N

TEMAS
1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.11.12.13.14.15.16.17.18.19.20.21.22.23.24.25.26.Adjetivos seguidos de INFINITIVO con TO ALL + Clause (Oracin Subordinada) Any + Comparativo Artculo: Usos y Omisiones Caractersticas de los Verbos Defectivos Colocacin de Both/All Comparacin del Adjetivo y del Adverbio Compuestos de Some/Any/No Conjunciones ALTHOUGH/THOUGH Conjunciones IN CASE/UNLESS Construccin ACUSATIVA o INFINITIVA inglesa Cuadro de Pronombres Diferencias entre BEEN TO/GONE TO Diferencias entre Say/Tell/Speak/Talk Diferencias entre Seem/Look ESTILO INDIRECTO (Reported Speech) Estructuras: Its (about) time + Simple Past Its no good + Gerundio (-ING) Exclamaciones Expresar DESEOS y LAMENTOS (Wish and If Only) False Friends (Palabras que pueden confundir) Formas de expresar la EDAD de una persona FORMULAS PARA COMPOSICIONES (Frases hechas) Gnero en personas, animales y cosas en ingls GERUNDIO GLOSARIO DE C.O.U. GRAMTICA ESPAOLA Artculo determinado e indeterminado espaol Adjetivo espaol y sus clases Comparacin del Adjetivo espaol Pronombres espaoles y clases de Pronombre Conjugacin espaola (Resumida) Correspondencias de tiempos espaoles e ingleses Tabla de tiempos ingleses (Todos los tiempos activos y pasivos) Hacer Comparaciones Impersonal YOU INFINITIVO de Propsito o Finalidad Locuciones Verbales: Would rather/sooner//Had better Nombres Compuestos (Lista y significado) Nombres Contables e Incontables Oraciones CONDICIONALES (Conjunciones: if, unless, etc.) Oraciones de RELATIVO Oraciones FINALES Oraciones TEMPORALES Pares de palabras (pareados) Participio de Pasado Participio de Presente Participio Falso o False Participle Participios en vez de Oraciones Subordinadas Partcula AS Partcula EVER Partculas QUITE/RATHER/SUCH a/an + Nombre Contable Singular Partculas SO/SUCH THAT Partculas TOO/ENOUGH Phrasal Verbs (lista y significados) Plural de los Nombres Ingleses 1 38 50 45 7 11 30 25 27 28 29 4 46 48 47 4 33 32 32 33 55 63 33 34 47 33 71 73 71 105 119 81 84 34 35 70 97 97 97 99 100 102 103 104 104 48 49 6 41 19 20 90 91 1- 2 51 53 64 66 67 66 67 96 35 35 36 35 36 45 6 45 46 46 79 - 80 11 12

27.28.29.30.31.32.33.34.35.36.37.38.39.40.41.42.43.44.45.46.47..48.49.-

50.51.52.53.54.55.56.57.58.59.60.61.62.63.64.65.66.-

67.68.69.70.71.72.73.74.75.76.77.78.79.80.81.82.83.84.85.86.87.88.89.90.91.92.93.94.95.96.97.98.99.100.101.102.103.104.105.-

Posicin de Adverbios y Frases Adverbiales Posicin de los Adverbios Preposiciones (bsicas) Preposiciones Finales o End-prepositions Prepositional and Phrasal Verbs Pronombres Reflexivos Pronombres, Adjetivos y Adverbios Interrogativos con -EVER Proverbs (Refranes) Puntuacin en Ingls Quehaceres Domsticos Significados de la palabra LEFT Significados del verbo To FEEL Significados segn la Pronunciacin Sinnimos Sufijos y Prefijos Tail Questions o Questions-tags Tiempos Verbales Presente Simple/Presente Contnuo Pasado Simple/Presente Perfecto Presente Perfecto Contnuo Pasado Perfecto Contnuo Top Forty Fatal Mistakes Uso de auxiliaries en afirmativa Usos de Both/All/Neither/None Usos de Can/Could Usos de Eitheror/Neither nor Usos de Going to/Will Usos de May/Might Usos de Much/Many/Little/Few Usos de Must/Have to Usos de Ought to Usos de Shall/Will Usos de Should/Would Usos de Some/Any/No Usos de Verbo To HAVE Usos del verbo To DO y To MAKE Usos del Verbo To Get Verbo NEED + -ING Verbo To Be + INFINITIVO con TO Verbo To Dare Verbo To Feel like Verbo To GET Verbo To Happen Verbo To Help Verbo To Look Verbo To Mind Verbo To Need Verbo To Seem Verbo TO SUGGEST Verbo GET SOMEONE TO DO SOMETHING Verbo MAKE SOMEONE DO SOMETHING Verbos Irregulares Ingleses (Lista y significado) Verbos Principales AUXILIARES-MODALES Must/Need/Can/May Verbos que no se pueden utilizar en tiempos continuos Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVO o GERUNDIO con Cambio de significado Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVO o GERUNDIO sin Cambio de significado Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVO sin TO Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVOS de Perfecto Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVOS PASIVOS Verbos seguidos de OBJETO + INFINITIVO con TO 2

43 44 68 75 45 41 42 48 47 48 76 78 42 6 33 22 74 75 74 69 50 51 12

94 95 20 6 16 17 27 17 18 17 24 25 15 16 19 14 15 18 19 23 56 91 21 32 41 23 21 22 20 21 21 22 23 24 23 24 53 49 49 92 93 30 30 31 36 37 39 40 38 37 40 40 38

106.107.108.109.110.111.-

Verbos seguidos de OBJETO + INFINITIVO sin TO o Participio de Presente Verbos seguidos por HOW TO + INFINITIVO Verbos Think/Suppose/Hope Verbos y palabras que rigen una preposicin/es determinadas VOZ PASIVA Wh-words + INFINITIVO con TO

40 38 33 85 - 89 53 - 55 45 - 46

NOMBRES CONTABLES E INCONTABLES: Las categorias de singular y plural se aplican a todo aquello que se puede contar; son estos los que llamamos nombres contables, materiales como: girls, houses, flowers, o abstractos como: days, hours, mistakes, ideas. Pero hay otra serie de nombres que no se pueden encuadrar dentro de unos lmites numricos - los llamamos incontables, ya sea a su vez materiales, como: silver, butter, cheese, o abstractos como: music, traffic, success. Asi como los nombres contables se pueden contar tomados en la medida de uno, dos tres etc., los incontables se pueden cuantificar con las expresiones: much, little, some, a great deal of, plenty of ... etc. Podemos utilizar a lot of delante de nombres contables e incontables, pero la expresin a large number of slo se utiliza ante contables. Television companies receive a large number of letters every day. A great deal of slo se utiliza con incontables: The psycologist had spent a great deal of time studying the problem. Para la afirmativa se prefieren estas expresiones a much o many, dejndoles a stos el uso exclusivo de las interrogativas y negativas, o tambin si son sujeto o parte del sujeto nunca complemento. Television companies dont receive many letters. The psycologist hadnt spent much time on the problem Adems de la expresiones ya vistas hay otras formas de referirnos a in contables como son: A piece of: news, advice, furniture ... A bit of: information A stroke of: luck (golpe de suerte) A matter of: common sense (un poco de sentido comn).

Asi mirada la distincin entre nombres contables e incontables no ofrece dificultad; hay que tener en cuenta, sin embargo, que hay un gran nmero de palabras que pueden tomarse, en distintos contextos, como contables o tambin como incontables:
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Ice: Iron: Paper: Glass Wood:

contable helado plancha peridico vaso bosque

; ; ; ; ;

Incontable hielo acero papel cristal madera

Otra distincin a tener en cuenta es la que se refiere al animal como contable, y a su carne como incontable: Ox (buey), carne: beef Calf (ternera) carne: veal Sheep (oveja) carne: mutton Pig or swine (cerdo) carne: pork Desde el punto de vista meramente lgico, podramos deducir que, puesto que los nombres incontables denotan lo que no podemos contar, las categoras de singular y plural no les son aplicables; sin embargo hay muchos nombres incontables que son plurales por su forma: sweets (caramelos) rickets (el raquitismo) weeds (malas hierbas) hysterics (la histeria) goods (mercancias) measles (el sarampin) ashes (cenizas) Otro grupo de nombres son los terminados en -ics, que denotan materias: mathematics - matemticas politics - poltica statistics - estadstica Tanto este grupo de nombres como el anterior pueden ir seguidos de un verbo en singular o en plural: Measles is/are very infectious Politics dont/doesnt interest me. USOS DE SOME, ANY y NO Some y any son adjetivos o pronombres indefinidos que se emplean con sustantivos incontables en singular y con sustantivos plurales contables, o sustituyendo a estos mismos sustantivos.

Some: Con nombres incontables en singular equivale al partitivo francs y tiene el significado de un poco (de), algo (de), o puede prescindirse de su traduccin en espaol. Con los nombres contables en plural significa algunos/as: There is some water in the jug. I have some English books at home. Como pronombre sustituye a nombres incontables en singular y a contables en plural a los que se ha mencionado previamente. Significa: un poco, algo, algunos/as: I like some milk. I feel like drinking some now. You need many pins for that. I can lend you some if you want. Por regla general el uso de some se limita a oraciones afirmativas. En las oraciones interrogativas y negativas, detrs de if, hardly, barely, scarcely se emplea any con los mismos significados de some: Is there any water in the glass? Are there any books on the table? I havent any money left.
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There is hardly any sugar. There are scarcely any papers on the floor. If you want any help, let me know. Slo si la pregunta implica una invitacin u ofrecimiento, o si se espera una respuesta afirmativa, se puede emplear some en las oraciones interrogativas: Would you like some more tea? Did he buy some new books? Se emplea: 1. En ocasiones con los nombres contables tiene el valor de plural del artculo indeterminado a: Come with me and Ill show you some English books I bought. I have bought some too. There is some milk in that glass; Ill have some. 2. Cuando ofrecemos algo, para dar a este ofreciemiento ms fuerza: Would you like some tea? 3. En las preguntas cuando esperamos que la respuesta sea afirmativa: He has some tea already, hasnt he? 4. Para expresar indiferencia al referirnos a una persona, o para indicar irritacin: Some man came and told me the most stupid story. Some stupid boy must have broken this lamp.

Any:
en plural:

Acompaa o sustituye tambin a nombres incontables en singular y a contables

Se emplea:
1. Sustituyendo a some en las oraciones interrogativas:

Is there any wine in the bottle? Have you got nay books here?
2. En las oraciones negativas y en las que tienen valor negativo a causa de las

expresiones: hardly, barely, scarcely, estas expresiones tienen matiz negativo: There isnt any bread at home. He has hardly any money. You havent any paper.
3. En las oraciones condicionales detrs de if especialmente si creemos que la condicin

no se va a cumplir: If I see any of your friends Ill tell them to meet you at the cinema. 4. En oraciones que expresan duda: I doubt whether they will have any gin at home.
5. En oraciones afirmativas con valor distinto de some. Significa cualquiera no importa

cul: Dont worry; any book will do.

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NO: Se emplea en oraciones afirmativas para expresar negacin. Su valor es similar al de

any, como adjetivo, con el verbo en forma negativa: I havent any money = I have no maney. There arent any stamps = There are no stamps.

COMPUESTOS DE SOME, ANY, NO FORM ASSERTIVE VERB Affirmative Personas someone somebody Cosas something Lugar somewhere sometimes somehow already still NON-ASSERTIVE Negative Anyone Anybody Anything Anywhere Ever in any way Any more/any longer Yet NEGATIVE Affirmative no-one nobody nothing nowhere never in no way no more/no longer No form

There is somebody with you. Dont give him anything before lunch. It must be somewhere in the class. There arent any tourists here this summer. There was nobody at home. EVERY solo tiene la forma ASSERTIVE FORM ASSERTIVE VERB Affirmative Everybody Everyone Everything Everywhere PRONOMBRES PERSONALES, POSESIVOS Y REFLEXIVOS PERSONALES Sujeto Complemento I me you you he him she her it it we us you you they them PRONOMBRES RECPROCOS
Each other: (uno a atro) se (entre dos personas o cosas) One another: (unos a otros) se (entre ms de dos) 6

POSESIVOS Adjetivos Pronombres my mine your yours his his her hers its its? our ours your yours their theirs

REFLEXIVOS Pronombres myself yourself himself herself itself ourselves yourselves themselves

USOS DEL VERBO TO HAVE Adems del uso ms frecuente de have que es la de auxiliar en la formacin de los tiempos compuestos de cualquier verbo, tiene otros usos: 1.- Significado de TENER, POSEER She has a black cat. Lo encontramos tambin significando lo mismo en la forma have got Have you got a cigarette? Con este significado no usamos normalmente el auxiliar do para la forma negativa e interrogativa, sobre todo si la posesin a la que nos referimos es en el momento en que hablamos: You have a lot of maney to buy that. You havent much money to buy that. Si la posesin no es en este momento, sino de vez en cuando se pone los auxiliares do/does/did para formar la ineterrogativa y negativa: He doesnt usually have more than one pound in his pocket. Por supuesto si la forma que empleamos es have got nunca se puede utilizar do:En afirmativa suele emplearse en ingls britnico la estructura HAVE GOT, as have hace la interrogativa y negativa mientras que got actua como comodn: I have got a car 2.- Obligacin TENER QUE El verbo to have seguido de infinitivo con to indica Obligacin y significa tener que y este es el verbo que suple las deficiencias de must. Necesita de auxiliares para formar la interrogativa y negativa. Si se utiliza el comodn got to el que hace la interrogativa y negativa es have: I have to leave. I have got to leave I must leave Have you got to leave? Do you have to leave? La negativa e interrogativa de have to puede hacerse de dos formas: con o sin do; es ms frecuente la forma con do sobre todo en presente: Have you to leave? Do you have to leave? (mejor) 3.- Uso Causativo Este uso se utiliza cuando se quiere expresar que alguien ha hecho algo por uno. La estructura es To HAVE/GET + Objeto + past participle. Usamos esta construccin cuando queremos dar la idea de que no es el sujeto el que realiza la accin, sino que ms bien recae sobre s mismo; por tanto tiene significado pasivo.Para hacer la negativa e interrogativa necesita tambin de auxiliares: I had my car washed yesterday I had my hair cut yesterday. I didnt have my car washed yesterday. He had his windows cleaned last Saturday. 4.- Con el sigificado de tomar, recibir, experimentar, comer etc.

En este uso la palabra que acompaa al verbo have es su complemento directo, por tanto actua como un verbo lxico u ordinario. Tambin necesita de auxiliares ara formar la interrogativa y negativa: I had a cup of coffee at six oclock (tom). I had a present from Charle (recib). I had a lovely time with him (experiment). To have a bath; to have a shower; to have breakfast. 5.- Acabar de + infinitivo: To have just + past participle Indica que una accin acaba de desarrollarse hace un instante: He has just arrived home. QUEHACERES DOMSTICOS (Chores) TO DO + artculo determinado + -ING, excepto = To make the beds Ej: Mrs Wildes cooks the meals every day. Mrs Wildes does the cooking every day. To do the washing = lavar la ropa, hacer la colada To do the washing-up = lavar los platos To do the cleaning = limpiar la casa. To do the spring cleaning = limpiar la casa a fondo. To do the gardening = trabajar en el jardn etc. BOTH / ALL / NEITHER / NONE Both - ambos, los dos All - ms de dos Neither - ninguno (de dos) None - ninguno (ms de dos) both ... and - tanto ... como neither ... nor - ni ... ni Both, All, None - rigen el verbo en plural. IMPERSONAL: YOU You equivale al impersonal espaol uno Ej: Uno sale de casa y luego no vuelve. PARTCULA: EVER Significa: alguna vez Hardly ever - casi nunca; puesto que en ingls no se pueden poner dos partculas negativas juntas; la partcula hardly tiene matiz negativo por tanto no se puede poner never. EVER se emplea en preguntas con el significado de alguna vez; y con el superlativo relativo significa jams. Preguntas: Have you ever been to London? Yes, several times. No, never Superlativos: He is the most intelligent man I have (Ive) ever seen.

