M 8 A 59 A 108 (
3 1
2
2 0

0 349 M 16 A 36
2
= + + +
The previous identity is true for every value of t, provided that the coefficients of
the various powers of t are equal to zero:
826
0 L A 4
1
= + , 0 M A 73 A 8
0 2
= + , 0 L 8 A 66 A 12
1 3
= +
0 M 8 A 59 A 108
2 0
= + , 0 116 L 16 A 52 A 72
3 1
= + ,
0 349 M 16 A 36
2
= + +
The above linear system has the unique solution:

80000
42927
A
0
= ,
625
174
A
1
= ,
20000
60377
A
2
= ,
625
1421
A
3
=

625
696
L = ,
80000
1201607
M =
Therefore we have the following reduction

=
+

}
dt
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
349 t 116
2 3 2

+
+

=
2
2 2
2 3
t 4 9
) 4 t (
625
1421
t
20000
60377
t
625
174
t
80000
42927

dt
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
80000
1201607
t
625
696
2 2
}
+
+
=
+

=
}
dt
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
349 t 116
I
2 3 2
3

+
+
+ + +
=
2
2 2
2 3
t 4 9
) 4 t (
181888 t 241508 t 22272 t 42927
80000
1

dt
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
1201607 t 89088
80000
1
2 2
}
+

+

(B) Evaluation of the Integral
2
I .
According to the identity (2) of the Fifteenth Category (11.15), we have the
analysis of the integral ( 2 n = )
827
+
+
+
=
+

}
2
2
1 0
2 2 2
t 4 9
4 t
A t A
dt
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
234 t 4

dt
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
M t L
2 2
}
+
+
+
Differentiating the previous identity with respect to t, we obtain
2 2
2
2
1 0
2 2 2
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
M t L
t 4 9
4 t
A t A
dt
d
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
234 t 4
+
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

+
+
=
+

+
+
+
=
+

2 2 2
0 1
2
0
3
1
2 2 2
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
A 36 t A 34 t A 41 t A 4
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
234 t 4

2 2
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
M t L
+
+
+
2 2 2
t 4 9 ) 4 t ( + , we obtain
) 4 t ( ) M t L ( A 36 t A 34 t A 41 t A 4 234 t 4
2
0 1
2
0
3
1
+ + + + =
or

0 234 M 4 A 36 t ) A 38 L 4 ( t ) A 41 M ( t ) L A 4 (
0 1
2
0
3
1
= + + + + + +
The previous identity is true for every value of t, provided that the coefficients of
the various powers of t are equal to zero:
0 L A 4
1
= + , 0 A 41 M
0
= , 0 A 38 L 4
1
= , 0 234 M 4 A 36
0
= + +
The above system has a unique solution:

100
117
A
0
= , 0 A
1
= , 0 L = ,
100
4797
M =
Therefore we have the reduction
+
+

=
+

=
}
4 t
t 4 9 t
100
117
dt
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
234 t 4
I
2
2
2 2 2
2

828
dt
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
1
100
4797
2 2
}
+

We recognize that the original integral can be evaluated using the values of the
integral (11.12, Example 5)

2
2
2 2
1
t 4 9 5
t 4 9 5
ln
10
1
dt
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
t
J
+

=
+
=
}

and the integral (11.12, Example 6)

|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
=
}
2 2 2
2
t 4 9
t
2
5
arctan
10
1
dt
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
1
J
Let us collect everything together:
We have
3 2 1
I I I I + =
where
=
+
+
=
}
dt
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
37 t 8
I
2 2
1

=
+
+
+
=
} }
dt
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
1
37 dt
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
t
8
2 2 2 2

2 1
J 37 J 8 + = ,
=
+

=
}
dt
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
234 t 4
I
2 2 2
2

=
+
+

=
}
dt
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
1
100
4797
4 t
t 4 9 t
100
117
2 2
2
2

2
2
2
J
100
4797
4 t
t 4 9 t
100
117
+

=
and
829
=
+

=
}
dt
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
349 t 116
I
2 3 2
3

+
+
+ + +
=
2
2 2
2 3
t 4 9
) 4 t (
181888 t 241508 t 22272 t 42927
80000
1

=
+

+
}
dt
t 4 9 ) 4 t (
1201607 t 89088
80000
1
2 2

+
+
+ + +
=
2
2 2
2 3
t 4 9
) 4 t (
181888 t 241508 t 22272 t 42927
80000
1

2 1
J
80000
1201607
J
80000
89088
+
Therefore
= + =
3 2 1
I I I I
+
+

+ =
2
2
2
2 1
J
100
4797
4 t
t 4 9 t
100
117
) J 37 J 8 (

+
+ + +
+
2
2 2
2 3
t 4 9
) 4 t (
181888 t 241508 t 22272 t 42927
80000
1

2 1
J
80000
1201607
J
80000
89088
+
or

+
+ + +
=
2
2 2
2 3
t 4 9
) 4 t (
181888 t 241508 t 22272 t 42927
80000
1
I

2 1
2
2
J
80000
4161607
J
625
4304
4 t
t 4 9 t
100
117
+ +
+

11.18 Eighteenth Category

830
}
dx ) y , x ( R where the pair ) y , x ( satisfies a relation of the
form 0 ) y , x ( F = and may be rationalized.
We start by doing an example.
Example 1. Evaluate the integral dx ) x 1 ( x I
3
2
}
=
Solution. Using
3
2
) x 1 ( x y = we have ) x 1 ( x y
2 3
= .
Introducing the transformation x t y = , we obtain ) x 1 ( x ) x t (
2 3
= or
) x 1 ( x x t
2 3 3
= , from which we obtain x 1 x t
3
= . Solving the last equation
with respect to x, we find
1 t
1
x
3
+
= and
1 t
1
t x t y
3
+
= = or
1 t
t
y
3
+
= .
We also note that
3
x
x 1
t

= . Since dt
) 1 t (
t 3
dx
2 3
2
+
dt
) 1 t (
t 3
1 t
t
dx y dx ) x 1 ( x
2 3
2
3
3
2
} } }
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
= =
or
dt
) 1 t (
t 3
3 3
3
}
+

The above integral, using the formula (integration by parts)

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

3 3
2
) 1 t (
t 3
+

t
2 3
) 1 t ( 2
1
+

1

we find
831
dt
) 1 t (
1
2
1
) 1 t ( 2
t
dt
) 1 t (
t 3
2 3 2 3 3 3
3
} }
+
+
=
+

The last integral has been evaluated using Ostrogradskys method. The result is

+ + + +
+
=
+
}
| 1 t t | ln
9
1
| 1 t | ln
9
2
1 t
t
3
1
) 1 t (
dx
2
3 2 3

C
3
1 t 2
arctan
9
3 2
+ |
.
|
\
|
+
Therefore we have the value of the integral
+ + +
+
+
| 1 t t | ln
18
1
| 1 t | ln
9
1
1 t
t
6
1
) 1 t ( 2
t
2
3 2 3

C
3
1 t 2
arctan
9
3
+ |
.
|
\
|

where
3
x
x 1
t

= .
Note. The original integral can be evaluated using Chebyshevs Method.
Example 2. Develop a method to evaluate the integral
}
dx ) y , x ( R if x and y
satisfy the relation
2 2
x ) y x ( y = .
Solution. Introducing the transformation x t y = , we obtain
2 2
x ) x t x ( ) x t ( = or
2 2 2
x x ) t 1 ( x t = , from which we obtain 1 x ) t 1 ( t
2
= . Solving the last equation
with respect to x, we find
) t 1 ( t
1
x
2

= . Therefore
) t 1 ( t
1
y
= .
Since dt
) t 1 ( t
2 t 3
dx
2 3


}

|
|
.
|
\
|
dt
) t 1 ( t
2 t 3
) t 1 ( t
1
,
) t 1 ( t
1
R
2 3 2

where t is expressed in terms of x through the relation
832

x
1
t t
2 3
=
Note1. The above relation
2 2
x ) y x ( y = is equivalent to 0 x y x y
2 2 3
= + .
The most general third degree relation which can rationalize an integral of the
form
}
dx ) y , x ( R is given by
0 y H xy G x F y D xy C y x B x A
2 2 3 2 2 3
= + + + + + +
Note 2. The most general th n degree relation, which can rationalize an integral
of the form
}
dx ) y , x ( R is given by
+ + + +
n
n
1 n
1
n
0
x A y x A y A
0 x B y x B y B
1 n
n
2 n
1
1 n
0
= + + + +

833

11.19

Irrational Functions

p
x u = where p is the least common multiple
of the indices of the roots involved.
(1) dx x x 5
}
(2) dx
x x
x 2 x x 4 x 6
2
2
}

(3) dx
x x
5 x x 3 x x 5
3
3
2 2
}

(4) dx
x x 5
3 x x 12 x x 2
3
3
3
2 2
}
+

(1) Hint. Under the substitution x u = , i.e.
2
u x = , du u 2 dx = , the integral
takes on the form C u 2 du u 10
5 4
+ =
}
. Answer. C x x 2
2
+
(2) Hint. Under the substitution x u = , i.e.
2
u x = , du u 2 dx = , the integral
takes on the form du
u
1
u
2
3 4 du
u
) 1 u 2 u 3 ( 4
2 2
2
} }
|
.
|
\
|
=

.
Exercise 1 contains integrals of expressions containing x or
n
m
x or
a combination of roots of different orders.
834
Answer. C
x
4
x ln 4 x 12 + + , 0 x > .
6
x u = ,
6
u x = ,
3
u x = ,
2
3
u x = ,
4
3
2
u x = ,
du u 6 dx
5
= , the integral takes on the form =

}
du
u
5 u 3 u 5
6
3
10 15

C
u 2
5
u
8
3
u
13
5
6 du
u
5
u 3 u 5 6
2
8 13
3
7 12
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = |
.
|
\
|
=
}
.
Answer. C
x 2
5
x x
8
3
x x
13
5
6
3
3 6
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
3
x u = ,
3
u x = ,
2
3
2
u x = , du u 3 dx
2
= , the
integral takes on the form = |
.
|
\
|
+ =
+
} }
du
u
3
u 12 u 2
5
3
du
u
3 u 12 u 2
5
3
2
2 6
2
4 8

C
u
3
u 4 u
7
2
5
3
3 7
+
|
.
|
\
|
= . Answer. C
x
3
x 4 x x
7
2
5
3
3
3
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

First Case. Integrals of the form dx ) b x a , x ( R I
}
+ = are evaluated using
the substitution u b x a = + . Therefore
2
a
b u
x
2

= ,
du u
a
2
dx = . Second Case. Integrals of the form dx ) b x a , x ( R J
n
}
+ = are
evaluated using the substitution t b x a
n
= + . Therefore
n
a
b u
x
n

= , du u
a
n
dx
1 n
= .
Exercise 2 contains integrals of the form dx ) b x a , x ( R
}
+ and
dx ) b x a , x ( R
n
}
+
835

(1) dx
3 x
2 x
}
+
(2) dx
2 x
1 x x
3
}

+

(3) dx
x 4 2
x
}
+
(4) dx
x 2 1
1 x
3
}
+
+

(1) Hint. Using the substitution 3 x u + = , i.e. 3 u x
2
= , du u 2 dx = , the
integral becomes
}
du ) 5 u ( 2
2
. Answer. C 3 x 1
3
) 3 x ( 2
+ +
|
.
|
\
|

+

(2) Hint. Using the substitution
3
1 x u = , i.e. 1 u x
3
+ = , du u 3 dx
2
= , the
integral becomes = |
.
|
\
|
+ +
+
+ + =
+ +
} }
du
1 u u
u
1 u
1
1 u 3 du
1 u
u ) 1 u u (
3
2
2
3
2 3

C
3
1 u 2
arctan 3 ) 1 u u ln(
2
3
| 1 u | ln 3 u 3 u
2 3
+ |
.
|
\
| +
+ + + + + =
Answer. + + + + ) 1 1 x ) 1 x ( ( ln
2
3
1 x 3 1 x
3 3
2
3

C
3
1 1 x 2
arctan 3
3
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+

(3) Hint. Using the substitution x 4 2 u + = , i.e.
4
2 u
x
2

= , du u
2
1
dx = , the
integral becomes C u 2
3
u
8
1
du ) 2 u (
8
1
3
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
}
.
Answer. C x 4 2 ) 1 x (
6
1
+ +
836
(4) Hint. Using the substitution
3
x 2 1 u + = , i.e.
2
1 u
x
3

= , du u
2
3
dx
2
= , the
integral becomes C
2
u
5
u
4
3
du u ) 1 u (
4
3
2 5
3
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = +
}
.
Answer. C ) x 2 1 ( ) 7 x 4 (
40
3 3
2
+ + +

Case I. For integrals of the form dx
d cx
b ax
, x R
}
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+

d cx
b ax
u
+
+
= , solve with respect to x,
2
2
u c a
b u d
x

= and find the differential dx:
du
) u c a (
u
) bc ad ( 2 dx
2 2

= . Therefore the integral transforms into
du
) u c a (
u
u ,
u c a
b u d
R ) bc ad ( 2 I
2 2 2
2

|
|
.
|
\
|

=
}

which is the integral of a rational function.
Case II. For integrals of the form dx
d cx
b ax
, x R
n
}
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
n
d cx
b ax
u
+
+
= , solve with respect to x ,
n
n
u c a
b u d
x

= and find the differential dx:
du
) u c a (
u
) bc ad ( n dx
2 n
1 n

=

. The integral then transforms into
Exercise 3 contains integrals of the form dx
d cx
b ax
, x R
}
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
and
dx
d cx
b ax
, x R
n
}
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+

837
du
) u c a (
u
u ,
u c a
b u d
R ) bc ad ( n J
2 n
1 n
n
n

|
|
.
|
\
|

=

}

which is evaluated using the methods of integration for rational functions.
(1) dx
3 x
1 x
}
+
(2) dx
3 x
1 x
3
}
+

3 x
1 x
u
+
= , solving with respect to x, we find

2
2
u 1
u 3 1
x
+
= and then the differential du
) u 1 (
u 8
dx
2 2
= . The integral then

transforms into =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
+
=
} }
du
) 1 u (
1
1 u
1
) 1 u (
1
1 u
1
2 du
) u 1 (
u 8
2 2 2 2
2

C
1 u
u 4
1 u
1 u
ln 2
2
+
= . Answer. C
3 x
1 x
) 3 x (
3 x 1 x
3 x 1 x
ln 2 +
+
+ +
+ +
+

3
3 x
1 x
u
+
= , solving with respect to x, we find

3
3
u 1
u 3 1
x
+
= and then the differential du
) u 1 (
u 12
dx
2 3
2
= . The integral then

transforms into du
) u 1 (
u 12
2 3
3
}
. Using partial fractions, we find
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
+
+
+ +
+
2 2 2 2 2 3
3
) 1 u u (
) 1 u ( 3
1 u u
3 u
) 1 u (
1
1 u
1
3
4
) u 1 (
u 12

The integral then is evaluated to be
+ + +
}
) 1 u u ln(
3
2
1 u
1
3
4
| 1 u | ln
3
4
du
) u 1 (
u 12
2
2 3
3

C
3
1 u 2
arctan
3
3 4
1 u u
1 u
3
4
2
+ |
.
|
\
| +
+ +
+
838
Answer. Substitute
3
3 x
1 x
u
+
= in the above value of the integral.

Integrals of this type can be evaluated using one of the four methods introduced in
11.5.
(1) dx
3 x 2
1 x 2
}
+

(2) dx
1 x 2
3 x 2
}

+

(1) Hint. Under the substitution 3 x t = , we find 3 t x
2
+ = and then
5 t 2 1 x 2
2
+ = , dt t 2 dx = . The integral then becomes dt
t 2
t 2 5 t 2
2
}
+
+
.
Under a second substitution u sinh
2
5
t = , since u cosh 5 5 t 2
2
= + and
du u cosh
2
5
dt = , the last integral becomes du
u sinh 5 2 2
u sinh u cosh
10 5
2
}
+
.
This integral was evaluated in 10, Example 7(3).
Answer.
(2) Hint. Under the substitution 1 x t = , we find 1 t x
2
+ = and then
5 t 2 3 x 2
2
+ = + , dt t 2 dx = . The integral then becomes dt
t 2
t 2 5 t 2
2
}

+
.
Under a second substitution u sinh
2
5
t = , since u cosh 5 5 t 2
2
= + and
du u cosh
2
5
dt = , the last integral becomes du
u sinh 5 2 2
u sinh u cosh
10 5
2
}

.
About the evaluation of this integral see 10, Example 7, Note.
Answer.
}
+ + = dx ) d x c , b x a , x ( R I
839

(1) dx
4 x
3 x 2
3
}

+
(2) dx
x 4 x 2
x 2 x 3 x 5
3
4
}

+

6
x u = , we have
3
u x = ,
2
3
u x = ,
6
u x = and
du u 6 dx
5
= . Therefore the integral transforms into du u 6
4 u
3 u 2
5
2
3
}

+
, which can
be written as du
2 u
104
2 u
152
128 u 12 u 32 u 3 u 8 u 2 6
2 3 4 6
}
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ + + + + + ,
using partial fractions.
Answer.
12
x u = , we have
6
u x = ,
4
3
u x = ,
3
4
u x = ,
12
u x = and du u 12 dx
11
= . Therefore the integral transforms into
du u 12
u 4 u 2
u 2 u 3 u 5
11
4 6
12 6 3
}

+
+ + + + + + + +
}
du ) u 10 u 52 u 5 u 26 u 13 u 8 u 4 u 2 ( 6
6 7 8 9 11 13 15 17

+ + + + + + +
}
du ) 80 u 416 u 40 u 208 u 20 u 104 ( 6
2 3 4 5

} }

+ +
+
+
2 u
du
2 ) 5 2 26 ( 48
2 u
du
2 ) 5 2 26 ( 48
using partial fractions


dx
d x c
b x a
, ,
d x c
b x a
,
d x c
b x a
, x R I
k
k
2
2
1
1
q
p
q
p
q
p
}
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=
840

For integrals of the form dx ) x b a ( x I
p
n m
}
+ = , where m, n and p are rational
numbers, we use the Chebyshev substitutions.
Algorithm (Chebyshev).
Step 2. If p is a positive integer, expand
p n
) x b a ( + using Newtons binomial
expansion
k p n k
p
0 k
p n
) x b ( a
k
p
) x b a (

