HISTORIA CULTURAL DE ESTADOS UNIDOS

2. A Brief History of the United States 2.1. Pre-Colonial America The first people to reach North America almost certainly did so without knowing they had crossed into a new continent. Once in Alaska, it would take these first North Americans thousands of years more to work their way through the opening in great glaciers south to what is now the United States. A recent discovery of a hunting look-out in northern Alaska shows evidence of early life dated before 12.000 B.C. Around that time the mammoth began to die out and the bison took its place as a principal source of food and hides for these early North American. Over time, as more and more species vanished whether from overhunting or natural causes- plants, berries and seeds became an important part of the early Americans diet. Gradually, the first attempts at primitive agriculture appeared. Native Americans in what is now central Mexico led the way, cultivating corn, squash and beans, perhaps as perhaps as early as 8.000 B.C. By 3.000 B.C, a primitive type of corn was being grown in New Mexico and Arizona. The first signs of irrigation began to appear, and by 300 B.C, signs of early village life. The first Native American group to build mounds in what is now the United States often are called the Adenans. They began constructing earthen burial sites and fortifications around 600 B.C, they probably served religious purposes not yet fully understood. The Adenans appear to have been absorved or displaced by various groups known as the Hopewellians. One of the most important centers of their culture was found in southern Ohio. By around 500 A.D, the Hopewellians disappeared gradually giving way to a broad group of tribes generally known as the Mississipians or Temple Mound culture. In what is now the southwest United States, the Anasazi, began building stone and adobe pueblos around the year 900; the most famous is Mesa Verde in Colorado. There were 20 to 40 million Native Americans when Columbus arrived, 2 to 20 million in North America. 2.2 English Colonization of North America The first colonies in North America were along the eastern coast. Settlers from Spain, France, Sweden, Holland, and England claimed land beginning in the 17th century. The struggle for control of this land would continue for more than a hundred years. The first permanent settlement in North America was the English colony at Jamestown, in 1607, in what is now Virginia. John Smith and his ability to enforce discipline held the colony together through its first year; however when John Smith returned to England the colony descended to anarchy and during the winter the majority of the colonists succumbed to disease. The Pilgrims, who were a group of Puritans whose religious practices were prohibited in England, followed, in 1620, and set up a colony at Plymouth, in what is now Massachusetts. As more and more people arrived in the New World, more and more disputes arose over territory. Many wars were fought in the 1600s and 1700s. Soon, the two countries with the largest presence were England and France.

The two nations fought for control of North America in what Americans call the French and Indian War (1754-1763). England won the war and got control of Canada, as well as keeping control of all the English colonies. By this time, the English colonies numbered 13. They were Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. The people who founded the Middle Colonies were looking to practice their own religion (Pennsylvania mainly) or to make money. Many of these people didn't bring their families with them from England and were the perfect workers for the hard work required in ironworks and shipyards. The founders of the Southern Colonies were, for the most part, out to make money. They brought their families, as did the New England colonists, and they kept their families together on the plantations. But their main motivation was to make the good money that was available in the new American market. 2.3 The French and Indian War. The Seven Years' War (called the French and Indian War in the colonies) lasted from 1756 to 1763, forming a chapter in the imperial struggle between Britain and France called the Second Hundred Years' War. Tensions between the British and French in America had been rising for some time, as each side wanted to increase its land holdings. After a year and a half of undeclared war, the French and the English formally declared war in May 1756. For the first three years of the war, the French dominated the battlefield. Perhaps the most notorious battle of the war was the French victory at Fort William Henry, which ended in a massacre of British soldiers by Indians allied with the French; Native Americans joined in the battle against the British because they were afraid the British would take over their land. The battle and ensuing massacre was captured for historythough not accuratelyby James Fenimore Cooper in his classic The Last of the Mohicans. The tide turned for the British in 1758, as they began to make peace with important Indian allies and began adapting their war strategies to fit the territory and landscape of the American frontier. The British had a further stroke of good fortune when the French were abandoned by many of their Indian allies. Exhausted by years of battle the French collapsed during the years 1758-59, climaxing with a massive defeat at Quebec in September 1759. By September 1760, the British controlled the entire North American frontier; the war between the two countries was over. The 1763 Treaty of Paris, which also ended the European Seven Years War, set the terms by which France would capitulate. Under the treaty, France was forced to surrender all of her American possessions to the British and the Spanish. Also as a result of the war, the British began taxing the colonists to pay for the war. 2.4 Stamp Act Crisis First direct British tax on American colonists. Instituted in 1765. Every newspaper, pamphlet, and other public and legal document had to have a Stamp, or British seal, on it. The Stamp, of course, cost money. The colonists didn't think they should have to pay for something they had been doing for free for many years, and they responded in force, with demonstrations and even

