Flow Measurements Chapter Seven

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7.2 Flow Measurement Through Pipes
7.2.1 Pitot Tube
One means of measuring the local velocity in a flowing fluid is the pitot
tube, named after Henri Pitot, who used a bent glass tube in 1730 to
measure velocities in the river Seine. The pitot tube measures the
stagnation pressure at any point in the flow. It consists of a tube having
a right angle of shorter length, opened at its both ends, as shown in
Figure (7.12). The tube opening is directed upstream, so that the fluid
flows into the opening until the pressure builds up in the tube
sufficiently to withstand the impact of velocity against it.


P
1
H.G.L.
h=V /2g
2
2

Piezometer
V
(1) (2)
Stagnation Point
Pitot Tube
T.E.L.
P
=

P
1
+
V
1
2
2g

Figure 7.12: Pitot tube (a velocity measuring device).
A piezometer installed on the pipe boundary as shown, indicates the
static pressure P
1
. The difference between the stagnation pressure and
the static pressure is the dynamic pressure. Bernoullis equation, applied
between point 1 and point 2, produces,

2
2
1
2
p
g
V p
= +
Thus, gh
p p
g V 2 2
2 1
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

(7.21)
Where h is the difference between the stagnation head and the static
head.
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The actual velocity will be slightly less than the velocity given by
Equation (7.21) and it is modified by introducing coefficient, pitot tube
coefficient C
p
(usually between 0.95 and 1.0) as,
gh C V
p
2 = (7.22)
Equation (7.22) gives a relation for flow velocity. The velocity
distribution across the flow (in the normal direction) can be obtained by
placing the Pitot tube at desired points and obtaining the velocity head,
as indicated by the difference in fluid levels between the Pitot tube and
the pizometer.
In real fluid flow (rotational flow), the velocity varies throughout the
normal section; it is obvious that the total head would also very in a
direction normal to the flow, as show in Figure (7.13a). In case of an
ideal fluid flow (irrotational flow), since the velocity at a normal section
remains constant, the total head would also remain constant as shown in
Figure (7.13b).

V

P
V /2g
2
Q
(2)
Pitot Tube
Total Head at (2)
(1)

P
1
+
1
2
2g
2
Z
V /2g
2
1
Z
1
V

P
2
+
2
2
2g
Z
2
Arbitrary Datum

P
Q
(1)
T.E.L.
Z
V

P
1
+
1
2
2g
Z
1
Arbitrary Datum
H.G.L.
V
Total Head
H.G.L.
at (1)

a) Real fluid (rotational) flow. b) Ideal fluid (irrotational) flow.
Figure 7.13: Total head in ideal and real fluid flow
Eotc 7.9
Water flows through a pipe of diameter 0.30 m. What would be the
velocity for the conditions shown in the figure below?
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0.3 m
S. G. 0.8
V
0.3 m

Eoutiov:
Differential head, h
manometer al head of Differenti G S h = ) . 1 (
water of m h 06 . 0 3 . 0 ) 8 . 0 1 ( = =
But, gh V 2 =
s m V 085 . 1 06 . 0 81 . 9 2 = =
7.2.2 Orifice Meter
Orifice meter is an extensively used flow-measuring device in pipes. It
is possibly one of the oldest devices for measuring or regulating the
flow of fluids. In its simplest and most familiar form, the orifice meter
is nearly a circular pole in a thin flat plate, which is clamped between
the flanges at a joint in the pipeline.
Figure (7.14) illustrates the flow pattern at and near the orifice plate.
The fluid flow approaching the orifice gets accelerated and the
boundary streamlines confining the flow. The radially inward
component of fluid acceleration causes reduction in the flow area of the
jet issued from the orifice. There is, therefore, a vena contracta, which is
located within a distance of one half-pipe diameter.
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2g
V
D
1
V
1
d
1 2 3
1 2 3
D D/2
h
H =C
V
2
1
L L
H. G. L.
T. E. L.
V /2g
2
1