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
= + .
If p is not a positive integer, then
Step 3. Calculate
n
1 m+
or p
n
1 m
+
+

Step 4. If
n
1 m+
is an integer, no matter if positive or negative, we use the
substitution
s n
t x b a = + , where s is the denominator of p:
s
r
p =
Step 5. If p
n
1 m
+
+
substitution
s n
t b x a = +
, where s is the denominator of p:

s
r
p =
Step 6. Express t in terms of x
Step 8. Express
m
x ,
p n
) x b a ( + in terms of t.
Step 10. Express the final expression in terms of the original variable x.


dx ) x b a ( x I
p
n m
}
+ =

841
(1) dx
x 1
1
3
3
}
+
(2) dx
) x 1 ( x
1
3
3
}
+
(3) dx
x 1 x
1
3
5
}
+

(1) Hint. The integral can be written as dx ) x 1 (
3 / 1 3
}

+ . In this case we have
0 m = , 3 n = and 3 / 1 p = . Since 0
3
1
3
1
p
3
1 m
= = +
+
, we consider the
substitution
3 3
t 1 x = +
. From this we find

1 3
) 1 t ( x

= ,
x
x 1
t
3
3
+
= and
dt ) 1 t ( t dx
3 / 4 3 2
= . We also find
3 / 1 3 1 3 / 1 3
) 1 t ( t ) x 1 ( = +

. Therefore the
}

dt ) 1 t ( ) t ( ) 1 t ( t
3 / 4 3 2 3 / 1 3 1
which when
simplified becomes
3
1 t 2
arctan
3
3
| 1 t | ln
3
1
) 1 t t ln(
6
1
dt
t 1
t
2
3
+
+ + =
}
.
Answer. Substitute
x
x 1
t
3
3
+
= in the above result.
(2) Hint. The integral can be written as dx ) x 1 ( x
3 3 / 1 1
}

1 m = , 3 / 1 n = and 3 p = . Since 0
3
1 m
=
+
, we consider the substitution
t x 1
3 / 1
= + . From this we find
3
) 1 t ( x = and dt ) 1 t ( 3 dx
2
= . Therefore the
}

dt ) 1 t ( 3 t ) 1 t (
2 3 3
which when simplified becomes
C
t 2
1
t
1
t
1 t
ln 3
) 1 t ( t
dt
3
2 3
+
+ +
}

Answer. Substitute
3
x 1 t + = in the above result.
3 / 1 5 1
}

842
1 m = , 5 n = and 3 / 1 p = . Since 0
n
1 m
=
+
3 5
t x 1 = + . From this we find
5 / 1 3
) 1 t ( x = , dt ) 1 t ( t
5
3
dx
5 / 4 3 2
= ,
1 3 / 1 5
t ) x 1 (

= + ,
5 / 1 3 1
) 1 t ( x

= and
3 / 1 5
) x 1 ( t + = . Therefore the integral
takes on the form =
=
} }

dt
1 t
t
5
3
dt ) 1 t ( t
5
3
t ) 1 t (
3
5 / 4 3 2
1
5 / 1 3

C
3
1 t 2
arctan
3
3
| 1 t | ln
3
1
) 1 t t ln(
6
1
5
3
2
+
)
`
+
+ + + + = .
Answer. Substitute
3 / 1 5
) x 1 ( t + = in the previous result.
(1) dx
x
x 1
}
+
(2) dx ) x 1 ( x
3
2
}
(3) dx ) x 1 ( x
3
2 3 5
}
+
2 / 1 2 / 1 1
}
+
. In this case we
have 1 m = , 2 / 1 n = and 2 / 1 p = . Since 0
n
1 m
=
+
, we consider the
substitution
2 2 / 1
2 2
) 1 t ( x = ,
2 2 1
) 1 t ( x

= ,
t ) x 1 (
2 / 1 2 / 1
= + and dt ) 1 t ( t 4 dx
2
= . Therefore the integral takes on the form
dt
1 t
t
4
2
2
}

. Using partial fractions,
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ =
1 t
1
1 t
1
2
1
1
1 t
t
2
2
, we find
C
1 t
1 t
ln 2 t 4 dt
1 t
t
4
2
2
+
+
+ =
}
.
Answer. Substitute
2 / 1 2 / 1
) x 1 ( t + = in the above expression.
3 / 1 2 3 / 1
}
. In this case we have
3 / 1 m= , 2 n = and 3 / 1 p = . Since 1 p
n
1 m
= +
+
3 2
t 1 x =
. From this we find

2 / 1 3
) 1 t ( x

+ = ,
6 / 1 3 3 / 1
) 1 t ( x

+ = ,
843
3 / 1 3 3 / 1 2
) 1 t ( t ) x 1 (

+ = , dt ) 1 t ( t
2
3
dx
2 / 3 3 2
+ = and
3 / 1 2
) 1 x ( t =

.
dt
) 1 t (
t
2
3
dt ) 1 t ( t ) 1 t ( t ) 1 t (
2
3
2 3
3
2 / 3 3 2 3 / 1 3 6 / 1 3
} }
+
= + + +

which can be evaluated using Ostrogradsky to give
C
3
1 t 2
arctan
2
3
| 1 t | ln
2
1
) 1 t t ( ln
4
1
t
2
3
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ + + +
Answer. Substitute
3 / 1 2
) 1 x ( t =

in the previous expression.
3 / 2 3 5
}
5 m = , 3 n = and 3 / 2 p = . Since 2
n
1 m
=
+
3 3
3 / 1 3
) x 1 ( t + = ,
3 / 1 3
) 1 t ( x = ,
3 / 5 3 5
) 1 t ( x = ,
2 3 / 2 3
t ) x 1 ( = + and dt ) 1 t ( t dx
3 / 2 3 2
C
5
t
8
t
dt ) 1 t ( t dt ) 1 t ( t t ) 1 t (
5 8
3 4 3 / 2 3 2 2 3 / 5 3
+ = =
} }

Answer. Substitute
3 / 1 3
(1) dx x 1
3 4
}
+ (2) dx
x
x 1
5
4
}

(3)
}
+
5 11
x 1 x
dx

3 / 1 4 / 1
}
0 m = , 4 / 1 n = and 3 / 1 p = . Since 4
n
1 m
=
+
3 4 / 1
3 / 1 4 / 1
) x 1 ( t + = ,
4 3
) 1 t ( x = and
dt ) 1 t ( t 12 dx
3 3 2
= . Therefore the integral becomes =
}
dt ) 1 t ( t 12
3 3 3

844
C t 3 t
7
36
t
5
18
t
13
12
4 7 10 13
+ + =
Answer. Substitute
3 / 1 4 / 1
2 / 1 4 5
}


5 m = , 4 n = and 2 / 1 p = . Since 1
n
1 m
=
+
2 4
t x 1 = . From this we find
4 / 1 2
) t 1 ( x = ,
4 / 5 2 5
) t 1 ( x

= , t ) x 1 (
2 / 1 4
= ,
dt ) t 1 ( t
2
1
dx
4 / 3 2
= and
2 / 1 4
) x 1 ( t = . Therefore the integral becomes
C
) t 1 ( 4
t
1 t
1 t
ln
8
1
dt
) t 1 (
t
2
1
2 2 2
2
+
+
=
}

Answer. Substitute
2 / 1 4
) x 1 ( t = in the previous expression.
2 / 1 5 11
}

+ . In this case we
have 11 m = , 5 n = and 2 / 1 p = . Since 2
n
1 m
=
+
, we consider the
substitution
2 5
2 / 1 5
) x 1 ( t + = ,
5 / 1 2
) 1 t ( x = ,
5 / 11 2 11
) 1 t ( x

= ,
1 2 / 1 5
t ) x 1 (

= + and dt ) 1 t ( t
5
2
dx
5 / 4 2
= . Therefore the
integral becomes
2 2 2 3 2
) 1 t ( 10
t
1 t
t
20
3
1 t
1 t
ln
40
3
) 1 t (
dt
5
2
+
+
}

Answer. Substitute
2 / 1 5
(1) dx
x
x 1
3 4
}
+
(2) dx
x
x 1
2
3
3
}
+
(3) dx ) x 1 ( x
4
3
}
+
845
3 / 1 4 / 1 2 / 1
}
+
. In this case we
have 2 / 1 m = , 4 / 1 n = and 3 / 1 p = . Since 2
n
1 m
=
+
, we consider the
substitution
3 4 / 1
3 / 1 4 / 1
) x 1 ( t + = ,
4 3
) 1 t ( x = ,
2 3 2 / 1
) 1 t ( x

= , t ) x 1 (
3 / 1 4 / 1
= + and dt ) 1 t ( t 12 dx
3 3 2
= . Therefore the
integral becomes C t 3 t
7
12
dt ) 1 t ( t 12
4 7 3 3
+ =
}

Answer. Substitute
3 / 1 4 / 1
3 / 1 3 2
}
+

2 m = , 3 n = and 3 / 1 p = . Since 0 p
n
1 m
= +
+
3 3
t 1 x = +
. From this we find

3 / 1 3
) 1 x ( t + =

,
3 / 1 3
) 1 t ( x

= ,
3 / 2 3 2
) 1 t ( x =
,
3 / 1 3 3 / 1 3
) 1 t ( t ) x 1 (

= + and dt ) 1 t ( t dx
3 / 4 3 2
becomes C
3
1 t 2
arctan
3
3
| 1 t | ln
3
1
) 1 t t ln(
6
1
t dt
1 t
t
2
3
3
+ |
.
|
\
| +
+ + + + =
}

Answer. Substitute
3 / 1 3
) 1 x ( t + =

in the previous expression.
(3) Hint. The integrand, by expanding the binomial, can be written as
6 / 11 2 / 3 6 / 7 6 / 5 2 / 1 4
3
x x 4 x 6 x 4 x ) x 1 ( x + + + + = +
Answer. C x x
17
6
x x
5
8
x x
13
36
x x
11
24
x x
3
2 6
5 2 2
6
2
6
5
+ + + + +
(1)
}
+
4
4
x 1
dx
(2)
}
+
3
2
x 1 x
dx

4 / 1 4
}

0 m = , 4 n = and 4 / 1 p = . Since 0 p
n
1 m
= +
+
846
4 4
t 1 x = +
. From this we find

4 / 1 4
) 1 x ( t + =

,
4 / 1 4
) 1 t ( x

= ,
4 / 1 4 1 4 / 1 4
) 1 t ( t ) x 1 ( = +

and dt ) 1 t ( t dx
4 / 5 4 3
becomes C t arctan
2
1
1 t
1 t
ln
4
1
dt
1 t
t
4
2
+
+
=
}

Answer. Substitute
4 / 1 4
) 1 x ( t + =

in the above expression.
3 / 1 2 1
}

1 m = , 2 n = and 3 / 1 p = . Since 0
n
1 m
=
+
3 2
3 / 1 2
) x 1 ( t + = ,
2 / 1 3
) 1 t ( x = ,
2 / 1 3 1
) 1 t ( x

= ,
1 3 / 1 2
t ) x 1 (

= + and dt ) 1 t ( t
2
3
dx
2 / 1 3 2
C
3
1 t 2
arctan
2
3
| 1 t | ln
2
1
) 1 t t ln(
4
1
dt
1 t
t
2
3
2
3
+ |
.
|
\
| +
+ + + + =
}

Answer. Substitute
3 / 1 2

(A) Integrals of the form dx ) x a , x ( R
2 2
}
+ are evaluated using
[1] Trigonometric substitution. Set t tan a x = . We thus have
t sec a ) t tan 1 ( a ) t tan a ( a x a
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
= + = + = + and then
t sec a x a
2 2
= + and dt t sec a dx
2
=
[2] Hyperbolic substitution. Set t sinh a x = . We thus have
t cosh a ) t sinh 1 ( a sinh) a ( a x a
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
= + = + = + and then
t cosh a x a
2 2
= + and t cosh a dx =
Exercises 11-13 contain integrals of the form dx ) x a , x ( R
2 2
}
+ ,
dx ) x a , x ( R
2 2
}
and dx ) a x , x ( R
2 2
}

847
(B) Integrals of the form dx ) x a , x ( R
2 2
}
are evaluated using
[1] Trigonometric substitution. Set t cos a x = . We thus have
t sin a ) t cos 1 ( a ) t cos a ( a x a
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
= = = and then
t sin a x a
2 2
= and dt t sin a dx =
[2] Hyperbolic substitution. Set t tanh a x = . We thus have
t h sec a ) t tanh 1 ( a ) t tanh a ( a x a
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
= = = and then
ht sec a x a
2 2
= and dt t h sec a dx
2
=
(C) Integrals of the form dx ) a x , x ( R
2 2
}
are evaluated using
[1] Trigonometric substitution. Set t sec a x = . We thus have
t tan a ) 1 t (sec a a ) t sec a ( a x
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
= = = and then
t tan a a x
2 2
= and dt t sec t sin a dx
2
=
[2] Hyperbolic substitution. Set t cosh a x = . We thus have
t sinh a ) 1 t (cosh a a ) h cosh a ( a x
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
= = = and then
t sinh a a x
2 2
= and dt t sinh a dx =
(1) dx
9 x
x
2
2
}
+
(2) dx
9 x
x
2
2
}

(3) dx
x 9
x
2
2
}

(1) Hint. Set t tan 3 x = . We then have
t cos
3
9 x
2
= + and dt
t cos
3
dx
2
= .
2
9
t sin
2
9
t cos
t sin
2
9
dt
t cos
t tan
9
2
3 2
+ + + =
}

848
Answer. Substitute
3
x
t tan = ,
9 x
x
t sin
2
+
= ,
9 x
3
t cos
2
+
= in the above
expression.
(2) Hint. Set t sec 3 x = . We then have t tan 3 9 x
2
= and tdt sec t sin 3 dx
2
= .
2
9
t cos
t sin
2
9
dt
t tan
t sin t sec
9
2
4
+ + + =
}

Answer. Substitute
x
3
t cos = ,
x
9 x
t sin
2

= and
3
9 x
t tan
2

= in the above
expression.
(3) Hint. Set t cos 3 x = . We then have t sin 3 x 9
2
= and dt t sin 3 dx = .
Therefore the integral becomes C t
2
9
t 2 sin
4
9
dt t cos 9
2
+ =
}

Answer. Substitute
|
.
|
\
|
=
3
x
arccos t ,
2
x 9 x
9
2
t 2 sin = in the above expression.
(1) dx
5 x
x
2
2
}
+
(2) dx
5 x
x
2
2
}

(3) dx
x 5
x
2
2
}

(1) Hint. Set t tan 5 x = . We then have
t cos
5
5 x
2
= + and dt
t cos
5
dx
2
= .
2
5
t sin
2
5
t cos
t sin
2
5
dt
t cos
t tan
5
2
3 2
+ + + =
}

Answer. Substitute
5
x
t tan = ,
5 x
x
t sin
2
+
= ,
5 x
5
t cos
2
+
= in the above
expression.
849
(2) Hint. Set t sec 5 x = . We then have t tan 5 5 x
2
= and
dt t sec t sin 5 dx
2
2
5
t cos
t sin
2
5
dt
t tan
t sin t sec
5
2
4
+ + + =
}

Answer. Substitute
x
5
t cos = ,
x
5 x
t sin
2

= and
5
5 x
t tan
2

= in the above
expression.
(3) Hint. Set t cos 5 x = . We then have t sin 5 x 5
2
= and
dt t sin 5 dx = . Therefore the integral becomes
C t
2
5
t 2 sin
4
5
dt t cos 5
2
+ =
}

Answer. Substitute |
.
|
\
|
=
5
x
arccos t ,
2
x 5 x
5
2
t 2 sin = in the above expression
(1) dx
9 x
x
4
5
}
+

(1) Hint. Use the substitution
2
x u = . Since dx x 2 du = , we have du u
2
1
dx x
2 5
=
and thus the integral transforms into dx
9 u
u
2
1
2
2
}
+
.

}
+ +
=
2 2 2 2
1
x a ) p x (
dx
J ,
}
+
=
2 2 2 2
2
x a ) p x (
dx
J and
}
+
=
2 2 2 2
3
a x ) p x (
dx
J

850

}
+ +
=
2 2 2 2
1
x a ) p x (
dx
J ,
}
+
=
2 2 2 2
2
x a ) p x (
dx
J

}
+
=
2 2 2 2
3
a x ) p x (
dx
J
are evaluated using the same methods introduced in Exercises 11-13 (see also
11.9). Since these integrals have the general form
}
+ +
=
b x a ) B x A (
dx
J
2 2
,
they can be evaluated under the substitution
b x a
x
t
2
+
= , (Abels substitutions).
In this case they are converted to
}
+
=
B t ) B a b A (
dt
J
2
.
(1)
}
+ + 4 x ) 9 x (
dx
2 2
(2)
}
+ 4 x ) 9 x (
dx
2 2
(3)
}
+
2 2
x 4 ) 9 x (
dx

4 x
x
t
2
+
5 3 t 5
5 3 t 5
ln
30
5
9 t 5
dt
2

+
=
+
}
. Going back to the original variable, we obtain the
following
Answer.
4 x
x
t
2

13 3 t 13
13 3 t 13
ln
78
13
9 t 13
dt
2

+
=
+
}
. Going back to the original variable, we obtain
the following
Answer.
851
2
x 4
x
t

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
}
t
3
13
arctan
39
13
9 t 13
dt
2
the following
Answer.

(1)
}
+ + 4 x ) 16 x (
dx
2 2
(2)
}
+ 4 x ) 16 x (
dx
2 2
(3)
}
+
2 2
x 4 ) 16 x (
dx

4 x
x
t
2
+
3 2 t 3
3 2 t 3
ln
48
3
16 t 12
dt
2

+
=
+
}
the following
Answer.
4 x
x
t
2

5 2 t 5
5 2 t 5
ln
80
5
16 t 20
dt
2

+
=
+
}
the following
Answer.
2
x 4
x
t

852
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
}
t
2
5
arctan
40
5
16 t 20
dt
2
following Answer. C
x 4
x
2
5
arctan
40
5
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

(1)
}
+ + 9 x ) 4 x (
dx
2 2
(2)
}
+ 9 x ) 4 x (
dx
2 2
(3)
}
+
2 2
x 9 ) 4 x (
dx

9 x
x
t
2
+
5 2 t 5
5 2 t 5
ln
20
5
4 t 5
dt
2

+
=
+
}
following
Answer.
9 x
x
t
2

13 2 t 13
13 2 t 13
ln
52
13
4 t 13
dt
2

+
=
+
}
the following
Answer.
2
x 9
x
t

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
}
t
2
13
arctan
26
13
4 t 13
dt
2
the following
Answer.