with a diplomatic body called the Stamp Act Congress, which delivered its answer to the Crown. Seeing the hostile reaction in the colonies, the British government repealed the Stamp Act in March 1766 but at the same time passed the Declaratory Act, which said that Great Britain was superior (and boss of) the American colonies "in all cases whatsoever." The Stamp Act gave the colonists a target for their rage. Indeed, the Sons of Liberty was formed in response to this Act. The Stamp Act Congress also gave the colonists a model for the Continental Congress. 2.5 The Civil War (1861-1865) Before and during the Civil War, the North and South differed on economic issues. The war was about slavery, but primarily about its economic consequences. The northern elite wanted economic expansion that would change the southern (slave-holding) way of life. Divisions between the North and the South erupted into a conflict after the election of Abraham Lincoln as president in 1860. Eleven southern states seceded from the Union, collectively turning their back on the idea of a single American nation. North and South went to war in April 1861. The Southern states had claimed the right to secede and had formed their own Confederacy. Their forces fired the first shots. The Northern states, under the leadership of President Lincoln, were determined to stop the rebellion and preserve the Union. The North had more than twice as many states and twice as many people. It had abundant facilities for producing war supplies, as well as a superior railway network. The South had more experienced military leaders and had the advantage of fighting mostly on its own territory. Several months after the battle at Antietam Creek, President Lincoln issued a preliminary Emancipation Proclamation. It freed all slaves living in Confederate states and authorized the recruitment of African Americans into the Union army. Now the North was no longer fighting just to preserve the Union. It was fighting to end slavery. By the end of 1865, almost all former Confederate states had held conventions to repeal the acts of secession and to abolish slavery, but all except Tennessee refused to ratify a constitutional amendment giving full citizenship to African Americans. As a result, Republicans in Congress decided to implement their own version of Reconstruction. They enacted punitive measures against former rebels and prevented former Confederate leaders from holding office. They divided the South into five military districts administered by Union generals. They denied voting rights to anyone who refused to take a loyalty oath to the Union. The divisions and hatreds that had led to the Civil War did not disappear after the fighting stopped. As Southern whites regained political power, Southern blacks suffered. They had gained their freedom but were prevented from enjoying it by 37 local laws denying them access to many public facilities. They had gained the right to vote but were intimidated at the polls. The South had become segregated and would remain so for 100 years. The postwar Reconstruction process had begun with high ideals but collapsed into a sinkhole of corruption and racism. Its failure deferred the struggle for equality for African Americans until the 20th century.

2.6 The Great Depression Severe worldwide economic depression in the decade preceding World War II. It was the longest and deepest depression on the 20th Century. The depression began in the U.S. after the fall in stock prices and became worldwide with the stock market crash in 1929, known as the Black Tuesday. After a nearly decade of optimism and prosperity, the U.S. was thrown into despair. Masses and masses of people tried to sell their stock, but no one was buying. The stock market, which had appeared to be the surest way to become rich, quickly became the path to bankruptcy. The Stock Market Crash was just the beginning. Since many banks had also invested large portions of their clients saving in the stock market, these banks were forced to close when the economy crashed and this caused panic across the country. People rushed to banks to withdraw their money and more banks closed. Those who didnt reach the bank in time also became bankrupt. In previous depressions, farmers could at least feed themselves. During the Great Depression, the Great Plains were hit hard with both a drought and dust storms. The grass disappeared, leaving farmer without their crops. Furthermore, the invention of the tractor cut the need for manpower. These small farmers were usually in debt, borrowing money for seed. They not only couldnt feed themselves and their families, they also couldnt pay back their debts. Banks would then foreclose on the small farms and the farmer families would be both homeless and unemployed. Millions of people were out of work across the United States. Unable to find jobs locally, many people hit the road, traveling from place to place. The farmer who had lost their homes and crops usually headed west to California, where they heard rumours of agricultural jobs. However, the conditions of those jobs were difficult and hostile. These families were called Okies because they came from Oklahoma and we can see their stories in the fictional book The Grapes of Wrath. The economy broke down during the presidency of Herbert Hoover and the people blamed him for it. During the 1932 presidential election, Hoover did not stand against Roosevelt. As soon as Roosevelt won the election, he closed all the banks and only let them reopen once they were stabilized. Then, Roosevelt began to establish programs that became known as the New Deal. These programs were aimed at helping farmers and to restore the employment. Roosevelt was a hero but the true is that the U.S. economy was still extremely bad by the end of the 30s. This changed after the bombing of Pearl Harbor and the entrance of the U.S. into World War II. Both people and industry became essential to the war effort (weapons, airplanes...): men became soldiers and women were kept on factories. 2.7 World War II The United States tried to remain neutral while totalitarian regimes in Germany, Italy, and Japan expanded their control over neighboring countries. Debate intensified after Germany invaded France and began bombing Britain. Despite strong isolationist sentiment, Congress voted to conscript soldiers and strengthen the military. The Spanish War The Abraham Lincoln Brigade refers to volunteers from the United States who served in the Spanish Civil War in the International Brigades. They fought for Spanish Republican forces against Franco and the Spanish Nationalists.