EL ARTCULO El artculo determinado en ingls se pone cuando se habla de un sustantivo en concreto, determinado, no en sentido general. The boy next door to us is full of mischief The book that you gave me is very interesting En ambos ejemplos hay algo que define a la persona o cosa a que nos referimos. En el primer caso es next door to us y en el segundo es that you gave me. Esta definicin del obejto o la persona de quin hablamos nos la puede dar la pregunta: WHAT? o la pregunta WHICH?, y sto ocurre en singular y plural:
The animals I saw were beautiful. What animals? Those I saw (not all animals). The dogs in your farm dont like meat. Which dogs? The ones you have in your farm.

La determinacin se puede expresar por medio de una oracin de ralativo (The book that you gave me) o por un complemento con preposicin (The dogs in your farm) The carpet of the dining-room; The house near the church. Si hablamos de algo en sentido general utilizamos el artculo indeterminado si la persona o cosa de que hablamos es singular y nada si es plural: A play by Shakespeare is something interesting to be seen. Films are good entertainment. Usos del Artculo Determinado: 1. - Cuando nos referimos a algo de lo que slo existe un ejemplar: The sky, the earth, the moon. 2. - Cuando empleamos el superlativo relativo, pero no el absoluto: This is the most interesting poem I have read. pero es: It is most interesting. 3. - Con los nombres de mares, rios y oceanos: the Thames, the Atlantic, the Pacific, the Mediterranean etc. 4. - Con los nombres de cordilleras y archipilagos, pero no con los nombres de mantaas y de una sla isla: The Canary Islands, the Alps, the Grampians pero es: Mont Balnc, Sicily. 5. -Con los nmeros ordinales en ttulos honorficos: Elisabeth the Second (Elisabeth II), Charles V (Charles the Fifth). 6. - Con los nombres de trenes, barcos y aviones famosos: The Queen Mary, The Arrow, the Concorde 7. - Con nombres de paises que o son plurales o estn formados por ms de una entidad territorial: The United States, The United Kingdom, The Netherlands; pero no Spain, France, Germany, Italy.
8. - Con las palabras theatre, cinema, movies, pictures, opera, ballet ... cuando se

utilizan como lugar de esparcimiento: I went to the cinema last week, We should go to the ballet.
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9. - Cuando se hace referencia a una cosa que ya se ha citado: We bought a house and an apartment. The house is not far from the sea. 10. - Con los adjetivos cuando se quieren sustantivar, se convierten por medio del artculo en nombres plurales: The poor are happier than the rich. En singular: the poor man. 11. - Se emplea el artculo determinado en con el comparativo para decir que algo aumneta o disminuye: The more you giove him the more he wants. El artculo indeterminado se emplea delante de los nombres discontinuos (contables) que van en singular. El artculo indeterminado no tiene plural . Cuando en singular tiene el valor de 1 hacindo nfasis en la cantidad, su plural puede ser some, a few etc. Usos del artculo indeterminado: 1. - Con el significado de uno cualquiera: I would like to have a fur coat. 2. - Con valor distributivo en expresiones de tiempo y con medidas: Peter comes twice a year. Cheese costs 90p a kilo
3. - Delante de cantidades: hundred, thousand, million, dozen:

He knows a hundred English words.

4. - Con apellidos de personas no identificadas, equivalente al espaol: un tal:

A Mr White came to see you 5. - Con nombres de profesiones y religiones: She is a student. I am a teacher. He became a Protestant.
6. - Con sustantivos cuando queremos rferirnos a ellos en general:

A car is a useful thing. 7. - Con las expresiones: What a .. !; Such a ... !; Quite a ... !; Rather a ... ! + nombres contables en singular: What a pity; its quite a good book. It was such a nuisance. I read quite an interesting story ! Omisin de los dos artculos:
1. - Con las palabras: school, church, prison, jail, bed, hospital ... cuando se utilizan

para el fin para el que se hiceron: We go to school everyday. I feel tired; Im going to bed Peter stole a car and he is in prison now We go to school at 8.30 every morning. 2. - Con nombres abstractos o nombres concretos no determinados ni limitados: Happiness, Freedom Happiness is what I long for. 3. - Con los nombres de idiomas, deportes, calles, comidas: I speak Italian, Spanish.
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I play football, tennis, basketball. I have breakfast, dinner, supper.

4. - Con los das de la semana, que en su lugar llevan on:

On Monday, On Friday.
5. - No se usa con los nombres propios aunque formen parte de un genitivo sajn, al igual

que con Mr, Mrs, Miss: Marys teacher lives far from here. Marys scarf; Arthurs car; Mr Smithers; Mr Harrison.
6. - Con las palabras: next y last, ciando nos referimos al perodo inmediatamente

posterior o anterior al que estamos: Mary left home last week. I see you next Friday pero I met your brother the last week I spent in London (no tiene por qu ser la semana pasada). USES OF A / AN 1. With a subject complement He is Mr Smith became I was made She remained She found herself a doctor an engineer a director spinster a widow

2. In distributive phrases (a = each) The cloth costs five pounds a yard I take this medicine twice a day These flowers cost a pound a dozen Coal costs ten pounds a ton Coffee is sixpence a cup 3. With complements introduced by AS and FOR You must fulfil your duties I wish we had you as a son for a teacher

4. In expressions of drgree, measurement, number He is not as rich a man as you He lives in too expensive a manner The waiter has quite a hard time This is rather a long street I studied for half an hour He serves a hundred people He won a hundred pounds 5. In exclamations with WHAT, and SUCH What a pity! What a nice day! It is such a pity! It is such a nice day!
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He hassuch a different life! 6. After WITH and WITHOUT He wrote with There is no rose without 7. In emphatic negatives I havent I cant see I dont understand a pen a thorn a penny! a thing! a word! As as a rule

8. In adverbial phrases In On to be in a hurry on a large scale to speak in a low voice on an average 9. In some idioms to have a right 10. 11. A certain a certain man A, ONE Give me a book Give me one book Monday is a weekday He entered a restaurant one day Just a moment, sir Just one moment, sir to make a noise

to make a fortune

= any book = one, not two = one of several = one certain day = unemphatic = emphatic

USE and OMISSION of THE 1. Generic and determined nouns Generic I admired courage Good books are rare We pray for peace Happiness does not depend on money He spends his money on pleasure They suffered from cold and hunger He was sent to prison They go to school Determined nouns I admired the courage of poor people The good books I bought are rare We pray for the peace of the world The happiness of most people does not depend on the money they have He spends his money on the pleasures of food The cold and hunger they suffered was intense He was sent to the new prison They go to the school in that street

2. Omitted before titles, honorifics, and some proper names Persons Places Mr Brown Cairo Captain Brawn Mecca Queen Elisabeth Peru King George Canada Pope Pius Lake Superior
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3. Omitted before the names of languages, games, days, meals, streets English football Monday breakfast Oxford Street French tennis Tuesday lunch Piccadilly Circus German cricket Wednesday tea Trafalgar Square Russian rugby Thursday dinner Mount Avenue Italian hockeyFriday supper Edgware Road 4. Next, last, the next, the last next, last I will meet you next week I returned from my holiday last week the next, the last He fell ill and died the next week This is the last week of the year

EL PLURAL DE LOS NOMBRES La Regla General: El plural de los nombres se forma aadiendo S al singular. Excepciones:
1. - Los sustantivos terminados en -s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -x aaden la terminacin -es para

formar el plural y adquieren as una slaba ms: Glass - glasses, Church - churches; apocopados (cortos): potato - potatoes; negro - negroes; piano - pianos; wolf -wolves; wife - wives; life - lives. excepto: handkerchief - handkerchiefs; cliff - cliffs

box - boxes.

2. - Los que terminan en -o aaden tambin -es, excepto si son nombres extranjeros o

photo -photos.

3. - Los que terminan en -f o en -fe, cambian la f por v y aaden la terminacin -es:

4. - Los que acaban en -y si va sta precedida de consonante, cambia a i latina y aade

-es, pero si va precedida de vocal, sigue la regla general, aade -s: lady - ladies; baby - babies boy - boys; toy - toys 5. - Las palabras latinas y griegas forman el plural segn las reglas del latn o del griego: crisis - crises; thesis - theses; datum - data; radius - radii Si son palabras de uso muy frecuente se siguen las reglas del ingls: gymnasium - gymnasiums (gym - gyms). 6. - Finalmente tenemos que destacar que hay una serie de sustantivos que no siguen estas reglas. Al referirnos a ellos hablamos de plurales irregulares: man - men; woman - women; foot - feet; tooth - teeth; mouse - mice; loose - lice; goose - geese; child - children. En ingls antiguo y sobre todo en textos religiosos se encuentra el plural brethen, de brother, que hoy est practicamente en desuso. Plurales de nombres compuestos: 1. - En general se pone en plural el ltimo elemento, pero si man o woman son el primer elemento del compuesto, ambos se ponen en plural: teapot - teapots; manservant - menservants; raincoat - raincoats.
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2. - Cuando el compuesto est formado por otros elementos y nombres (por ejemplo, preposiciones o adverbios) slo se pone en plural el nombre: passer-by - passers-by; looker-on - lookers-on.
3. - Si el segundo elemento del compuesto es un adjetivo, solo se pone en plural el

primero: court-martial - courts-martial; mouthful - mouthfuls; La excepcin a esta regla es que los nombres que terminan en el sufijo -ful (del adjetivo full) forman el plural aadiendo -s. handful - handfuls; mouthful - mouthfuls. TIEMPOS VERBALES Presente Simple, Presente Continuo.El Presente Simple o habitual se utiliza con acciones que estamos haciendo constantemente; hbitos en el presente: I get up at 7 oclock every day. El Presente Continuo se utiliza con acciones que estamos realizando en el momento en que hablamos, y se sobreentiende la partcula NOW: I am reading a book. Tanto el Presente Simple como el Presente Continuo tienen valor de futuro. En caso del Presente Simple, el valor de futuro lo da la expresin temporal que le acompaa: The train leaves the station at 8 oclock in the evening. El Presente Continuo tiene valor de futuro cierto a diferencia de shall o will (que indican futuro simplemente) o la forma going to (que indica futuro prximo o premeditado): Tomorrow Im playing tennis.

Pasado Simple.Se emplea para accines que empezaron en el pasado y terminaron en un momento del pasado, este momento puede estar expresado o puede sobreentenderse: They came last night. He joined the army in 1977. He sent me a present last week. I bought this in America. Tambin se em`plea el pasado simple oara hacer preguntas sobre cosas que se sabe que terminaron en un momento determinado del pasado: When did you graduate? Where did you get that prize?

Otro uso del pasado simple es para referirnos a costumbres que se tenan en el pasado, o para acciones que van acompaadas de los adverbios: sometimes, never, often, always etc.; tambin con expresiones de tiempo que indican repeticin: once a week, three times a month, on Mondays, every Friday night etc.: He always went to school by bus. He visited his father once a month. John never drank wine. Presente Perfecto.14

Se emplea para hablar de una accin, que si bien comenz en el pasado, no se ha terminado an o en cierto modo tiene relacn con el momento actual, y se emplea por tanto, con expresiones de tiempo no terminado. Suele emplearse con: this year, this morning, this summer, today etc.: I have eaten quite a lot today. We have written each other five times this month. El Present Perfect es un tiempo que se emplea para referirnos a acciones que acaban de terminar hace un instante. En ingls esta proximidad del momento en que se ha terminado una accin se expresa por medio de just y el Present Perfect. Su traduccin al espaol es: ACABAR DE + INFINITIVO: I have just seen your mother in the street. (Acabo de ver a tu madre ...) We have just moved to a new house. Tambin se emplea este tiempo para acciones pasadas cuando no se da el momento en que terminaron. Parece como si la idea de tiempo no terminado la tuviese que dar la vida de uno. Al menos esto facilita el saber emplear este tiempo: She has been to France many times (in her life). I have met lost of clever people in my life. Si las acciones a las que hacemos referencia van acompaadas de expresiones como: already, lately, recently, tambin se emplea el Presente Perfecto si estas acciones comenzaron en el pasado: We havent seen him yet. I havent already been there. We havent heard much of you recently. Por ltimo se emplea este tiempo para hacer preguntas sobre el pasado cuando queremos saber si algo ha ocurrido alguna vez. En ingls se utiliza el adverbio interrogativo EVER: Have you ever seen anything like that? Has he ever tried to learn English properly? Presente Perfecto Continuo.Tiene tres usos: 1. - Acciones que empezaron en el pasado, continuan en el presente o acaban de terminar: Arthur has been studying very hard.
2. - Tambin se usa con expresiones com: recently, this morning, today etc. que son

expresiones de tiempo no terminado: I have been waiting for you this morning.
3. - Se usa con las partculas: How long ......? y las contestaciones con: Since y For.

How long have you been living here? Pasado Perfecto Continuo.-

Ive been living here since January.

