VIII.

THE INDIRECT

OBJECT

destined to receive the object of the oction.

notion) whom (or w'hich) the action of that verb affects/influences/reache,s indireclly. Therefore il shows the person / (more rarely) the thing / the concept indirectly receiving the action of the verb, benefiting by that action or beiis

l.O, The indirect object is that secondary part of the sentence which completes the meaning o.f a verb, indicating the person (or sonrctintes the thing or abstracl

very often employed in contemporary English because (a) the objects designating persons natr"rrally precede those which designate things or abstract notions and (b) spoken Engf ish manifests a preference for shofter constructions: e.9., We owe you many apologies, Ma'am (Dickens, Pickwick Papers) I'lljust readyou a few of the leaders (: articole de fond) (l wrote at that tirne. (rbid.) 2.3. As we have seen, in English the indirect object is of two kinds: (A) long / preposirional indirect object (2 5 ) - preceded by the prepositions to or (occasionalf y) -fo, and (B) short / non-preposoitional indirecl object unaccompanied by a preposition - extensively used in conversation. The emphasis which is brought about by the utilisation of the prepositional indirect object (sometimes implying contrast) is usually deliberate:

l.l.

u,hom? or - much less frequently

The indirect object is in the dative case and answers the question (to) - (to| what?

1.2. The indirect object is usually employed together with the direct one. Leave her to me. (Hardy, Tess of the d,Urbervilles) As President of this University I give welcome to alt of them (Maltz, Peace on Earth). You must give thefurniture another polish / varnish, etc. I will give your request rny most favourable consideration.

I've brought a message to you (implication: "it is confidential" - as against the unmarked/unemphatic form - I've brought you a message). I've brought a presentforyou(implication - "it is only foryou and not for somebody else" - as against the unmarked/unemphatic/normal form - I've brought you a present).
2.4. On the other hand, together with stressing of the indirect object (which is

read, to sing, or vice-versa - e.g., to speak, etc. Thou art a scholar, speak to it,Horatio. (Shakespeare, Hamlet) I was sitting in my cabin, writing home to my sister. (John Reed. Mac-American) I understand you to have been in the habit of reading to your father? (Dickens, Hard Times) 2.1. In our conception, in English the indirect object follows especially those transitive verbs whose meaning is usually that of transmission, or conveying something - either concrete (an object, animal, etc.) or abstract (information. advice. a notion, an idea, etc.) Of course, the utilisation of the indirect object without the direct object seems

1.3. Neveftheless, there are also cases of utilisation of the indirect object without the direct one (which is generally implied) especially after verbs whic*r are normaf ly transitive but - more or less frequently - also intransitiv e: to write, to

usually unwelcome

- or even wrong) such construction may lead

to

unseasonable/undesirable and even impolite effects:

I've 'brought a'present for 'her [aiv bro:t a preznt fr ha:] (possible implication: - "you 'shouldn't 'touch it") in marked contrast with the correct neutral form I've 'brought her a 'present [aiv bro:t61 1'preznt] 2.5. The prepositional indirect object. The utilisation of the indirect object in its prepositional form is required by contemporary English grammar mainly in a

few situations listed below: 2.5.1. When the speaker or writer wants to emphasize the direct object or to place it in contrast with another indirect object (explicit or implicit). I shall show the letter to you (but not to her). I've brouglrt flowers for her (buL not for you) I gave this advice to lhe daughter (but not to the mother). Note: As in most cases the indirect object includes the feature (+ human), usually it is contrast of person that is achieved.
2.5.2. When the direct object is expressed by a pronoun, while the indirect one is expressed by a noun: He gave them to his mother. She sent him /o the manager. 2.5.3. When both objects are expressed by personal pronouns: Show them lo me. Send her to them. Exception: Give it ne/him/her - possible in colloquial speech.

constructions as l(rite to me, Talk to me, etc. On the other hand, after such verbs as lo v'ire, to cable, to'telephone, etc. the utilisation of a direct object (to wire a telegram, to cable a telegram I a cctble, etc.) would be redundant lpleonastic, and so the direct object which is normally implied (and sometimes used explicitely) - is to cable I to wire a message to somebody, etc.