 Pearl Harbor Most people were focused on what was happening in Europe, when Japan threatened to seize sources of raw materials used by Western industries. In response, the United States imposed an embargo on the one commodity Japan needed above all others oil and demanded that it withdraw from territories it had conquered. Japan refused, and on December 7, 1941, it carried out a devastating attack on the U.S. Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. The United States declared war on Japan. Germany and Italy, by then allies of Japan, declared war on the United States. War in Europe The United States, Britain, and the Soviet Union, allied to counter the Nazi threat, decided that their primary military effort was to be concentrated in Europe. They were determined to break the German-Italian grip on the Mediterranean and prevent the fall of Moscow. Then they would liberate Rome and Paris, and finally Berlin. From Germanys occupation of Poland in 1939 to its surrender in 1945, the war in Europe claimed the lives of millions of people soldiers and civilians alike. Millions more were exterminated in the Holocaust, Nazi Germanys systematic policy of genocide against the Jews and other groups. The Home Front American industry and agriculture were harnessed for the war effort. Production of military equipment was staggering: 300,000 aircraft, 5,000 cargo ships, 60,000 landing craft, and 86,000 tanks in less than four years. Much of the work was done by women, who went to work in factories while men went to fight. War in the Pacific and Atomic bombs The war in Asia was largely a series of naval battles and amphibious assaults to break the Japanese grip on islands in the Pacific Ocean. Fighting there continued after the fighting in Europe had stopped. The final battles were among the wars bloodiest. Most Americans, including President Harry Truman, believed that an invasion of Japan would be even worse. Truman was willing to use the newly developed atomic bomb to bring the war to an end. When Japan refused to surrender, he ordered bombs dropped on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The plan worked Japan surrendered and World War II was finally over in August 1945. Only later would people realize the full implications of the awesome, destructive power of nuclear weapons. Marshall Plan The Marshall Plan (officially the European Recovery Program, ERP) was the American program to aid Europe where the United States gave monetary support to help rebuild European economies after the end of World War II in order to prevent the spread of Soviet Communism. The plan was in operation for four years beginning in April 1948. The goals of the United States were to rebuild a war-devastated region, remove trade barriers, modernize industry, and make Europe prosperous again.

2.8 The Cold War (1945-1989) The Cold War is the name given to the relationship that developed primarily, between the USA and the USSR after World War Two. There was political and military tension between the Western Bloc (USA, NATO and allies) versus powers on the Eastern Bloc, the USSR or Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact. International affairs were dominated under the fear of the spread of communism and the possession of nuclear weapons on both sides. Cycles of relative calm and high tension were frequent. These major powers never faced in direct military combat however, in their struggle for global influence, they used third countries to fight instead. The end of this period arrives with Ronald Reagan and Gorvachev in the meeting of Malta, 1989. Events 1945. Yalta Conference: IIWW (second world war) was about to end. Some historians set this meeting as the beginning of the Cold War. Few month later,the war had ended and the Postdam Conference defined the strategically the position of the Soviet Union Central and Eastern Europe was already occupied by the USSR 1947. Truman Doctrine: President Harry S. Truman told Congress the Doctrine was "the policy of the United States to support free people who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures." Truman reasoned, because these totalitarian regimes, represented a threat to international peace and the national security of the United States. Without American help, those countries would inevitably fall to communism with grave consequences on power balance. Different political strategies Containment was policy used by the United States strategie to prevent the spread of communism abroad. This policy was a response to a series of moves by the Soviet Union to enlarge communist influence in Eastern Europe, China, Korea, and Vietnam