Tres usos: 1. - Reemplaza al Presente Perfecto Continuo cuando nos referimos al pasado: Arthur is tired because he has been studying very hard. (Present) Arthur was tired because he had been studying very hard. (Past)

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2. - Tambin se usa en oraciones temporales con acciones anteriores a otra accin pasada: After Arthur had been driving for six months, he found it quite easy.
3. - En el Estilo Indirecto como pasado (backshif) del Presente Perfecto Continuo:

Have you been studying English long? He asked me if I had been studying English long. Usos de shall y will.Son estos dos verbos especiales que se emplean para formar el futuro de los dems verbos. Son, pues, auxiliares de tiempo. El futuro en ingls, cuando lo nico que queremos expresar es que algo va a tener lugar, se construye con shall para la primera persona de singular o plural y will para las dems, seguidos de infinitivo sin to del verbo que conjugamos: I shall work They will work La contraccin de la afirmativa es ll para todas las personas, y la contraccin de la negativa es shant o wont. Pero no siempre se utilizan estos verbos para expresar simplemente el futuro. Hay una serie de casos en que el futuro se tie de un matiz que puede ser de mandato, splica, sugerencia etc.: SHALL:
1. - Cuando se emplea con las primeras personas y terceras puede expresar ofrecimiento

en el presente o en el futuro: (Se traduce al espaol po Querer que + subjuntivo) Shall I help you? Shall my wife take you home?
2. - Con la segunda o tercera personas expresa promesa o amenaza:

You shall have a present if you work hard. My wife shall help you as soon as she comes.
3. - Con todas las personas se emplea shall en las subordinadas finales introducidas por

SO THAT, para expresar determinacin en el presente o en el futuro: My wife drives very slowly so that I shall not be afraid. WILL:
1. - Con todas las personas, si el nfasis recae sobre el, indica determinacin o

propsito: I will not go out (I am determined to stay at home)

2. - Si no se le d nfasis, expresa deseo de hacer algo, sobre todo de hacerlo en el

presente, con todas las personas: If he is hungry I will give him something to eat.
3. - Con la segunda persona suele indicar invitacin o splica, si se emplea en la forma

interrogativa: (Se traduce al espaol por Querer + infinitivo) Will you close the window, please? Will you do me a favour, please? 4. - Con todas las personas puede indicar hbito en el presente: She will sit there for hours waiting for her son.
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5. - Con la segunda y tercera personas expresa tambin deduccin:

He will be there by now. Usos de MUST y HAVE TO MUST: Esta es la forma nica de un verbo defectivo que no tiene mas que presente de indicativo. Su tercera persona no tiene -s y rige siempre infinitivo sin to. La forma contracta de la negativa es mustnt. Las formas que le faltan a este verbo, que son practicamente todas, se pueden suplir con las expresiones: TO HAVE TO o TO BE TO (tener que). Must puede expresar: 1. - Obligacin: Candidates must answer all the questions. 2. - Necesidad 8segn la idea del hablante): He must leave early tomorrow morning. 3. - Suposicin (Deduccin): She must be at least forty. 4. - Consejo o recomendacin (en tono ms fuerte que should): You will have to have your hair cut before you join the army. Must puede anteceder a un infinitivo de perefecto. Indica entnces una suposicin (deduccin) pasada por parte del hablante: It must have been a shock to him. Have to: Lo empleamos normalmente para completar la conjugacin de must. Para formar la negativa e interrogativa empleamos do, does, did Do you have to go now? Did you have to buy a stamp? Con el mismo significado de to have to podemos usar to have got to: I have got to go = I must go. Have you got to go? = Must you go? En el presente de indicativo, que tambin puede utilizarse have to, hay frecuentemente una diferencia de significado entre esta forma y must. MUST expresa obligacin desde el punto de vista del que habla y HAVE TO, como en los otros tiempos, desde el exterior, es decir, que la obligacin es externa. Para expresar ausencia de obligacin o de necesidad, es decir, lo opuesto a MUST, se emplea a veces la forma NEED NOT (neednt). Otras alternativas son: havent got to, don t have to, dont need to. Usos de CAN y COULD Can: Es otro verbo defectivo. Sus formas son: Presente: CAN Futuro: CAN Pasado y Condicional: COULD

Las contracciones son: cant o cannot y couldnt Can puede expresar: 1. - PERMISO: (para pedirlo o concederlo): Can I speak to you for a moment? You can speak to the patient if you wish. Con ms nfasis en la idea de permiso usariamos COULD o MAY o MIGHT Could I speak to you for a moment, please?
2. - POSIBILIDAD: 17

You can come if you want to. Para expresar posibilidad en el futuro no podemos utilizar CAN; tenemos que utilizar TO BE ABLE TO o el giro MANAGE TO:
3. - HABILIDAD o CAPACIDAD:

Can you type? (Sabes escribir a mquina?) MANAGE TO o TO BE ABLE TO no expresa capacidad del sujeto, sino ms bien que la accin ha sido llevada a trmino o realizada totalmente: Although he was hurt, he managed/he was able to explain the accident.
4. - SUPOSICIN: (negativa)

He cant be forty.

It couldnt be her husband; he is died two years ago.

TO BE ABLE TO es el verbo que se emplea para suplir los tiempos que le faltan a CAN. Son todos los compuestos (porque no tiene participio pasado), el futuro y el condicional (porque no tiene infinitivo). Usos de MAY y MIGHT May: Es otro verbo defectivo. Sus formas son: Presente: MAY Futuro: MAY Pasado y Condicional: MIGHT

Las contracciones de las formas negativas son: maynt y mightnt. May expresa permiso, lo mismo en forma interrogativa que negativa: You may open the window if you are feeling hot. May y Might pueden expresar tambin:
1. - POSIBILIDAD: He may/might come tomorrow.

En el estilo indirecto utilizamos might si el verbo principal est en pasado: He said that he might come.
2. - SUPOSICIN en el pasado: si usamos may/might seguidos de infinitivo de perfecto:

The other road might have been better.

3. - Podemos usar ambos verbos en las oraciones condicionales:

If you called him he might answer back. 4. - Usamos MAY o MIGHT seguidos de as well para expresar intencionalidad vaga: He might as well apply for the job (he doesnt care about it.) Especulaciones sobre el pasado con MIGHT a) Para una posibilidad pasada. En esta estructura MIGHT es sinnimo de MAY + infinitivo de perfecto: The Sound of Music might have finished by now. The Sound of Music may have finished by now. b) Puede ponerse en las oraciones condicionales (tipo 3, igual que would have): If he had gone to the agency earlier, there might have been more choice. c) En estilo indirecto como tiempo pasado de MAY: He admitted that he might have made a mistake. d) Se puede utilizar en quejas: I didnt know her husband had died. You might have told me! Usos de GOING TO o WILL
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Going to: Esta formas seguida de un infinitivo se utiliza en ingls para acciones futuras que son premeditadas y que de un modo u otro necesitan una preparacin para llevarlas a cabo. A veces, aunque no siempre, van acompaadas de una expresin de tiempo: Im going to ring my brother up. I need some soap because Im going to wash up Peter has bought some paint because hes going to paint his bedroom. Will: Se emplea para acciones futuras no premeditadas. Generalmente se dice que se utiliza para acciones que no necesitan preparacin, que son expontneas: Give your coat. Ill take it to my room. That cake is very good; I will have some more. La distincin no es tan clara como a simple vista parece. Algunas gramticas dan un ejemplo como el que vamos a citar, pero no siempre que hablamos nos vamos a encontrar con casos tan claros: Peter has sold his car. Yes, hes going to buy a new car. (La preparacin est en el hecho que Pedro ha vendido el coche viejo previamente para comprar despus otro nuevo) As Peter has sold his car I will buy him a new one. (No hay nada premeditado. El hecho de que Pedro haya vendido el coche me ha hecho pensar en regalarle uno nuevo). Will se emplea sin poder ser sustituido por la forma going to en las oraciones condicionales o en las subordinadas temporales, yendo will en la oracin principal: If you come with me I will do some shopping. Tambin hay que emplear will con los verbos que no tienen forma progresiva o continua: believe, understand, know etc. Pero excepcionalemente con estos verbos se puede emplear going to aunque no es normal. Usos de SHOULD y WOULD Should: Aparte de ser auxiliar de condicional puede expresar deber (leve), consejo o recomendacin, al igual que ought to. We should see the doctor if you arent feeling well. 1. - Se suele usar en oraciones completivas con that detrs de verbos como: suggest, decide etc.: He suggested that I should see a lawyer.
2. - Tambin se emplea con sentido final detrs de las conjunciones so that, in order that,

in case etc.: He banged the door so that someone should hear him.
3. - En el estilo indirecto sustituye a shall:

He asked, Shall I help you? He asked whether he should help me.

4. - Se suele usar tambin detrs de ciertos adjetivos que expresan placer, sorpresa,

disgusto etc.: It is amazing that she should have laughed at you! It is fair that your parents should hear from you. Would: Aparte de ser tambin auxiliar de condicional, es el equivalente de will con referencia al pasado cuando will se usa como futuro ordinario, normal: He knows he will be late He knew he would be late.
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1. - Se usa en lugar del verbo want cuando queremos pedir algo de forma educada:

I want to see Mr Steele I would like to see Mr Steele

2. - Tambin lo usamos para expresar ruego:

Would you open the window?

3. - Indica tambin hbito o repeticin:

She would sit there for hours waiting for her son.
4. - Would seguido de rather o sooner ms infinitivo sin to expresa PREFERENCIA:

I would rather walk than sit. 5. - Al igual que used to, sirve para describir hbitos pasados. Se utiliza especialmente en ingls escrito: During the weekend he would see him in his flat going through the paper. Id often go off camping at weekends when I was young. Usos de OUGHT TO Ought to es un verbo defectivo que rige infinitivo sin to puesto que la partcula to pertenece al verbo. Tiene una forma nica: ought to para todas las personas. Ought to puede utilizarse como presente, pasado y futuro y expresa:
1. - Obligacin, pero no por parte del hablante (como must), ni de tipo externo (como

have to), sino como un simple recuerdo o llamada a la atencin por parte del hablante; en este sentido es mucho menos enftico que must y muy similar a la idea que expresa should: You should not tell lies. You ought not to tell lies.
2. - Tambin se puede emplear expresando consejo, igualmente en este caso con menos

nfasis que must: You ought to read this book.

3. - Ought to puede ir seguido de infinitivo de perfecto, igual que should para lamentar

algo que no se realiz: I cant do anything for you now. You ought to have told me yesterday afternoon. Las locuciones verbales WOULD RATHER/SOONER y HAD BETTER Would rather o sooner: expresa preferencia entre dos cosas, por tanto se traduce por preferira esto a aquello (entre dos acciones) Id rather go than stay 1) Si es el mismo sujeto en las dos acciones: Va seguido por infinitivo de presente sin to para acciones presentes o futuras: Id rather study English. Va seguido por infinitivo de perfecto sin to cuando se refiere a acciones pasadas: Id rather have gone to the cinema yesterday 2) Cuando son sujetos diferentes en las acciones: Va seguido de simple past para referirse a presente o futuro: Id rather Tom went Va seguido de past perfect al rferirse a acciones pasadas:
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Id rather Tom have gone yesterday. Had better significa ser/sera mejor para el sujeto que sea: Va seguido de infinitivo de presente sin to para referirse a presente o futuro: Id better go Va seguido de infinitivo de perfecto sin to para referirse al pasado: Id better have gone Es equivalente a la estructura It would be better for me, you, him ... to ... Nota: Estas locuciones van siempre seguidas por INFINITIVO sin TO Uso de auxiliares en afirmativa Se pueden usar los auxiliares en afirmativas como: mandatos, invitaciones, oraciones enunciativas para dar ms nfasis: Come on, Arthur! Do open the door! En ingls hablado se acenta el auxiliar, y en ingls escrito puede aparecer subrayado, en cursiva o en negrita, para resaltarlo: John cant come tomorrow. -But he can (he told me so) The Verb TO GET = to obtain to receive = to become = movement I got some tickets for the theatre. What time do you get the mail every day? He got very angry when the lawyer came. We get older every day. The news got about that John had gone abroad. How are you getting along? The prisoners got away by climbing the walls. I shall be out this morning but I shall get back by 12 oclock The bad boy is always getting into trouble. a) I always get on the bus here to get home. b) Im getting on well at school. c) Im getting on well with my parents. I always get off the bus at the end of my journey. a) The teacher told the children to get out their books. b) After being ill, you must get out into the fresh air and the sunshine. I had a grave (serious) illness but finally I got over it. The train gets to London at 3 oclock. I get up at 7 oclock every morning. a) He got through his work in three hours. b) He got through his examination.
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GET INTO GET ON GET OFF GET OUT

GET OVER GET TO GET UP GET THROUGH

Usos de verbo to GET a) El uso bsico del verbo get es obtener, conseguir: Has Mary got a job yet? b) get + past participle o adjective, significa become (hacerse, llegar a ser); en este caso verbaliza al participio o al adjetivo ill = enfermo to get ill = enfermar tired = cansado to get tired = cansarse wet = mojado to get wet = mojarse married = casado to get married to = casarse con c) get + object + past participle: uso causativo (al igual que have + object + past participle); significa que alguien hace algo por uno, por tanto tiene significado pasivo): I must get my hair cut. I must have my hair cut d) have got + infinitivo con to: indica obligacin lo mismo que have to: Ive got to go now. e) get to: significa llegar a un sitio (cubierto), normalmente a una estacin de tren: What time do we get to London? The Verb

TO HAPPEN

a) HAPPEN to somebody or something What has happened to John. Where is he? A strange thing happened to me. What has happened to my pen? Its not here. What has happened to this radio? It doesnt work. b) HAPPEN to + infinitive I happen to know the answer. = I know it by chance. John happened to be here. = John was there by chance. c) As it HAPPEN; Whatever HAPPENS As it happens, I know the answer. = By chance, I know it. You must tell the truth whatever happens The Verb

TO FEEL LIKE

+ NOUN This morning I feel like the strongest man in the world. = I feel that I am ... This morning I feel like a long way = I want to have ... + -ING This morning I feel like walking. Do you feel like playing cards? + IT This morning Im not going to work because I dont feel like it. + ANYTHING This morning I dont feel like anything.
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= I want to walk. = Do you want to play ...? = because I dont want to. =I dont want to eat or drink anything.

Significados de to FEEL a) Con adjetivos: estar en un estado emocional o fsico: Arthur had felt terrible all day. b) Con adjetivos cuando el sujeto es una parte del cuerpo significa dar la impresin: His chest felt painful c) Con objetos significa tocar, palpar: Mary felt his forehead. d) Feel like = want, en coloquial significa apetecer, dar la gana. Rige gerundio. I dont feel like going to Baiona tomorrow. e) Concompletivas de that significa tener una opinin, creer: I feel that we may have made a mistake.

The Verb

TO HELP

1.- HELP SOMEONE (TO) INFINITIVE:

Arthur Sheila Mr Smithers helped Mrs Steele collect the dirty glasses Mrs Steele (to) do the washing up. Mrs Harrison move the chairs and tables.

2.- With the meaning of remedy, AVOID:

I cannot (cant) help coughing I cannot (cant) be helped

3.- When HELP is needed in a emergengy:

Help! Yelled the trapped children.

4.- HELP is frequently used in informal contexts:

Help your mother; help with the housework; Help Father with the gardening; help with the washing up. The Verb +NOUN I need a friend. I dont need friends. Do you need friends?

TO NEED
+ INFINITIVE without TO I need not (neednt) go Need you go?

+ INFINITIVE with TO I need to go. I do not need to go. Do you need to go? The Verb

TO DARE
+ INFINITIVE without TO I dare not (darent) go

+ PERSONAL OBJECT I dare you to go. He dared me to sing.

+ INFINITIVE with TO I dare to go. I do not dare to go.

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He dared us to say anything. Do you dare to go?

Dare you go?

The Verb

TO LOOK
= He seems happy. = They seem sad. = John appears tired. = He didnt appear old. to have the appearance of = He had the appearance of a boy. = He has the appearance of a policeman. = I resemble my father. = Mira! = Cuidado! = levantar = bajar = visitar = desviar Look at it! Look for it! Look out for it! Look into it! Children should look up to their parents. I look down on liars.

a) To LOOK + adjective = to seem, appear He looks happy They look sad John looks tired He didnt look old b) To LOOK LIKE + Noun = to resemble, The soldier looked like a boy He looks like a policeman I look like my father Look here! Look out! He looked up He looked down I will look in on you I looked away Look at seek be careful examine Look up to Look down on

= Look at this! Listen! = Be careful! = He raised his eyes. = He dropped his eyes. = I will visit you. = I looked in another direction Look at your book! Look for your book! Look out for the traffic. Look into the problem! = admire = despise The Verb

TO SEEM

1.- SEEM TO / SEEM THAT ...

I seem to be right. They seemed to know him. It seems It seemed that I am right. that they knew him The Verb

TO MIND

1.- To MIND = To LOOK AFTER:

Ill mind the baby while you are out. Will you mind my luggage, please, for a few minutes?

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2.- To MIND = To BE CAREFUL:

Mind that chair! Dont fall over it! If it rains, mind you dont get wet! Mind you get the tickets! Dont forget! Mind you dont spend too much money during your holidays!

3.- To MIND = To TAKE NOTICE:

Never mind! Its not important. Dont mind John. Hes not really angry.

4.- Do you MIND ...? / Would you MIND ...?:

Do you mind closing the window? Do you mind if I close the window? Would you mind closing the window? Would you mind if I close the window?