853

Integrals of the form dx ) c x b x a , x ( R
2
}
+ + are evaluated using either the
known method of completing the square, or the formula
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + +
2
2
2
a 4
D
a 2
b
x a c x b x a , where D is the discriminant of the
trinomial: c a 4 b D
2
= .
I) If 0 a > then
2
2
2
a 4
D
a 2
b
x a c x b x a
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + +
I a) If 0 D > , we use the substitutions u
a 2
b
x = + and
a 2
D
= ( 0 > )
2 2 2
u a c x b x a = + +
I b) If 0 D< ( 0 D > ), we use the substitutions u
a 2
b
x = + and
a 2
D
= ( 0 > )
2 2 2
u a c x b x a + = + +
II) If 0 a < then
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + +
2
2
2
a 2
b
x
a 4
D
) a ( c x b x a and thus

2
2
2
a 2
b
x
a 4
D
a c x b x a
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + +
I I a) If 0 D > , we use the substitutions u
a 2
b
x = + and
a 2
D
= ( 0 > )
2 2 2
u a c x b x a = + +
Exercises 17 and 18 contain integrals of the form
dx ) c x b x a , x ( R
2
}
+ +

854
I I b) If 0 D < , we use the substitution u
a 2
b
x = + and
a 2
D
= ( 0 > )
2 2 2
u a c x b x a = + +
Alternatively, we may also use the Euler substitutions described in 11.11.
(1)
}
+ 1 x 5 x 4
dx
2
(2)
}
+ 3 x 4 x 2
dx
2
(3)
}
+ 2 x 4 x 4
dx
2

(1) Hint.
|
.
|
\
|
= +
64
9
8
5
x 4 1 x 5 x 4
2
2
. Introducing the substitution
u
8
3
8
5
x = , the integral transforms into C | 1 u u | ln
2
1
1 u
du
2
1
2
2
+ + =
}

Answer. Substitute
8
5 x 8
u

= in the above expression.
(2) Hint.
)
`
+ = +
2
1
) 1 x ( 2 3 x 4 x 2
2 2
u
2
1
1 x = , the integral transforms into C | 1 u u | ln
2
1
1 u
du
2
1
2
2
+ + + =
+
}

Answer. Substitute ) 1 x ( 2 u = in the above expression.
(3) Hint.
+
|
.
|
\
|
= +
4
1
2
1
x 4 2 x 4 x 4
2
2
u
2
1
2
1
x = , the integral transforms into C | 1 u u | ln
2
1
1 u
du
2
1
2
2
+ + + =
+
}

Answer. Substitute 1 x 2 u = in the above expression.
(1)
}
+
2
x x 2 4
dx
(2)
}
+
2
x 4 x 12 3
dx
(3)
}

2
x 9 x 12 7
dx

(1) Hint.
2 2
) 1 x ( 5 x x 2 4 = + . Under the substitution u 5 1 x = the
integral transforms into C u arcsin
u 1
du
2
+ =
}
. Answer. C
5
1 x
arcsin + |
.
|
\
|

855
(2) Hint.
|
.
|
\
|
= +
2
2
2
3
x 3 4 x 4 x 12 3 . Under the substitution u 3
2
3
x = ,
the integral becomes C u arcsin
2
1
u 1
du
2
1
2
+ =
}
. Answer. C
3 2
3 x 2
arcsin + |
.
|
\
|

(3) Hint.
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
2
2
3
2
x
9
11
9 x 9 x 12 7 . Under the substitution
u
3
11
3
2
x = + , the integral becomes C u arcsin
3
1
u 1
du
3
1
2
+ =
}
.
Answer. C
11
2 x 3
arcsin + |
.
|
\
| +

In this case we use the formula
dx
c x b x a
1
c x b x a ) x ( Q dx
c x b x a
) x ( P
2
2
2
} }
+ +
+ + + =
+ +
(1)
where ) x ( Q is a polynomial of ) 1 n ( th degree (less by one than ) x ( P ) with
coefficients to be determined and is also a constant to be determined.
The coefficients of ) x ( Q and the constant are determined by differentiation of
(1) with respect to x and multiplying through by c x b x a
2
+ + . We then turn to
the evaluation of the integral dx
c x b x a
1
2
}
+ +
.
(1) dx
3 x 5
3 x x 2 x
2
2 3
}
+
+ +
(2) dx
2 x 2 x
1 x x 2
2
2
}
+
+

Exercise 19 contain integrals of the form dx
c x b x a
) x ( P
2
}
+ +
, 0 a = and
0 D = , where ) x ( P is a polynomial of n-th degree.

856
(1) Hint. Use the identity

} }
+
+ + + + =
+
+ +
3 x 5
dx
3 x 5 ) c x b x a ( dx
3 x 5
3 x x 2 x
2
2 2
2
2 3

and differentiate both members. We find

3 x 5
1
3 x 5
) c x b x a ( x 5
3 x 5 ) b x a 2 (
3 x 5
3 x x 2 x
2 2
2
2
2
2 3
+
+
+
+ +
+ + + =
+
+ +

Multiplying by 3 x 5
2
+ both members of the previous identity we obtain
+ + + + + = + + b 3 x ) c 5 a 6 ( x b 10 x a 15 3 x x 2 x
2 3 2 3

1 a 15 = , 2 5 b 10 = + , 1 c 5 a 6 = + , 3 b 3 = +
The previous system admits the solution
15
1
a = ,
5
13
b = ,
25
7
c = ,
5
24
= .
We thus have

} }
+
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
+
+ +
3 x 5
dx
5
24
3 x 5
25
7
x
5
13
x
15
1
dx
3 x 5
3 x x 2 x
2
2 2
2
2 3

We also obtain for the last integral (which is elementary)
5
3
x x ln
5
1
5
3
x
dx
5
1
3 x 5
dx
2
2
2
+ + =
+
=
+
} }

Answer. C
5
3
x x ln
5 5
24
3 x 5
25
7
x
5
13
x
15
1
2 2 2
+ + + +
|
.
|
\
|
+
(2) Hint. Use the identity

} }
+
+ + + =
+
+
2 x 2 x
dx
2 x 2 x ) b x a ( dx
2 x 2 x
1 x x 2
2
2
2
2

and differentiate both members. We obtain
2 x 2 x
1
2 x 2 x
) b x a ( ) 1 x (
2 x 2 x a
2 x 2 x
1 x x 2
2 2
2
2
2
+
+
+
+
+ + =
+
+

857
Multiplying both members of the above identity by 2 x 2 x
2
+ , we obtain
+ + + + = + b a 2 x ) b a 3 ( x a 2 1 x x 2
2 2

2 a 2 = , 1 b a 3 = + , 1 b a 2 = +
Solving the above system we obtain 1 a = , 2 b = , 1 = . We thus have
} }
+
+ + + =
+
+
2 x 2 x
dx
2 x 2 x ) 2 x ( dx
2 x 2 x
1 x x 2
2
2
2
2

The last integral is evaluated to be (see Exercises 17 and 18)
| 2 x 2 x 1 x | ln
2 x 2 x
dx
2
2
+ + =
+
}

Answer. C | 2 x 2 x 1 x | ln 2 x 2 x ) 2 x (
2 2
+ + + + + +

In this case we use the transform
m x
1
t
= .
(1)
}
4 x x
dx
2 3
(2)
}
+ 2 x 2 x x
dx
2 2

(1) Hint. Under the transformation
x
1
t = , i.e.
t
1
x = and dt
t
1
dx
2
= , the integral
becomes dt
t 4 1
t
2
2
}

. Using t 2 u = another transformation, we obtain the
integral dt
u 1
u
8
1
2
2
}

, which can be evaluated using integration by parts, or
the method of Exercise 19. We find u arcsin
2
1
u 1 u
2
1
dt
u 1
u
2
2
2
+ =
}

Answer.
Exercise 20 contain integrals of the form
}
+ + c x b x a ) m x (
x d
2 n
, 0 a =
where n is a positive integer ( 1 n > )
a polynomial of n-th degree.

858
(2) Hint. Under the transformation
x
1
t = , i.e.
t
1
x = and dt
t
1
dx
2
= , the integral
becomes dt
t 2 t 2 1
t
2
}
+
, which can be evaluated according to the method of
Exercise 19, or more simply by observing that
} } }
+
+
+

=
+
2 2 2
t 2 t 2 1
dt
2
1
dt
t 2 t 2 1
2 t 4
4
1
dt
t 2 t 2 1
t

2
t 2 t 2 1 u + = , we have
2
2
t 2 t 2 1 2 u 2
u
du
dt
t 2 t 2 1
2 t 4
+ = = =
+

} }

Since
+
|
.
|
\
|
= +
4
1
2
1
t 2 t 2 t 2 1
2
2
, under the substitution w
2
1
2
1
t = , we have
= + + =
+
=
+
} }
| 1 w w | ln
2
1
1 w
dw
2
1
t 2 t 2 1
dt
2
2 2

| 1 ) 1 t 2 ( 1 t 2 | ln
2
1
2
+ + =
Answer.

b x a ) B x A (
x
I
2 2
}
+ +
=
and dx
b x a ) B x A (
1
J
2 2
}
+ +
=

859
Case I . For the integral dx
b x a ) B x A (
x
I
2 2
}
+ +
= we use the transformation
b x a
1
t
2
+
= and we transform the integral into
}
+
=
2
t ) b A B a ( A
dt
I .
Case I I . For the integral dx
b x a ) B x A (
1
J
2 2
}
+ +
= we use the transformation
b x a
x
t
2
+
= and transform the integral into dt
B t ) B a b A (
1
J
2
}
+
= .
Note. See 11.13 for explaining the algorithmic procedure.
(1) dx
2 x 3 ) 1 x (
x
2 2
}
+ +
(2) dx
5 x 3 ) 3 x 2 (
x
2 2
}
+ +

(3) dx
4 x 3 ) 1 x 2 (
1
2 2
}
+ +
(4) dx
3 x 2 ) 5 x 3 (
1
2 2
}
+ +

2 x 3
1
t
2
+
= the integral transforms into
C t arctan
t 1
dt
2
+ =
+
}
. Answer. C
2 x 3
1
arctan
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+

5 x 3
1
t
2
+
2 t
2 t
ln
2 2
1
2 t
dt
2
+
}
. Answer. C
2
5 x 3
1
2
5 x 3
1
ln
2 2
1
2
2
+
+
+
+
or
C
10 x 6 1
10 x 6 1
ln
2 2
1
2
2
+
+ +
+

860
4 x 3
x
t
2
+
) t 5 arctan(
5
5
dt
1 t 5
1
2
=
+
}
. Answer. C
4 x 3
x 5
arctan
5
5
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+

3 x 2
x
t
2
+
5 t
5 t
ln
5 2
1
dt
t 5
1
2

+
=
}
. Answer. C
15 x 10 x
15 x 10 x
ln
5 2
1
2
2
+
+
+ +

1 t
t
x
2 1
+
+
= where
2 1
, satisfy the system
of equations
b
) c p a ( 2

2
2 1

= + ,
2
2 1
p = . The integral transforms into an
integral of the form dx
c x a ) p x (
B x A
1
2
1
2 2
1 1
}
+ +
+
which can be evaluated using the
method of the previous Exercise 21.
4 x 3 x ) 4 x (
5 x 2
2 2
}
+ +

(1) Hint. The
2 1
, satisfy the system of equations 0
2 1
= + , 4
2 1
= .
Therefore 2 , 2
2 1
= = . Under the transformation
1 t
2 t 2
x
+
= the various
quantities appearing to the integral transform as
1 t
9 t
5 x 2
+
+
= ,
2
2
2
) 1 t (
) 1 t ( 8
4 x
+
+
= + ,
2
2
2
) 1 t (
) 7 t ( 2
4 x 3 x
+
+
= + and dt
) 1 t (
4
dx
2
+
= . Therefore the
c x b x a ) p x (
B x A
2 2 2
}
+ + +
+

861
integral takes on the form dt
) 1 t (
4
) 1 t (
) 7 t ( 2
) 1 t (
) 1 t ( 8
1 t
9 t
2
2
2
2
2
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
}
which simplifies
into dt
7 t ) 1 t (
9 t
2 2
1
2 2
}
+ +
+
. The last integral can be written as the sum of
two integrals
2 1
2 2 2 2
I 9 I dt
7 t ) 1 t (
1
9 dt
7 t ) 1 t (
t
+ =
+ +
+
+ +
} }

7 t
1
u
2
+
= the integral
1
I transforms into (see 11.13)
1 u 6
1 u 6
ln
6 2
1
1 u 6
du
2

+
=
}
. Under the substitution
7 t
t
w
2
+
= the integral
2
I
transforms into (see 11.13) ) w 6 arctan(
6
6
1 w 6
dw
2
=
+
}
. We thus have
= + =
+ +
+
}
) I 9 I (
2 2
1
dt
7 t ) 1 t (
9 t
2 2
1
2 1
2 2

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
+ +
=
7 t
t 6
arctan
2
6 3
7 t 6
7 t 6
ln
6 2
1
2 2
1
2 2
2

The previous result has to be expressed in terms of x. Solving the substitution
1 t
2 t 2
x
+
= used previously with respect to t, we find

x 2
x 2
t
+
= .
Answer. Substitute
x 2
x 2
t
+
= in the value of the integral evaluated above.


dx
M x L
2 2
}
+ + + +
+

862
1 t
t
x
2 1
+
+
= where
1
,
2
satisfy the system
of equations
B a b A
) c A C a ( 2

2 1
= + and
B a b A
C b c B

2 1
= .
(1) dx
3 x 2 x 3 ) 1 x x 2 (
4 x 3
2 2
}
+ +
+

(2) dx
2 x x 2 ) 1 x x (
3 x 2
2 2
}
+ +
+

(1) Hint. We find 6
2 1
= + and 1
2 1
= . Therefore
2 1
, are the two roots
of the equation 0 1 6
2
= + , i.e. 2 2 3
1
+ = and 2 2 3
2
= or the
opposite. The substitution
1 t
t
x
2 1
+
+
= transforms the various quantities
appearing into the integral, as
1 t
2 6 13 t ) 2 6 13 (
4 x 3
+
+ +
= + ,
) m t (
) 1 t (
) 2 11 16 ( 2
1 x x 2
2
2
2
+
+
+
= + , ) n t (
) 1 t (
) 2 2 3 ( 16
3 x 2 x 3
2
2
2
+
+
+
= +
and dt
) 1 t (
2 4
dx
2
+
= , where
89
2 44
356
249
m + = ( 0 m < ) and 2 12 17 n =
( 0 n > ). Therefore the integral becomes
dt
) 1 t (
2 4
) n t (
) 1 t (
) 2 2 3 ( 16
) m t (
) 1 t (
) 2 11 16 ( 2
1 t
2 6 13 t ) 2 6 13 (
2
2
2
2
2
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
}

which can be written as dt
n t ) m t (
2 6 13 t ) 2 6 13 (
A
2 2
}
+ +
+ +
, where
2 2 3 ) 2 11 16 ( 2
2
A
+ +
= . The last integral is written as
863
2 1
I ) 2 6 13 ( A I ) 2 6 13 ( A + +

where
dt
n t ) m t (
t
I
2 2
1 }
+ +
= and dt
n t ) m t (
1
I
2 2
2 }
+ +
=
The integral
1
I is evaluated using the substitution
n t
1
u
2
+
= . It then transforms
into
u m n 1
u m n 1
ln
m n 2
1
u ) n m ( 1
du
I
2
1

+
=
+
=
}

The integral
2
n t
t
w
2
+
= . It then
transforms into
) m ( w m n
) m ( w m n
ln
) m n ( ) m ( 2
1
w ) m n ( m
dw
I
2
2

=
+
=
}

Answer.
(2) Hint. We find 0
2 1
= + and 1
2 1
= . Therefore
2 1
, are the two
roots of the equation 0 1
2
= , i.e. 1
1
= and 1
2
= or the opposite.
The substitution
1 t
1 t
1 t
t
x
2 1
+
=
+
+
= transforms the various quantities appearing
into the integral, as
1 t
1 t 5
3 x 2
+
+
= + , ) 3 t (
) 1 t (
1
1 x x
2
2
2
+
+
= + ,
) 5 t 3 (
) 1 t (
1
2 x x 2
2
2
2
+
+
= + and dt
) 1 t (
2
dx
2
+
transforms into dt
) 1 t (
2
) 1 t (
5 t 3
) 1 t (
3 t
1 t
1 t 5
2
2
2
2
2
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
}
. This integral can be simplified
further to
2 1
2 2
I 2 I 10 dt
5 t 3 ) 3 t (
1 t 5
2 + =
+ +
+
}
with
dt
5 t 3 ) 3 t (
t
I
2 2
1 }
+ +
= and dt
5 t 3 ) 3 t (
1
I
2 2
2 }
+ +
= .