to infirm this statement, but the direct object is

always intplied

in

such

2.2.The indirect object is built up with the preposition /o, characteristic of the dative case (or with the prepositionfor). But if it is formed of a single word - and especially when it is expressed by a personal pronoun or a proper name - the preposition is omitted. The construction I wrote him a leuer yesterday is prefered to the construction I wrote a letter to him yesterday. The former construction is
142

143

2.5.4. When the indirect object is placed at the head of the sentence (in the interrogative form), To which of the boys did you give the sweets? To whom did you lend it? (colloquiaily: whom did you lend it to?) E,mphatic declarative sentences may also have the indirect object at their head (thus expressing contrast of person - cf .2.4. and 2.5.l.) To him I gave the order, not to you. 2.5.5. When the indirect object heads a relative attributive clause, The boy to whom I gave the letter has lost it. The man to whont you addressed your request was chosen very unwisely.

3.1.1. In point of form, in English the shorter element precedes the longer one, order to ensure perfect fluencv of delivery, and a more logical stressing of the in nucleus / focus of the utterance in terms of intonation, of its components and of logical motivation

3.1.2. Position IV (after the direct object) gives the indirect object at least some degree of emphasis or contrast not always required or wished for (cf. 2.3.,
2.4. and 2.5.1. suPra).

3.1.3. In point of focus, nomina denoting persons - therefore including the (+ human) feature - take precedence of those lacking this feature.

2.5.6. After the following verbs (which may have to be learnt by heart especially the most frequently used ones): to announce, to ascribe, to attribute, to communicate, to contribute, to declare, to dedicate, to deliver, to describe. to dictate, to explain, to hint, to indicate, to interpret, to introduce, to open, to owe, to point out, to present, to propose, to relate, to repeat, to repoft, to return, to say, to speak, to submit, to suggest, to talk, to translate.

3.2. An excepticin is the placing of the indirect object unaccompanied by a preposition afterthe direct object, if the latter is expressed by the pronoun it: Give it me. Yet, even in that case, there are examples when the preposition is preserved with the indirect object: Give it to him.
3.3. Moreover the prepositionfor is very seldom dropped: I bring fresh showersfor the thirstingflowers (Shelley, The Cloud)
4.1. In point of syntactical analysls, the presence of the preposition to objects and prepositional objects.

He explained the theory to the students (or He explained \to the students what the theory was) but never *He explained the students
the theory.

He ascribed the mistake to her. He very often contributes articles ro it.

orfor

in

front of an object may give rise to difficulties in discriminating between indirect 4.1.1. The first criterion which we propose is that of the essence of the indirect object in English, that of receiving end or "target" of a verb of conveyance or transmission - normally transitive. 4.1.2. There is also a formal criterion, namely that of the possibility to transform the prepositional construction into a non-prepositional construction, which is permitted only for the indirect object.
For instance, in the sentence: I'm appealing to you to help us.
or

Special attention seems to be necessary for the verb /o explain which is an ample source of mistakes for Romanians, as its usage differs in Romanian and English, Such constructions as "explain me something" or "He explained us the lesson" are not accepted by English grammar. (Correctly: He explained something to me, He explained the lesson to us). Mistakes are also mafe (in the elementary stage) in connection with the verbs to say (necessarily followed by "to + ind.obj.") and to tell (which favours rather
the short indirect object). 3.1. The position of the indirect object. Although theoretically the direct object should precede the indirect one (as the former is organically linked to the transitive verb or phrase of the predicate) in fact in standard*English (and particularly in conversation) this happens only in those infrequent cases when tlre indirect object is accompanied by attributes (occasionally becoming longer than the direct one). Quite often, therefore, the short / non-prepositional indirect object takes place III in the sentence, preceding the direct one which takes place IV (cf. the section on word order and the table in A.BantaS Dictionar de buzunar englez-romdn Si romdn-englez, 1968, I 97 4). This may be explained by the following reasons:

I want you to know what this chance means to

to

me.

you and to me are prepositional objects because the verbs in the sentence (ro appeal, to mean) do not convey or transmit anything to them, because the
respective persons do not benefit or suffer by the action, and because on the other

hand, from the formal point of view, they cannot be transformed into (non-prepositional) dative constructions, as we can do in changing Tell the truth to me tnto Tell me the truth or I offered a chair to him into 1 offered him a chair (which moreover can be changed into passive sentettces with the dative indirect object becoming the subject - cf. 5.1 .).
4.1.3. Therefore, in such cases, the preposition is required by another type of relation than the dative one - usually confusions arise in connection with the prepositional object of relation - or it is inherent in the verb itself - verbs with
obl
i

gatory preposition.