Figure 7.14: Flow through orifice meter.
To relate the vena contracta A
2
to the area of the orifice A
o
we use the
contraction coefficient, which is defined as
0
2
A
A
C
c
=
Then, for a circular orifice,
2
2
2
2
2
) 4 / (
) 4 / (
|
.
|

\
|
= =
d
d
d
d
C
c
t
t

At low values of the Reynolds number, C
c
is a function of the Reynolds
number. However at high values of the Reynolds number, C
c
is only a
function of the geometry of the orifice.
We begin the derivation of the discharge equation for the orifice by
writing Bernoullis equation between section 1 and section 2
considering the pipe axis horizontal,
g
V P
g
V P
2 2
2
2 2
2
1 1
+ = +


V
1
is eliminated by means of the continuity equation
2 2 1 1
. . V A V A =
Then solving for V
2
gives
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2 1
1 2
2 1
2
) / ( 1
) / / ( 2
(

=
A A
P P g
V

(7.23)
However, A
2
= C
c
. A
o
and h = (P
1
/ - P
2
/), where h is the differential
head across the orifice, so Equation (7.23) is reduced to

) / . ( 1
2
2
1
2
0
2
2
A A C
gh
V
c

= (7.24)
The discharge is given by A
2
.V
2
. Hence, when multiply both sides of
Equation (7.24) by A
2
= C
c
.A
o
, we obtain
gh
A A C
A C
Q
c
c
2
) / ( 1
.
2
1
2
0
2
0

= (7.25)
Equation (7.25) is the discharge equation for the flow of an
incompressible inviscid fluid through an orifice. However, it is valid
only at relatively high Reynolds number. For low and moderate values
of the Reynolds number, viscous effects are significant, and an
additional coefficient called the coefficient of velocity C
v
must be
applied to the discharge equation to relate the ideal to the actual flow.
Thus for viscous flow through an orifice, we have the following
discharge equation:
gh
A A C
A C C
Q
c
c v
2
) / . ( 1
. .
2
1
2
0
2
0

=
The product
c v
C C . is called the discharge coefficient C
d
and the
combination
2 1 2
1
2
0
2
) / . 1 /( . A A C C C
c c v
is called the flow coefficient K.
Thus we have
gh A K Q 2 .
0
= (7.26)
Where,
) / . ( 1
2
1
2
0
2
A A C
C
K
c
d

=

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7.2.3 Venturimeter:
A venturimeter is a device used for measuring rate of flow (discharge)
in a pipeline. It is a practical application of Bernoullis equation.
The converging tube is an efficient device for converting pressure head
to velocity head, while the diverging tube converts velocity head to
pressure head. The two may be combined to form a venturimeter,
named after Venturi, an Italian, who investigated its principle about
1791. It was applied to the measurement of water by Clemens Herschel
in 1886.The venturimeter in its simplest form as in Figure (7.15)
consists of the following three parts:
i. Converging entrance cone of angle of about 20, known as the inlet,
ii. Cylindrical portion of a short length, known as the throat, and
iii. Diverging part cone of angle 5 to 7, known as diffuser.

V /2g
1
2

P /
1
Z
1
Q
h
(1)
20
o
H
(2)
V /2g
2
2

P /
2
Z
2
5 to 7
o o
T.E.L.
Arbitrary Datum
H.G.L.
I II

Figure 7.15: Venturimeter.
Applying Bernoullis equation between point 1 and 2, we have, for the
ideal fluid,
g
V P
Z
g
V p
Z
2
) (
2
) (
2
2 2
2
2
1 1
1
+ + = + +


Thus, H
g
V V P
Z
p
Z =

= + +
2
) ( ) (
2
1
2
2 2
2
1
1

(7.28)
Where, H is the change in piezometric head.
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Thus, gH V V 2
2
1
2
2
= (7.29)
For an incompressible fluid, the continuity equation is
2 2 1 1
. . V A V A Q = =
Thus,
1
2
1
2
.V
A
A
V =
Where A
1
and A
2
are the cross sectional areas at the inlet and the throat
respectively. Eliminating V
2
from Equation (7.29), the velocity at the
inlet may be expressed as
gH
A A
A
V 2
2
2
2
1
2
1

