Lecture: Air Movement and Natural Ventilation

1. Basic Concepts

1.1 Natural ventilation

1.2 Mechanical ventilation

1.3 Purposes of ventilation

2. Principles of Natural Ventilation

2.1 Wind effect

2.2 Stack effect

2.3 Combined effect of wind and temperature difference

3. Design for Natural Ventilation

3.1 Ventilation rates

3.2 Flow caused by wind

3.3 Flow caused by thermal forces

3.4 Guidelines for natural ventilation

4. Infiltration and Air Leakage

4.1 Air leakage area and performance

4.2 Estimation of infiltration rates

4.3 Air leakage of building components

Further Reading

1. Basic Concepts

VENTILATION is the process by which fresh air is introduced and ventilated

air is removed from an occupied space. The primary aim of ventilation is to
preserve the qualities of air. Sometimes, ventilation may also be used to lower
the temperature inside an occupied area.

1.1 Natural ventilation

Natural ventilation is the process of supplying and removing air by means of

purpose-provided aperture (such as openable windows, ventilators and
shafts) and the natural forces of wind and temperature-difference pressures.
Natural ventilation may be divided into two categories:

Controlled natural ventilation is intentional displacement of air through

specified openings such as windows, doors, and ventilations by using natural
forces (usually by pressures from wind and/or indoor-outdoor temperature
differences). It is usually controlled to some extent by the occupant.
Infiltration is the uncontrolled random flow of air through unintentional
openings driven by wind, temperature-difference pressures and/or appliance-
induced pressures across the building envelope. In contrast to controlled
natural ventilation, infiltration cannot be so controlled and is less desirable
than other ventilation strategies, but it is a main source of ventilation in
envelope-dominated buildings.
1.2 Mechanical ventilation

Mechanical or forced ventilation is the process of supplying and removing air

by means of mechanical devices, such as fans. It may be arranged to provide
either supply, extract or balanced ventilation for an occupied space.

There are also specialised areas in which ventilation is vital, such as

ventilation for industrial processes, mines, tunnels and underground
development. However, in this lecture we will focus only on natural ventilation.

1.3 Purposes of ventilation

Maintaining human comfort and health are two key reasons for providing
ventilation in buildings. To achieve these purposes, a ventilation system
should be able to meet the following criteria:

provide sufficient supply of air/oxygen for the physiological needs of human

beings (a minimum of 0.2 l/s/person is required for breathing purpose) and/or
livestock;
provide sufficient supply of air/oxygen for industrial, agricultural and other
processes (for example, provision of oxygen for burning and combustion
processes);
remove the products of respiration and bodily odour (including those from
smoking) of human and/or animal occupants;
remove contaminants or harmful chemicals generated by processes or
from building materials;
remove heat generated by people, lighting and equipment inside the
occupied space;
create some degree of air movement which is essential for feelings of
freshness and comfort (usually a velocity of 0.1 to 0.3 m/s is required).

2. Principles of Natural Ventilation

For air to move into and out of a building, a pressure difference between the
inside and outside of the building is required. The resistance to flow of air
through the building will affect the actual air flow rate. In general, controlled
natural ventilation and infiltration are driven by pressure difference across the
building envelope. The pressure difference is caused by:
 • wind (or wind effect);
• difference in air density due to temperature difference between indoor
and outdoor air (stack or chimney effect); or
• combination of both wind and stack effects.

2.1 Wind effect

When air flow is due to wind, air enters through openings in the windward
walls, and leaves through openings in the leeward walls. The pressure
distribution patterns due to wind in a number of cases are illustrated in Figure
1.

Figure 1 Air flow around a building

Wind pressures are generally high/positive on the windward side of a building

and low/negative on the leeward side. The occurrence and change of wind
pressures on building surfaces depend on:

• wind speed and wind direction relative to the building;

• the location and surrounding environment of the building; and
• shape of the building.
Mathematically, pressure on building surfaces may be expressed as:
(1)
where Pw = mean pressure on the building surface (N/m2 or Pa)
Po = static pressure in undistributed wind (N/m2 or Pa)
vw = mean wind velocity (m/s)
= density of air (kg/m3)
Cp = surface pressure coefficient

Few data exist on pressure coefficients for buildings of different form and
degree of shelter. For buildings of simple form which stand alone by itself, or
are much higher than surrounding buildings and obstruction, the British
Standards BS5925 gives average surface pressure coefficients.