Rollback is the strategy of forcing change in the major policies of a state, usually by replacing its ruling regime. To wipe out the enemy. It contrasts with containment, which means preventing the expansion of that state Dtente, is the strategy of working relationship with that state. To negotiate instead of extermination. International Incidents and Wars

The Berlin blockade (24 June 1948 12 May 1949)

It was one of the first major international crises of the Cold War. During the multinational occupation of postWorld War II Germany, the Soviet Union blocked the Western Allies' railway, road and canal access to the sectors of Berlin under Allied control. Korean War (1950-1953) It was a war between the Republic of Korea (South Korea), supported by the United Nations, and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea, Comunist), supported by the People's Republic of China. It was primarily the result of the political division of Korea by an agreement of the victorious Allies at the conclusion of the Pacific War at the end of World War II. The Korean Peninsula was ruled by the Empire of Japan from 1910 until the end of World War II. Following the surrender of the Empire of Japan in September 1945, American administrators divided the peninsula along the 38th parallel, with U.S. military forces occupying the southern half and Soviet military forces occupying the northern half. Later a new communist government of North Korea, supported by China, invades South Korea. That was the beginning of a new period in the Cold War

Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) It was a 13-day confrontation between the Soviet Union and Cuba on one side, and the United States on the other, in October 1962. It is one of the major confrontations of the Cold War, and is generally regarded as the moment in which the Cold War came closest to turning into a nuclear conflict.

Vietnam War (1964-1975) The loss of Indochina meant the defeat of colonial France and the independence of Vietnam (1954). Ho Chi Minh and the communist party settled in the north and a democratic government settled in the south; they were two different countries. The USA supported the south so as to avoid the spread of Chinese communism. Americans were defeated after eleven years of extreme violence and the communist ruled a reunified country, the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.

Second Cold War (1979-1983) Is the period were the Soviets invaded Afghanistan and President Ronald Reagan increased military spending and rebuilt the Army after Vietnam fiasco.

2.8 Counterculture and Vietnam The counter cultural movement started on the background of Vietnam War. It was a post-war generation as a result of baby boom. The young people were frustrated due to racism, gender issues, consumerism, and the conservative nature of the society in general. They were looking for a change and they found it in emerging counter cultural movements of 1960s. The youngsters began to question the traditional values and culture. They had questioned the

consumerist American culture and followed a life style contrary to the orthodox American society. They welcomed sex, drugs and pop music. The American Civil Rights Movement, a key element of the larger Counterculture movement, involved the use of applied nonviolence to assure that equal rights guaranteed under the U.S. Constitution would apply to all citizens. Many states illegally denied many of these rights to African Americans, and this was successfully addressed in the early and mid-1960s in several major nonviolent movements. In 1964, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act and in 1965, the Voting Rights Act. Both of these acts guaranteed basic civil rights for all Americans, regardless of race.

Counterculture environmentalists were quick to grasp the early analyses of the reality and the import of the Hubbert "peak oil" prediction. More broadly they saw that the dilemmas of energy derivation would have implications for geo-politics, lifestyle, environment, and other dimensions of modern life. The counterculture movement reached its heights in 1969, when young people attended the Woodstock Music and Art Festival at Newyork. The festival became a symbol of anti-war movement. The festival was a mixture of hippie, pop and drug culture. One of the notable features of the counter culture was the sexual freedom. It resulted in different kinds of birth control methods. Oral contraceptives, IUDs, and diaphragms became popular. The rise of feminism was an important part of the counter culture. It began with the publication of Betty Friedan's "The Feminine Mystique" in 1963. It was a wake up call to women to come out from their traditional role as wife and mother. Women began to attend colleges in large numbers and engaged in many jobs. There were feminine writers such as Gloria Steinem and Slyvia Plath who fought for the equality of women. The same revolution continues today unabated. It can be seen in the freedoms given for lesbians and homosexuals today. Numerous people who are marginalized were benefited by counter culture attitude. We have seen anti-war protests against the recent War on Iraq.