144

t45

4.1"4. Another example hard to interpret would be: She won't sav no to going (Hardy, 7-ess of the ,D'[,trbervilles) irr wlrich ,going is not the indirect object of the verb /o suy. as it nray scen1, because it is rrrerely a paft of the idiorn to scty no Io sontething (: a reJu;a cev,a) - ald because rt does not represetrt a person beriefiting by tlie effects of the actiori or srrlfering fli'orn thenr - in a setrtettce like l soid no to him (rvhere him is the receiycr oi the ansrver).

IX. THE PREPOSITIONAL OBJECT

0.1. The prepositional object is a part of the sentence often ignored; considering the divergencies prevalent in the relatively few grammars which do
discuss it, we may say that its definition is easier to give by differentiation. Some people consider it a peculiar case of the indirect object - [probably

4.1.5" The nLlllterous verbs follorved by to as an obligatcr;, preposition provide another source of difficulties of interpl'etation: Britain gears her trade more arrd more to the dollar tnarket. The verb lo gear u'ith tlie nreaning of to clirecl is necessarily ernployed with the preposition lo and cannot be conceived without it, although there is no dative relation to be thouglit of.
4.1.6. Many people usually consider that the verb to belong is followed by an indirect object, yet there are several elernents which contradict this statement: it tloes tiot involve a genuine dative relatiolr,,'vhile in contemporary British and especially Atnerican English it rnay be followed by other perpositions besides ro (to belong in, to belong u,ith, to belong among) as rvell as by adverbs of place, indicating proper locolization ("it belongs here", "sailors belong ships", etc.) a ttotiott r'vhich has no connection with the dative proper, but only rvith Qutit,us
!ocativus.

under the influence

Romanian).

of the traditional grammar of other languages (including

0.2. In Romanian grammar, the prepositional object is not mentioned as a category or as a part of the sentence. For instance, in the earlier edition of the Academy Gramnrar of Rontanian, the objects preceded by the prepositiorr which we can easily group under the more general heading of prepositional obiecl, were treated in several discrete sections between the chapter on the indirect object and that on adverbial rnodifiers (contplentente circumstanliale). On the other hand in the new version of the same grammar of the Romanian language, the respective objects are introduced first separately into the category of complement de agent
and then are

listed among contplentente circumstanliale'

4.1"7. Another moot point is raised by constructions in which the indirect object appears in the form of a reflexive pronoun: I told myself that I was not riglrt. Tlre confusion with a possible reflexive verb to tell oneself should be avoided by cornparing 1 told ntysel,f witl't He toltl tne - therefore the presence of tfte non-prepositional indirect object appears qLrite clear.
5.1. As slrown in greater detail in the section on the subject, one of the passive transfornrations in English turns the indirect object of active sentences irrto tlre subject of the passive one: Al Yesterday he sent rre some money. or

0.3. In our view (sonretimes differing widely from that of other authors) English prepositional objects roughly correspond to some of the Romanian
complentente (grouped

or not under a common heading by various grammars)'. complentent de agent, contplement (ci
qomplement (circuntstanlial) sociativ, complement complement (circuntstanlial) opozilional, contplement complentent (circuntstan1ial) de exceplie"
.

Romanian

ntental' relrtlie,

ulativ",

0.4. In English prepositional objects are grouped in a rather formal way, on the basis of the idea that they are made up of nouns or noun equivalents preceded
by various prepositions.

Yet, the definition of the prepositional object depends upon other

,{2 Yesterday he sent some money to nre. may clrange into Pl Yesterday I was sent sorne ntoney (by hinr)
or lnto
P2 Some money was sent me (by him) yesterday.

differentiations which sometimes require subtle precisions. The books are in the bag. may answer either the question "in what?" - therefore corresponding to our notion of a prepositional object (because the very question includes a preposition) - or the question "whet'e?" - therefore clearly referring to an adverbial modifier of place. He went to lhe doclor may answel either the question "to whotn?" - referring to a prepositional object or (less logically) the question "where?" - for an adverbial modifier of place, more acceptable if we had had the form "to the doctor's" etc. (of course, construilrg it as an indirect ob.iect, therefore in the dative, correspot'lds to no logic , and even less so to our linking tlie indirect object to trarrsitive verbs alone).