For a building with numerous partitions and openings, it is under various

pressures depending on the relative sizes of the openings and the wind
direction. With large openings on the windward face, the building tends to be
under positive pressure. The reverse is true if the openings are smaller than
those downstream.

2.2 Stack effect

When air movement is due to temperature difference between the indoor and
outdoor, the flow of air is in the vertical direction and is along the path of least
resistance. The temperature difference causes density differentials, and
therefore pressure differences, that drive the air to move. During the winter
season (see Figure 2a), the following stack effect occurs:

• indoor temperature is higher than outdoor temperature;

• the warmer air in building then rises up;
• the upward air movement produces negative indoor pressure at the
bottom;
• positive indoor pressure is created on the top;
• warmer air flows out of the building near the top; and
• the air is replaces by colder outside air that enters the building near its
base.
 Figure 2 Stack effect

During the summer season (see Figure 2b), the reverse occurs when indoor
temperature is lower than outdoor temperature. Figure 3 shows stack effect
that may occur in different forms of buildings, including a building with no
internal partition, a building with airtight separation of each storey, and an
ideal building with vertical shafts and horizontal openings.

Figure 3 Stack effect and pressure distribution in various buildings

When thermal force is acting alone, a neutral pressure level (NPL) exists,
where the interior and exterior pressures are equal. At all other levels, the
pressure difference between the interior and exterior depends on the distance
from the neutral pressure level and the difference between the densities of
inside and outside air.
 (2)
where Ps = pressure difference due to stack effect (N/m2 or Pa)
= density of air (kg/m3)
g = gravitational constant = 9.81 m/s2
h = height of observation (m)
hneutral = height of neutral pressure level (m)
= absolute temperature (K) (subscripts i = inside and o =
T
outside)

2.3 Combined effect of wind and temperature difference

In most cases, natural ventilation depends on a combined force of wind and

stack effects. The pressure patterns for actual buildings continually change
with the relative magnitude of thermal and wind forces. Figure 4 shows the
combined effect of wind and thermal forces. The pressures due to each effect
are added together to determine the total pressure difference across the
building envelope.

Figure 4 Combined effect of wind and thermal forces

The relative importance of the wind and stack pressures in a building depends
on building height, internal resistance to vertical air flow, location and flow
resistance characteristics of envelope openings, local terrain, and the
immediate shielding of the building structure.

3. Design for Natural Ventilation

The design of controlled natural ventilation systems requires identification of

the prevailing wind direction, the strategic orientations and positions of
openings on the building envelope. These openings include windows, doors,
roof ventilators, skylights, vent shafts, and so forth.

3.1 Ventilation rates

When designing a ventilation system, the ventilation rates are required to
determine the sizes of fans, openings, and air ducts. The methods that can be
used to determine the ventilation rates include:

(a) Maximum allowable concentration of contaminants

A decay equation can be used to describe the steady-state conditions of

contaminant concentrations and ventilation rate, like this:

Ci = C o + F / Q (3)
where Ci = maximum allowable concentration of contaminants
Co = concentration of contaminants in outdoor air
= rate of generation of contaminants inside the occupied space
F
(l/s)
Q = ventilation rate (l/s)

(b) Heat generation

The ventilation rate required to remove heat from an occupied space is given
by:

(4)

where H = heat generation inside the space (W)

Q = ventilation rate (l/s)
cp = specific heat capacity of air (J/kg.K)
= density of air (kg/m3)
Ti = indoor air temperature (K)
T
= outdoor air temperature (K)
o

(c) Air change rates

Most related professional institutes and authorities have set up recommended

ventilation rates, expressed in air change per hour, for various situations. The
ventilation rate is related to the air change rate by the following equation:

(5)
where Q = ventilation rate (l/s)
= concentration of contaminants in outdoor
V
air
ACH = air change per hour

Table 1 gives some recommended air change rates for typical spaces. Table 2
provides some examples of outdoor air requirements for ventilation.
Table 1 Recommended air change rates

Space Air change rates per hour

Carparks 6
Kitchen 20 - 60
Lavatory 15
Bathrooms 6
Boiler rooms 15 - 30

Table 2 Outdoor air requirements for ventilation

Application Estimated maximum occupancy Outdoor air

(persons per 100 m2 floor area) requirements
(l/s/person)
Offices
- office space 7 10
- conference 50 10
room
Retail's Stores
- street level 30 5
- upper 20 5
floors/arcades
Education
- classroom 50 8
- auditorium 150 8
- library 20 8
Hospitals
- patient rooms 10 13
- operating 20 15
rooms

Note: Data source: ASHRAE Standard 62-1989, Ventilation for Acceptable

Indoor Air Quality.