= (7.30)
The ideal of flow rate may then be written as
1 1
.V A Q =
Thus, gH
A A
A A
Q
th
2
.
2
2
2
1
2 1

= (7.31)
For real flow, loss of energy takes place between the sections under
consideration, thus the actual velocity in the throat becomes less than
the theoretical velocity. This causes a corresponding decrease in the
actual discharge as compared to the theoretical one given by Equation
(7.31). In order to determine actual discharge, a coefficient C
d
is
introduced and used with Equation (7.31). Thus, the actual discharge;
gH
A A
A A C
Q C Q
d
th d
2
. .
.
2
2
2
1
2 1
.

= = (7.32)
The coefficient of discharge C
d
for venturimeter varies from 0.95 to
0.99.
The pressure head difference H can be measured using a differential
manometer. From principles of manometer,
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Pressure at point I = Pressure at point II
Thus, ( ) h h Z P Z P . .
2 2 1 1
' + + = +
Or
|
|
.
|

\
|

'
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ 1
2
2
1
1

h
P
Z
P
Z
But, H
P
Z
P
Z =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

2
2
1
1

Thus,
|
|
.
|

\
|

'
= 1

h H (7.33)
Where,
: specific weight of the flowing fluid,
' : specific weight of the manometer fluid, and
h : difference of level in the differential manometer.
It is expected that the maximum velocity of flow occurs at the throat
since it has minimum cross sectional area of flow. Accordingly the
minimum pressure will occur at the throat.
Increasing the discharge passing in the pipeline will result in increasing
the velocity at the throat and consequently the pressure, there will be
further reduced and it may reach a zero value and may be negative as
indicated by the shown hydraulic gradient in Figure (7.16).

V /2g
1
2

P /
1
V /2g
3
2

P /
3
(3)
V /2g
2
2

P / (-ve)
2
H.G.L. H.G.L.
T.E.L.
(2)
(1) Reference
Datum

Figure 7.16: Variation of piezometric head in venturimeter.
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If this negative pressure at the throat approaches the vapor pressure of
the flowing liquid, it will evaporate at normal room temperature as it
passes through the throat. Accordingly, a discontinuing of the flow will
occur due to the formation of vapor, which will collapse again to liquid
thus forming a continuous process of evaporation and collapse of fluid
particles. This phenomenon is known as cavitation and it attacks the
metal surface of the venturimeter causing cavities; and finally causing
its deterioration and destruction. To avoid this, the pressure at the throat
should not be allowed to approach the vapor pressure of the liquid and
special metal alloys, which can resist cavitation, should be used in
places where cavitation is expected.
Eotc 7.10
Determine the flow rate through the venturimeter shown in figure if
ideal conditions exist. For what flow rate through venturimeter will
cavitation begin if the pressure at point 1 becomes 275kPa, atmospheric
pressure is 101kPa (absolute), and vapor pressure is 5.2 kPa (absolute)?

Eoutiov:
Case (1):

d =31 mm
(2)
(1)
Q
1
d =19 mm
2
Q
P = 735 kPa
1 P = 550
kPa
2
d =31 mm
1

From continuity equation,
2 2 1 1
. . V A V A Q = =
2
2
1
2
) 019 . 0 (
4
) 031 . 0 (
4
V V
(

=
(

t t

Thus,
2 1
376 . 0 V V =
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Applying Bernoullis equation between point 1 and point 2, and
neglecting losses,
g
V p
Z
g
V p
Z
2 2
2
2 2
2
2
1 1
1
+ + = + +


81 . 9 2 9810
) 10 ( 550
0
81 . 9 2
) 376 . 0 (
9810
) 10 ( 735
0
2
2
3 2
2
3

+ =

+
V V

The velocity at point 2, s m V 15 . 2
2
=
The flow rate,
2 2
.V A Q =
s m Q
3 3 2
10 1 . 6 15 . 2 ) 019 . 0 (
4