864
The integral
1
5 t 3
1
u
2
+
= :
) u 2 arctan(
2
1
u 4 1
du
I
2
1
=
+
=
}
. The integral
2
I is evaluated using the
substitution
5 t 3
t
u
2
+
= :
3 u 2
3 u 2
ln
12
3
3 u 4
du
I
2
2
+
=
=
}
.
Therefore

=
+ + +
+
}
dx
c x b x a ) p x (
B x A
2 n 2 2

+ + +
+
+ + +
=

c x b x a
) p x (
A x A x A
2
1 n 2 2
3 n 2
4 n 2
1
3 n 2
0

dx
c x b x a ) p x (
M x L
2 2 2
}
+ + +
+
+
The unknown coefficients
3 n 2 1 0
A , , A , A

and L, M are determined by
differentiation of the above identity with respect to x and equating the
coefficients of the similar powers of the variable x.
(1) dx
3 x 2 x 3 ) 4 x (
2 x 3
2 2 2
}
+ +

(2) dx
2 x x 2 ) 1 x (
3 x 2
2 3 2
}
+ +

(1) Hint. We set
+ +
+
+
=
+ +

}
3 x 2 x 3
4 x
A x A
dx
3 x 2 x 3 ) 4 x (
2 x 3
2
2
1 0
2 2 2


dx
c x b x a ) p x (
B x A
2 n 2 2
}
+ + +
+

865
dx
3 x 2 x 3 ) 4 x (
M x L
2 2
}
+ +
+
+
Differentiation of the previous identity with respect to x, we find
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
=
+ +

3 x 2 x 3
) 4 x (
) A x A ( 2
4 x
A
3 x 2 x 3 ) 4 x (
2 x 3
2
2 2
1 0
2
0
2 2 2

3 x 2 x 3 ) 4 x (
M x L
3 x 2 x 3 ) 4 x (
) A x A ( ) 1 x 3 (
2 2 2 2
1 0
+ +
+
+
+ +
+
+
Multiplying the above identity by 3 x 2 x 3 ) 4 x (
2 2 2
+ + , we obtain
+ + + + + + =
1 0 1 0
2
1 0
3
1 0
A 4 A 12 x ) A 6 A 12 ( x ) A 3 A 21 ( x ) A 3 A ( 2 x 3
) 4 x )( M x L (
2
+ + + . Equating the coefficients of the similar powers of x, we
obtain the system
0 L A 3 A
1 0
= + , 0 M A 3 A 21
1 0
= + + , 3 L 4 A 6 A 12
1 0
= + + ,
2 M 4 A 4 A 12
1 0
= +

388
9
A
0
= ,
97
2
A
1
= ,
388
15
L = and
388
213
M =
Therefore we have
+ +
+
+
=
+ +

}
3 x 2 x 3
) 4 x ( 388
8 x 9
dx
3 x 2 x 3 ) 4 x (
2 x 3
2
2
2 2 2

dx
3 x 2 x 3 ) 4 x (
213 x 15
388
1
2 2
}
+ +

+
Answer.

(2) Hint. We set

+ +
+
+ + +
=
+ +

}
2 x x 2
) 1 x (
A x A x A x A
dx
2 x x 2 ) 1 x (
3 x 2
2
2 2
3 2
2
1
3
0
2 3 2

dx
2 x x 2 ) 1 x (
M x L
2 2
}
+ +
+
+
Differentiation of the previous identity with respect to x, we obtain
866

=
+ +

2 x x 2 ) 1 x (
3 x 2
2 3 2

+
+
+ + +
+ +
+
+
=
1 x
) A x A x A x A ( 4
) A x A 2 x A 3 (
) 1 x (
2 x x 2
2
3 2
2
1
3
0
2 1
2
0
2 2
2

2 x x 2 ) 1 x (
M x L
2 2
+ +
+
+
Multiplying the previous identity by 2 x x 2 ) 1 x (
2 3 2
+ + , we obtain
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ + + |
.
|
\
|
+ =
4
2
1
0
5
1
0
x M A 4
2
A 3
A 6 x L A 2
2
A
3 x 2
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ + + |
.
|
\
|
+ + + +
2 3
2
1
0
3
3
2
1
0
x M 2
2
A 7
A 2
2
A 5
A 6 x L 2 A 6
2
A 5
A 2
2
A 7

M
2
A
A 2 x L A 6
2
A 3
A 4
3
2 3
2
1
+ +
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
0 L A 2
2
A
1
0
= + , 0 M A 4
2
A 3
A 6
2
1
0
= + + ,
0 L 2 A 6
2
A 5
A 2
2
A 7
3
2
1
0
= + + + , 0 M 2
2
A 7
A 2
2
A 5
A 6
3
2
1
0
= + +
2 L A 6
2
A 3
A 4
3
2
1
= + , 3 M
2
A
A 2
3
2
= +
Solving the previous system we obtain the values
8
23
A
0
= ,
16
3
A
1
= ,
8
27
A
2
= ,
16
9
A
3
= ,
16
17
L = and
32
129
M =
Therefore

+ +
+
+ +
=
+ +

}
2 x x 2
) 1 x ( 16
9 x 54 x 3 x 46
dx
2 x x 2 ) 1 x (
3 x 2
2
2 2
2 3
2 3 2

dx
2 x x 2 ) 1 x (
129 x 34
32
1
2 2
}
+ +
+
+

Answer.

867

In this case we use the transformation
1 t
t
x
2 1
+
+
= according to the lines of
reasoning of the 11.14, explained earlier. The integral then transforms into a
linear combination of integrals of the form dx
K x N ) p x (
M x L
2 n 2 2
}
+ +
+

which are solved according to the methods appearing in 11.16.
(1) dx
3 x 2 x 3 ) 2 x x (
1 x
2 2 2
}
+ +

(2) dx
2 x x 2 ) 1 x x (
3 x 2
2 3 2
}
+ +
+

(1) Hint. We find 6
2 1
= + and 1
2 1
= . Therefore
2 1
, are the two roots of
the equation 0 1 6
2
= + , i.e. 2 2 3
1
+ = and 2 2 3
2
= or the opposite.
The transformation is then given by
1 t
2 2 3 t ) 2 2 3 (
x
+
+ +
= . Under this
transformation, the various quantities are transformed as

1 t
) 2 1 ( 2 t ) 2 1 ( 2
1 x
+
+ +
= ,
)} 2 10 16 ( t ) 2 10 16 {(
) 1 t (
1
2 x x
2
2
2
+ +
+
= +
or
) m t (
) 1 t (
2 10 16
2 x x
2
2
2
+
+
+
= + ,
7
2 40 57
m

=
and

dx
M x L
2 n 2
}
+ + + +
+

868
)} 2 32 47 ( t ) 2 32 47 {(
) 1 t (
1
3 x 2 x 3
2
2
2
+ +
+
= +
or
) n t (
) 1 t (
2 32 47
3 x 2 x 3
2
2
2
+
+
+
= + ,
161
2 3008 4257
n

= ( 0 n m > > )
We also have dt
) 1 t (
2 4
dx
2
+
dt
) 1 t (
2 4
) n t (
) 1 t (
2 32 47
) m t (
) 1 t (
) 2 10 16 (
1 t
) 2 1 ( 2 t ) 2 1 ( 2
I
2
2
2
2 2
4
2
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
}

or
dt
n t ) m t (
) 1 t ( )} 2 1 ( 2 t ) 2 1 ( 2 {
A I
2 2 2
2
}
+ +
+ + +

where
2 32 47 ) 2 10 16 (
2 4
A
2
+ +
= .
Under partial fraction decomposition, we have

2 2 2 2 2
2
) m t (
m 2 t ) m 1 (
m t
2 t
) m t (
) 1 t ( t
+

+
+
+
=
+
+
and
2 2 2 2 2
2
) m t (
m 1 t 2
m t
1
) m t (
) 1 t (
+
+
+
+
=
+
+

Therefore the last integral can be written as
=
+ +
+ + +
}
dt
n t ) m t (
) 1 t ( )} 2 1 ( 2 t ) 2 1 ( 2 {
A I
2 2 2
2

+
+ +

+
+ +
+
+ =
} }
dt
n t ) m t (
m 2 t ) m 1 (
dt
n t ) m t (
2 t
A ) 2 1 ( 2
2 2 2 2 2

+ +
+
+
+ +
+
} }
dt
n t ) m t (
m 1 t 2
dt
n t ) m t (
1
A ) 2 1 ( 2
2 2 2 2 2

or

=
+ +
+ + +
}
dt
n t ) m t (
) 1 t ( )} 2 1 ( 2 t ) 2 1 ( 2 {
A I
2 2 2
2

869

+
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ =
} }
dt
n t ) m t (
t
A ) 2 1 ( 2 dt
n t ) m t (
1
A ) 2 3 ( 2
2 2 2 2

dt
n t ) m t (
b t a
A 2
2 2 2
}
+ +
+
+

where
m ) 2 1 ( ) 2 3 ( a + = and m ) 2 3 ( ) 2 1 ( b + = .
Using the identity
dt
n t ) m t (
M t L
n t
m t
A t A
dt
n t ) m t (
b t a
2 2
2
2
1 0
2 2 2
} }
+ +
+
+ +
+
+
=
+ +
+

and differentiation with respect to t, we obtain

+ +
+
+
+
+
=
+ +
+
n t ) m t (
t ) A t A (
m t
n t A
n t ) m t (
b t a
2 2
1 0
2
2
0
2 2 2

n t ) m t (
M t L
) m t (
n t ) A t A ( t 2
2 2
2 2
2
1 0
+ +
+
+
+
+ +

Multiplying the above identity by n t ) m t (
2 2 2
+ + , we obtain
+ + + + + + = + t ) mL nA 2 mA ( t ) M nA mA 2 ( t ) L A ( b t a
1 1
2
0 0
3
1

mM mnA
0
+ +
Equating the coefficients of the similar powers of t, we derive the system
0 L A
1
= + , 0 M A n A m 2
0 0
= + , a L m A n 2 A m
1 1
= + ,
b M m A n m
0
= +

) n m ( m 2
b
A
0
= ,
) n m ( 2
a
A
1
= ,
) n m ( 2
a
L
= and
) n m ( m 2
b ) n m 2 (
M
=
Therefore we have

+
+
+ +
=
+ +
+
}
) m t ( ) n m ( m 2
n t ) m a t b (
dt
n t ) m t (
b t a
2
2
2 2 2

870
dt
n t ) m t (
b ) n m 2 ( t am
) n m ( m 2
1
2 2
}
+ +
+
+
Introduce the notation
dt
n t ) m t (
t
I
2 2
1 }
+ +
= and dt
n t ) m t (
1
I
2 2
2 }
+ +
=
The integral
1
n t
1
u
2
+
= . It then transforms
into ) u n m ( arctan
n m
1
u ) n m ( 1
du
I
2
1

=
+
=
}
.
The integral
2
n t
t
w
2
+
= . It then
transforms into
m w n m
m w n m
ln
) n m ( m 2
1
w ) n m ( m
dw
I
2
2

+
=

=
}
.
Therefore we have
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
n t
n m
arctan
n m
1
I
2
1
and
n t m t n m
n t m t n m
ln
) n m ( m 2
1
I
2
2
2
+
+ +
=
+ + + +
1 2
I A ) 2 1 ( 2 I A ) 2 3 ( 2 I

+ +
+
+ +
+
2 1
2
2
I ) n m 2 ( b I m a
m t
n t ) m a t b (
) n m ( m
A

Answer.

(2) Hint. We find 0
2 1
= + and 1
2 1
= . Therefore
2 1
, are the two roots
of the equation 0 1
2
= , i.e. 1
1
= and 1
2
= or the opposite. The
871
transformation is then given by
1 t
1 t
x
+
= . Under this transformation, the various

quantities are transformed as
1 t
1 t 5
3 x 2
+
+
= + , ) 3 t (
) 1 t (
1
1 x x
2
2
2
+
+
= + ,
) 4 t 3 (
) 1 t (
1
2 x x 2
2
2
2
+
+
= + and dt
) 1 t (
2
dx
2
+
becomes dt
) 1 t (
2
) 4 t 3 (
) 1 t (
1
) 1 t (
) 3 t (
1 t
1 t 5
J
2
2
2 6
3 2
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
}
which can be simplified
into
dt
4 t 3 ) 3 t (
) 1 t ( ) 1 t 5 (
2 J
2 3 2
4
}
+ +
+ +
. Under partial fraction decomposition, we obtain
3 2 2 2 2 3 2
4
) 3 t (
) 7 t 3 ( 16
) 3 t (
) 25 t ( 4
3 t
21 t 5
) 3 t (
) 1 t ( ) 1 t 5 (
+
+
+
+
=
+
+ +
.
Therefore the last integral can be written as
+
+ +
+
=
+ +
+ +
} }
dt
4 t 3 ) 3 t (
21 t 5
2 dt
4 t 3 ) 3 t (
) 1 t ( ) 1 t 5 (
2 J
2 2 2 3 2
4

dt
4 t 3 ) 3 t (
7 t 3
32 dt
4 t 3 ) 3 t (
25 t
8
2 3 2 2 2 2
} }
+ +

+ +

+ .
We have the identity
dt
4 t 3 ) 3 t (
M t L
4 t 3
3 t
A t A
dt
4 t 3 ) 3 t (
25 t
2 2
2
2
1 0
2 2 2
} }
+ +
+
+ +
+
+
=
+ +

Differentiation with respect to t, we obtain

+ +
+
+
+
+
=
+ +

4 t 3 ) 3 t (
t ) A t A ( 3
3 t
4 t 3 A
4 t 3 ) 3 t (
25 t
2 2
1 0
2
2
0
2 2 2

4 t 3 ) 3 t (
M t L
) 3 t (
4 t 3 ) A t A ( t 2
2 2
2 2
2
1 0
+ +
+
+
+
+ +

Multiplying the above identity by 4 t 3 ) 3 t (
2 2 2
+ + , we obtain
872
M 3 A 12 t ) L 3 A ( t ) M A 14 ( t ) L A 3 ( 25 t
0 1
2
0
3
1
+ + + + + + + =
Equating the coefficients of the similar powers of t, we derive the system
0 L A 3
1
= + , 0 M A 14
0
= + , 1 L 3 A
1
= + , 25 M 3 A 12
0
= +

6
5
A
0
= ,
10
1
A
1
= ,
10
3
L = and
3
35
M =
Therefore

dt
4 t 3 ) 3 t (
350 t 9
30
1
4 t 3
) 3 t ( 30
3 t 25
dt
4 t 3 ) 3 t (
25 t
2 2
2
2
2 2 2
} }
+ +

+ +
+
+
=
+ +

We also have the identity
+ +
+
+ + +
=
+ +

}
4 t 3
) 3 t (
A t A t A t A
dt
4 t 3 ) 3 t (
7 t 3
2
2 2
3 2
2
1
3
0
2 3 2

dt
4 t 3 ) 3 t (
M t L
2 2
}
+ +
+
+
Differentiation with respect to t, gives us

+
+
+ + +
=
+ +

2 2
2
2 1
2
0
2 3 2
) 3 t (
4 t 3 ) A t A 2 t A 3 (
4 t 3 ) 3 t (
7 t 3

+
+
+ + + +
+ +
+ + +
+
3 2
2
3 2
2
1
3
0
2 2 2
3 2
2
1
3
0
) 3 t (
4 t 3 ) A t A t A t A ( t 4
4 t 3 ) 3 t (
) A t A t A t A ( t 3

4 t 3 ) 3 t (
M t L
2 2
+ +
+
+
Multiplying by 4 t 3 ) 3 t (
2 3 2
+ + , we obtain
+ + + + + + =
3
3 1
4
2 0
5
1
t ) L 6 A 9 A 19 ( t ) M A 6 A 32 ( t ) L A 3 ( 7 t 3
M 9 A 12 t ) L 9 A 7 A 24 ( t ) M 6 A 6 A 36 (
2 3 1
2
2 0
+ + + + + + +
Equating the coefficients of the similar powers of t, we obtain the system
0 L A 3
1
= + , 0 M A 6 A 32
2 0
= + , 0 L 6 A 9 A 19
3 1
= + ,
873
0 M 6 A 6 A 36
2 0
= + + , 3 L 9 A 7 A 24
3 1
= + , 7 M 9 A 12
2
= +

300
49
A
0
= ,
200
27
A
1
= ,
150
91
A
2
= ,
200
111
A
3
= ,
200
81
L = ,
75
119
M =
Therefore
+ +
+
+ + +
=
+ +

}
4 t 3
) 3 t ( 600
333 t 364 t 81 t 98
dt
4 t 3 ) 3 t (
7 t 3
2
2 2
2 3
2 3 2

dt
4 t 3 ) 3 t (
952 t 243
600
1
2 2
}
+ +

+
Introducing the notation
dt
4 t 3 ) 3 t (
t
J
2 2
1 }
+ +
= and dt
4 t 3 ) 3 t (
1
J
2 2
2 }
+ +
=
we have
) J 350 J 9 (
30
1
4 t 3
) 3 t ( 30
3 t 25
dt
4 t 3 ) 3 t (
25 t
2 1
2
2
2 2 2
+ +
+
+
=
+ +

}

+ +
+
+ + +
=
+ +

}
4 t 3
) 3 t ( 600
333 t 364 t 81 t 98
dt
4 t 3 ) 3 t (
7 t 3
2
2 2
2 3
2 3 2

) J 952 J 243 (
600
1
2 1
+
Going back to the integral J, and using the previous two equalities, we obtain
+ +
+
+
+ + ) J 350 J 9 (
30
1
4 t 3
) 3 t ( 30
3 t 25
8 ) J 21 J 5 ( 2 J
2 1
2
2
2 1

+ +
+
+ + +
) J 952 J 243 (
600
1
4 t 3
) 3 t ( 600
333 t 364 t 81 t 98
32
2 1
2
2 2
2 3

874
The integral dt
4 t 3 ) 3 t (
t
J
2 2
1 }
+ +
= is evaluated using the substitution
4 t 3
1
u
2
+
= :
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
= =
+
=
}
4 t 3
5
arctan
5
5
) u 5 arctan(
5
5
u 5 1
du
J
2
2
1

The integral dt
4 t 3 ) 3 t (
1
J
2 2
2 }
+ +
= is evaluated using the substitution
4 t 3
t
w
2
+
= :

4 t 3 15 t 5
4 t 3 15 t 5
ln
15 2
1
15 w 5
15 w 5
ln
15 2
1
w 5 3
dw
J
2
2
2
2
+
+ +
=
+
=
=
}

Answer.

12

Integrals of
Inverse Trigonometric
Functions

Learning Objectives

integrals involving inverse trigonometric functions.

- First Category

}
= dx x arcsin I and
}
= dx x arctan J
- Second Category

}
= dx x arcsin x I and
}
= dx x arctan x J
Chapter 12-Integrals of inverse trigonometric functions
876
- Third Category
}
= dx x arcsin x I
n
n
and
}
= dx x arctan x J
n
n

- Fourth Category
}
= dx x arcsin ) x ( P I and
}
= dx x arctan ) x ( P J
- Fifth Category
dx
x
x arcsin
I
n
n }
= and dx
x
x arctan
J
n
n }
=
- Sixth Category
}
= dx x arcsin ) x ( R I and
}
= dx x arctan ) x ( R J

- Seventh Category
}
= dx ) x (arcsin I
n
n

- Eighth Category

}
= dx ) x (arctan J
n
n

- Ninth Category

}
=
x arcsin
dx
I
1
and
}
=
x arctan
dx
J
1

- Tenth Category
}
=
n
n
) x (arcsin
dx
J
- Eleventh Category

}
=
n
n
) x (arctan
dx
J

877

Derivatives of the inverse trigonometric functions.