3.2 Flow caused by wind

Major factors affecting ventilation wind forces include:

• average wind speed;

• prevailing wind direction;
• seasonal and daily variation in wind speed and direction;
• local obstructing objects, such as nearby buildings and trees;
• position and characteristics of openings through which air flows; and
• distribution of surface pressure coefficients for the wind.
Natural ventilation systems are often designed for wind speeds of half the
average seasonal velocity because from climatic analysis there are very few
places where wind speed falls below half the average velocity for many hours
in a year.

The following equation shows the air flow rate through ventilation inlet
opening forced by wind:

(6)
3
where Q = air flow rate (m /s)
A = free area of inlet openings (m2)
v = wind velocity (m/s)
C = effectiveness of the openings (assumed to be 0.5 to 0.6 for
v perpendicular winds and 0.25 to 0.36 for diagonal winds)

3.3 Flow caused by thermal forces

If the building's internal resistance is not significant, the flow caused by stack
effect may be estimated by:

(7)

where Q = air flow rate (m3/s)

K = discharge coefficient for the opening (usually assumed to be 0.65)
A = free area of inlet openings (m2)
= height from lower opening (mid-point) to neutral pressure level
h (m)
Ti = indoor air temperature (K)
To = outdoor air temperature (K)

3.4 Guidelines for natural ventilation

The following guidelines are important for planning and designing natural
ventilation systems in buildings:

• a natural ventilation system should be effective regardless of wind

direction and there must be adequate ventilation even when the wind
does not blow from the prevailing direction;
• inlet and outlet openings should not be obstructed by nearby objects;
• windows should be located in opposing pressure zones since this
usually will increase ventilation rate;
• a certain vertical distance should be kept between openings for
temperature to produce stack effect;
 • openings at the same level and near the ceiling should be avoided
since much of the air flow may bypass the occupied zone;
• architectural elements like wingwalls, parapets and overhangs may be
used to promote air flow into the building;
• topography, landscaping, and surrounding buildings should be used to
redirect airflow and give maximum exposure to breezes;
• in hot, humid climates, air velocities should be maximised in the
occupied zones for bodily cooling;
• to admit wind air flow, the long façade of the building and the door and
window openings should be oriented with respect to the prevailing wind
direction;
• if possible, window openings should be accessible to and operable by
occupants;
• vertical shafts and open staircases may be used to increase and
generate stack effect;
• openings in the vicinity of the neutral pressure level may be reduced
since they are less effective for thermally induced ventilation;
• if inlet and outlet openings are of nearly equal areas, a balanced and
greater ventilation can be obtained.

3.5 Barriers to the application of natural ventilation

A successful application of natural ventilation strategies is only possible when

there are no problems in many areas at various levels from the design stage
to actual operating demands placed on the building users (Allard, 1998).
These potential barriers include:

• Barriers during building operations

o Safety concerns
o Noise from outdoor
o Dust and air pollution
o Solar shading covering the openings
o Draught prevention
o Knowledge of the users about how to take the best advantage of
natural ventilation
• Barriers during building design
o Building and fire regulations
o Need for acoustic protection
o Difficult to predict pattern of use
o Devices for shading, privacy & daylighting may hamper the free
flow of air
o Problems with automatic controls in openings
o lack of suitable, reliable design tools
• Other barriers
o Impact on architectural & envelope design
o Fluctuation of the indoor conditions
o Design a naturally ventilated building requires more work but
could reduce mechanical system (design fee on a fixed
percentage of system's cost)
 o Increase risk for designers
o Lack of suitable standards

4. Infiltration and Air Leakage

Infiltration is the uncontrolled flow of air through openings in the building

envelope driven by pressure differences across the building shell. The surface
pressure driving the air flow include:

wind pressure;
pressures arising from temperature difference between indoor and outdoor;
and
pressures resulting from operation of mechanical exhaust.
The infiltration rate of a building depends on weather conditions, equipment
operation and occupant activities. The characteristics of infiltration air flow
may be determined by measuring the air leakage of the building envelope
which describes the relative tightness of a building. Typical leakage rates are
around 6 to 10 air changes per hour at 50 Pa pressure difference.
Control of infiltration is needed to assure indoor thermal comfort and to
minimise building energy use. Normally, infiltration may be lessened by
reducing the surface pressures driving the air flow, for instance, through
changing the landscaping in the vicinity of the building. A more common
method is to reduce the air leakage of the building shell (for example,
increase air tightness).
4.1 Air leakage area and performance
Air leakage is a measure of the air tightness of the building envelope. In
practical building design, the air tightness of the whole building or its
components is expressed as a leakage rate (in air change per hour), or an air
leakage area.