1..:5

t4l

Such examples

interpretation of such a phrase including a preposition depends on various factor5, sometimes including intention or the speaker's/writer's viewpoint, therefore , matter of ''focus" or "mentalllogicallemotional stress".

- out of a multitude of similar cases - show that the

connected

with verbs (verbal adjectives, adjectivized past participles as well

as

0.6. Moreover we should avoid taking for a prepositional object any prepositional phrase; the latter may discharge such a role. but also that of an adverbial modifier (of various kinds), of an attiibute. etc.
sentence completing the meaning of

noun-.equivolent preceded by a preposition. It is to be identified only by means of a non-specific question (unlike those for other parts of the sentence), namely a question made up of a pieposition +

The prepositional object can be defined as a secondary part oJ the a verb in the sentence (not necessarily the predicate), of a noun or of an adjective ancl consisting of a noun or of o

l'0.

shocked/outraged/concernedathisbehaviour' astonishThere *u, no- end of concern/revolt/surprise/amazement/ at her abancloning her mother' ment/anger

may also be followed bY the

Yet theY are usuallY included in
.,ll be l'nDaa in the sense that the tnts struuld L^ taken in fha acnce that fhe lists of words + obligatory preposttrcns' or (rarely) three' ;;i." of prepositionr it noi fr.", but limited to one' two matter includes the interpretation of such Note 2: The variety of opinions on this of the adjective, adjectivized prepositional objects as e relation is rather objective than iu,ti.ipr. or of the rrouns,

rather through exclusion, that it is actually what cannot be defined as anything else.

interrogative pronoun: "By whom?", "Through what?", 'iln *hai?,,, ,,To which?,,, "About what?", "with whom?", "Against what?", "ln whose favour?i', etc: We often find that the prepositional object can be discriminated or identified

an

and intransitive verbs.

combinations):

Dickens' famous puns) the first object is clearly a prepositional object (because the question "With what?" is answered by "With lemon/milk/sugar, etc.;; while the second may be interpreted again as a prepositional object (ansivering u iypot.ti.ui and rather unmotivated question "With what?") but rather to a "or..fponding logical question referring to the manner/way in which tea was drunk: ,,How?,, therefore clearly being revealed as an adverbial modifier of manner. l.l' Moreover, the prepositional object is closely connected with verbs t*9 T obligatory preposition or cannot be construedwithout a preposition inwhich most of their customary contexts: to wait for, to dream of, to aim at, io boast o/, etc. 1'2' Generally speaking, the prepositional object may follow both transitive

In the sentence: He drank his tea with lemon and with satisfartio, (one of

otherwise, precisely

beca

verbs (cf ' between these parts of speech and some

well as etymological connection slpra)'

1.4. Since it ma (nomina which may

connected with nomin

adjective' an adjectivized participle

es) the prepositional object at anY new event'

is freely

His usual Try not to be cross with her'

It

may also follow complex verbs

lueJ +

adverb

I was looking forward to meeting you : I was eagerly expecting you (Question: To what?) Who is going to take care of/to look after the house in your absence? (Questions: Of what? After what?) can you put up with this weather? (euestion: with what?) 1.3. On the other hand, prepositional objects may follow adjectives and nouns, and more particularly those which through their very nature orland orisin are

prepositional ones as well (e'g', "to see with a formal object) which is of cours indirect object or of difficulties of inter preserving the identification of indirecl

the prepositiorr introducing a prepositional object' For instance, even thJ preposition lo introduces not

Hedidnotlookmuch/veryinterestedinthematler, in contemporary English 1.5. There does not seem to be any restriction

as to

only indirect objects'

but

verbs denoting transmission or conveyan(

In our interpretation, the follorving and especially in American using the verb "to belong" in conte*lotury English
and Australian usage:

,,The book belongs to hint." To whom?

object.