2
x 1
1
) x (arcsin
= ' , 1 | x | <

2
x 1
1
) x (arccos
= ' , 1 | x | <

2
x 1
1
) x (arctan
+
= '

2
x 1
1
) x cot arc (
+
= '

2
x 1 | x |
1
) x sec arc (
= ' , 1 | x | >

2
x 1 | x |
1
) ecx (arccos
= ' , 1 | x | >

12.1 First Category

}
= dx x arcsin I and
}
= dx x arctan J

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

1

x arcsin

x

2
x 1
1

we get
dx
x 1
x
x arcsin x dx x arcsin I
2
} }

= =
878
2
x 1 t = , dx x 2 dt = , we have
C x 1
t 2
dt
dx
x 1
x
2
2
+ = =
} }

Therefore we obtain
C x 1 x arcsin x dx x arcsin I
2
+ + = =
}


} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

1

x arctan

x
2
x 1
1
+

we get
dx
x 1
x
x arctan x dx x arctan J
2
} }
+
= =
2
x 1 t + = , since dx x 2 dt = , we obtain
) x 1 ln(
2
1
| t | ln
2
1
t
dt
2
1
dx
x 1
x
2
2
+ = = =
+
} }

Therefore
C ) x 1 ln(
2
1
x arctan x dx x arctan J
2
+ + = =
}

12.2 Second Category

}
= dx x arcsin x I and
}
= dx x arctan x J

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

x

x arcsin

2
x
2

2
x 1
1

879
we get
dx
x 1
x
2
1
x arcsin x
2
1
dx x arcsin x I
2
2
2
} }

= =
The integral dx
x 1
x
2
2
}

was evaluated in 11.11, Example 2:
x arcsin
2
1
x 1 x
2
1
dx
x 1
x
2
2
2
+ =
}

= =
}
dx x arcsin x I
C x arcsin
4
1
x 1 x
4
1
x arcsin x
2
1
2 2
+ + =

12.3 Third Category
}
= dx x arcsin x I
n
n
and
}
= dx x arctan x J
n
n


} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

n
x

x arcsin

1 n
x
1 n
+
+

2
x 1
1

we get
dx
x 1
x
1 n
1
x arcsin
1 n
x
dx x arcsin x I
2
1 n 1 n
n
n } }

+
+
= =
+ +

The last integral can be evaluated using the identity (see 11.11)
dx
x 1
1
x 1 ) a x a x a ( dx
x 1
x
2
2
n
1 n
1
n
0
2
1 n
} }

+ + + + =

+

880
Note. The last integral can also be evaluated using the hypergeometric function:

|
.
|
\
|
+ +
+
=
+ +
}
2
1 2
2 n
2
1 n
x ;
2
n
2 ;
2
n
1 ,
2
1
F
2 n
x
dx
x 1
x


} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

n
x

x arctan

1 n
x
1 n
+
+
2
x 1
1
+

we get
dx
x 1
x
1 n
1
x arctan
1 n
x
dx x arctan x J
2
1 n 1 n
n
n } }
+
+
+
= =
+ +

The integral
dx
x 1
x
2
1 n
}
+
+

can be evaluated using the identities
) x 1 ln( x a x a x a dx
x 1
x
2 2
n
2 n 2
2
n 2
1
2
1 n 2
+ + + + + =
+

+
}

x arctan x a x a x a dx
x 1
x
n
3 n 2
2
1 n 2
1
2
n 2
+ + + + =
+

}

The coefficients
n 2 1
a , , a , a and can be evaluated by differentiation of the
above identities and equating the coefficients of the similar powers of the
independent variable x. Some examples are the following:
C x arctan x dx
x 1
x
2
2
+ =
+
}

C ) x 1 ln(
2
1
x
2
1
dx
x 1
x
2 2
2
3
+ + =
+
}

881
C x arctan x x
3
1
dx
x 1
x
3
2
4
+ + =
+
}

C ) x 1 ln(
2
1
x
2
1
x
4
1
dx
x 1
x
2 2 4
2
5
+ + + =
+
}

12.4 Fourth Category
}
= dx x arcsin ) x ( P I
n
and
}
= dx x arctan ) x ( P J
n

We use the identities:
2
n 1 n n
x 1 ) x ( R x arcsin ) x ( Q dx x arcsin ) x ( P + =
+ }

and
) x 1 ( ln ) x ( R x x arctan ) x ( Q dx x arctan ) x ( P
2
1 n 1 n n
+ + + =
+ }

where ) x ( Q
1 n+
is an th 1 n + degree polynomial and ) x ( R
n
is an th n degree
polynomial. The coefficients of these polynomials are determined by
differentiation of the above identities.
}
+ dx x arcsin ) 5 x 3 x 2 (
2

Solution. We use the identity
+ + + + = +
}
x arcsin ) a x a x a x a ( dx x arcsin ) 5 x 3 x 2 (
3 2
2
1
3
0
2

2
2 1
2
0
x 1 ) b x b x b ( + + +

Differentiation of the previous identity we obtain
+ + + = + x arcsin ) a x a 2 x a 3 ( x arcsin ) 5 x 3 x 2 (
2 1
2
0
2

+
+ + + +
2
3 2
2
1
3
0
x 1
1
) a x a x a x a (
2
2
2
1
3
0
2
1 0
x 1
1
) x b x b x b ( x 1 ) b x b 2 (
+ + + +

882
+ + + = + x arcsin ) a x a 2 x a 3 ( x arcsin ) 5 x 3 x 2 (
2 1
2
0
2

2
1 3 2 0 2
2
1 1
3
0 0
x 1
1
)} b a ( x ) b b 2 a ( x ) b 2 a ( x ) b 3 a ( {
+ + + + + +
From the above relation we get the system
2 a 3
0
= , 3 a 2
1
= , 5 a
2
= ,
0 b 3 a
0 0
= , 0 b 2 a
1 1
= , 0 b b 2 a
2 0 2
= + , 0 b a
1 3
= +
The previous system admits the solution

3
2
a
0
= ,
2
3
a
1
= , 5 a
2
= ,
4
3
a
3
= ,
9
2
b
0
= ,
4
3
b
1
= ,
9
49
b
2
=
Therefore
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ + = +
}
x arcsin
4
3
x 5 x
2
3
x
3
2
dx x arcsin ) 5 x 3 x 2 (
2 3 2

2 2
x 1
9
49
x
4
3
x
9
2
|
.
|
\
|
+ +

}
+ dx x arctan ) 3 x 4 x 3 (
2

Solution. We use the identity
+ + + + = +
}
x arctan ) a x a x a x a ( dx x arctan ) 3 x 4 x 3 (
3 2
2
1
3
0
2

) x 1 ln( ) b x b ( x
2
1 0
+ + + +

Differentiation of the previous identity we obtain
+ + + = + x arctan ) a x a 2 x a 3 ( x arctan ) 3 x 4 x 3 (
2 1
2
0
2

+
+
+ + + +
2
3 2
2
1
3
0
x 1
1
) a x a x a x a (

2
1 0
x 1
x 2
) b x b 2 (
+
+ + +

+ + + = + x arctan ) a x a 2 x a 3 ( x arctan ) 3 x 4 x 3 (
2 1
2
0
2

883
2
1 3 0 2
2
1 1
3
0 0
x 1
1
)} b a ( x ) 2 b 2 a ( x ) b a ( x ) b 2 a ( {
+
+ + + + + + + + +
From the above relation we obtain the system
3 a 3
0
= , 4 a 2
1
= , 3 a
2
=
0 b 2 a
0 0
= + , 0 b a
1 1
= + , 0 2 b 2 a
0 2
= + + , 0 b a
1 3
= +
1 a
0
= , 2 a
1
= , 3 a
2
= , 2 a
3
= ,
2
1
b
0
= , 2 b
1
= , 2 =
Therefore
+ + = +
}
x arctan ) 2 x 3 x 2 x ( dx x arctan ) 3 x 4 x 3 (
2 3 2

) x 1 ln( 2 x 2 x
2
1
2 2
+ +
12.5 Fifth Category
dx
x
x arcsin
I
n
n }
= and dx
x
x arctan
J
n
n }
= , 2 n >

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

n
x

x arcsin

1 n
x
1 n
+
+

2
x 1
1

we get
dx
x 1 x
1
1 n
1
x arcsin
x
1
1 n
1
dx
x
x arcsin
I
2 1 n
1 n n
n } }

= =

The last integral can be evaluated using the substitution
x
1
u = .
884

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

n
x

x arctan

1 n
x
1 n
+
+

2
x 1
1
+

we get
dx
) x 1 ( x
1
1 n
1
x
x arctan
1 n
1
dx
x
x arctan
J
2 1 n 1 n n
n } }
+
= =

where the last integral can be evaluated using partial fraction decomposition.

x
x arcsin
I
3
}
=
Solution. We find
C
x 2
x 1
x 2
x arcsin
dx
x
x arcsin
I
2
2 3
+
= =
}

x
x arctan
I
3
}
=
Solution. We find
C
x 2
1
x arctan
2
1
x 2
x arctan
dx
x
x arctan
I
2 3
+ = =
}

x
x arcsin
I
2
}
=
Solution. We find
C
x 1
1
tanh
x
x arcsin
dx
x
x arcsin
I
2
1
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =

}

where

x 1
x 1
ln
2
1
x tanh
1
+
=
, 1 | x | <

Using the table

885

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

2
x

x arcsin

x
1

2
x 1
1

we get, using integration by parts

}

+ =
2
x 1 x
dx
x
x arcsin
I
The integral
}

2
x 1 x
dx
was evaluated in 11.12, Example 1:

2 2
x 1 x
x
ln
x 1 x
dx
+
=
}

C
x 1 x
x
ln
x
x arcsin
dx
x
x arcsin
I
2
2
+
+
+ = =
}

x
x arctan
I
2
}
=
Solution. We find
C ) x 1 ln(
2
1
x ln
x
x arctan
dx
x
x arctan
I
2
2
+ + + = =
}

12.6 Sixth Category
}
= dx x arcsin ) x ( R I and
}
= dx x arctan ) x ( R J
In these cases we convert ) x ( R into partial fractions and perform integration of
the particular integrals. However not all integrals are elementary.
) 1 x ( x
x arcsin ) 1 x 2 x 3 (
2 2
2
}
+
+ +

886
Solution. Using partial fractions, we find

2 2 2 2
2
) 1 x (
2
x
1
) 1 x ( x
1 x 2 x 3
+
+ =
+
+ +

dx
) 1 x (
x arcsin
2 dx
x
x arcsin
dx
) 1 x ( x
x arcsin ) 1 x 2 x 3 (
2 2 2 2
2
} } }
+
+ =
+
+ +

Both integrals appearing in the right hand side are elementary.
) 1 x ( x
x arctan ) 2 x 4 x (
2 2
2
}
+

Solution. Using partial fractions, we find

2 2 2 2
2
x
2
) 1 x (
3
) 1 x ( x
2 x 4 x
+
=
+

dx
x
x arctan
2 dx
) 1 x (
x arctan
3 dx
) 1 x ( x
x arctan ) 2 x 4 x (
2 2 2 2
2
} } }

+
=
+

Both integrals appearing in the right hand side are elementary.

12.7 Seventh Category
}
= dx ) x (arcsin I
n
n


} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

1 n
) x (arcsin

x
1 n
2
) x (arcsin
x 1
n

we get

}

= dx ) x (arcsin
x 1
x
n ) x (arcsin x I
1 n
2
n
n

887
For the last integral we have the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'
2
x 1
x

1 n
) x (arcsin

2
x 1
2 n
2
) x (arcsin
x 1
1 n

Therefore
+ =

}
1 n 2 1 n
2
) x (arcsin x 1 dx ) x (arcsin
x 1
x

}

+ dx ) x (arcsin ) 1 n (
2 n

or

2 n
1 n 2 1 n
2
I ) 1 n ( ) x (arcsin x 1 dx ) x (arcsin
x 1
x

+ =
}

We thus have
} I ) 1 n ( ) x (arcsin x 1 { n ) x (arcsin x I
2 n
1 n 2 n
n
+ =
or

2 n
1 n 2 n
n
I ) 1 n ( n ) x (arcsin x 1 n ) x (arcsin x I

+ =
Some examples are the following:
x 2 x arcsin x 1 2 ) x (arcsin x dx ) x (arcsin
2 2 2
+ =
}

and
+ =
}
2 2 3 3
) x (arcsin x 1 3 ) x (arcsin x dx ) x (arcsin

2
x 1 6 x arcsin x 6
12.8 Eighth Category

}
= dx ) x (arctan J
n
n

Integrals of this form cannot be expressed in terms of elementary functions.
888

12.9 Ninth Category

}
=
x arcsin
dx
I
1
and
}
=
x arctan
dx
J
1

Under the substitution x arcsin t = , i.e. t sin x = , we have dt t cos dx = .
Therefore
} }
= = dt
t
t cos
x arcsin
dx
I
1
, which can be identified with the cosine
integral () Ci .

12.10 Tenth Category
}
=
n
n
) x (arcsin
dx
J

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

1
n
) x (arcsin
1

x
1 n
2
) x (arcsin
1
x 1
n
+

we get
dx
) x (arcsin
1
x 1
x
n
) x (arcsin
x
) x (arcsin
dx
J
1 n
2
n n
n
+
+ = =
} }

For the last integral appearing above we have the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'
2
x 1
x

1 n
) x (arcsin
1
+

2
x 1
2 n
2
) x (arcsin
1
x 1
1 n
+
+

889
Therefore
=
+
}
dx
) x (arcsin
1
x 1
x
1 n
2

dx
) x (arcsin
1
) 1 n (
) x (arcsin
x 1
2 n 1 n
2
+ +
}
+
=

or
2 n
1 n
2
1 n
2
J ) 1 n (
) x (arcsin
x 1
dx
) x (arcsin
1
x 1
x
+
+ +
+
}

We thus obtain

+ = =
+
+
} 2 n
1 n
2
n n
n
J ) 1 n (
) x (arcsin
x 1
n
) x (arcsin
x
) x (arcsin
dx
J
or

2 n
1 n
2
n
n
J ) 1 n ( n
) x (arcsin
x 1
n
) x (arcsin
x
J
+
+
+
=
Solving with respect to
2 n
J
+
we get

n
1 n
2
n
2 n
J
) 1 n ( n
1
) x (arcsin
x 1
1 n
1
) x (arcsin
x
) 1 n ( n
1
J
+
+

+
=
+
+

Using the formula (derived earlier by integration by parts)

2 n
1 n
2
1 n
2
J ) 1 n (
) x (arcsin
x 1
dx
) x (arcsin
1
x 1
x
+
+ +
+
}

for 0 n = , we find
2
2
2
J
x arcsin
x 1
dx
x arcsin
1
x 1
x
}

or
dx
x arcsin
1
x 1
x
x arcsin
x 1
J
2
2
2

=
}

Under the substitution x arcsin t = , i.e. t sin x = , we have dt t cos dx = and then
890
=
} }
dt t cos
t
1
t sin 1
t sin
dx
x arcsin
1
x 1
x
2 2

dt
t
t sin
dt t cos
t
1
t cos
t sin
} }
= =
where the last integral cannot be evaluated using elementary methods and can be
identified with the sine integral () Si .

} 2
) x (arcsin
dx

Solution. We find
C ) x (arcsin Si
x arcsin
x 1
) x (arcsin
dx
2
2
+
=
}


}
3
) x (arcsin
dx

Solution. We find
C ) x (arcsin Ci
2
1
) x (arcsin 2
x
) x (arcsin 2
x 1
) x (arcsin
dx
2
2
3
+ +
=
}

12.11 Eleventh Category

}
=
n
n
) x (arctan
dx
J
Integrals of this form cannot be expressed in terms of elementary functions.

13

Integrals of
Inverse Hyperbolic
Functions

Learning Objectives

integrals involving inverse hyperbolic functions.
The classification involves five cases.

Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
|
.
|
\
|
+ + =
1 x x ln x sinh
2 1

|
.
|
\
|
+ =
1 x x ln x cosh
2 1
, 1 | x | >

x 1
x 1
ln
2
1
x tanh
1
+
=
, 1 | x | <

1 x
1 x
ln
2
1
x coth
1
+
=
, 1 | x | <

Chapter 13-Integrals of inverse hyperbolic functions
892

Derivatives of the Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

1 x
1
) x (sinh
2
1
+
= '

1 x
1
) x (cosh
2
1
= '
, 1 | x | >

2
1
x 1
1
) x (tanh
= '
, 1 | x | <

2
1
x 1
1
) x (coth
= '
, 1 | x | <


dx x sinh
1
}

and dx x cosh
1
}


dx x sinh x
1 n
}

and dx x cosh x
1 n
}

, 1 n >


dx x tanh
1
}

and dx x coth
1
}


dx x tanh x
1 n
}

and dx x coth x
1 n
}

, 1 n >

893


dx x sinh
1
}

and dx x cosh
1
}

(I) Using the formula (integration by parts)

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

1

x sinh
1

x

1 x
1
2
+

we get
dx
1 x
x
x sinh x dx x sinh
2
1 1
} }
+
=

Using the substitution 1 x u
2
+ = , since dx x 2 du = , the above integral transforms
into
1 x u
u 2
du
dx
1 x
x
2
2
+ = = =
+
} }
Therefore

C 1 x x sinh x dx x sinh
2 1 1
+ + =

}

(II) Using the formula (integration by parts)

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

1

x cosh
1

x

1 x
1
2

we get
dx
1 x
x
x cosh x dx x cosh
2
1 1
} }

=

894
Using the substitution 1 x u
2
= , since dx x 2 du = , the above integral transforms
into
1 x u
u 2
du
dx
1 x
x
2
2
= = =
} }
Therefore

C 1 x x cosh x dx x cosh
2 1 1
+ =

}

13.2 Second Category. Integrals of the form

dx x sinh x
1 n
}

and dx x cosh x
1 n
}

, 1 n >

(I) We set
dx x sinh x I
1 n
n }

=


} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

n
x

x sinh
1

1 n
x
1 n
+
+

1 x
1
2
+

we get
dx
1 x
x
1 n
1
x sinh
1 n
x
dx x sinh x I
2
1 n
1
1 n
1 n
n } }
+
+
+
= =
+

For the integral
dx
1 x
x
x dx
1 x
x
A
2
n
2
1 n
n } }
+
=
+
=
+


} }
and the table

895

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

1 x
x
2
+

n
x

1 x
2
+

1 n
x n

we get
dx 1 x x n 1 x x dx
1 x
x
A
2 1 n 2 n
2
1 n
n } }
+ + =
+
=

+

} dx 1 x x n 1 x x {
1 n
1
x sinh
1 n
x
dx x sinh x I
2 1 n 2 n 1
1 n
1 n
n } }
+ +
+
+
= =

+

or
dx 1 x x
1 n
n
1 n
1 x x
x sinh
1 n
x
dx x sinh x I
2 1 n
2 n
1
1 n
1 n
n } }
+
+
+
+
+
+
= =

+

The last integral can be evaluated using the identity (11.11)

dx
1 x
1
1 x ) x ( P dx
1 x
) 1 x ( x
dx 1 x x
2
2
n
2
2 1 n
2 1 n
} } }
+
+ + =
+
+
= +

where ) x ( P
n
is an th n degree polynomial. The calculation of the coefficients of
the polynomial ) x ( P
n
proceeds as in 11.11.
Examples. We find, using the above procedure
1) C x sinh
4
1
4
1 x x
x sinh
2
x
dx x sinh x I
1
2
1
2
1
1
+ +
+
= =

}

2) C
9
1 x ) 2 x (
x sinh
3
x
dx x sinh x I
2 2
1
3
1 2
2
+
+
= =

}

3) + = =

}
x sinh
32
3
x sinh
4
x
dx x sinh x I
1 1
4
1 3
3

C
32
1 x ) x 2 x 3 (
2 3
+
+
+

(II) We set
dx x cosh x J
1 n
n }

=
896


} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

n
x

x cosh
1

1 n
x
1 n
+
+

1 x
1
2

we get
dx
1 x
x
1 n
1
x cosh
1 n
x
dx x cosh x J
2
1 n
1
1 n
1 n
n } }

+
+
= =
+

For the integral
dx
1 x
x
x dx
1 x
x
B
2
n
2
1 n
n } }

=
=
+


} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

1 x
x
2

n
x

1 x
2

1 n
x n

we get
dx 1 x x n 1 x x dx
1 x
x
B
2 1 n 2 n
2
1 n
n } }
=
=

+

} dx 1 x x n 1 x x {
1 n
1
x cosh
1 n
x
dx x cosh x J
2 1 n 2 n 1
1 n
1 n
n } }

+
+
= =

+

or
dx 1 x x
1 n
n
1 n
1 x x
x cosh
1 n
x
dx x cosh x J
2 1 n
2 n
1
1 n
1 n
n } }

+
+
+

+
= =

+

897
The last integral can be evaluated using the identity (11.11)

dx
1 x
1
1 x ) x ( P dx
1 x
) 1 x ( x
dx 1 x x
2
2
n
2
2 1 n
2 1 n
} } }

+ =

where ) x ( P
n
is an th n degree polynomial. The calculation of the coefficients of
the polynomial ) x ( P
n
proceeds as in 11.11.
Examples. We find, using the above procedure
1) C ) 1 x x ln(
4
1
4
1 x x
x cosh
2
x
dx x cosh x J
2
2
1
2
1
1
+ +
= =

}

2) C
9
1 x ) 2 x (
x cosh
3
x
dx x cosh x J
2 2
1
3
1 2
2
+
+ +
= =

}

3)
+
= =

}
32
1 x ) x 3 x 2 (
x cosh
4
x
dx x cosh x J
2 3
1
4
1 3
3

C ) 1 x x ln(
32
3
2
+ +
13.3 Third Category. Integrals of the form

dx x tanh
1
}

and dx x coth
1
}

(I) Using the formula (integration by parts)

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

1

x tanh
1

x

2
x 1
1

we get
dx
x 1
x
x tanh x dx x tanh
2
1 1
} }

=

2
x 1 u = , since dx x 2 du = , the above integral transforms
into
| x 1 | ln
2
1
| u | ln
2
1
u
du
2
1
dx
x 1
x
2
2
= = =
} }

Therefore
898

C | x 1 | ln
2
1
x tanh x dx x tanh
2 1 1
+ + =

}
(II) Using the formula (integration by parts)

} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

1

x coth
1

x

2
x 1
1

we get
dx
x 1
x
x coth x dx x coth
2
1 1
} }

=

2
x 1 u = , since dx x 2 du = , the above integral transforms
into
| x 1 | ln
2
1
| u | ln
2
1
u
du
2
1
dx
x 1
x
2
2
= = =
} }

Therefore

C | x 1 | ln
2
1
x coth x dx x coth
2 1 1
+ + =

}

13.4 Fourth Category. Integrals of the form

dx x tanh x
1 n
}

and dx x coth x
1 n
}

, 1 n >

(I) We set
dx x tanh x I
1 n
n }

=


} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

n
x

x tanh
1

1 n
x
1 n
+
+

2
x 1
1

we get
899
dx
x 1
x
1 n
1
x tanh
1 n
x
dx x tanh x I
2
1 n
1
1 n
1 n
n } }

+
+
= =
+

The last integral can be evaluated using partial fractions.
(II) We set
dx x coth x J
1 n
n }

=


} }
and the table

) x ( f '

) x ( g

) x ( f

) x ( g'

n
x

x tanh
1

1 n
x
1 n
+
+

2
x 1
1

we get
dx
x 1
x
1 n
1
x coth
1 n
x
dx x coth x I
2
1 n
1
1 n
1 n
n } }

+
+
= =
+

The last integral can be evaluated using partial fractions.

14

Elliptic Integrals

Learning Objectives

elliptic integrals.
The classification involves thirteen categories.

}
+ + + c x b x a x
dx
2 3

Case I. If the polynomial has three real roots, then we have the factorization
) x ( ) x ( ) x ( c x b x a x
2 3
| o = + + + , < | < o
o | + o =
2
sin ) ( x
We then have
= | o = + + + ) x ( ) x ( ) x ( c x b x a x
2 3

o | o =
2 2 2 2 2
cos sin ) sin k 1 ( ) ( ) (
where

o
o |
=
2
k
Chapter 14-Elliptic integrals
901
and
o | = d cos sin ) ( 2 dx
The integral transforms into

} }

o
=
+ + +
2 2 2 3
sin k 1
d 2
c x b x a x
dx

Case II. If the polynomial has one real root o = x (the other two roots are
complex conjugate) then we would have the factorization
) q x p x ( ) x ( c x b x a x
2 2 3
+ + o = + + +
where the trinomial q x p x
2
+ + has a negative discriminant.

2
tan q p x
2 2

+ o + o + o =
We then have
= + + o = + + + ) q x p x ( ) x ( c x b x a x
2 2 3

2
cos
2
tan
) sin k 1 ( ) q p (
4
2
2 2 2 / 3 2
+ o + o =
where

|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ o + o
+ o
+ =
q p
2
p
1
2
1
k
2
2

and

+ o + o = d
2
cos
2
tan
q p dx
2
2

The integral transforms into
902

} }

+ o + o
=
+ + +
2 2
4 / 1 2
2 3
sin k 1
d
) q p (
1
c x b x a x
dx

}
+ 8 x 6 x 3 x
dx
2 3
.
Solution. We have ) 4 x ( ) 2 x ( ) 1 x ( 8 x 6 x 3 x
2 3
+ = + . Therefore the
polynomial admits three real roots 1, 2 and 4 where 4 1 2 < < .
According to Case I we use the substitution
+ =
2
sin 3 2 x
We then have
= + = + ) 4 x ( ) 2 x ( ) 1 x ( 8 x 6 x 3 x
2 3

=
2 2 2 2
cos sin ) sin k 1 ( 54
where

2
1
k
2
=
and
= d cos sin 6 dx
The integral takes on the form

} }

=
+
2
2 3
sin
2
1
1
d
6
2
8 x 6 x 3 x
dx

}
+ + 3 x x x
dx
2 3
.
Solution. We have ) 3 x 2 x ( ) 1 x ( 3 x x x
2 2 3
+ + = + + , where the trinomial
3 x 2 x
2
+ + has negative determinant. According to Case II we use the
substitution
2
tan 6 1 x
2

+ = .
We then have
903
= + + = + + ) 3 x 2 x ( ) 1 x ( 3 x x x
2 2 3

2
cos
2
tan
) sin k 1 ( ) 6 (
4
2
2 2 2 / 3
=
where

6
1
2
1
6
2
1
2
1
k
2
+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = and
= d
2
cos
2
tan
6 dx
2

We thus transform the integral into

} }

=
+ +
2 2
4
2 3
sin k 1
d
6
1
3 x x x
dx

}
+ + + c x b x a x
dx
2 3

Case I. If the polynomial has three real roots, then we have the factorization
) x ( ) x ( ) x ( c x b x a x
2 3
| o = + + + , o < | <
o | + o =
2
sin ) ( x
We then have
= | o = + + + ) x ( ) x ( ) x ( c x b x a x
2 3

o | o =
2 2 2 2 2
cos sin ) sin k 1 ( ) ( ) (
where

o
| o
=
2
k
and
o | = d cos sin ) ( 2 dx
904

} }

o
=
+ + +
2 2 2 3
sin k 1
d 2
c x b x a x
dx

Case II. If the polynomial has one real root o = x (the other two roots are
complex conjugate) then we would have the factorization
) q x p x ( ) x ( c x b x a x
2 2 3
+ + o = + + +
where the trinomial q x p x
2
+ + has a negative discriminant.

2
tan q p x
2 2

+ o + o o =
We then have
= + + o = + + + ) q x p x ( ) x ( c x b x a x
2 2 3

2
cos
2
tan
) sin k 1 ( ) q p (
4
2
2 2 2 / 3 2
+ o + o =
where

|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ o + o
+ o
=
q p
2
p
1
2
1
k
2
2
and
+ o + o = d
2
cos
2
tan
q p dx
2
2


} }

+ o + o
=
+ + +
2 2
4 / 1 2
2 3
sin k 1
d
) q p (
1
c x b x a x
dx

}
+ + 16 x 4 x 4 x
dx
2 3
.
Solution. We have ) 4 x ( ) 2 x ( ) 2 x ( 16 x 4 x 4 x
2 3
+ = + + . Therefore the
polynomial admits three real roots 2 , 2 and 4 where 4 2 2 < < .
According to Case I we use the substitution
905
=
2
sin 2 4 x
We then have
= + = + + ) 4 x ( ) 2 x ( ) 2 x ( 16 x 4 x 4 x
2 3

=
2 2 2 2
cos sin ) sin k 1 ( 24
where

3
1
k
2
=
and
= d cos sin 4 dx

} }

=
+ +
2
2 3
sin
3
1
1
d
6
2
16 x 4 x 4 x
dx

}
+ + 8 x 8 x 4 x
dx
2 3
.
Solution. We have ) 4 x 2 x ( ) 2 x ( 8 x 8 x 4 x
2 2 3
+ = + + , where the
trinomial 4 x 2 x
2
+ has negative determinant. According to Case II we use the
substitution
2
tan 2 2 x
2

= . We then have
) 4 x 2 x ( ) 2 x ( 8 x 8 x 4 x
2 2 3
+ = + +

2
cos
2
tan
) sin k 1 ( ) 4 (
4
2
2 2 2 / 3
=
where
4
1
k
2
= and
= d
2
cos
2
tan
2 dx
2

906

} }

=
+ +
2
2 3
sin
4
1
1
d
2
1
8 x 8 x 4 x
dx

}
+ + ) x a 1 ( ) x 1 (
dx
2 2 2

= tan x
We then have
= d sec dx
2

= + = +
2 2 2
sec tan 1 x 1
=
+ = + = +
2
2
2 2 2 2 2
cos
sin
a 1 tan a 1 x a 1
=
+
=
+
=
2
2 2 2
2
2 2 2
cos
sin a sin 1
cos
sin a cos

=
2
2 2
2
2 2
cos
sin k 1
cos
sin ) a 1 ( 1

where
2 2
a 1 k = .

} }

=

2 2
2
2 2
2
sin k 1
d
cos
sin k 1
sec
d sec

}
+ + ) x 4 ( ) x 1 (
dx
2 2

907
Solution. The integral is written as
}
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
2 2
x
4
1
1 ) x 1 (
dx
4
1
. Using the
substitution = tan x , the integral is converted, along the lines of reasong
developed previously, into the integral ) 2 / 1 a ( =
} }

=
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
2
2 2
sin
4
3
1
d
4
1
x
4
1
1 ) x 1 (
dx
4
1

since
4
3
4
1
1 a 1 k
2 2
= = = .
}
+ ) x a 1 ( ) x 1 (
dx
2 2 2

= cos x
We then have
= d sin dx
= =
2 2 2
sin cos 1 x 1
= + = + = + ) sin 1 ( a 1 cos a 1 x a 1
2 2 2 2 2 2

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ = + =
2
2
2
2 2 2 2
sin
a 1
a
1 ) a 1 ( sin a a 1
) sin k 1 ( ) a 1 (
2 2 2
+ =
where
2
2
2
a 1
a
k
+
= .

} }

+
=
+

2 2 2 2 2 2
sin k 1
d
a 1
1
) sin k 1 ( ) a 1 ( sin
d sin

908
}
+ ) x 5 1 ( ) x 1 (
dx
2 2

Solution. Under the substitution = cos x , we find as above that

} }

=
+
2 2 2 2
sin k 1
d
6
1
) x 5 1 ( ) x 1 (
dx
,
6
5
k
2
=
Fifth Category. Integrals of the form
}
+ ) x a 1 ( ) 1 x (
dx
2 2 2

= sec x
We then have
= d sec sin dx
2

= =
2 2 2
tan 1 sec 1 x
=
+ = + = +
2
2
2 2 2 2
cos
a
1 sec a 1 x a 1
=
+
=
+
=
2
2 2
2
2 2
cos
a sin 1
cos
a cos

) sin k 1 (
cos k
1
sin
a 1
1
1
cos
a 1
2 2
2 2
2
2 2
2

= |
.
|
\
|

+
+
=
where
2
2
a 1
1
k
+
= .

} }

=

2 2
2 2
2 2
2
sin k 1
d
k
) sin k 1 (
cos k
1
tan
d sec sin

}
+ ) x 4 1 ( ) 1 x (
dx
2 2

Solution. Under the substitution = sec x , we find
909

} }

=
+
2 2 2 2
sin k 1
d
k
) x 4 1 ( ) 1 x (
dx
,
5
1
k =
Sixth Category. Integrals of the form
}
+ ) x a 1 ( ) x 1 (
dx
2 2 2


a
cos
x

=
We then have

= d
a
sin
dx
= |
.
|
\
|

+
+
=
+
=
+ = +
2
2 2
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
sin
a 1
1
1
a
a 1
a
sin 1 a
a
cos
1 x 1
) sin k 1 (
a k
1
2 2
2 2
=
where
2
2
a 1
1
k
+
= , and
= =
=
2 2
2
2
2 2 2
sin cos 1
a
cos
a 1 x a 1

} }

=

2 2
2 2
2 2
sin k 1
d
k
) sin k 1 (
a k
1
sin
d
a
sin

}
+ ) x 3 1 ( ) x 1 (
dx
2 2

3
cos
x

= , we find
} }

=
+
2 2 2 2
sin k 1
d
k
) x 3 1 ( ) x 1 (
dx
,
2
1
k =
910
Seventh Category. Integrals of the form
}
+ ) 1 x a ( ) x 1 (
dx
2 2 2

a
sec
x

=
We then have
= d sec sin
a
1
dx
2

=
+
=
+ =
+ = +
2 2
2 2
2 2 2
2
2
cos a
1 cos a
cos a
1
1
a
sec
1 x 1
=
+
=
+
=
2 2
2 2 2
2 2
2 2
cos a
sin a a 1
cos a
1 ) sin 1 ( a

) sin k 1 (
cos k
1
sin
a 1
a
1
cos a
a 1
2 2
2 2
2
2
2
2 2
2

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
where
2
2
2
a 1
a
k
+
= , and
= =
=
2 2
2
2
2 2 2
tan 1 sec 1
a
sec
a 1 x a

} }

=

2 2
2 2 2
2 2
2
sin k 1
d
a
k
tan ) sin k 1 (
cos k
1
d sec sin
a
1

}
+ ) 1 x 5 ( ) x 1 (
dx
2 2

5
sec
x

= , we find
911
} }

=
+
2 2 2 2
sin k 1
d
5
k
) 1 x 5 ( ) x 1 (
dx
,
6
5
k
2
=
Eighth Category. Integrals of the form
}
) x a 1 ( ) x 1 (
dx
2 2 2

=sin x
We then have
= d cos dx
= =
2 2 2
cos sin 1 x 1
=
2 2 2 2
sin a 1 x a 1
where
2 2
a k = .

} }

=

2 2 2 2 2
sin k 1
d
) sin k 1 ( cos
d cos

}

) x 3 1 ( ) x 1 (
dx
2 1 2

Solution. Under the substitution =sin x , we have

} }

=

2 2 2 1 2
sin k 1
d
) x 3 1 ( ) x 1 (
dx
,
3
1
k
2
=

Ninth Category. Integrals of the form
}
) 1 x a ( ) 1 x (
dx
2 2 2


=
sin a
1
t
We then have
912

= d
sin
cos
a
1
dx
2

=
2 2
2 2
2 2
2
sin a
sin a 1
1
sin a
1
1 x

=
2
2
2 2 2
2 2 2
sin
cos
1
sin
1
1
sin a
1
a 1 x a
where
2 2
a k = .