=
(

=
t

Case (2):

(2)
(1)
Q Q
P = 275 kPa
1 P = 5.2 kPa
2

Cavitation begins when the pressure at the throat equal the vapor
pressure, and the discharge is obtained by applying Bernoullis equation
between point 1 and point 2,
81 . 9 2 9810
) 10 ( 2 . 5
0
8 . 9 2
) 376 . 0 (
9810
) 10 ( ) 101 275 (
0
2
2
3 2
2
3

+
+
+
V V

The velocity at point 2, s m V 5 . 30
2
=
The flow rate,
2 2
.V A Q =
s m Q
3 3 2
10 65 . 8 5 . 30 ) 019 . 0 (
4

=
(

=
t

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7.3 Flow Measurements in Open Channels.
The flow in small channels is generally measured by means of weirs and
in large channels by using the current meter. Sometimes the gates,
which are installed to regulate the flow in channels, are also used for
flow measurement. We shall discuss various types of weirs, which are
generally used for flow measurement in open channels.
7.3.1 Weirs
A weir is an obstruction in an open channel over which liquid flows.
The discharge over the weir is a function of the weir geometry and of
the head on the weir. By measuring the height of upstream liquid
surface, the rate of flow is determined. Weirs may be constructed from a
sheet of metal, masonry or from other material.
The weirs may be of different shapes such as the rectangular, triangular,
trapezoidal etc. They may discharge under free conditions or may
function as submerged weirs under appropriate downstream conditions.
When the liquid level downstream of weir is above its crest level, the
weir is said to be a submerged weir. The sheet of water that flowing
over a weir is termed nappe or vein. The lower edge of weir is
termed sill or crest. The weir length may be named as crest length
or sill length of the weir.
7.3.1.1 Rectangular Notch (or Weir)
Considering an elementary strip of area B.dh at a depth h below the free
surface, Figure (7.17), a theoretical flow through the strip is
gh dh B dQ 2 . =
Thus, the theoretical flow passing over the weir may be obtained
integrating dQ between the limits h=0 and h=H
dh gh B Q
H
O
}
= 2


2 3
.
2
3
2
H g B Q
th
= (7.34)
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h
V /2g
o
2
H
Z
o
V
T.E.L.
Nappe
Crest
B
Weir Crest
H
dh

Figure 7.17: Flow over rectangular weir.
But this ideal flow will be decreased slightly by fluid friction and
decreased much more by the following factors,
i. The area of the flow in the plane of the crest is much less than
B.H, because of the drawdown at the top and the crest
contraction below,
ii. The velocity at h=0, is not zero, and
iii. The streamlines are not normal to the plan of the area.
To correct for these discrepancies, it is necessary to introduce an
experimental coefficient of discharge C
d
. This, then, gives us the basic
formula for rectangular weir, which is

2 3
2
3
2
H g B C Q
d
= (7.35)
If the velocity of approach at the section where H is measured, is
appreciable, the limit of integration should then be
g
V
H
a
2
2
+ and
g
V
a
2
2
; so
the resulting discharge equation is

(
(

+ =
2 3
2
2 3
2
)
2
( )
2
( 2
3
2
g
V
g
V
H g B C Q
a a
d
(7.36)
The following empirical formula may be use to determine the discharge
coefficient
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|
.
|

\
|
+ =
Z
H
C
d
075 . 0 611 . 0 (7.37)
Where Z is the height of the weir crest above the channel floor.
Equation (7.36) must be solved by trial. An approximate value of Q may
be first obtained by applying Equation (7.35). Then the effect of V
a
can
be accounted for to obtain a refined value of Q.
When the crest length is less than the width of the channel, there will be
a lateral contraction of the nappe so that its length is less than B. Such
types of weirs have end contractions and are known as contracted weirs,
Figure (7.18).