Usos de MUCH, MANY, LITTLE y FEW

Para expresar en ingls poca cantidad empleamos LILTTLE y FEW. FEW se emplea con los nombres contables y significa pocas cosas. LITTLE va con nombres incontables y significa poco/poca. Tanto LITTLE como FEW tienen valor negativo y niegan la existencia de una cantidad. En lengua hablabda no es muy frecuente el uso de little y few a menos que vayan precedidos de too, extremely, very etc. Es ms frecuente el uso de NOT MANY, HARDLY EVER o NOT MUCH con el verbo en forma afirmativa o emplear MUCH o MANY con el verbo en forma negativa: As en vez de decir: He said little about his illness, en conversacin se prefiere: He didnt say much about his illness o He said hardly anything about his illness. Cuando FEW y LITTLE van precedidos de artculo indeterminado a, entnces tienen valor afirmativo, con el significado de unos cuantos (a few) o una pequea cantidad (a little). Dont worry if you havent any money. I have a few pounds here. He was very thirsty but he has drunk a little water and he feels better now. Para expresar mucha cantidad empleamos en ingls MUCH y MANY. Tanto much como many son adeverbios de cantidad. MUCH se emplea con los nombres incontables con el significado de gran cantidad: He hasnt drunk much this morning. Pero su uso debe quedar restringido a las oraciones negativas e interrogativas a menos que sea el sujeto de la oracin o que califique al sujeto: Much has been said about him but nobody believes it. Much money has been spent in that building. Excepto en ejemplos como los que hemos dado, a veces incluso en casos as, much se sustituye por a lot, a lot of, plenty of, a great deal of, lots of etc. en las oraciones afirmativas:
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He always eats a lot of bread for breakfast. There is a great deal of noise in this room. MANY con el mismo significado que MUCH, se emplea con los nombres contables en plural: There were many people outside the church. Have you seen many films this summer? MANY se usa indistintamente en oraciones afirmativas, negativas e interrogativas aunque a veces se emplea en afirmativas expresiones como VERY MANY. La nica excepcin en el empleo de MANY es cuando se utiliza con un nombre en singular precedido del artculo a: Many a person has died because of that (=many people).

Colocacin de BOTH y ALL

Cuando son sujeto de la oracin en una frase larga pueden ir delante del sustantivo al que acompaan: Both (of) the children All Tambin pueden ir detrs del sustantivo: both The boys (they) All Si un verbo normal como el del ejemplo, van colocados antes de l. Si el verbo es auxiliar va detrs de l: both The girls are all Cuando son sujetos de una oracin, pero sta es corta, o cuando se trate de respuestas breves, si hay verbo auxiliar tenemos dos posibiliadades: a) Que vayan entre el pronombre y el auxiliar. b) Que vayan delante del auxiliar emplendolos con la preposicin of o sustituyendo la forma del sujeto del pronombre por la de complemento, como exige la preposicin: (a) both They can all (b) Both of them can All our friends love chocolate are English live far from here

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Si en estas respuestas breves prescindimos del verbo, la construccin que empleamos es la b) Both of them Who can go? All of them Cuando acompaa al sustantivo que hace oficio de complemento, en oraciones largas, podemos emplearlos inmediatamente detrs del verbo utilizando la preposicin of y la forma del complemento del pronombre. Tambin hay posibilidad de posponerlos a la forma de complemento del pronombre prescindiendo de la preposicin of: (a) both The girls ate the sandwiches all (b) both They didnt eat the sandwiches all (c) both They wanted them all (d) both They wanted them all Si van con el complemento pero en las respuestas cortas o en frases tambin cortas, se usan seguidas de of y el pronombre complemento: Both of us All

Usos de EITHER ... OR // NEITHER ...NOR

Las oraciones coordinadas disyuntivas se construyen en ingls con la conjuncin OR si son afirmativas y con NOR si son negativas: Will you come or will you stay? I dont know, nor can I guess. Cuando queremos darle ms fuerza a la oracin que ofrece la alternativa, en vez de emplear slo OR utilizamos EITHER ... OR...: You must either stay or go with me. He can either keep it or give it to his sister. Si la oracin es nagativa, esta disyuntiva se expresa con NEITHER ... NOR... y el verbo en forma afirmativa, o con EITHER ... OR ... y el verbo en forma negativa. Se puede emplear cualquiera de las dos construcciones, aunque quizs la de uso ms extendido es la primera: Neither my brother nor my sister found the money you had lost. They are neither German nor Russian. They arent either German or Russian.
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Por regla general en estas construcciones hay concordancia entre el verbo y el sujeto que est prximo a l, aunque a veces suene extrao: Either Mary or you are wrong. Neither Peter nor I am feeling well. Normalmente y para evitar sto se emplea la construccin similar a la de Addition to Remarks: Either Mary is wrong or you are. Peter is not feeling well, neither am I.

Comparacin del ADJETIVO y del ADVERBIO

Los Adjetivos Calificativos tienen tres grados. POSITIVO, COMPARATIVO, SUPERLATIVO bright ---------------- brighter --------------------- brightest intelligent----------- more intelligent --------- most intelligent La Comparacin puede ser de tres tipos: IGUALDAD, SUPERIORIDAD, IFERIORIDAD: La Comparacin de igualdad se forma con AS ... AS y el adjetivo en grado positivo: Mary is as clever as Peter That book is as interesting as mine. La Comparacin de superioridad se construye con la forma del comparativo del adjetivo seguido de THAN: Your brother is taller than your father. Geography is more difficult than I thought. El Comparativo de los adjetivos se forma siguiendo las siguientes reglas: 1.- Los adjetivos de una slaba toman el sufijo -ER, doblando la consonante final en los casos en que vaya una vocal slo entre dos consonantes: Old ---------------- older; hard ---------------- harder; big ----------------- bigger 2.- Los adjetivos de tres o ms slabas llevan antepuesto MORE al grado positivo del adjetivo: more helpful; more intelligent; more interesting. 3.- Los adjetivos de dos slabas siguen una de las dos reglas ya expuestas: unos toman el sufijo -ER y a otros se le antepone MORE. Como regla general los que terminan en -y, -w, -er, -ly toman el sufijo -ER y los que terminan en -re, o -ful se le antepone MORE: pretty ----------------- prettier; helpful ----------------- more helpful. El Comparativo de inferioridad se forma con LESS y el grado positivo del adjetivo, pero es ms frecuente construirlo con NOT AS ... AS o NOT SO ... AS: Your dress is less long than Marys Your dress is not (as) so long as Marys. El SUPERLATIVO se forma siguiendo las mismas reglas del COMPARATIVO pero con la terminacin -EST en vez de -ER y anteponiendo MOST en vez de MORE. El uso del Superlativo en ingls as formado corresponde al superlativo relativo espaol. Es decir, no expresa una cualidad en grado mximo unicamente sino que lo que hace es compraralo con un grupo:
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Mary is the most intelligent girl in her class. Soria is the smallest capital in Spain. La preposicin espaola DE despus de superlativos en ingls se traduce por IN seguido de un sustantivo de lugar y por OF cuando no es de lugar. Cuando se emplea el superlativo sin artculo su valor es similar al que tiene el adjetivo precedido de VERY, TERRIBLY, TREMENDOUSLY etc. Hay que destacar una serie de excepciones idiomticas en las que interviene el comparativo o el superlativo: THE seguido de comparativo .... THE seguido de comparativo indica que algo aumenta o disminuye. Su equivalente al espaol es: Cuanto mas/menos ... mas/menos:

Comparativo and comparativo. Equivale a: CADA VEZ MS:

HAD BETTER seguido de infinitivo sin TO. Significa: Ser/Sera mejor que con subjuntivo: Hay una serie de comparativos y superlativos irregulares que no se forman siguiendo las reglas dadas y que son los siguientes: Positivo Good/well Bad/badly Much/many Little Near Far Old Late Comparativo Superlativo Better Worse More Less Nearer Farther Further Older Elder Later Latter Best Worst Most Least Nearest (distancia) Next (orden) Farthest (para distancia ambos) Furthest (para algo adicional) Odest Eldest (persona misma familia) Latest Last

Resumen: COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES: Form: One-syllable and most two-syllable adjectives: adjs + -er/est: tall - taller, tallest (except adjs: -ed/ing) adjs + ier/-iest: heavy - heavier, heaviest Irregular: better/best; worse/worst; less/least; more/most; farther/farthest Two or more syllables: more convinient/most convinient. Intensifiers: quite/fairly/rather/very/too/extremely/increasingly (good)
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a bit/a lot/much/very much/a food deal (better)/more (convinient) Use: Comparing two: John is as tall as Mary John is not as/so tall as Mary John is taller than Mary (AS ................. AS) (NOT AS/SO ... AS) (-ER/-IER ... THAN)

Comparing more than two: John is the tallest/the most intelligent student in our class. Caractersticas de los VERBOS DEFECTIVOS Se denominan verbos defectivos a aquellos que carecen de alguna forma vebal, es decir, todos los verbos en ingls tienen tres formas bsicas: infinitivo, pasado, participio pasado, alrededor de las cuales se forman todos los tiempos verbales. Pues bien los verbos que carezcan de alguna o algunas de estas formas se denominan DEFECTIVOS: Todos ellos carecen de infinitivo (por tanto no se le puede poner la partcula to, ni tampoco pueden hacer el futuro ni el condicional) y participio de pasado (con lo que no pueden hacer tiempos compuestos ni tiempos pasivos). Van seguidos siempre de infinitivo sin to (bien sea de presente o perfecto), excepto OUGHT TO y USED TO, puesto que este to pertenecen a estos defectivos. Nunca llevan -s en las terceras personas de singular del presente de indicativo. Como verbos auxiliares-defectivos hacen la interrogativa y negativa por s solos. Si van seguidos por infinitivo de presente se refieren a acciones presentes o futuras Si van seguidos por infinitivo de perfecto se refieren a acciones pasadas. PRINCIPALES VERBOS AUXILIARES MODALES o DEFECTIVOS must; can/could; may/might; will/would; shall/should; ought to; used to; need/dare (se denominan tambin semimodales, puesto que pueden ser modales o lxicos). MUST / NEED / CAN / MAY Presente/Futuro can may must Pasado/Condicional could might --Verbos que suplen las deficiencias to be able to to be allowed/permitted to have to

Must en afirmativa implica OBLIGACION interna, es decir, impuesta por el que habla o escribe, a diferencia de have to en donde la OBLIGACIN es externa, sta la imponen terceras personas o circunstancias. Tambin puede implicar DEDUCCIN, dependiendo del contexto. Must en negativa (Mustnt) implica PROHIBICIN. Tambin dependiendo de contextos, puede implicar que es erroneo o equivocado llevar a cabo ciertas acciones. Neednt es la negativa de must como obligacin, por tanto indica ausencia de obligacin y se traduce por no es necesario. Cant es la negativa de must como deduccin. No se puede confundir la forma cant con cannot, esta ltima solo puede ser tomada como negativa de can (poder).
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Diferencia de CAN y MAY Can tiene tres sigificados: Poder (capacidad fsica). Habilidad (saber = how to know). Permiso (darlo o concederlo). May tiene dos significados: - Poder (posibilidad). - Permiso.

Donde se pueden confundir los significados de los dos verbos es en cuanto a permiso y la diferencia es que may se utiliza mucho ms que can con este significado, puesto que can implica adems esa capacidad fsica. Ver ejemplos en los apartados de los Usos de CAN / COULD // MAY / MIGHT. He may come = quizs He might come = posibilidad remota COULD = accin no terminada: He could swim across the river. WAS ABLE = accin terminada: He was able to swim across the river. CANT: significa DEDUCCIN en negativa (cant # cannot (negativa de can)). MUSNT: aparte de PROHIBICIN puede tambin significar que algo es erroneo, peligroso, o tonto el hacerlo. SHOULD y OUGHT TO: significan debera. Should es deber de consejo. Ought to es ms bien deber moral. You should read more books. You ought to read more books. OBLIGACIN: must - have to - should - ought to de mayor a menor fuerza de obligacin USED TO: slo tiene forma pasada. Significa sola. Se utiliza para costumbres en el pasado. Siempre va seguido de Infinitivo: I used to read Si se quiere expresar costumbre en presente: I usually read. Como verbo defectivo puede hacer la interrogativa y negativo por si solo, o tambin con el auxiliar did: I used not (usednt) to read I did not use to read Used you to read? Did you use to read? Sin embargo en las respuestas cortas se hace con auxiliar (Yes, I did.) Una caracterstica propia para todos los auxiliares defectivos, independientemente de que vayan en forma PRESENTE o PASADA: Si van seguidos de INFINITIVO de PRESENTE se refieren a acciones presentes o futuras. Si van seguidos de INFINITIVO de PERFECTO se refieren a acciones pasadas. Used es adjetivo con el significado de acostumbrado cuando va precedido de verbos como to be/become/seem/appear. Rige tambin la preposicin to, por tanto a continuacin hay que poner este caso gerundio (la forma -ING), puesto que en ingls la regla general es que despus de preposicin hay que poner siempre GERUNDIO: Im used to reading to funciona como preposicin si aparte del infinitivo espaol puede entrar un pronombre personal de complemento o un sustantivo. NEED + GERUNDIO (-ING)
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Need seguido de GERUNDIO tiene siempre significado pasivo: Im afraid the flat needs doing up a bit. Esta estructura significa: IT IS/WAS NECESSARY + FOR + OBJECT + TO BE DONE. Diferencias entre SAY/TELL/SPEAK/TALK SAY: Normalmente no va seguido por la persona a la que uno se dirige: What did you say? TELL: Con frecuencia va seguido de la persona a la que nos dirigimos: Construccin de infinitivo (o acusativa): He told me to get on with my work. Tambin se utiliza con partculas interrogativas + infinitivo con to: He told me what to do. En frases hechas: To tell lies / Tell me a story / Tell me the truth SAY: Significa: expresar por medio de palabras, y TELL significa DECIR en el sentido de contar, relatar, narrar. SPEAK: tiene cuatro significados: 1. Con idiomas: Do you speak English? 2. Con objeto: tiene el sentido de dar una conferencia, echar un discurso: Today Im going to speak about Shakespeare. 3. 4. En el telfono: cuando se descuelga: This is Vigo 430387. Whos speaking? Con el significado de decir algo rige las preposiciones to (con) y about (de): She was so angry with me that she didnt speak to me all day.

TALK: Tiene dos significados: 1. Charlar, conversar. Rige las preposiciones to y about: What were they talking about? 2. Alborotar (make a noise with words): Stop talking and get on with your work! Diferencias entre SEEM y LOOK Ambos significan parecer. Y la diferencia est en que cuando van seguidos de adjetivo, se usa LOOK cuando queremos resaltar la apariencia fsica de algo o alguien. Mientras que si despus va un infinitivo hay que usar siempre SEEM. LOOK tiene, sin embargo, otros significados, dependiendo de la preposicin que le acompae: look at (mirar a); look for (buscar); look up (buscar algo en el lugar apropiado); look out! (cuidado!); look forward to (esperar allgo con ilusin, ansiar); look on to (admirar a alguien); look down on (despreciar); look like (parecerse a). THINK / SUPPOSE / HOPE I think so - creo que si I suppose so - supongo que si I hope so - espero que si I dont think so I suppose not I hope not
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- creo que no - supongo que no - espero que no

Im afraid so - me temo que si

Im afraid not

- me temo que no

no se puede negar nunca LA COMPLETIVA DE THINK !!! Significados de la palabra LEFT Right // Left. To Leave Left Left = dejar, partir, marchar, irse. Sobrante, que queda de sobra left-overs = sobras (de la comida). Diferencia entre BEEN TO y GONE TO Ella ha ido al banco: - She has gone to the bank. - She has been to the bank. BEEN TO = ir, implicando estar de vuelta, que ya ha vuelto. Have you ever been to England? GONE TO = que ests all, implica solo ida. Expressing WISHES and REGRETS a) Si nos referimos a presente o futuro. Se hace con wish + simple past: I wish he had a bit more more money ... Do you wish you could speak Portuguese? Con el verbo to be, se utiliza were para todas las personas (subjuntivo) I wish the kitchen were a bit longer. Estos deseos som imposibles. Wish suele traducirse por: Ojal. b) Si nos referimos al pasado. Se hace con wish + past perfect: I wish I had seen you yesterday. I wish you had married me instead of him. I WISH and IF ONLY Se utiliza wish y if only + simple past or could cuando queremos que algo cambie en el presente: I wish I could sing ( I cant sing) If only I wasnt ill (I am ill) Se utiliza wish y would para quejarse de alguna situacin o circunstancia: I wish he would stop smoking! I wish they would be quiet! Se utiliza wish o if only + past perfect o could + infinitivo de perfecto cuando queremos cambiar una situacion pasada: Matt wishes he had apologized (he didnt apologise) If only I had told the truth (I didnt tell the truth) Its (ABOUT) TIME + Simple Past Va seguido siempre de pasado simple con significado de presente o futuro: Its (about) time we found a flat.
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Its time he was here. He is late.