} }

=
2 2
2
2
2 2
2 2
2
sin k 1
d
sin
cos
sin a
sin a 1
d
sin
cos
a
1

}

) 1 x 2 ( ) 1 x (
dx
2 1 2

=
sin a
1
t , we have

} }

=

2 2 2 1 2
sin k 1
d
) 1 x 2 ( ) 1 x (
dx
,
2
1
k
2
=
Tenth Category. Integrals of the form
}
) x a 1 ( ) 1 x (
dx
2 2 2


2
2
2 2
a
cos
sin x

+ =
We then have
=
+ =
+ =
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
a
cos
cos
a
cos
1 sin 1 x

= |
.
|
\
|
+ =
2
2
2
2
2
cos
a
a 1
cos
a
1
1
913
= =
|
|
.
|
\
|

+ =
2 2 2
2
2
2 2 2 2
cos sin a 1
a
cos
sin a 1 x a 1
= =
2 2 2 2 2
sin ) a 1 ( sin a sin
On the other hand
=

=

+ =
+ =
2
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
a
sin ) a 1 ( 1
a
sin 1
sin
a
cos
sin x
) sin k 1 (
a
1
2 2
2
=
where
2 2
a 1 k = . Therefore =
2 2
sin k 1
a
1
x and thus

= d
sin k 1
cos sin
a
k
dx
2 2
2


} }

=

2 2
2 2 2
2
2
2 2
2
sin k 1
d
sin ) a 1 ( cos
a
a 1
d
sin k 1
cos sin
a
k

}

) x 2 1 ( ) 1 x (
dx
2 1 2

Solution. Under the substitution + =
2 2 2
cos 2 sin x , we have
} }

=

2 2 2 1 2
sin k 1
d
) x 2 1 ( ) 1 x (
dx
,
2
1
k
2
=
Eleventh Category. Integrals of the form
}
' + ' + + + ) q x p x ( ) q x p x (
dx
2 2

where both trinomials q x p x
2
+ + and q x p x
2
' + ' + have complex roots
(negative discriminant).
914
+
+
=
tan m 1
tan m
x
where the quantities and are determined by the next two equations
) p q q p ( ) p p ( ) q q ( q q ) p p (
2
' ' ' + ' ' = '
) p q q p ( ) p p ( ) q q ( q q ) p p (
2
' ' ' + ' + ' = '
and m is defined by

' + '
' + '
+
+
=
q p
q p
,
q p
q p
min m
2
2
2
2

}
+1 x
dx
4

Solution. The fourth degree polynomial 1 x
4
+ gets factorized thus
= + = + + = +
2 2 2 2 2 4 4
) x 2 ( ) 1 x ( x 2 ) 1 x 2 x ( 1 x
) 1 x 2 x ( ) 1 x 2 x (
2 2
+ + + =
Therefore 2 p = , 1 q = and 2 p = ' , 1 q = ' .
The equations determining and are
) 2 2 ( ) 2 2 ( 2 2 = and ) 2 2 ( ) 2 2 ( 2 2 =
Therefore 1 = and 1 = . We then find
1 2
1 2
1 2
2 2
2 2
1 2 1
1 2 1
q p
q p
2
2
+ =
+
=
+
=
+
+ +
=
+
+

1 2
1 2
1 2
2 2
2 2
1 2 1
1 2 1
q p
q p
2
2
=
+
=
+
=
+ +
+
=
' + '
' + '

and
1 2 } 1 2 , 1 2 min{ m = + =
The substitution takes on the form
915

) 1 2 ( tan
) 1 2 ( tan
tan ) 1 2 ( 1
tan ) 1 2 ( 1
x
+ +
+
=
+
+
=
Under this substitution the integral transforms into

}
+ + + +
+
4 2 2 2 4
cos ) 2 2 3 ( cos sin ) 2 2 3 ( 6 sin
d ) 2 2 (

Since
= + + + +
4 2 2 2 4
cos ) 2 2 3 ( cos sin ) 2 2 3 ( 6 sin
= + + + = ) cos }(sin cos ) 2 2 3 ( sin {
2 2 2 2 2

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ = + + =
2 2 2 2 2
sin
2 2 3
2 4
1 ) 2 2 3 ( cos ) 2 2 3 ( sin
the integral can be simplified further into the form
}

+
+
2 2
2
sin k 1
d
) 2 2 3 (
2 2

where
) 2 2 3 ( 2 4
2 2 3
2 4
k
2
=
+
= ( 97 . 0 k
2
~ )
Twelfth Category. Integrals of the form
}
| o ) x ( ) x ( ) x (
dx

In this case under the transformation

o
=
x
z
2
,
o
|
=
2
k

}

o
) z k 1 ( ) z 1 (
dz 2
2 2 2

Thirteenth Category. Integrals of the form
916
}
o | o ) x ( ) x ( ) x ( ) x (
dx

In this case under the transformation

|
|
.
|
\
|
|
o
|
.
|
\
|
o o
o |
=
x
x
z
2
,
|
|
.
|
\
|
o |
o o
|
|
.
|
\
|
o
|
=
2
k

}

o | o
) z k 1 ( ) z 1 (
dz
) ( ) (
2
2 2 2

Further notes on Elliptic Integrals.
Elliptic Integrals usually come in three kinds: elliptic integrals of the first kind,
elliptic integrals of the second kind and elliptic integrals of the third kind.
Elliptic integral of the first kind:
The elliptic integral of the first kind is defined by

}

=
x
0
2 2 2
) x k 1 ( ) x 1 (
dx
) k , x ( F , 1 k
2
<
An equivalent form of this integral is also given by

}
|
u
u
= |
0
2 2
sin k 1
d
) k , ( F , 1 k
2
<
where x and | are connected by
| =sin x
The parameter k is called the modulus of the elliptic integral. We also define the
complementary modulus with respect to k, the quantity k' by
2 2
k 1 k = ' .
The complete elliptic integral of the first kind is defined by

}
t
u
u
=
|
.
|
\
|
t
= =
2 /
0
2 2
sin k 1
d
k ,
2
F ) k , 1 ( F K , 1 k
2
<
The complementary complete elliptic integral of the first kind is defined by
917

}
t
u '
u
=
|
.
|
\
|
'
t
= ' = '
2 /
0
2 2
sin k 1
d
k ,
2
F ) k , 1 ( F K
Elliptic integral of the second kind:
The elliptic integral of the second kind is defined by

}

=
x
0
2
2 2
dx
x 1
x k 1
) k , x ( E , 1 k
2
<

}
|
u u = |
0
2 2
d sin k 1 ) k , ( E , 1 k
2
<
| =sin x
Elliptic integral of the third kind:
The elliptic integral of the third kind is defined by

}
+
= H
x
0
2 2 2 2
) x k 1 ( ) x 1 ( ) x n 1 (
dx
) k , n , x ( , 1 k
2
<

}
|
u u +
u
= | H
0
2 2 2
sin k 1 ) sin n 1 (
d
) k , n , ( , 1 k
2
<
| =sin x

15

The Risch Algorithm

Learning Objectives

integrals using the Risch algorithm.

References
[1] M. Bronstein: Symbolic Integration I
Springer 1997
[2] M. Bronstein: Symbolic Integration Tutorial
Inria, Sophia Antipolis Report. ISSAC98, Rostock
[3] K.O. Geddes, S.R. Czapor and G. Labahn: Algorithms for Computer
Algebra. Kluwer Academic Publishers 1992
[4] K. Roach: Indefinite and Definite Integration
Mathematica Conference, June 1992, Boston, MA.

Chapter 15-The Risch Algorithm
919
The Risch algorithmis a powerful tool in evaluating complicated integrals of
elementary functions. The algorithm also checks if the integral can be expressed in
terms of elementary functions. In this Chapter we solve step-by-stem some
examples so that the reader will acquire an experience of the method.
The reader can be introduced to the Risch algorithm using one of the References at
the beginning of this Chapter.
Example 1. Calculate the integral of the function

2 x
x x
) e 1 (
x ln ) e x 1 ( ) x ln 1 ( e 1
) x ( f
+
+ + +
= (1)
Solution.
Step1. We consider the extension field ) , )( x ( Q
2 1
u u where
x
1
e = and x ln
2
= .
The function ) x ( f then becomes

2
1
2 1 2 1
) 1 (
) x 1 ( ) 1 ( 1
+
+ + +
(2)
Step2. Relation (2) can be transformed to
=
+
+ + +
=
+
+ + +
2
1
2 1 1 1
2
1
2 1 2 2 1 1
) 1 (
) x 1 ( ) 1 (
) 1 (
x 1

2
2
1
1 1
1
2
1
2 1 1
2
1
1

) 1 (
x 1
1
1
) 1 (
) x 1 (
) 1 (
) 1 (
+
+
+
+
=
+
+
+
+
+
=
or

2 1 0
A A ) x ( f + = (3)
where

1
0
1
1
A
+
= and
2
1
1 1
1
) 1 (
x 1
A
+
+
= (4)
Step 3. We have therefore to calculate the integral
}
+
2 1 0
A A
Put

2
2 2 2 1 0 2 1 0
B B B A A + + = +
}
(5)
Differentiating (5), we obtain
) B B B ( A A
2
2 2 2 1 0 2 1 0
' + + = +

2
2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 0 2 1 0
B ) B 2 B ( ) B B ( A A ' + ' + ' + ' + ' = + (6)
Equating the coefficients of the similar powers of
2
we get the system
920

2 1 0 0
B B A ' + ' = (7)

2 2 1 1
B 2 B A ' + ' = (8)

2
B 0 ' = (9)
Step 4.
We get from equation (9) that

2 2
C B = , where
2
C is a constant. (10)
Integrating (8) we have
} }
' + ' = ) B 2 B ( A
2 2 1 1
or

1 2 2 1 1
C C 2 B A + + =
}
(11)
where
1
C is another constant.
We have however

x 2 x
x x
2
1
1 1
1
e 1
x
dx
) e 1 (
e x e 1
) 1 (
x 1
A
+
=
+
+
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=
} } }

or

1
1
1
x
A
+
=
}
(12)
Comparing (11) and (12) we have
1
1 2 2 1
1
x
C C 2 B
+
= + +
from which we get
0 C
2
= (13)

1
1 1
1
x
C B
+
= + (14)
0 B
2
= (15)
Equation (14) takes the form

1 1 1
C B B = (16)
where

1
1
1
x
B
+
= (17)
Step 5. Integrate equation (7). We have

} }
' + ' = ) B B ( A
2 1 0 0

or

} }
' + =
2 1 1 0 0
) C B ( B A
from which we get

2 1 0 2 1 0
C B ) B A ( = '
}
(18)
921
However
0
x
1
e 1
x
e 1
1
1
x
1
1
B A
x x
2
1 1
2 1 0
=
+
+
= '
+
+
= '
Therefore equation (18) gives us

2 1 0 0
C B C = (19)
where
0
From equation (19) we obtain that
0 C
1
= (20)
and

0 0
B C = (21)

x
1
1 1
e 1
x
1
x
B B
+
=
+
= = (22)
Step 6. Using (5),
2
2 2 2 1 0 2 1 0
B B B A A + + = +
}

and (21), (22) and (15), we obtain

2
1
0 2 1 0

1
x
C A A
+
+ = +
}

or
x ln
e 1
x
C dx ) x ( f
x
0
+
+ =
}
(23)
Maple support. Maple does not need any further instruction for implementing
the Risch algorithm.

> f1:=1+exp(x)*(1+log(x))+(1-x*exp(x))*log(x):
> f2:=(1+exp(x))^2:
> f:=f1/f2;
:= f
+ + 1 e
x
( ) + 1 ( ) ln x ( ) 1 x e
x
( ) ln x
( ) + 1 e
x
2

> int(f,x);
x ( ) ln x
+ 1 e
x


2 x
x x
) e x (
) x (ln ] x ln e ) x 1 ( ) e x ( 2 [
) x ( f
+
+ +
= (1)
Solution.
922
2 1
u u where
x
1
e = and
x ln
2
= .

2
1
2 2 1 1
) x (
] ) x 1 ( ) x ( 2 [
+
+ +
(2)
Step 2. Relation (2) can be transformed to

2
2
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
2 2 1 1

) x (
) x 1 (
x
2
) x (
] ) x 1 ( ) x ( 2 [
+
+
+
=
+
+ +

or

2
2 2 2 1
A A ) x ( f + = (3)

where

1
1
x
2
A
+
= and
2
1
1
2
) x (
) x 1 (
A
+
= (4)

}
+
2
2 2 2 1
A A
Put

3
2
3
2
2 2 2 1 0
2
2 2 2 1
B B B B A A + + + = +
}
(5)
) B B B B ( A A
3
2
3
2
2 2 2 1 0
2
2 2 2 1
' + + + = +
+ ' + ' + ' + ' = +
2 2 2 1 2 1 0
2
2 2 2 1
) B 2 B ( ) B B ( A A
3
2
3
2
2 2 3 2
B ) B 3 B ( ' + ' + ' + (6)
2
, we get the system

2 1 0
B B 0 ' + ' = (7)

2 2 1 1
B 2 B A ' + ' = (8)

2 3 2 2
B 3 B A ' + ' = (9)

3
B 0 ' = (10)
Step 4.

3 3
C B = , where
3
} }
' + ' = ) B 3 B ( A
2 3 2 2
or

2 2 3 2 2
C C 3 B A + + =
}
(12)
923
where
2
We have however

x 2 x
x
2
1
1
2
e x
x
dx
) e x (
e ) x 1 (
) x (
) x 1 (
A
+
=
+
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
} } }

or

1
2
x
x
A
+
=
}
(13)
Comparing (12) and (13) we obtain

1
2 2 3 2
x
x
C C 3 B
+
= + +
from which we get
0 C
3
= (14)

1
2 2
x
x
C B
+
= + (15)

2 2 2
C B B = (16)
where

1
2
x
x
B
+
= (17)
} }
' + ' = ) B 2 B ( A
2 2 1 1

or

} }
' + =
2 2 2 1 1
) C B ( 2 B A

2 2 1 2 2 1
C 2 B ) B 2 A ( = '
}
(18)
We have however
0
x
1
x
x
2
x
2
x
x
2
x
2
B 2 A
1 1
2
1 1
2 2 1
=
+
+
= '
+
+
= '
Therefore we obtain from (18):

2 2 1 1
C 2 B C = (19)
where
1
From the last equation we get
0 C
2
= (20)

1 1
C B = (21)

}
' + ' = ) B B ( C
2 1 0 0

924
or

}
' + = ) C ( B C
2 1 0 0


2 1 0 0
C B C + = (22)
from which we get
0 C
1
= (23)

0 0
C B = (24)
Step 7. Using (5),

3
2
3
2
2 2 2 1 0
2
2 2 2 1
B B B B A A + + + = +
}

and the values of the coefficients found before,

0 0
C B = , 0 C B
1 1
= = ,
1
2 2 2
x
x
C B B
+
= = and 0 B
3
=
we obtain

2
2
1
0
2
2 2 2 1

x
x
C A A
+
+ = +
}

or

2
x
0
) x (ln
e x
x
C dx ) x ( f
+
+ =
}

Maple support:

> f1:=2*(x+exp(x))+(1-x)*exp(x)*log(x):
> f2:=log(x):
> f3:=(x+exp(x))^2:
> f:=f1*f2/f3;
:= f
( ) + + 2 x 2 e
x
( ) 1 x e
x
( ) ln x ( ) ln x
( ) + x e
x
2

> int(f,x);
x ( ) ln x
2
+ x e
x


2 x
x
) e x ( x
) x (ln ] e ) x ln x 2 ( x ) x ln 2 ( [
) x ( f
+
+
= (1)
Solution.
925
2 1
u u where
x
1
e = and x ln
2
= .

2
1
2 1 2 2
) x ( x
] ) x 2 ( x ) 2 ( [
+
+
(2)

2
2
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
2 1 2 2

) x (
1
) x ( x
2
) x ( x
] ) x 2 ( x ) 2 ( [
+
+
+
=
+
+

or

2
2 2 2 1
A A ) x ( f + = (3)

where

) x ( x
2
A
1
1
+
= and
2
1
1
2
) x (
1
A
+
+
= (4)

}
+
2
2 2 2 1
A A
Put

3
2
3
2
2 2 2 1 0
2
2 2 2 1
B B B B A A + + + = +
}
(5)
) B B B B ( A A
3
2
3
2
2 2 2 1 0
2
2 2 2 1
' + + + = +
+ ' + ' + ' + ' = +
2 2 2 1 2 1 0
2
2 2 2 1
) B 2 B ( ) B B ( A A
3
2
3
2
2 2 3 2
B ) B 3 B ( ' + ' + ' + (6)
2
, we get the system

2 1 0
B B 0 ' + ' = (7)

2 2 1 1
B 2 B A ' + ' = (8)

2 3 2 2
B 3 B A ' + ' = (9)

3
B 0 ' = (10)
Step 4.

3 3
C B = , where
3
} }
' + ' = ) B 3 B ( A
2 3 2 2
or

2 2 3 2 2
C C 3 B A + + =
}
(12)
where
2
926
We have however

x 2 x
x
2
1
1
2
e x
1
dx
) e x (
e 1
) x (
1
A
+
=
+
+
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=
} } }

or

1
2
x
1
A
+
=
}
(13)

1
2 2 3 2
x
1
C C 3 B
+
= + +
from which we get
0 C
3
= (14)

1
2 2
x
1
C B
+
= + (15)

2 2 2
C B B = (16)
where

1
2
x
1
B
+
= (17)
} }
' + ' = ) B 2 B ( A
2 2 1 1

or

} }
' + =
2 2 2 1 1
) C B ( 2 B A

2 2 1 2 2 1
C 2 B ) B 2 A ( = '
}
(18)
We have however
0
x
1
x
x
2
) x ( x
2
x
1
2
) x ( x
2
B 2 A
1 1
2
1 1
2 2 1
=
+
+
= '
+
+
= '

2 2 1 1
C 2 B C = (19)
where
1
0 C
2
= (20)

1 1
C B = (21)

}
' + ' = ) B B ( C
2 1 0 0

or
927

}
' + = ) C ( B C
2 1 0 0


2 1 0 0
C B C + = (22)
from which we get
0 C
1
= (23)

0 0
C B = (24)
Step 7. Using (5),

3
2
3
2
2 2 2 1 0
2
2 2 2 1
B B B B A A + + + = +
}


0 0
C B = , 0 C B
1 1
= = ,
1
2 2 2
x
1
C B B
+
= = and 0 B
3
=
we obtain

2
2
1
0
2
2 2 2 1

x
1
C A A
+
+ = +
}

or

2
x
0
) x (ln
e x
1
C dx ) x ( f
+
+ =
}

Maple support:
> f1:=(2-log(x))*x+(2-x*log(x))*exp(x):
> f2:=log(x):
> f3:=x*(x+exp(x))^2:
> f:=f1*f2/f3;
:= f
( ) + ( ) 2 ( ) ln x x ( ) 2 x ( ) ln x e
x
( ) ln x
x ( ) + x e
x
2