- to him :

prepositional

148

t49

"The book belongs omong these anthologies" - Wlrere cloes it belolg? therefore adverbial modifier of place" "This book belongs with I interpretation - thoLrgh the opposite one (taking bject) is not inrpossible: "This book belongs on t es it belong? _ therefore again adverbial modifier of place : "The place of the book is on that
shelf '.

is 2.1.1. T'he specific preposition employecl for this kind of objects by' ip the active voice, the prepositior.l other fiaricl r,vfterr this kinrl of object is ernployed rlalorita "' throttgh r-nay be Lrsed with the meatlittgof prin interntediul "" thrgugh h"int/t-hrough my aunl/through a letter/througlt I learnt of this
the

Orr the

And lastly, an example provided by the title of a book by the Australian writer John Morrison, Sailors Belong Ships, should be interpreted by assimilation with the usual American sentence: "l/They, etc, belong here/there" : "N4y, etc. place is here/there" (Romanian translation of the title: Locul marinarului e pe vapor).
1.6. When active sentences containing a prepositional object are turned into the passive, the prepositional object may generate a subject (cf. the chapter on
subjects).

PaPers. of The last two exalnples may also be construed as adverbial rnodifiers way?" manner. answering the qr-restiou "llow?" or "lll rvhat irtslruntenlalily 2.2. Prepositianal object of instmmtent / agency It de'otes the instrulnent/tool/utensi[, the machine/apparatus, etc" tlte

for building' etc' through u,hich an action is perfonrred orthe rnaterial ,orit*, tt,ith ct sharp pencil (though more frequently FIe alrvay,
writes in Pencil/in ink, etc'")

"llt:

If you tri to measure/cross swords/join will put you /o the edge of the sword'
The yard was partially pa'ved v'ith brick'

issue with her I'm afraid she

They are lookinginto the ntatter (:examining, investigating) turns into:

The matter is being looked into. Everybody looks up to him (Vb.+adv.particle+prep.

2.3" Prepositional ob.iect of mectns. prepositional object of instrutmenta

ln our

eonception

it is sirnilar fo

the

admires hirn)

turns into: He is looked up to by everybody. Note that usually the preposition remains at the end of the sentence or clause (therefore one of two cases when it is pronounced with its strong form).

alion, tlterefore employ in g prepositions v'ith and in r'vere mot the He travels bY train or b1t He eattte, riding on his bicy find the ver-b 1o ricle used tr
tran.sporf

school").

this chapter (see infra.6.0.)

2.0. Our classification of English objects, which do not perform the same function as indirect objects or adverbial modifiers, can be found under 2.1 - 2.5. Discussions about their discrimination are made in the introduction to the chapter on objects, in the last part of the chapter on the indirect object and at the end of

lts 2.4" Preltasitionctl ob.iecl af associrtlion (Sociative prepositional .object)' associate' feIlow' name being derived from the Latin word "sociltsu'(:compatriotl' the animal or the etc.) this prepositional object detrotes the persorr (more rarely (more rarely a state) witlr the speaker or object. etc.) participatilg in the action
wrtter. Let us then step into the coach with the Russellfamily. I went there (together) v'ith nt1' brother'

prepositional objects can be classified as follows (though a minority of them remain outside this classification, being defined in a merely formal way, through the presence of the preposition and the non-specific questions including the latter):

In our opinion and in comparison with Romanian grammar,

T|reladyusedtowalkint|reparkwithherspaniel,
together v'ith, 2.4.1. The specific proposition is with' Other prePositions:
alongside o.f/v'ith.

the natural element or abstract notion) perforrning the action. This doer or performer of the action appears as the real/logical subject in passive sentences (where it is predominantly employed in fact). of logical subject, being therefore closely connected with the passive voice. Anyhow, semantically, the
word "agent" should be taken to mean "doer/performer of the action".
The pupils were badly treated by the nurse. The flowers were crushed by the hqil storm. This kind of object naturally discharges the function

2.1. Prepositional obiect of agent.lt denotes the person (more rarely the thing,

kinds of 2.5. Prepositional ob.iect o.f relcttion' lt irrcludes in fact variot-ts

in

relations as well as attitudes, feelings, etc' They declaled (themselv es) against sencling a lelter, but
telegram.

favour of a

Myieaction/response to such proposals is always tlte same' will be' I do rrou know what his attitude toworcls/to this suggestion it, but he may also turn it down' of may stand up
He

for/infat'our

150

tsl

2.5.1. As one notices, the prepositions may be specific Qfor, in fat,oty o.f against) or habitual for anitudes (al, to, towards) but other prepositions are also used (over, about, with, etc.)
2.5.2- The rest of the prepositional objects are rather hard to classify, as they denote various more subtle relations: discrimination, disjunction, participatiori, opposition, exception, cumulation, etc.