Building air leakage area is a physical property of a building determined by its

design, construction, seasonal effects, and deterioration over time. The larger
the air leakage, the larger its infiltration rate. However, no simple relationship
exists between a building’s air tightness and its air exchange rate, although
some empirical methods have been developed to estimate the values.

The air leakage in buildings may be determined by pressurisation testing or

tracer gas measurement. Ratings for air tightness have been established in
some standards based on air flow rates predicted at particular reference
pressures and test conditions. In some cases, the predicted air flow rate is
converted to an equivalent or effective air leakage area using the following
equation (which is derived from the Bernoulli equation for incompressible fluid
flow):

(8)

where AL = effective air leakage area (cm2)

 Qr = predicted air flow rate at pr (m3/s)
= density of air (kg/m3)
pr = reference pressure difference (Pa)
CD = discharge coefficient

For the whole-building case, all the openings in the building envelope are
combined into an overall opening area and discharge coefficient for the
building when the effective air leakage area is calculated. Therefore, the air
leakage area of a building is the area of an orifice (with an assumed CD value
of 1 or 0.6) that would produce the same amount of leakage as the building
envelope at the reference pressure.

The air leakage performance level for buildings is sometime presented as

leakage classes (such as Class A, B, C and so on) and the appropriate
classes are specified in building regulations based on climate. Table 3 shows
the percentages distribution of air leakage for residential building components.
It can be seen that the walls is the most important component, followed by
ceiling details and heating system.

Table 3 Percentages of air leakage for residential building components

Percentage of whole-building air leakage

area
Components Range Mean
Walls 18 - 50% 35%
Ceiling details 3 - 30% 18%
Heating system (furnace, 3 - 28% 18%
ducts)
Windows and doors 6 - 22% 15%
Fireplaces 0 - 30% 12%
Vents in conditioned spaces 2 - 12% 5%
Diffusion through walls <1%

4.2 Estimation of infiltration rates

In the absence of any detailed information about the building, a simplified

procedure may be used to roughly estimate the infiltration rates arising from
both wind and stack effects. The degree of shielding and the building height
are the factors taken into account in this method.

(9)
where Ae = effective leakage area (cm2)
Vr = volume of the room (m3)
Q = infiltrated air flow rate (m3/h)
Q/Ae = specific infiltration (m3/h.cm2)
In this equation, the specific infiltration may be calculated by:

(10)
where A = stack coefficient (m6/h2/cm4/K)
B = wind coefficient (m6/h2/cm4/(m/s)2)
VW = average wind speed at local weather station (m/s)
T = average indoor-outdoor temperature difference (oC)

The values of stack coefficient and wind coefficient with respect to the
different shielding levels are given in Table 4.

Table 4 Stack coefficient and wind coefficient

Number of storeys
Description One Two Three
Stack coefficient 0.00188 0.00376 0.00564
Wind coefficient
- no obstruction or local 0.00413 0.00544 0.00640
shielding
- light shielding, few 0.00319 0.00421 0.00495
obstructions
- moderate local shielding 0.00226 0.00299 0.00351
- heavy shielding 0.00135 0.00178 0.00209
- very heavy shielding 0.00041 0.00054 0.00063

4.3 Air leakage of building component

Additional test procedures for pressure-testing individual building components

are also available. The component leakage data are useful to building design
since they could be used to determine a more accurate picture of the likely air
leakage performance. Table 5 shows effective air leakage areas for some
building components. The values in the table give results in terms of air
leakage area per unit component. Per unit component means per component,
per unit surface area, or per unit length of crack or sash, whichever is
appropriate. The air leakage areas may be converted to the results at other
reference pressures, air flow rates, or flow coefficients using some empirical
equations.