> int(f,x);
( ) ln x
2
+ x e
x

+
+
+ + + + +
=
x x
) x ln 1 )( 1 x ( ) x (ln ) 4 x 3 x (
) x ( f
2
2 2

+
+ +
+
+ +
+
+
x
) 1 x ln( ] x ln x ) 1 x [(
) 1 x ln( ) 1 x (
x ln 2 1

2
) 1 x ln( ) 1 x (
x ln
] x ) 1 x ln( [
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
+ + (1)
928
Solution.
2 1
u u where x ln
1
= and
) 1 x ln(
2
+ = . The function ) x ( f then becomes
+
+
+ + + + +
x x
) 1 )( 1 x ( ) 4 x 3 x (
2
2
1 1
2

+
+
+
+
+
+
x
] x ) 1 x [(
) 1 x (
2 1
2 1
2
1

2
2
1
2
) 1 x (

) x (
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ (2)

+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
1 2
2
2
2
2
2

) 1 x (
2
x x
4 x 3 x
x
) 1 x (
) 1 x (
1
x
1

2
1
2
2
2
2
2

) 1 x (
x
) 1 x (
1
x
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+ +
or

2
1 2 1 1 0
A A A ) x ( f + + = (3)

where

x
) 1 x (
) 1 x (
1
x
1
A
2
2
0

+
+
+ = (4)

2
2
2
2
1

) 1 x (
2
x x
4 x 3 x
A +
+
+
+
+ +
= (5)

2
2
2
2
2
2
) 1 x (
x
) 1 x (
1
x
1
A
+
+
+ = (6)
}
+ +
2
1 2 1 1 0
A A A
Put

3
1
3
2
1 2 1 1 0
2
1 2 1 1 0
B B B B A A A + + + = + +
}
(7)
) B B B B ( A A A
3
1
3
2
1 2 1 1 0
2
1 2 1 1 0
' + + + = + +
+ ' + ' + ' + ' = + +
1 1 2 1 1 1 0
2
1 2 1 1 0
) B 2 B ( ) B B ( A A A
3
1
3
2
1 1 3 2
B ) B 3 B ( ' + ' + ' + (8)
929
2
, we get the system

1 1 0 0
B B A ' + ' = (9)

1 2 1 1
B 2 B A ' + ' = (10)

1 3 2 2
B 3 B A ' + ' = (11)

3
B 0 ' = (12)
Step 4. We get from equation (12) that

3 3
C B = , where
3
} }
' + ' = ) B 3 B ( A
1 3 2 2
or

2 1 3 2 2
C C 3 B A + + =
}
(14)
where
2
We have however
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+ =
} }
2
2
2
2
2
2
) 1 x (
x
) 1 x (
1
x
1
A
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
+ +
+ =
}
) 1 x ( ln ) 1 x (
x
) 1 x ln( ) 1 x (
1
x
1
2 2 2

) 1 x ln( ) 1 x (
x
x ln
+ +
+ =
or

2
1 2
) 1 x (
x
A
+
+ =
}
(15)

2
1 2 1 3 2
) 1 x (
x
C C 3 B
+
+ = + +
from which we get
1 C 3
3
= or
3
1
C
3
= (16)

2
2 2
) 1 x (
x
C B
+
= + (17)

2 2 2
C B B = (18)
where

2
2
) 1 x (
x
B
+
= (19)
} }
' + ' = ) B 2 B ( A
1 2 1 1

930
or

} }
' + =
1 2 2 1 1
) C B ( 2 B A

1 2 1 1 2 1
C 2 B ) B 2 A ( = '
}
(20)
We have however
= '
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
+
+ +
= '
1
2
2
2
2
2
1 2 1

) 1 x (
x
2
) 1 x (
2
x x
4 x 3 x
B 2 A
=
+ +
+ +
+ +
+
+
+ +
=
x
1
) 1 x ln( ) 1 x (
x
2 ) 1 x ln(
) 1 x ln( ) 1 x (
2
x x
4 x 3 x
2
2

) 1 x ln(
x x
4 x 3 x
2
2
+ +
+
+ +
=
Therefore
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
+
+ +
= '
} }
dx ) 1 x ln(
x x
4 x 3 x
) B 2 A (
2
2
1 2 1

= + +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+ =
} }
dx ) 1 x ln( dx
x x
4 x 2
1
2

= + +
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ =
} }
dx ) 1 x ln( dx
1 x
2
x
4
1

1
C ) 1 x ln( ) 1 x ( x ln 4 + + + =
or

1 2 1 1 2 1
C ) 1 x ( 4 ) B 2 A ( + + = '
}
(21)
where
1
C is a constant.

1 2 1 1 2 1
C 2 B C ) 1 x ( 4 = + + (22)

2
C 2 4 = or 2 C
2
= (23)

1 1 2
B C ) 1 x ( = + (24)
The last equation can be written as

1 1 1
C B B + = (25)
where

2 1
) 1 x ( B u = (26)

} }
' + ' = ) B B ( A
1 1 0 0

or
931

} }
' + + =
1 1 1 0 0
) C B ( B A

1 1 0 1 1 0
C B ) B A ( + = '
}
(27)

We also have
= '
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+ = '
1 2
2
2
1 1 0
) 1 x (
x
) 1 x (
) 1 x (
1
x
1
B A

) 1 x ln( ) 1 x (
1
x
1
+ +
+ =
Therefore
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
+ = '
} }
dx
) 1 x ln( ) 1 x (
1
x
1
) B A (
1 1 0

0
C ) 1 x ln(ln( x ln + + + =
or

0 1 1 1 0
C )) 1 x ln(ln( ) B A ( + + + = '
}
(28)
where
0

1 1 0 0 1
C B C )) 1 x ln(ln( + = + + + (29)
1 C
1
= (30)
)) 1 x ln(ln( C B
0 0
+ + = (31)
Step 7. Using (7),

3
1
3
2
1 2 1 1 0
2
1 2 1 1 0
B B B B A A A + + + = + +
}

)) 1 x ln(ln( C B
0 0
+ + = , 1 ) 1 x ( C B B
2 1 1 1
+ = + =
2
) 1 x (
x
C B B
2
2 2 2
+
+
= = and
3
1
C B
3 3
= =
we obtain
+ + + = + +
}
)) 1 x ln(ln( C A A A
0
2
1 2 1 1 0

3
1
2
1
2
1 2

3
1
2
) 1 x (
x
] 1 ) 1 x ( [ +
(
+
+
+ + +
or
+ + + =
}
)) 1 x ln(ln( C dx ) x ( f
0

+ + + + ) x (ln ] 1 ) 1 x ln( ) 1 x ( [
932

3 2
) x (ln
3
1
) x (ln 2
) 1 x ln( ) 1 x (
x
+
(
+
+ +
+
Note. We shall prove now that

) 1 x ln( ) 1 x (
x
x ln A
2
+ +
+ =
}

dx
) 1 x ( ln ) 1 x (
x
) 1 x ln( ) 1 x (
1
x
1
A
2 2 2
2 } }
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
+ +
+ = (N.1)
We consider the integral
dx
) 1 x ( ln ) 1 x (
x
I
2 2
1 }
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
=
appearing above as part of the
2
A integral.
Since
dx
1 x
x
) 1 x ( ln ) 1 x (
1
I
2
1
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
=
}


} }
' = ' dx ) x ( v ) x ( u ) x ( v ) x ( u dx ) x ( v ) x ( u
and the table

) x ( u' ) x ( v ) x ( u ) x ( v'
) 1 x ( ln ) 1 x (
1
2
+ +

1 x
x
+

) 1 x ln(
1
+

2
) 1 x (
1
+

we obtain

+ +
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
}
) 1 x ln( ) 1 x (
x
dx
) 1 x ( ln ) 1 x (
x
2 2

dx
) 1 x ln( ) 1 x (
x
2
}
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +

The above formula can be written as

) 1 x ln( ) 1 x (
x
dx
) 1 x ( ln ) 1 x (
x
) 1 x ln( ) 1 x (
1
2 2 2
+ +
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
+ +
}
(N.2)
Using (N.1) and (N.2) we get
) 1 x ln( ) 1 x (
x
x ln
) 1 x ln( ) 1 x (
x
dx
x
1
A
2
+ +
+ =
+ +
+ =
} }

Maple support:
933
> f1:=(x^2+3*x+4)*log(x)+(x+1)*(1+log(x)^2):
> f2:=x^2+x:
> f3:=1+2*log(x):
> f4:=(x+1)*log(x+1):
> f5:=((x-1)+x*log(x))*log(x+1)/x:
> f6:=log(x+1)-x:
> f7:=(log(x)/(x+1)/log(x+1))^2:
> f:=f1/f2+f3/f4+f5+f6*f7:
> int(f,x);
+ + + + + ( ) x ( ) ln x ( ) ln x ( ) ln + 1 x
1
3
( ) ln x
3
2 ( ) ln x
2
( ) ln x
x ( ) ln x
2
( ) + 1 x ( ) ln + 1 x
( ) ln ( ) ln + 1 x

Example 5. We define the functions ) x ( A and ) x ( B by
) 1 x ln( ) 1 x ( ) 1 x 2 ( x ) x ( A
2
+ + + =
and

2
2
x
)] 1 x ln( [ e x ) x ( B
2
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
respectively. We also define the function ) x ( g by

) x ( B
) x ( A
e x 2 1 ) x ( g
2
3
x
2
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
Evaluate the integral
}
dx ) x ( f if the function ) x ( f is defined by
) x ( g
1 x
x
) x ( f
+
=
Solution. We consider the extension field ) , )( x ( Q
2 1
u u where
2
x
1
e = and
) 1 x ln(
2
+ = . The integrand then becomes

| |

)
+ +
+
+
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
3
1
) ( ) x (
) 1 x ( ) 1 x 2 ( x
) ( x 2 1
1 x
x

which is considered to be a function
2
.
This function is not a linear function with respect to
2
. Therefore we cannot
apply the previous method considered in Examples 1-4.
However Maple provides the following answer:

> f1:=x-(2*x^2+1)*(x+1)*log(x+1):
> f2:=(x*exp(x^2))^2-log(x+1)^2:
> f3:=1+2*x*exp(x^2)^3*f1/(f2)^2:
934
>
> f:=(x/(x+1))*f3:
> int(f,x);
+ + x ( ) ln + 1 x
e
( ) x
2
x ( ) ln + 1 x
x
2
e
( ) 2 x
2
( ) ln + 1 x
2
1
2
( ) ln + x e
( ) x
2
( ) ln + 1 x
1
2
( ) ln + x e
( ) x
2
( ) ln + 1 x

Exercises

Exercise 1. Show that the integral of the function
2 x
x x
) e x ( x
x ln ) e 1 ( x e x
) x ( f
+
+ +
=
is given by
C
e x
x ln
dx ) x ( f
x
+
+
=
}

2 x 2
x x
) e x ( x
x ln ) e 1 ( x ) x ln 1 ( ) e x (
) x ( f
+
+ +
=
is given by
C
) e x ( x
x ln
dx ) x ( f
x
+
+
=
}

2
x x
) x ln x 1 ( x
) x ln 1 ( ) x ln e ( x ) x ln x 1 ( ) 1 e x (
) x ( f
+
+ + + +
=
is given by
C
x ln x 1
x ln e
dx ) x ( f
x
+
+
+
=
}

2 x
2 x x
) e x ( x
) x ln 1 ( ) e x x ( ) x (ln ) e x ( 2
) x ( f
+
+ + +
=
is given by
C
e x
x ln 1
dx ) x ( f
x
2
+
+
+
=
}

16

The Adamchik-Marichev
Algorithm

Learning Objectives

integrals using the Adamchic-Marichev algorithm

References
[1] V. S. Adamchik and O. I. Marichev: The Algorithm for Calculating
Integrals of Hypergeometric-Type Functions and its Realization in
REDUCE System
Proceedings ISSAC 90, ACM Press, pp. 212-224
[2] V. S. Adamchik: meijerG, a package for simplification of Meijers G
function. Preprint available online.
[3] K. Roach: Indefinite and Definite Integration
Reprint from the Mathematica Conference, June 1992, Boston, MA
[4] K. Roach: Meijer G function Representation
Preprint, available online.

Chapter 16-The Adamchik-Marichev Algorithm
936
[5] P. A. Prudnikov, Yu. A. Brychkov and O. I. Marichev: Integrals and
Series. Volume 3, More Special Functions.
Gordon and Breach, N.Y. 1990
[6] Wikipedia: Meijer G Function
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meijer_G-function.html

The Adamchik-Marichev algorithm makes use of the Meijer G-function which is
defined by a Barnes-type contour integral in the complex plane.
This function was discovered in 1936 by the Dutch Mathematician C. S. Meijer
(1904-1974). Each one of the special functions can be expressed in terms of the
Meijer function for a specific choice of its parameters.
The Meijer function is denoted by

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
q 1 m m 1
p 1 n n 1
mn
pq
mn
pq
b , , b , b , b
a , , a , a , a
z G
d , c
b , a
z G

Some elementary functions are expressed in terms of the Meijer function, like

|
|
.
|
\
|
t =

2 / 1 , 0
2 / 1 , 0
x G ) x 1 (
11
22
1

|
|
.
|
\
|
= +
0 , 1
1 , 1
x G ) x 1 ln(
12
22

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
0 , 2 / 1
1 , 2 / 1
x G
2
1
x arctan
2 12
22

|
|
.
|
\
|
t =
0 , 2 / 1
,
4
x
G x sin
2
12
22

|
|
.
|
\
|
t =
2 / 1 , 0
,
4
x
G x cos
2
12
22

The hypergeometric function is expressed as
937

|
|
.
|
\
|

I I
I
=
c 1 , 0
b 1 , a 1
x G
) b ( ) a (
) c (
) x ; c ; b , a ( F
12
22 1

The integration of functions by the Adamchik-Marichev algorithm is based on the
formula

|
|
.
|
\
|
e =
|
|
.
|
\
|
e
+
+ +
}
d , c
b , a
y G y dx
d , c
b , a
x G x
1 n , m
1 q , 1 p
a
y
0
mn
pq
1 a

According to the above formula
- the integrand is expressed in terms of the Meijer function,
- the above integration formula is used and then
- the Meijer function, which is the result of integration, is expressed as an
elementary function.
Example. For 1 m= , 0 p n = = , 2 q = , 2 / 1 2 = e = o , 0 b
2
= , 2 / 1 b
1
= ,
2
z y = ,
we obtain
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
t = =
} }

0 2 / 1 2 / 1
2 / 1
z G z dt t sin 2 dx x sin x
4 / 2 11
13
z
0
y
0
2 / 1

z cos 2 2 ) 4 z ; 2 / 3 , 2 ; 1 ( F z
2
2 1
2
= =
The Meijer function is written in Maple as:
) x )]], q ( b ), 1 m ( b [ )], m ( b , ), 1 ( b [[ )]], p ( a ), 1 n ( a [ )], n ( a , ), 1 ( a ([[ MeijerG + +
For example we can enter
) x ]], 1 [ ], 0 [[ ]], 0 , 1 [ ], 2 , 1 ([[ MeijerG
as follows:
> MeijerG([[1,2],[1,0]],[[0],[1]],x);
|
\
|
.
|
|
MeijerG , , [ ] , [ ] [ ] [ ] , [ ] -1 [ ] 0
1
x

In some cases a Meijer function can be converted into either an elementary or a
special function. Denoting by f the above function, we obtain

> convert(f,StandardFunctions);
938
x
|
\
|
.
|
|
BesselJ , 1
2
x

On the other side, we may also convert an elementary or a special function into a
Meijer function:
> convert(sin(z),'MeijerG',include=elementary);
t
|
\
|
.
|
|
MeijerG , , [ ] , [ ] [ ]

(
(
,
(
(
1
2
[ ] 0
z
2
4

The Adamchik-Marichev algorithm is usually implemented in Symbolic
Languages like Maple and Mathematica. It is very hard to be used on paper.
This short note only serves to inform the reader that in very complicated cases
there are algorithms implemented in Computer Algebra Systems.

939

INDEX
Pages
Abel substitutions 747,754,760
Algorithm
Adamchik-Marichev 935-938
Chebyshev 688-712
Hermite-Horowitz 315-320
Ostrogradsky 307-315
Risch 918-934
Rothstein-Trager 320-324

Elementary examples of integration 12-46
Elliptic integrals 900-917
Euler substitutions 771-786
Exponential functions (integrals of) 389-429

Hyperbolic functions (integrals of) 640-652
Hyperbolic substitutions 712-736 and 745-766

Integration by parts 80-120
Inverse hyperbolic functions (integrals of) 891-899
Inverse trigonometric functions (integrals of) 875-890
940
Irrational functions (integrals of) 653-874

Logarithmic functions (integrals of) 430-473

Polynomial functions (integrals of) 121-137

Rational functions (integrals of) 138-388
Reduction formulas 92, 234, 241,244,247,480, 485, 520-542,550-564

Substitution method 47-79

Trigonometric functions (integrals of) 474-639
Trigonometric substitutions 712-736 and 745-766

Integrals of Functions of A Real Variable

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Integrals of Functions

= , the integral becomes

= , this integral transforms into

, using the table

+ = . Therefore, using the setup of the

= and takes on the form

in the partial fraction decomposition of

, the two results are identical.

. Using partial fraction

. Therefore the integral has value

. Using the reduction formula

. The last integral can be evaluated

. Using the formula

. Using the formula

. Using partial fraction decomposition, we

. Therefore the integral takes on the form

Using the formula (see 7.3)

= and the substitution

= and then the substitution

sin x cos and

x cos 2 x cos x sin .

= . We then use the substitution

, which can be evaluated using partial fractions.

, which can be evaluated using partial fractions.

= . Under the substitution

= . Therefore the integral becomes

which is equivalent to the

from which we get 1 t x

and then raising both

, by raising both members to the

+ = + from which we have

from which we get 1 t x 2

and then raising both

, by raising both members to the |

from which we get 1 t x

and then raising both

, by raising both members to the

from which we get 1 t x

and then raising both

, by raising both members to the

+ = + , from which we obtain

p = , we make the substitution

= ' and since

= ' and since

= , going back to the

= . Therefore the value of the integral,

= from which we get

= . Therefore, solving with respect to x we find

= , the integral takes the form

= , solving with respect to x, we find

= . The integral then

= , solving with respect to x, we find

= . The integral then

= in the above value of the integral.

, where s is the denominator of p:

. From this we find

. From this we find

. In this case we have

. In this case we have

. From this we find

. From this we find

= , the integral transforms into

= , the integral transforms into