Its NO GOOD + -ING Its no good / It isnt any good siempre va seguido de gerundio (-ing) con significado de there is no advantage: Its no good looking up hundreds of flats. GERUNDIO Como forma no personal del verbo tiene todas las funciones del sustantivo: a) Como sujeto de la oracin: Living in London is expensive. La misma funcin tambin la tiene el infinitivo con to y la diferencia que hay en poner de sujeto un gerundio o un infinitivo est en que con el gerundio se ha experimentado la accin, mientras que con el infinitivo no necesariamente: To live in London is expensive. La estructura de gerundio como sujeto equivale a: ITS + ADJETIVO + TO-INFINITIVE: It is expensive to live in London. b) Despus de los siguientes verbos hay que utiizar gerundio: admit anticipate avoid consider detest enjoy excuse* finish involve keep mind miss rest stop help (en cant help) A los verbos que llevan asterisco se le suele poner un gerundio. Arthur didnt enjoy cleaning the flat. My husband detests doing his own cooking. delay deny forgive* imagine postpone resist stand (en cant stand) adjetivo posesivo antes del

c) Se pone gerundio despus de ciertos phrasal verbs, principalmente en aquellos phrasal que van seguidos de dos partculas, dnde la segunda partcula siempre es preposicin: carry on, give up, keep on, leave off, put off, do away with, put up with... Many firms are giving up employing their own typists d) La regla en ingls es que despus de preposicin hay que poner siempre gerundio; por tanto hay que poner gerundio despues de los verbos que rigen preposicin, dentro de esos verbos, los ms utilizados son: accuse someone of, approve of, to be fond of, to be good/bad at, to be used to, to feel like, to insist on, to look forward to, to succeed in, to think of/about, what about ...? She left without saying anything. e) Tambin hay que poner gerundio despus de los adjetivos posesivos: Mary insisted on Arthurs helping / on his helping. En ingls hablado o en ingls informal se puede cambiar este posesivo por un nombre o pronombre personal de complemento: Mary insisted on Arthur helping
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Will you excuse my leaving early? // Will you excuse me leaving early? Puede hacerse tambin con la estructura de condicional, evitando as el posesivo: Will you excuse me if I leave early? Participio de presente El uso bsico del participo de presente es para la formacin de tiempos continuos. Se forma al igual que el gerundio aadindole -ing al infinitivo. Usos: 1) Con los vebos de percepcin (de los sentidos): see, hear, smell, watch, notice. 2) En la estructura impersonal there is/are. 3) Para aadir algo nuevo a una oracin. 4) Come adjetivo activo. 5) Va siempre despus de los verbos come y go, si es un verbo de actividad fsica Im going to swimming this afternoon. 6) Despus del verbo keep. Im sorry to keep you waiting. 7) Despus de los verbos: spend y waste. 8) Se puede utilizar en vez de oraciones causales, reemplazando a las conjunciones: because, since, as I went to the station expecting to meet you but you didnt arrive as I thought at first. Participio de pasado Su uso principal es para la formacin de los tiempos compuestos (con have) y los tiempos pasivos (con to be) de los verbos. 1) Como participio pasivo o pasado para aadir algo nuevo a una oracin: There were a lot of bottles thrown into the river. Cars parked on double yellow lines will be taken away. 2) Como adjetivo pasivo: He tried to sell me a stolen watch. 00000000PARTICIPIOS en vez de ORACIONES SUBORDINADAS 00000000a) en vez de ORACIONES Participles). 00000000b) en vez de ORACIONES Participle). 00000000c) en vez de ORACIONES Participle). 00000000d) en vez de ORACIONES DE RELATIVO (Present and Past TEMPORALES DE PRESENTE (Present TEMPORALES DE PASADO (Perfect CAUSALES (Present and Perfect Participles).

00000000 00000000a) en vez de oraciones de relativo (Present and Past Participles): He stays in a cottage in Wales belonging to his aunt. The cottage was in a village called Penol. There were heavy winds blowing across the motorway. Leave a note out telling him what you want. Tanto el Participio de Presente como el Participio de Pasado se pueden usar en lugar de oraciones de relativo.
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00000000b) en vez de oraciones temporales de presente (Present Participle): While walking down Earls Court Road, he happened to bump into as fellow student. When thinking about Wales, one remembers that the Welsh are renowned for their singing. He drove down the road thinking about his problems. Aqu el Participio, con o sin while o when reemplaza a una oracin temporal de presente para mostrar que las dos acciones estan teniendo lugar simultaneamente. 00000000c) en vez de oraciones temporales de pasado (Perfect Participle): Having made a reasonable amount of maney, Arthur didn't need to do any more work. Having got to Camarthen, he took a wrong turning. El Participio de Prefecto se puede usar generalmente en ingls escrito- como alternativa de oraciones subordinadas introducidas por "when", "after", "as soon as" etc. 00000000d) en vez de oraciones causales (Present and Perfect Participles): Consisting of mountains, castles and seaside resorts, North Wales is the best known to tourists. Not knowing what to do, she decided to do nothing. Having lost his job, he is now unemployed. En estas oraciones los Participios se usan como alternativas para oraciones subordinadas introducidas por as, because or since. Falsos Participios Se les llama as porque se les aade -ED a un sustantivo. Es la combinacin de un adjetivo por medio de guin con un sustantivo en -ED. Se pueden hacer falsos participios con todos los sustantivos: We have a house with four bedrooms We have a four-bedroomed house. Verbos que no se pueden poner en tiempos continuos La siguientes verbos no se pueden poner en tiempos continuos, aunque algunos de ellos se pueden encontrar en tiempos continuos pero con otro significado: to see* to like to trust to appear (seem) to hear to think* to be* to smell to keep (continue) to wish to believe to seem to notice to care to expect* to belong to contain to realize to recognize to remember to forget to refuse to forgive to understand to matter to know to mind to mean to suppose to concern to want to possess to loveto hate to consist to ownto dislike to have* to feel (think) Hay 5 verbos que si se pueden poner en tiempos continuos: El verbo to see: cuando tiene el significado de visitar (visit, meet): Tomorrow Im seeing to my doctor I shall be seeing John tonight if you want me to give him the message. To think: se puede utilizar en continuo cuando no se da ni se pide opinin: What are you thinking about?
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 To be: se puede emplear en continuo cuando es auxiliar de tiempos continuos pasivos de los demas verbos: Many buildings are being built in this street. Tambin cuando tiene el significado de comportarse (to behave): You are being very silly!!! To expect: se puede utilizar en continuo cuando es sinnimo de wait for (esperar fisicamente, mientras que expect no implica esperar fsico): Im expecting a telephone call from Ireland. Im expecting a letter tomorrow. To have: se puede poner en continuo si es sinnimo de comer, recibir, tomar ... es decir, cuando le acompaan palabras que son su complemento directo: Dont disturb, hes having a rest. They were having lunch when I arrived. Verbos seguidos por INFINITIVO sin TO Los verbos seguidos por infinitivo sin to son los verbos de los sentidos (percepcin), los verbos to make (que toma infinitivo con to cuando se conjuga en pasiva) y to let, el verbo to help (que puede ir seguido de infinitivo con o sin to) y las locuciones verbales would rather/sooner y had better (que van casi siempre contraidas con el pronombre personal sujeto: Id rather/sooner, Id better). Verbos seguidos por INFINITIVO con TO To agree to appear to arrange to ask to care to decide to expect to learn to fail to manage to forget to neglet to help to prepare to hesitate to pretend to hope to promise Arthur managed to find a seat. to refuse to regret to seem to swear to tend to want

Tambin se puede poner construccin negativa (not + to-infinitive) con algunos de estos verbos: to agree to decide to manage to seem to appear to hope to pretend to swear to ask to learn to promise to tend Arthur decided not to wait.

Verbos seguidos de Objeto + INFINITIVO con TO Es la construccin acusativa o de infinitivo, en dnde el objeto del verbo principal es a su vez sujeto de infinitivo (es la estructura procedente del infinitivo no concertado latino, donde el sujeto del infinitivo va en caso acusativo): Esta estructura en ingls se da con verbos de voluntad, mandato, consejo etc... en oraciones compuestas sustantivas en funcin de Complemento Directo (donde nunca se puede hacer con completivas de THAT (that-clause))
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to advice to ask to forbide to invite

to order to allow to prefer to expect to tell to help to want He told him to come back the next day. Do you want me to help you?

to permit to teach to warn

Verbos seguidos por HOW TO + TO-INFINITIVE Los verbos son: ask, discover, explain, find out, forget, remember, tell, understand, wonder: Another student explained to Arthur how to register. Adjetivos seguidos de INFINITIVO con TO able angry disgusted glad happy sad suppose unable The principal was delighted afraid delighted disappointed likely sorry surprised

to see so many students.

Tambin la estructura IT IS/WAS + Adjective + TO-INFINITIVE se usa con los siguientes adjetivos: difficult, easy, hard, impossible, possible: It is difficult to light a pipe when you are driving a car. Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVO o GERUNDIO sin cambio de significado to begin to love to start to bother (fastidiar) cant bear to hate to like to continue to prefer

It started snowing/to snow while we were on the train. Los verbos: to like, to love, to hate y to prefer tienen que ir slo seguidos por INFINITIVO con TO cuando van conjugados en condicional Would you like to come to the cinema tonight or would you prefer to go to a solitary place?

Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVO o GERUNDIO con cambio de significado to remember to regret 1) To REMEMBER: Va seguido de gerundio cuando significa recordar algo que ya se ha hecho, es decir, cuando nos referimos al pasado: I remember seeing the Queen when I was 10 years old. Va seguido de infinitivo cuando significa acordarse de que uno tiene que hacer algo, es decir, cuando nos referimos al futuro: I must remember to go to the bank tomorrow.
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to forget to mean

to try to allow/permit

to stop

 Este verbo puede ir seguido de un completiva de that (that-clause), cuando los sujetos de cada parte de la oracin son diferentes: She remembered that Arthur had forgotten to take his overcoat. 2) To FORGET: Tiene el mismo cambio de significado que remember. Sin embargo, cuando va seguido de gerundio puede colocarse la preposicin about: Surely, you havent forgotten (about) meeting her already. I forgot that you asked me to go to the bank. 3) To TRY: Seguido por gerundio significa experimentar, probar o hacer algo para ver que efecto tiene: He tried taking a couple of aspirins, but they didnt have any effect. Con infinitivo significa intentar: He tried to do this exercise. 4) To STOP: Seguido de gerundio significa dejar de, parar de hacer algo (not continue) Will you please stop making that noise? Seguido de infinitivo significa parar de hacer lo que est en curso para hacer otra cosa When we got to the top of the hill we stopped to look at the view. 5) To REGRET: Significa lamentarse en general Con gerundio toma el significado de sentir que uno ha hecho algo I dont regret leaving my last job at all. Con infinitivo significa sentir que uno tenga que hacer algo Dr Newton regrets to say that that he cannot answer readers questions.