B>3H 2H
2H
H
2H

Figure 7.18: Standard contracted weir.
Francis (1909) concluded that the effect of each side contraction is to
reduce the width of the nappe by 0.1H. The usual contracted weir will
have a contraction at each side, but occasionally a weir is placed against
one sidewall, so that the contraction on one side is suppressed. If n
equals the number of contractions, which may be 2, 1, or 0, the Francis
formula, based on Eq. (7.34), is

2 3
2 ) 1 . 0 (
3
2
H g nH B C Q
d
= (7.38)
This formula is accurate within the limits of the experiments on which it
was based. But it is seen that if H is large enough relative to B, the
formula would indicate zero flow, and for an even larger value of H, the
computed result would be negative. If this equation is to be used, the
minimum proportions allowable are as shown in Figure (7.18), but still
larger ratios are desirable.
Eotc 7.10
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A rectangular notch discharges 1 m
3
/s of water when the head of water
is half the length of the notch. Find the length of the notch, taking C
d
as
0.62.
Eoutiov:
Let B the length of the notch
2 or 2 B H H B = =
But,
2 3
2 .
3
2
H g B C Q
d
=
Thus,
2 3
81 . 9 2 62 . 0
3
2
1 . 0 H B =
Substituting H in terms of B
Thus,
2 3
) 2 ( 81 . 9 2 62 . 0
3
2
1 . 0 B B =
Thus, the length of the notch, m B 19 . 1 =
7.3.1.2 Triangular Weir (V-Notch)
The triangular weir is particularly useful where the discharge is to vary
over a large range and the same accuracy is desired for both small and
large discharges. For measuring small discharge accurately and to avoid
surface tension effects, which are associated with flow at low heads, and
to obtain higher measurable heads, a triangular weir is preferable over
the rectangular weir.
Figure (7.19) shows a triangular weir with vertex angle u . The rate of
flow through an elementary area dA=2xdh is
dA gh dQ 2 =
gh dh x dQ 2 . 2 =
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Where h is the depth of strip below the liquid surface and dh is its
thickness.

X
h
H
A
B
2u
O
dh

Figure 7.19: Triangular weir
The dishrage flowing through the V-notch weir may be obtained by
integrating dQ between the limits h=0 and h=H
}
=
H
O
gh dh x Q 2 . 2
But
2
tan
) (
u
=
h H
x

Or
2
tan ). (
u
h H x =
So that
dh gh h H Q
H
O
th }
= 2 .
2
tan ). ( 2
u


2 5
..
2
tan 2
15
8
H g Q
th
u
= (7.39)
Equation (7.39) gives the theoretical discharge. The actual discharge is
less than the theoretical one. The actual discharge is obtained by
multiplying Equation (7.39) with the coefficient of discharge C
d
thus
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2 5
.
2
tan 2
15
8
H g C Q
d
u
= (7.40)
Eotc 7.11
Find out the discharge through a right-angel triangular notch, under a
head of 0.25 m taking C
d
as 0.60.
Eoutiov:
Discharge through a triangular notch
2 5
.
2
tan 2
15
8
H g C Q
d
u
=
2 5
) 25 . 0 ( 45 tan 81 . 9 2 60 . 0
15
8
=
o
Q
s l s m Q 31 . 44 04431 . 0
3
= =
Eotc 7.12
Water discharges through a rectangular notch 1.2 m wide under a head
of a 0.5 m. If the same discharge is allowed to flow through a 120
o
V-
notch determine the head of water over the V-notch. Take the
coefficients of discharge to be the same in both the two notches.

Eoutiov:
Let the head over the V-notch be H
1
As discharge over the both the notches is the same,
2 5
1
2 3
. tan 2
15
8
2 .
3
2
H g C H g B C
d d
u =
Cancel C
d
and g 2
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Thus,
2 5
1
2 3
60 tan
15
8
) 5 . 0 (
3
2
H
o
=
m m H 623 . 0 6229 . 0
1
~ =
Head of water over the V-notch = 0.623 m