(also. Mother sent rnl,sister tlrat beaLrtiful parcel lhrough lhe

pos'1.)

po,sl,/b.t'

4.3. ln fact, the prepositiorral object rrorrnally takes place V irl the setttettce. irrespective of tlre reciprocal position of the direct arrd irrdirect ob-iect (governed by t[e nrles specified in tlie respective clraptet's ancl irr that on word order). ,1..1. TIre plepositional object may be placccl :rt tlte beginrrirlg of a setttettce. acquiring special prollilrettce. rvhetr erriplrasis is ''rrded: Il'ith Jire und strortl tlle coLtrttt'y rottttcl
They wasted far altd u'ide. (SoLrtlrel')

by a preposition

3.0. Being a nominal part of the sentence, a prepositional object can be expressed practically by any of the nomina preceded by a preposition, but mainly

one of the following elements:

3.1. A noun (of any kind, including a proper name) The woman thought of the tife she was tossed into. (: into which she was tossed - relative attributive clause introduced by a preposition + relative pronoun). 3.2. Apronoun of any kind The boys were fightingwith each other. 3.3. A gerundial phrase She was engaged in watching for the messenger, He insisted on doing it himself. 3.4. An infinitival phrase

He seems often inclined to agree with everybody.

3.5. A perpositional object clause (of rather rare occurence, object clauses) I thought of what I was to do that afternoon. I am very much concerned overlby what has happened.

like indirect

predicate (or anotlier verb). the prcpositional object tnay be tttoved after tlre adverbial rriodifier (place Vl). You are walkirrg too fastlbr nte. T5e same happerrs rvherr adv'erbial rrodifiers of place are so closely' botrnd Llp witlr the verb that they forrn syntagnrs: lo go to.s'c'hool/t,, 1'fi71rc:h/'lo lhe c'ittentuittt the lheulre/'to go lo one'.s pluc'e/lo go hotne. etc. I w,ent/walked/drove to tlre cinerla/to school. eIc. tt'ilh iltt: r'nr,,t ,,. "W'ilh v'hont do y'otr usrtally go to scltool?" "l usually go to sclrool u'ilh ,lolttt." Yet, this shifi of places is rtot obligator-y. He looked et nte closely,(rnore usual than: He looked closely' ttt trta). 5.1. l'here is a tenderlcy no\vadays to replace prepositional objects fbllou'irlg intransitive verbs by constrttctions with a tl'arrsitive verb: He w'as drutnttting rvith his firrgers ott tlte table. is leplaced currently b1' He was drutnnrittg his fingers ott tlte table.
The sante lrapperts in "He was knockirtg at the door u'itlr ltis stick" - tut'nil.tg illto "tle was knockirrg his stick against the door".

4.5. If the adverbial rnodiflel is rnuclr rrore closell, conttected r.vith tlre

4.0. Th" place of the prepositional object

4.1. When both_the direct object and the prepositional object are present, the former continues to follow the predicate immediately. He asked a question of me instead of (asking) her.
He informed her of his decision. 4.2. When all three kinds of objects are present in the sentence, they follow in the sequence: direct object (with or without attributes) - place IlI, indirecl object (if followed by attributes) - place IV, (while as a short indirect object it takes the place of the direct object), prepositionol object (with or without attributes) - place V. My mother sent that wonderful parcel to my sister through a common

5.2. Sinrilarly. prepositional objects terrd to turtt irtto direct otr.iects (o1'an
instlumetttal rrature) ill sttch constt'ttctiolls:
He rviped his face v'ith u tov'al.
is ofterr fbrrttulated as: l-le u'iped a tou'el all ovel'his fhce (:,si-rr ';ter't binefctlu).

6.0. The ditflcult distinctions concerrr tlte diff'erentiatiorrs of prepositi<lrlal objects fi'onr adverbial modit'iers. to a cet'taitt exteltt troln indirect objects arld
( less difficult) fl'orn attribr-rtes. Great was lt'ty surprise ut seaing him'.1',vas tl'ightened rrl seeing hint (itrcluding prepositiorral obiects, thouglt irr the first exanlple sorne people rrlay take tlre phrase ol seeing him for an attribLrte)'

occasiotralll,

friend.