Sin embargo, este verbo a menudo va seguido de la completiva de that (thatclause) con ambos significados: I dont regret that I left my last job at all. 6) To MEAN: Con gerundio significa involve (tener que ver con), usado slo impersonalmente: Having a bad-chest means going without cigarettes. Con infinitivo significa intentar: 7) To ALLOW / To PERMIT: Van seguidos de gerundio cuando la persona o personas no son mencionadas. Por otra parte si se menciona la persona o personas, entnces tienen que ir seguidos de infinitvo: Dont allow smoking in class! I dont allow my students to smoke in the classroom. Verbos seguidos de OBJETO + INFINITIVO sin TO o PARTICIPIO DE PRESENTE Todos los verbos de sensacin: see, hear, feel, smell ... y los verbos listen to y watch pueden ir seguidos de OBJETO + INFINITIVO o PARTICIPIO DE PRESENTE (-ING): I have ever seen so many people all waiting to be served.
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I have already heard him tell some of those stories on TV. Hay una diferencia entre emplear infinitivo o participio de presente, especialmente si la accin es corta. Sin embargo, el uso del infinitivo indica que la accin est finalizada: I heard the Beatles play Yesterday on the radio. (escuch toda la cancin) I heard the Beatles playing Yesterday on the radio. (puede que no escuchara la cancin entera) Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVOS PASIVOS a) En la lista de verbos mencionada hay ciertos verbos que van seguidos de infinitivos pasivos Some policiemen themselves would prefer to be armed. b) VERBO + OBJETO + INFINITIVO PASIVO con TO They wanted the car to be returned on Monday morning. c) ADJETIVO + INFINITIVO PASIVO con TO I was surprised not to be invited to the party. Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVO CONTINUO Acenta o enfatiza el aspect continuo de la actividad, es decir, lo que sucede en el momento de hablar: appear, expect, hope, pretend, regret, seem, be supposed to: Some students appeared to be taking notes. Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVO de PERFECTO Se utiliza para referirse a algo que ya ha sucedido o se supone que habr sucedido, y se utiliza con los veerbos: appear, expect, fail, hope, pretend, promise, seem, be supposed to: Galileo is supposed to have invented the telescope. INFINITIVO de PROPSITO o FINALIDAD Indica la finalidad o propsito de la accin (Vease oraciones finales): The students were waiting to hear what the Principal had to say. TO BE + INFINITIVO con TO Sirve para describir planes o acciones futuras. Va seguido de infinitivo de presente. Con esta misma funcin puede emplearse el presente contnuo o futuro contnuo. Pero cuando los planes o acciones son pasadas no hay posible alternativa: In the second week of the term they were to visit a car-factory in Vigo Tambin puede describir planes que han fracasado o no se han llevado a cabo. En este caso el verbo to be va seguido de infinitivo de perfecto: The new car model was to have been out last month, but there was a strike. Obligacin: particularmente cuando el hablante est repitiendo rdenes dichas por terceras personas: You are to be back at the bus at 2 oclock. PREPOSITIONAL VERBS y PHRASAL VERBS
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 Se entiende por preposional verb, la combinacin de un verbo con una preposicin. Son todos transitivos, puesto que despus de una preposicin siempre tiene que haber algun elemento sea sustantivo, gerundio, pronombre o frase preposicional. Un phrasal verb es la combinacin de un verbo con un adverbio, la mayor parte de las veces no tiene nada que ver con el significado original del verbo. A su vez pueden ser transitivos o intransitivos. TAKE OFF (tr.) something = to remove (tr.) someone = to imitate He took off his hat. TAKE OFF (intr.) = to leave the ground The plane took off at 12.30 p.m. En cuanto a la posicin del complemento directo en los phrasal, hay que tener en cuenta tres aspectos: 1) Si el C.D. es corto, es decir, compuesto de una o dos palabras, puede ir antes o despus del adverbio: He took off his hat. He took his hat off. 2) Si el C.D. es largo, es decir, compuesto por varios elementos, hay que colocarlo inmediatamente despus del adverbio para que el phrasal no pierda as su significado. He took off his hat which was too large. 3) Si el C.D. es un pronombre personal de complemento, hay que colocarlo entre el verbo y el adverbio, de lo contrario sera falta gramatical: He took it off. una excepcin: en cuanto al phrasal get over, donde hay diferencia en cuanto a significado: He got over it (recuperarse, recobrarse de una enfermedad ...recover) He got it over (deshacerse, desembarzarse de .... get rid of) Si se trata de prepositional vebrs, el complemento tiene que ir colocado siempre despus de la preposicin: Arthur and Mary talked to their old friends (they talked to them). La Puntuacin 1) Exclamation mark (!): Se utiliza despus de mandatos, exclamaciones e interjecciones: Go away! What a beautiful day! Hell! 2) Semi-colon (; ): Se utiliza para unir oraciones de igual importancia, yustapuestas: This is s very good car; in fact it is the best. 3) Colon (: ): Se utiliza para introducir una lista, o tambin para unir oraciones cuando la segunda es consecuencia o explicacin de la primera: Let me give you some advice: dont trust him! Learn the following: the present, the past, the future and ..... 4) Inverted commas or quotation marks ( ): Se utilizan en el estilo directo o tambin para resaltar o destacar en un artculo algo, o para acotaciones: I dont know, said Mary, why did you tell it to me? The advertisement was put in the paper by a large expanding company
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5) Comma ( , ): a) Se utiliza delante o despus del nombre de la persona a la que uno se dirige: Come on, Arthur! Mary, are you in? b) Delante de la tail questions o question-tags: You arent happy, are you? c) Despus de Yes o No en las respuestas cortas y despus de expresiones de introduccin. Yes, I did. No, I didnt. Well, never mind! d) Delante o despus de palabras o expresiones entre parntesis y nombres en aposicin: Arthurs tutor, Mr Traddford, gave him his timetable. e) Despus de cada palabra o expresin en una lista de ms de dos, pero no delante de la palabra and (aunque en ingls americano se ponga): The Registrar, the Librarian and the Lodging Officer said a few words. f) Antes y despus de la oraciones de relativo explicativas: The Open University, which is open to all, is a unique institution. g) Despus de la oraciones subordinadas cuando van delante de la oracin principal: When I was a boy, I used to drink milk. h) En el estilo directo para separar la oracin del verbo introductor de la oracin de estilo directo (la que va entre comillas) y tambin para separar palabras en acotaciones del resto de la oracin: All you need, he said, is love POSICIN DE ADVERBIOS y FRASES ADVERBIALES EN LAS ORACIONES.a) Adverbios de modo: Contestan a la pregunta con HOW? y se colocan despus del C.D. si lo hay, si no, despus del verbo: The first term seemed to go by very quickly. The rest of the day was spent in a very relaxed way. Los adverbios de modo se forman normalmente aadindole al adjetivo la terminacin -LY: quick --> quickly; sta misma terminacin si se le aade a un sustantivo da su correspondiente adjetivo: friend --> friendly. En los casos en que las palabras terminadas en -LY sean adjetivos, como en el ltimo caso, para formar en espaol su correspondiente adverbio de modo se recurre a la estructura: in + adjetivo + way: in a friendly way. b) Adverbios de lugar: Contestan a la pregunta con WHERE?, siguen al C.D., y si no lo hay, al verbo: Mary did all the Christmas shopping in Oxford Street. c) Adverbios de tiempo: Contestan a la pregunta con WHEN? o HOW LONG? normalmente se colocan al final de la frase, pero a veces pueden aparecer al principio: It continued snowing for the rest of the day. d) Adverbios de frecuencia: Contestan a la pregunta con HOW OFTEN?, tienen tres colocaciones: - Despus de los tiempos simples del verbo to be: Arthur was often late to work. - Antes de los tiempos simples de los dems verbos: Jennifer always preferred to play with Arthurs trains.
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- Dnde haya uno o ms auxiliares se coloca despus del primero: I have never heard such awful music. e) Adverbios de grado: Son los que modifican a un adjetivo o a otro adverbio y se colocan delante de las palabras a las que modifican: The weather was usually cold. Algunos de estos adverbios de grado modifican a verbos, entnces se ponen delante del verbo principal o despus del primer auxiliar: He almost had an accident in his car. f) El adverbio YET: Normalmente se coloca al final de frase, pero puede aparecer, sobre todo en ingls escrito, despus de un auxiliar. Con el verbo en negativa significa: todava; y con el verbo en interrogativa significa: ya. Como no puede ir con el verbo en afirmativa, hay que poner already con el significado de ya; y still con el significado de todava. Tanto already como still tienen la misma colocacin que los adverbios de frecuencia en la frase (Repasar las partculas any more/any longer o no more/no longer): Jennifer had not arrived home yet o Jennifer had not yet arrived home. Jennifer had already arrived home. Churches are still well attended. g) Otras caractersticas: Si hay dos o ms adverbios en una oracin la colocacin sera MODO-LUGAR-TIEMPO. Pero si se trata de VERBOS DE MOVIMIENTO, la colocacin sera LUGAR-MODO-TIEMPO: Arthur and Mary went to Applefield by train at Christmas.

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La Partcula AS a) Como CONJUNCIN: CAUSAL (=because, since) Arthur did not go as he does not like to be pushed. She put the puddings on the stove as they take a long time to cook. TEMPORAL (=when, while) I got to the station just as the train was leaving. b) Como PREPOSICIN: La diferencia entre as y like es que as tiene el significado de igualdad, es decir, que lo es realmente, mientras que like indica comparacin, es decir, que no lo es: He spoke as a lawyer (Habl como un abogado (es abogado)) He spoke like a lawyer (Habl como un abogado (pero no es abogado)) He works as a slave. he works like a slave. QUITE/RATHER/SUCH + A/AN + NOMBRE SINGULAR CONTABLE.La forma ms dbil de expresar gradacin es quite a/an y la forma ms fuerte es such a/an: It was quite a good play, i suppose (not bad, but not really good either). Arthur sat down to breakfast with rather a long face. PREPOSICIONES FINALES Estas preposiciones se ponen al final de la frase cuando se trata de preguntas directas o indirectas, y en las oraciones de relativo (especificativas) cuando el verbo que lleva en las frases rige preposicin: Who are we waiting for? I wonder what she is thinking about. The play our teacher spoke about was rather amusing. ANY + COMPARATIVOS Despus de verbos negativos y la preposicin WITHOUT se emplea ANY delante de adjetivos y adverbios en grado comparativo: Arthur didnt need to do any more work. Can you push any harder? Without any further delay Arthur phoned David. WH-WORDS + TO-INFINITIVE Se emplean para hacer preguntas indirectas para pedir consejo o informacin de algo: Arthur had no idea what to do with his artichoke. If you dont know where to look, start with the book-case. Tanto which como what pueden funcionar tambin interrogativos, es decir, pueden preceder a un sustantivo: Can you tell me which bus to take? Your teacher will advise you what books to read.
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como

adjetivos

LAS PARTICULAS: TOO e ENOUGH Too siginifica demasiado cuando va con adjetivos y adverbios y significa tambin cuando va al final de frase despus de coma. Se coloca delante de los adjetivos y adverbios pero cuando hay sustantivos hay que intercalar las partculas much o many entre too y el sustantivo. Los adjetivos y adverbios siempre tienen matiz negativo y para resaltar este matiz se suele hacer con la estructura for + pronombre personal de complemento + infinitivo con to: This window is too dirty for me to see through. Enough significa bastante, suficiente. Se coloca despus de adjetivos y adverbios, pero delante de los sustantivos (good enough, enough money). Va siempre, al contrario que too, con palabras que tienen matiz positivo; y para resaltar este matiz tambin se hace con la estructura for + pronombre personal de complemento + infinitivo con to: This window isnt clean enough for me to see through. Estructuras cuando queremos decir lo mismo: This window was so dirty that we couldt see through it This window was too dirty for us to see through. This window wasnt clean enough to see through. SO/SUCH ... THAT Las partculas so/such ... that se utilizan para hacer oraciones con el significado de tan/tanto .... que. SO se emplea con adjetivos (donde se incluyen much,many,little y few + sustantivos) y advebios. Por otra parte SUCH se emplea con sustantivos (se pondr SUCH A/AN si el sustantivo es contable singular y SUCH solamente si el sustantivo es incontable o plural): It was so cold that the river froze. There were so many people that we couldt see. He is such a fool that he doesnt understand anything. It was such a hot day that I took off my shirt. ALTHOUGH / THOUGH Though es la forma apocopada (corta) de Although. Son conjunciones concesivas y significan aunque, sin embargo. La diferencia entre ellas est en la colocacin en la frase: a) Tanto Although como Though pueden ponerse ambas al principio de frase: Although/Though they were poor they were happy. b) Though puede ponerse al final de la frase despus de coma. Although puede ponerse tambin en medio de la frase: They were happy. They were poor, though They were happy although they were poor. CONSTRUCCIN ACUSATIVA o INFINITIVA INGLESA Se da esta estructura en las oraciones subordinadas sustantivas en funcin de Complemento Directo que dependa de verbos de voluntad, mandato, consejo, deseo, en donde el C.D. del verbo principal es a su vez sujeto del infinitivo y este infinitivo se traduce al espaol por subjuntivo que le sigue (es igual al infinitivo no concertado latino): Quiero que l venga = I want him to come
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Si el verbo principal no es de voluntad, se hace con that + indicativo o con gerundio precedido de adjetivo posesivo: No creo que ella haya dicho eso = I dont believe that she has said that I dont believe her having said that. EXLAMACIONES Normalmente en ingls se hacen las exclamaciones de dos maneras: 1. What + a/an + sustantivo contable singular What + sustantivo (plural o incontable) What a beautiful day! What beautiful days! What weather! 2. How + adjetivo o adverbio + pronombre sujeto + verbo: How beautiful she is! How beautifully she dances! PRONOMBRES, ADJETIVOS y ADVERBIOS INTERROGATIVOS con EVER Se usa ever para enfatizar el pronombre, adjetivo o adverbio, expresando sorpresa. Con todos, ever se une directamente excepto con WHY, con el que se pone por separado: Whatever are you doing now? Why ever can they get back on time? Ever es sinnimo de any o every, y se traduce por cualquiera que, quienquiera que, lo que quiera que etc... y se utiliza para traducir el subjuntivo en ingls, llamndose sto traduccin por reduplicacin: Whatever = anything that, everything that. Whoever = anyone that, everyone that. Se utilizan estas partculas para introducir oraciones nominales, bien como sujeto o como complemento directo del verbo principal: Whoever is tired of London is tired of life. Ill do whatever you want. Puede ser sinnimo de NO MATTER, e introducir oraciones adverbiales, equivalente a la estructura: It doesnt matter what-/who-/which-/where-/when-/how...: Whatever else he did, he had better get a vacation job. Wherever you go there is always someone we have to wait for. However busy you are Im sure you have time for a cup of tea. IN CASE / UNLESS IN CASE se utiliza para evitar cosas que no se desean como sinnimo de providing eventualities. Se utiliza para resguardarse contra algo que est sucediendo o para evitar que suceda, y se traduce por si acaso. Suele ir con tiempos o locuciones verbales que indican tiempo presente (normalmente subjuntivo): Paddy brought his overalls in case Arthur needed any help. Take your umbrella in case it rains
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UNLESS es una conjuncin condicional negativa que significa IF NOT (= a menos que) y se emplea para hacer amenazas o dar avisos: Most people employed a professional painter, unless they were very hard up. PRONOMBRES REFLEXIVOS Se forman para primeras y segundas personas con el adjetivo posesivo aadiendole -self (singular) o -selves (plural); y para las terceras con el pronombre personal de complemento ms -self o selves: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, (singular) ourselves, yourselves, themselves (plural): Usos: 1. Como objeto de un verbo cuando el sujeto y el objeto del verbo son la misma persona. Sirve para convertir todos los verbos en verbos reflexivos: I cut myself yesterday when I was having a shave. Did you hurt yourself when you fell doown? 2. Se utilizan despus de preposiciones cuando el sujeto del verbo y el objeto de la preposicin es la misma persona: What did you say? Nothing, I was talking to myself. Mary looked at herself in the mirror. 3. Se usan tambin para enfatizar nombres y pronombres, por tanto se coloca despus del nombre o pronombre al que dan nfasis. En ingls hablado suelen ir al final de frase: I dont soeak Spanish myself. Do you? Arthur himself cooked the dinner. HACER COMPARACIONES AS ... AS // NOT SO ... AS: Con as ... as se pueden compara cosas, personas o acciones. Se usa tanto con adjetivos con con adverbios. Cuando la comparacin es negativa se puede cambiar por not so ... as, aunque en ingls hablado se prefiere utilizar la primera frmula: The living-room was almost as bad as the kitchen. Painting is not so difficult as papering. Jumbo Jets dont fly as fast as Concordes. AS con MUCH/MANY se utiliza tanto con nombres como con pronombres: Nombre: As much money; As many people; As many of the questions. Pronombres: As much of it; As many of them (the questions) You have got aas much of it (pintura) on the floor as you have on the wall. He earns as much money as his two brothers put together. AS ... AS + CLAUSE: El segundo as va seguido de una oracin subordinada. Generalmente se emplea con adverbios, aunque puede emplearse tambin con adjetivos: He writes Russian as well as he speaks it. As fast I put it in, it falls out again. She is as tall as she is thin. AS ... AS en smiles: Los smiles son frases hechas, por lo que hay que procurar no transliterar, puesto que difieren de uno a otros idiomas y puede resultar negativo. Hay que expresar todo el
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conjunto. Si no se sabe la comparacin u ofrece alguna duda se recurre a la estructura que vale para cualquier smil: as ... as anything: As heavy as lead As drunk as a lord As light as a feather As white as a sheet As strong as an ox As soft as putty As weak as a kitten As sour as vinager As cold as ice As black as night As quiet as a mouse As clean as a new pin/whistle As pretty as a picture As deaf as a post/wall As brave as a lion As quick as a flash/lightening As proud as a peacock As ugly as sin As pale as a ghost As old as the hills As mad as a March hare As poor as church As easy as ABC As fresh as a daisy As obstinate as a mule As ... as anything GET SOMEONE TO DO SOMETHING Get + Object + To-infinitive significa persuadir a alguien, convencer. Si el objeto es una cosa significa causar, provocar que esa cosa suceda: We couldnt get the car to move because of the mud. They were determined to get the Department of Environment to think again. I got our new M.P. to ask a question in the House. MAKE SOMEONE DO SOMETHING Make + Object + Infinitive (sin TO) tiene ms el significado de imponer, forzar, obligar que de persuadir: Do you think you can make the ministry change their minds? Those people in Essex managed to make them think again.