Table 5 Effective air leakage areas of building components

Building components Unit Best estimate Range

Ceiling
- general cm2/m2 1.8 0.79 - 2.8
- drop cm2/m2 0.19 0.046 - 0.19
- recessed lights cm2/each 10 1.5 - 21
- surface-mounted lights cm2/each 0.82
Doors
- single, not weatherstripped cm2/each 21 12 - 53
- single, weatherstripped cm2/each 12 4 - 27
- double, not weatherstripped cm2/m2 11 7 - 22
- double, weatherstripped cm2/m2 8 3 - 23
- interior (stairs) cm2/lmc 0.9 0.25 - 1.5
- mail slot cm2/lmc 4
Walls (exterior)
- cast-in place concrete cm2/m2 0.5 0.048 - 1.8
- clay brick cavity wall (finished) cm2/m2 0.68 0.05 - 2.3
- precast concrete panel cm2/m2 1.2 0.28 - 1.65
- low-density concrete block cm2/m2 3.5 1.3 - 4
(unfinished)
- low-density concrete block cm2/m2 1.1 0.52 - 1.1
(painted)
- high-density concrete blk. cm2/m2 0.25
(unfinished)
Windows
- awning, not weatherstripped cm2/m2 1.6 0.8 - 2.4
- awning, weatherstripped cm2/m2 0.8 0.4 - 1.2
- casement, not weatherstripped cm2/lmc 0.28
- casement, weatherstripped cm2/lmc 0.24 0.1 - 3
- double-hung, not cm2/lmc 2.5 0.86 - 6.1
weatherstripped
- double-hung, weatherstripped cm2/lmc 0.65 0.2 - 1.9
- single-hung, weatherstripped cm2/lms 0.87 0.62 - 1.24
- single horizontal slider, cm2/lms 0.67 0.2 - 2.06
weatherstripped
- single horizontal slider, wood cm2/lms 0.44 0.27 - 0.99
- single horizontal slider, cm2/lms 0.8 0.27 - 2.06
aluminium
- storm inside, heat shrink cm2/lms 0.018 0.009 - 0.018
- window sill cm2/lmc 0.21 0.139 - 0.212
Electrical outlets/switches
- no gaskets cm2/each 2.5 0.5 - 6.2
- with gaskets cm2/each 0.15 0.08 - 3.5
Piping/plumbing/wiring
penetrations
- uncaulked cm2/each 6 2 - 24
- caulked cm2/each 2 1-2
Vents
- bathroom with damper closed cm2/each 10 2.5 - 20
- bathroom with damper open cm2/each 20 6.1 - 22
Notes: 1. lmc = linear metre of crack; lms = linear metre of sash.
2. Data based on a pressure difference of 4 Pa and CD = 1.
3. Data source: 1997 ASHRAE Fundamental Handbook, Chp. 25.

The building envelope of large commercial buildings are often thought to be

quite air tight, but in fact many cases indicate that some components and the
workmanship of them may affect the performance significantly. The infiltration
calculations usually focus on doors and windows which are the obvious weak
points. Lift, stair, service shaft walls; floors; and other internal partitions are
also the major separating elements of concern in these buildings.

In large buildings, the air leakage associated with internal partitions is very
important for evaluating internal air flow. Their leakage characteristics are
needed to determine infiltration through exterior walls and air flow patterns
within the building. These internal resistances are very essential for two
aspects:

in the event of a fire, to predict smoke movement patterns and determine

smoke management strategies; and
to support air movement calculations when designing air distribution
systems.

Further Reading
Allard, F., 1998. Natural Ventilation in Buildings: A Design Handbook,
James & James, London. [697.92 N2]
CIBSE, 1997. Natural Ventilation in Non-domestic Buildings, CIBSE
Applications Manual AM10: 1997, Chartered Institution of Building Services
Engineers (CIBSE), London. [LB 697.92 N28]
Clements-Croome, D. (ed.), 1997. Naturally Ventilated Buildings: Buildings
for the Senses, Economy and Society, E & FN Spon, London. [697.92 N1]
DETR, 1998. Natural Ventilation in Non-domestic Buildings: A Guide for
Designers, Developers, and Owners, Good Practice Guide 237, Dept. of the
Environment, Transport and Regions (DETR), Garston, Watford. [P 697.92 N2
v]
Jackman, P. J., 1999. Air Distribution in Naturally Ventilated Offices,
Technical Note TN 4/99, Building Services Research and Information
Association, Bracknell, England. [P 697.93523 J12]
Martin, A. J., 1996. Control of Natural Ventilation, Technical Note TN 11/95,
Building Services Research and Information Association, Berkshire, England.
[LB 697.92 M37]