152

153

lle acts br.' thc book

(1tt'clttt.silittrrttl
rrrcrclillel ol- nriirtncr'
rthf

- " t'igttt'o.s, tlttltti ctrt.l{"'). Ilc rVill ccltttc [tr trr.tt o'clor:l'. (natrrrallt

act IrLtt irt llrct alrcadr 1r'nnslirrnrecl irr1. irr

;rtlr

X. THE, ADVERBIAL MODIFTERS

r.rlri111

"\L'he.c is the t'able'.)" "r rrt)rcd it agairrst lrre (ltatttt'allr adverbial rnocjillcr ttf' place)
btrt:

an tttlt'arhittl ntrxltfiar ttf titrtt,1.

*ail"

"Doll't

si1

atlsrrct'illQ thc qtlcslitttt

thc rrall". l'he distinctitltt is casicr irr thc firllorr ing thrcc c),anrples irrcltrrlipe thc s.rre
ohrase:

tltt tlte clrair a-qairrsl thc rinll!" nrost probablv an rrlrihrttt, "\\'ltich chair''.)" - "-fhe one \\hiclr is (placccl) agairrst

planes of discussion (e.g. the sLrbject in the s)'lltax of considering that u nor',n b..o,.r.r., the sLrbject or part of a subject clattse as part of a the simple sentence, and is apt to be extended into plarres of disctrssiorl irl contplex sentence) we tnay discern the follorviltg three function - i.e. that of shorvirrg the circuttlstattccs iti connectio,r rvith the adverbial

0.1.

If rve regard grallmar as involving tlrree

which an actiorr takes Place:

I. ln II. ln

morphology, tl'te r.vords discharging this "cil'ct-tt.nstantial l'unctir;;r" itre

the syntax of the simple .\enlence, the function

usuaf ly' adverb.s.

-fhc

I pref'er to datlcc ztt thc club (rrrlr'r,rhittl morlif iar of ltltrc'e). darrce at tlre cltrb *as srcccssf,l. (trttrihtrtc) We shall clance ttt u t.ltrh. not ol u ra.\,1(tLtruilt.

(rttost pt'obabll ltrcyto,s'itiotttrl ohlac'lr set rn corrtrast o; oppositiorr).

of the advr;rbs or cf the preceded by prepositions) is call;'d "advcrhioi adverbiaf plirases (usLrallli noutrs ntodifiel'(of tirne. Place. etc.) III. In the ,s1,ntcr of the compler sentence (involving subordination) the salllc fLurction is discharged by groLlps of words including a preciicatiVe
',circurnstantial"
verb, tliat isbv adverhial cluuses-

0.2. As orrr discussiol at the moment regards the sytttax of the sirnplc plane of this scale, sentence. \\c are collcerned for the tipe being in the second aclt,erbial rnodifiers including either ari adverb ptrre and sirnple namel5,'ip t6at of
or an adverbial Phrase' 1.0. An aclt,erbial modifier i.s cr seconclary part of the senlence v'hich mcd(ir:'; or renclers nlore precise o verb (either prediccttit'e or nol). an ctdjective or ctrtolher adverb. l.l. Its usual function is connected with the rnain verb irr the sentence, that is with the predicate, the other cases beirrg less freqr'retlt. Neverlheless. a cetlaitl qtrarrtity. category of adverbial modifiers - viz. oclverbial ntodifiei's of degree (or or of adverbs o1n1"uirr., ilitensity. etc.) are frequently used in front of adjectives adverbs as manner. in orderio intensifo their effect (cf.2.3.1.2. Note also that sttclr they irrtensify). enough are placed after the adjective or adverbs

1.2. In terms of structure, an adverbial modifier is"either an adverb or

adverbial plrrase (loculiune circuntstanliol a)' 1.3. Sorne grammarians make a distinction bet'lveen:

an

A. modtfiers of on odverbial nature - that is elements which determine a morc or less essential .hung. in the meaning of the predicate or of anotlier verb in the
sentence (e.g., the adverbial rnodifiers of manner, of attending circumstances)'

in a precise/definite, e.g., the adjectivized adverbial phrase (expressing a quality etc' (used fcr fertain degree) oitl',e advlrbial modifiers of degree" intensity, forming th- cornparative and surperlative - both relative and absolute - of adjectives as wel I as of adverbs of man ner - cf . 2.1 '1 '2')'
l-s4 155

B. cleterntinative aclt,erbials - whose function is to render the verb

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