ALL + CLAUSE All seguido de una oracin subordinada tiene dos significados: 1. The only thing cuando sujeto o complemento del verbo TO BE: All he wanted to do was to go to bed. This is all that one has to pay. All you need is love. 2. Everything (todo) cuando se utiliza como complemento de cualquier otro verbo o despus de preposicin. Existe la excepcin de un refrn, que se construye con el verbo TO BE y significa todo (ltimo ejemplo): He told me all I wanted to know. After all that had happened I was tired out. ALL THE GLITTERS IS NOT GOLD. - (refrn) TAIL QUESTIONS o QUESTION-TAGS Llamamos question-tags o tail questions en ingls a aquellas preguntas breves que aadimos aun comentario para pedir a nuestro intelocutor la confirmacin de lo que decimos.
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Su uso es muy frecuente, especialmente en la lengua hablada y su correspondencia en espaol es: verdad?; no es verdad?; verdad que si?; verdad que no? En ingls estas preguntas siempre se hacen con los auxiliares. Cuando hay un verbo auxiliar en la frase, se repite ste, y es otro verbo cualquiera se emplea do, does, did; en cualquier caso el sujeto es siempre un pronombre o there si la oracin es impersonal. Si la oracin es afirmativa, la pregunta que hacemos es nagativa, y al contrario: You can speak English, cant you? Marys parents live in Middleford, dont they? You got up early, didnt you? Lo mismo que el sujeto siempre tiene que ser un pronombre o there, el auxiliar en interrogonegativa siempre tiene que ir contraido; y como la primera persona del presente del verbo to be am no se puede contraer con not, pasa a la segunda forma del verbo: I am a student, arent I? Tambin la question-tag del imperativo se hace con will: Close the window, will you? 1. Repetir lo que ya se sabe Este tipo siempre es afirmativa, indiferentemente de uqe el verbo principal vaya en afirmativa o negativa, en donde el hablante se limita a repetir o confirmar algo que ya sabe. Va a menuda precedida de so y la entonacines en sentido creciente: Youre Mr Newton, are you? So you know the sort of things we make, do you? 2. Ponerse de acuerdo con alguien En este tipo la entonacin es decreciente y la question tag es afirmativa o negativa segn el verbo principal. El auxiliar del verbo principal se acenta y si no hay auxiliar hay que ponerlo: Arthur looks smart today. Yes, he does look smart, doesnt he? He must have bought a new suit. Yes, he must, mustnt he? Jack isnt very friendly today. No, he isnt very friendly, is he? 3. Cuando se est casi seguro de la respuesta Aqu el auxiliar tambin debe acentuarse, o aadirlo en caso de que no lo hubiese. La entonacin es decreciente: You are coning to my party, arent you? Stalin did die in 1951, didnt he? Napoleon wasnt born in Sardinia, was he? 4. Cuando se est completamente seguro de la respesta Aqu el auxiliar del verbo principal no se acenta. La quention-tag tiene entonacin decreciente y el hablante est bastante seguro de los hechos o quiere simplemente confirmacin: Bruce was sent to prison for armed robbery, wasnt he? Applefield is near Reading, isnt it? 5. Cuando se busca una respuesta de SI o NO Estas quetion-tags son dichas con entonacin creciente y el hablante es pera la respuesta de si si la question-tag es negativa o no si es afirmativa: Arthur took the job, didnt he?
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He wont go back to Middleford, will he? ORACIONES CONDICIONALES Las oraciones condicionales se clasifican en diferentes tipos de acuerdo con la correspondencia temporal ente la oracin condicional introducida por la partcula IF y el tiempo en que vaya la oracin principal: If you study, you pass your exams. If we hurried, we shall catch the 10 oclock train. If we hurried, we would catch the 10 oclock train. If we had hurried, we would have caught the 10 oclock train. Los ejemplos dados representan los tres tipos ms usuales de oraciones condicionales en ingls. Los ejemplos 1 y 2 corresponden a las oraciones condicionales que llamamos probables, posibles, reales o de validez general, es decir, aquella en que se cumple la condicin. El ejemplo 3 corresponde al tipo de oraciones improbables o hipotticas; es menos probable que la condicin se realice; puede o no realizarse. El ejemplo nmero 4 es el que corresponde a las oraciones llamadas imposibles; la condicin no puede cumplirse de ninguna manera. La secuencia de los tiempos para cada uno de los tipos es el siguiente:

1.- Oraciones Posibles Oracin Condicional PRESENTE If you study, PRESENTE If you study, PRESENTE If you study, PRESENTE If you want to pass your exams

Oracin Principal PRESENTE you pass your exams FUTURO you will pass your exams Auxiliar modal en presente + Infinitivo de presente si to you can pass your exams IMPERARIVO Study

2.- Oraciones Improbables Oracin Condicional PASADO SIMPLE If you studied, PASADO SIMPLE If you studied, 3.- Oraciones Imposibles Oracin Condicional PRETERITO PLUSCUAMPRFECTO
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Oracin Principal CONDICIONAL SIMPLE You would pass your exams Auxiliar modal en pasado + Infinitivo de presente sin to you could pass your exams Oracin Principal CONDICIONAL COMPUESTO

If you had studied, PRETERITO PLUSCUAMPERFECTO If you had studied,

You would have passed your exams Auxiliar modal en pasado + Infinitivo de perfecto sin to you could have passed your exams

Observaciones: 1.- En el tipo 1 de las correspondencias temporales de presente, es el nico caso en que if puede ser sustituido por when, con lo que se denomina condicin abierta, de validez general, es decir, que siempre se da: When you study, you pass the exams. 2.- En el tipo 2 de condicional cuando se trate del Pasado Simple del verbo to be, hay que poner were para todas las personas (subjuntivo): If I were you, I would study much harder. 3.- En el tipo 1 de condicional cabe la posibilidad de utilizar en la oracin condicional el defectivo should, que en este caso nada tiene que ver con que sea auxiliar de condicional sino que el significado es: por si acaso: If I should go, you will come with me. 4.- En estos dos ltimos casos, al igual que con el Pluscuamperfecto del tipo 3 de condicional tenemos la posibilidad de omitir if al invertir el orden del sujeto y del verbo sin que la oracin pierda su matiz de condicional: As en vez de decir: podriamos decir: If I were you, ... Were I you, ... If I should go, ... Should I go, ... If you had studied, ... Had you studied, ... Por ltimo hay otras conjunciones y giros que pueden introducir oraciones condicionales, aparte de la partcula if, por ejemplo: unless, as long as, provid, providing that, even if, supposing (that): You can come provided you tell your mother first. We wont leave the town unless they send us away. Supposing the plane is late? Tenemos que hacer notar que unless es sinnimo de if not, Normalamente se utiliza en el primer tipo de condicional: I wont give you a ticket unless you pay me. As long as and providing that significan lo mismo que but if only if. Se utilizan normalmente en el primer tipo de condicional: Theyll find the hotel as long as they follow the map Even if significa lo mismo que if, pero enfatiza la condicin. Se puede usar para referirse al pasado, present y futuro: Even if we had ordered a taxi, we wouldnt have arrived on time. El Verbo: TO SUGGEST Suggest significa sugerir y se emplea para hacer sugerencias. Tiene varias estructuras: 1) Si suggest va en presente puede ir seguido por simple indicativo o that-should, es decir, por una oracin completiva con that: Mr Steele suggests (that) Arthur works harder.
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Mr Steele suggests (that) Arthur should work harder. 2) Si suggest va en pasado solo puede ir seguido por that-should o por gerundio (la forma -ing) que tambin puede ir precedida por adjetivo posesivo, aunque existe tambin la forma coloquial que en vez de ir precedida la forma -ing por adjetivo posesivo puede ir precedia por pronombre personal de complemento (aunque gramaticalmente es incorrecto): Mr Steele suggested Arthur should work harder.--> (forma literaria) Mr Steele suggested his working harder. --> (forma standard) Mr Steele suggested him working harder. --> (forma coloquial) She suggested that they should meet at the cinema She suggested their meeting at the cinema. She suggested them meeting at the cinema. LA VOZ PASIVA La Voz Pasiva en ingls se forma con el verbo to be en el tiempo correspondiente y el participio pasado del verbo que se conjuga. La Voz Pasiva se emplea con mucha ms frecuencia en ingls que en espaol: Su uso nos permite colocar al principio de la oracin, como sujeto, al complemento de una oracin activa para darle ms realce, pues siempre es la primera palabra de una frase la que mayor efectoppsicolgico presente: Moll Flanders was written by Henry Fielding. En este ejemplo nos ineteresa hacer notar el hecho de que Moll Falnders, y no otro libro, fu escrito por Henry Fielding; por eso empleamos la voz pasiva: por el contrario si quisieramos hablar de Hrmry Fielding diramos: Henry Fielllding wrote Moll Flanders Como en las oraciones pasivas el sujeto es el complemento directo de la oracin activa, solo los verbos transitivos se pueden poner en pasiva. Todos los tiempos de la voz activa tienen sus correspondientes tiempos en la voz pasiva, aunque algunos, los continuos sobre todo, se usan muy raramente. He gives ----------> He is given He is giving ------> He is being given He will give ------> He will be given He has given ----> He has been given Transformaciones: a) Esta es igual a la espaola, se da en las oraciones transitivas formadas por sujeto + verbo + complemento directo: C.D. activo ----------------> Sujeto pasivo Verbo activo ----------------> Verbo pasivo (en el mismo tiempo) Sujeto activo ----------------> Complemento Agente (con by) Arthur bought a book A book was bought by Arthur.

b) Se da en las oraciones transitivas que aparte de llevar complemento directo, llevan tambin complemento indirecto, normalmente este complemento indirecto siempre es de persona, por lo que pasa a ser sujeto en la pasiva: C.ID. activo ----------------> Sujeto pasivo Verbo activo ----------------> Verbo pasivo (en el mismo tiempo) C.D. activo ----------------> Queda igual (no cambia) Sujeto activo ----------------> Complemento Agente (con by)
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Arthur bought Mary a bookMary was bought a book by Arthur. c) Se da en las oraciones subordinadas sustantivas en funcin de complemento directo; es tipicamente inglesa y sigue la siguiente estructura: Sujeto de la subordinada Sujeto pasivo Verbo de la principal Verbo pasivo (en el mismo tiempo) Sujeto de la principal Complemento Agente de presente (accin simultanea o posterior) Verbo de la subordinada Infinitivo con to de perfecto (accin anterior) Act. They expected that everyone attended Solidarity Services. Pas. Everyone was expected to attend Solidariry Services. d) Es la que coincide con la espaola en las oraciones subordinadas sustantivas en funcin de complemento directo, se hace poniendo en pasiva la oracin principal dejando igual la oracin subordinada sustantiva, que es la frmula que tenemos en espaol, y se emplea principalmente con los verbos de diccin o pensamiento, que es forma de traducir el morfema pasivo espaol se de la pasiva refleja. No obstante se prefiere la transformacin del apartado c) en ingls. Act. They say that Mary is the most beautiful girl in the school Pas. It is said (by them) that Mary is the most beautiful girl in the school. c) Mary is said to be the most beautiful girl in the school. NOTA: Cuando el sujeto de la activa es un pronombre personal, pronombre indefinido o un sustantivo no limitado ni determinado no suele ponerse en ingls de Complemento Agente; sin embargo si es un nombre propio o un sustantivo determinado hay que ponerlo como Complemento Agente (con by) en la pasiva. REPORTED SPEECH Hay dos formas de informar lo que una persona ha dicho:

a)

ESTILO DIRECTO: las palabras exactas dichas por el hablante original que son repetidas y situadas entre comillas (). (Poniendo dos puntos (:) o coma (,) antes de las comillas): John said, I enjoy playing cricket He said, I am learning English

b) ESTILO INDIRECTO (Reported Speech): Expresar el significado exactos sin utilizar las palabras originales del hablante. La frase del estilo indirecto se convierte en el complemento directo gramatical del verbo
introductor: John said that he enjoyed playing cricket. He said that he was learning English. HE SAID = REPORTING CLAUSE (frase introductora) REST = REPORTED CLAUSE (frase del estilo indirecto)

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Los tipos principales de oraciones ( Oraciones subordinadas sustantivas (Statements), Preguntas (Questions), Mandatos (Commands), como tmbin Exclaciones (Exclamations) se pueden expresar en estilo indirecto. Las construcciones son como sigue: I) STATEMENTS ( That-clause) A) Cambios de tiempos Verbales. Varios casos: 1. Cuando el verbo introductor esta en presente simple, pretrito perfecto o futuro, la oracin directa se hace sin efectuar ningun cambio de tiempo verbal: He says/will say/has said, This work is too difficult that this work is too difficult.

2. Pero cuando el verbo introductir est en un tiempo verbal en pasado, que es

lo normal, es normal que el verbo de la frase indirecta pase a un tiempo verbal anterior, lo que se denomina en ingls BACK-SHIFT (=cambio a una referencia temporal anterior). Dos tipos posibles de back-shift: a) PRESENTE (NOW) a PASADO (THEN) Presente Pasado Preteriro Perfecto Pretrito Pluscuamperfecto Presente de defectivos Pasado de defectivos

b)

PASADO (THEN) THEN)

PRETERITO PLUSCUAMPERFECTO (BEFORE

c) PRETERITO PLUSCUAMPERFECTO (BEFORE THEN) No back-shift (no es

posible ningun cambio a tiempo anterior porque en Ingls no hay ningn modo de expresar BEFORE-BEFORE-THEN ni en tiempo ni aspecto verbal. CAMBIOS: en la oracin de estilo indirecto: Simple Present ---------------- Simple Past Simple Past--------------------- Past Perfect Future shall/will --------------- Conditional should/would Present Progressive---------- Past Progressive Present Perfect---------------- Past Perfect DOS POSIBILIDADES DE BACK-SHIFT Presente---------------------------Pasado Pasaso-----------------------------Preterito Pluscuamperefcto I am tired she complained that she was tired. I love cricket he said that he loved cricket. He is being a fool Everybody thought that he was being a fool. I saw them yesterday She told me that she had seen them yesterday. E.D. E.I. Presente Pasado Pluscuamperfecto NOW THEN BEFORE THEN THEN (pasado) BEFORE THEN (Pluscuamperfecto) (Nothing at all)

E.D. Max had already gone when I phoned him this morning E.I. Jim said that Max had already gone when he phoned that morning Explicacin del BACK-SHIFT: el tiempo de la oracin original, que sea presente NOW para el estilo directo, pasa a ser pasado THEN para el estilo indirecto y se est en pasado THEN
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pasa a pluscuamperfecto BEFORE THEN haciendo el cambio respecto al PUNTO DE ORIENTACION. EXCEPTIONS: a) Cuando lo expresado por la oracin de estilo indirectohe idea coincide en tiempo y hora con lo expresado en estilo directo (o el estado de cosas reflejadas todava existe en el momento de hablar), no hay necesidad de hacer cambios en los tiempos verbales. Es decir, cunado el evrbo introductor est en tiempo pasado, el tiempo presente se mantiene en la oracin del estilo indirecto cuando exprese una verdad universal ( o una generalidad exacta, verdades generales o hechos habituales). Socrates said: Virtue is knowledge Socrates said that virtue is knowledge. Peter said: The moon is 50.000 miles away Peter said that the moon is 50.000 miles away. Jim said: I eat at two oclock everyday Jim said that he eats at two oclock everyday.

b) El Back-shift desde Pasado Simple / Pasado Continuo a Preterito Pluscuamperfecto

puede tambin no aplicarse en las oraciones causales, si de algun modo cambia el significado de la frase en aspecto verbal, aunque generalmente el pasado pasa a pluscuamperfecto: She said:I decided not to buy the house because it was in the main road She said that she had decided not to buy the house because it was in the main road. El Pasado y el Pasado Continuo no cambia en las oraciones temporales: He said: When we were living in London, we had a lot of friends He said that when they were living in London, they had a lot of friends.

c) Auxiliares Modales: WOULD, SHOULD, OUGHT TO, MIGHT, USED TO, COULD,
MUST (ind.), HAD BETTER normalmente no cambian: He said: I might be there He said that he might be there. She said:I would help him if I could She said that she would help him if she could. MUST (como Obligacin) puede cambiar tambin a HAD TO: She said:You must go She said that you must/had to go. SHOULD (after I/We) se cambia a WOULD, pero cuando implica Obligacion permanece sin cambio: He said:I should be grateful if I ... He said that he would be grateful if he .... I said:You should be more careful I told him that he should be more careful. He said:If my children were older I should emigrate He said that if his children were older he would emigrate.

d) Oraciones Condicionales del tipo 2 permanecen tambin invariables. Como tambin

lo hacen los Tiempos Pasado (= subjunctive) utilizados despus de WISH, IT IS TIME, WOULD RATHER ... He said:I wish I knew
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He said that he wished he knew. She said:Id rather Tom went She said that shed rather Tom went. B) Otros cambios que son necesarios cuando se pasa de Estilo Directo a Indirecto: La conjuncin that se puede poner inmeditamente despus del verbo introductor, pero no es esencial y muy a menudo se suprime. C) Los Pronombres y Adjetivos Posesivos generalmente cambian de 1 st o 2nd a 3rd persona (excepto cuando el hablante est informando con sus propias palabraas); es decir, cuando el verbo de la frase del estilo indirecto tiene el mismo sujeto que el verbo de la frase de estilo directo: I said:I like my new house I said that I liked my new house. He said:I have forgotten the combination of my safe He said that he had forgotten the combination of his safe. Algunas veces se le puede aadir un nombre para evitar ambigedad: Tom said:He came in through the window Tom said that the thief had come in through the window. D) Palabras que se refieren a LUGAR y TIEMPO y denoten cercana pasa a sus correspondientes palabras que denoten lejana. Si el estilo Indirecto se hace en el mismo da a lugar estos cambios no son necesarios: thisthat thesethose nowthen agobefore todaythat day herethere tomorrowthe next day/the day after yesterdaythe day before/the previous day the day before yesterdaytwo days before the day after tomorrowin two days time

We met at the bridge and he said:Ill be here again tomorrow We met at the bridge and he said that hed be there again the next day. If the speech is reporting on the same day, these changes arent necessary: At breakfast this morning he said:Ill be very busy today At breakfast this morning he said that hell be very busy today. II) QUESTIONS (Wh-clauses) Las reglas anteriores se aplican tambin a las preguntas indirectas; sin embargo hay unos puntos adicionales que hay que significar o tener en cuenta: 1) El verbo introductior SAY se cambia a ASK o algun verbo similar de acuerdo a lo que intentemos querer decir: INQUIRED/WONDERED/WANTED TO KNOW ...

2)

La palabra de unin de la frase del verbo introductor con la frase del estilo indirecto es IF or WHETHER, excepto cuando las preguntas directas empiecne con unpronombre o partcula interrogativa tales como WHO/ WHY/ WHAT/ WHERE/ HOW /WHEN... etc. que ser la que haga de unin. La estructura interrogativa de las preguntas directas se reemplaza por la CONSTRUCCION AFIRMATIVA en el Estilo Indirecto; tanto los auxiliares DO/DOES/DID cono el SIGNO de INTERROGACIN se omiten:
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3)

 Do you live here? He asked me if I lived there. Did you go to England last year? The teacher asked the student if he had gone to England the previous year. He said:I have left my watch at home. Can you tell me the time, please? He said that he had left his watch at home and asked me (politely) if I could tell him the time. Does Peter speak Spanish? He asked if Peter spoke Spanish. Whats your name? He asked her what her name was. Which chair shall I sit in? He wonderedwhich chair he should sit in. IF/WHETHER.- El uso generalmente favorece a IF cuandoquiera que la distincin entre ellos no sea necesaria: He asked me if (or whether) I had seen the film. WHETHER expresa una duda o una eleccin entre dos alternativas as muy a menudo va seguido de OR: Is it your turn or Susans? She asked whether it was his turn or Susans. WHETHER (y no IF) se utiliza en: a) Cuando la pregunta indirecta precede a la oracin principal: Whether this is true or not, I cannot say.

b)

Delante de un INFINITIVO: She hasnt decided whether to sail or fly to America. He wondered whether to leave.

c) Cuando introduce una Oracin Concesiva:

Whether he works or not, I dont think he will pass his/the exam.

4) a)

Las preguntas que empiezan con SHALL I/WE pueden ser de cuatro formas: Pueden ser especulaciones acerca del futuro o pueden pedir informacin de algun acontecimiento futuro tambin. estas preguntas siguen la Regla Ordinaria (shallwould). El verbo introductor es normalmente: WONDER Las Especulaciones son normalmente introducidas por WONDER: Where shall I be (this time) next year? He wondered whre he would be in a years time When shall I know the results of the test? The student asked when he would know the results of the test. Shall I ever understand women? He asked himself if he would ever understand women.

b)

Ofrecimientos: El verbo introductor es: OFFER Shall I bring you a cup of tea? He offered to bring me a cup of tea or He offered me a cup of tea.

c) Sugerencias: Verbo introductor: SUGGEST + that-should o -ING

Shall we meet at the theatre?
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He suggested that they should meet at the theatre. (formal) meeting at the theatre. their meeting at the theatre. (standard) them meeting at the theatre. (colloquial)

d)

Peticin de instrucciones o consejo: alternativa WAS/WERE TO Shall we send it to your flat, Sir? He asked the customer if they should send it to his flat. were to send it to his flat. What shall we do with your mail while youre away? His landlady asked Paul what she should do with his mail while he was away. what she was to do with his mail while he was away .

5)

WILL YOU/WOULD YOU/COULD YOU a) Preguntas Ordinarias: He said: Will you be here tomorrow? He asked her if she would be there the following day.

b)

Peticiones: ASK + Object + To-infinitive He said, Will you help me, please? He asked me (politely) to help him He said, Will you have a drink? He offered me a drink.

c) Invitacion/Ofrecimiento: verbo tansitivo OFFER

d)

Mandatos: Depende de la entonacin: Will you be quiet for a moment ! Do be quiet for a moment ! He told them to be quiet

III)

COMMANDS Las reglas que afectan a pronombres, adjetivos y otros cambios tambin se pueden aplicar a los mandatos indirectos, excepto que no hay backshif porque no hay verbos en forma personal (son oraciones subordinadas de infinitivo, que es una forma no personal) Additional notes: 1) El vebro introductor SAY ... cambia a un verbo of MANDATO or PETICION tales como TELL/ORDER/COMMAND... de ascuerdo a la intencin que queramos expresar: My mother said to me: Go home ! My mother told me to go home.

2)

Se tiene que introducir un Complemento Directo que representa la persona a la que va dirigida el mandato: I was there and he said: Stand up ! I was there and he told me to stand up. La forma imperativa del verbo en el mandato directo pasa a su corresponsdiente forma de infinitivo con to, si el mandato es negativo se le antepone NOT al infinitivo con to (Mandato Negativo = NOT + TO-INFINITIVE): Be quiet ! I told Peter to be quiet. Fire ! The captain ordered the soldiers to fire. Run quickly ! He told me (us) to run quickly. Put on you space-suits !
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3)

He told/commanded/instructed them to put on their space-suits. En ingls hay muchas posibilidades de expresar un mandato, for example: WILL YOU? Shut the door, will you? (Es un mandato) He told him to shut the door. Es muy fuerte y dependede la entonacin: Will you stop talking ! The teacher told the students to stop talking. Mandatos Negativos: NOT + TO-INFINITIVE His friend said: Dont be rude ! His friend asked him not to be rude. Dont move, boys ! He told the boys not to move. Please, dont forget ! She begged me not to forget. Otras formas de Estilo Indirecto de espresar Mandatos Indirectos: 1) La Construccin: To BE + TO-INFINITIVE He said:Dont open the door ! He told me not to open the door or He said that I was no to open the door. a) El verbo introductor en tiempo presente: He says:Meet me at the station ! He says that we are to meet at the station.

b)

Mandato precedido po una oracin subordinada: 1) Tiempo 2) Condicional He said:If she leaves the house follow her He told me to folllow her if she left the house or He said that if she left the house I was to follow her.

IV)

EXCLAMATIONS: Las Exclamaciones en el estilo indirecto pasan a ser Oraciones Subordinadas (thatclauses). Una exclamacin es en cierto modo una oracin: a) What como un determinante en un frase nominal. How como gradacin con adjectivo/adverbio. What a beautiful present ! He said that it was a beautiful present What a lovely house ! He said that it was a lovely house. What a terrible noise ! He said that it was a terrible noise. What a different situation she is in ! He said that she was in different situation. How marvellous ! He said that it was marvellous. How beautiful she dances ! He said that she danced beautiful.

b)

Para expresar emcionesse utilizan INTERJECCIONES: Ugh ! /x/ (disgust) Oh ! /Ou/ (surprise) Ouch !/t/ (pain) He gave an exclamation of disgust/surprise/pain. He exclaimed with disgust/surprise/pain.
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b)

Otros casos no tienen reglas y todo depende del significado de la exclamacin: He said:Good morning He greeted me/wished me a good morning. He said:HappyChristmas He wished me a Happy Christmas. He said:Liar He called me a liar. He said:Congratulations He congratulated me. He said:Damn ! He swore

c) Dos casos especiales: PLEASE y THANK YOU

I should like some tea, please ! (please is not use in R.S.) He said politely that he would like some tea or He asked politely for some tea. He said:Thank you He thanked me.

V)

LETS/LET HIM/LET HER/LET THEM.-

Genralmente expresan una sugerencia y se hace con el verbo SUGGEST en Estilo Indirecto. Hay otras varias formas de expresar sugerencia: What about ... etc. Se utiliza el verbo SUGGEST como verbo introductor seguido de: a) -ING form (precedida de una adjetivo posesivo o pronombre personal) b) That-clause with SHOULD He said: Lets have a good breakfast ! He suggested their having a good breakfast. (standard English) He suggested them having a good breakfast. (spoken English) He suggested that they should have a good breakfast (formal English) He said:Lets wait here till the rain stops He suggested their waiting there till the rain stopped. He suggested that they should wait till the rain stopped. Formas Negativas: He said:Lets not say anything about it He suggested their not saying anything about it. He suggested that they should not say anything about it. Otras formas de expresar SUGERENCIAS:

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) VI)

What about + -ING: What about going to the cinema this evening He suggested going to the cinema that evening. Shall + 1st person How about + -ING form Do you feel like + -ING Suppose + simple present.

YES/NO ANSWERS: Se expresan en el estilo Indirect con SUJETO + verbo auxiliar apropiado: He said:Can you swim? and I said: No He asked me if I could swim and I said that I couldnt. He said:Do you like it? and she said:Yes He asked her if she liked it and she answered that she did.

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Yes/No: se pone en el estilo indirecto con el auxiliar solo, y la negacin si la contestacin es No: Would you be here for the next ten minutes? she said, and I said:Yes She asked if I would be there for the following ten minutes and I answered that I would.

VII)

MIXED TYPES: (Question + Statement or Command), poco a poco: I dont know the way, do you?, he asked He said that he didnt know the way and asked me if I did. You pressed the button, said the mechanic. Dont do it again. You might have a nasty accident. She had pressed the button and the mechanic told her (warned her) not to do it again because (as) she might have a nasty accident. Could you show me to work it? Im not used to electric typewriters, she said She asked me if I could show her to work it as (adding that/ explaining that) she wasnt used to electric typewriters Ugh ! there is a slug in my lettuce, writer !, she cried She gave an exclamation of /she exclaimed with/ disgust because (that) there was a slug in her lettuce and cried for the waiter. What about going for a swim. It is quite fine now, he said He suggested going for a swim because it was quite fine then.

VIII)

FREE INDIRECT SPEECH.a) Un recurso muy comn en la narrativa. b) Consiste en expresar una oracin poniendo el verbo en un tiempo anterior mientras se omite (o se pone entre parentesis) las oraciones del verbo introductor, que son las siglas convencionales E.I. c) Los pronombres y tiempos verbales se cambian como en el estilo indirecto normal, pero por otra parte la estructura permanece como en el E.D. (se mantiene la inversion) porque no hay verbo introductor. d) Es un medio ms flexible para expresarse que el normal (=dependent) E.I., ms concision: nada de he said, he exclaimed ... es utilizado por Virginia Wolf, James Joice etc. Mary, Why do they always have to pick on me? -------------- D.S. Mary asked why did they always have to pick on her? --------- R.S. Why did they always (grooned Mary) have to pick on her? --- F.I.S. or Why did they always have to pick on her? ------------------------ F.I.S.

RELATIVES CLAUSES
Pronombres Relativos
Nom. Ac. Gen. Personas WHO (THAT) WHOM (THAT) WHOSE Cosas WHICH (THAT) WHICH (THAT) WHOSE(*)

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(*) El pronombre WHOSE tiende a ser utilizado solamente para personas, aunquegramaticalmente es correcto utilizarlo tambin para cosas cada da este uso esmenos frecuente recurriendo a otras estructuras para evitar usarlo: En vez de This film whose tittle is "Lipstick" is quite good. Diramos This film the tittle of which is "Lipstick" is quitegood.

DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES.Estas oraciones llamadas tambin RESTRICTED son las oraciones ESPECIFICATIVAS en espaol, que identifican o establecen la identidad del ANTECEDENTE: Paul found the book (which) you lost This is the room where the tragedy ocurred. Las personas o cosas se distinguen por la oracin especificativa, la que da una informacin esencial del antecedente y no pueden ser omitida porque cambiara el sentido general de la frase, igual ocurre en espaol. 1. El relativo THAT solo se puede usar en las DEFINING (especificativas), tanto SUJETO como de OBJETO, sustituyendo a personas y a cosas. This is the driver who/that overtook us five minutes ago. de

2. Cuando el pronombre relativo no es sujeto de la oracin generalmente se omite (principalmente en ingls hablado) dando lugar a las CONTACT. The man (whom/who/that) I saw yesterday is a lawyer. 3. Cuando es sujeto de la oracin no se puede omitir, excepto si va con un tiempo continuo o pasivo, que al suprimir el pronombre relativo tambin hay queomitir el verbo "TO BE" quedando solo el Participio de presente (en tiemposcontinuos) o el Participio de pasado (en tiempos pasivos). The boy (who is) walking along the street is my cousin. The church (which was) built in the 19th century has beautiful windows. 4. Ni el pronombre WHO ni THAT ni WHOSE admiten preposiciones delante de ellos, as que quellos verbos que rigen preposicin, sta siempre se pone al final de la oracin de relativo. This is the book (contact) he looked at. 5. En estilo formal o literario la preposicin puede preceder al pronombre WHOM o WHICH, pero nunca a los del apartado anterior (WHO, THAT o WHOSE): The people from whom they had hired the car wanted it to be returned: No obstante algunas preposiciones no pueden ser postpuestas especialamente aquellas preposiciones que tienen que ver con nociones temporales: That was the meeting (that) I kept falling asleep during (incorrect). That was the meeting during which I kept falling asleep (correct).

NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES.Estas oraciones llamadas tambin NON-RESTRICTED son las oraciones EXPLICATIVAS en espaol, que no definien ni restringen el ANTECEDENTE: Mr Smith, who is an ingeneer, lives in Oxford. The Victoria Line, which was open in March 1969, was London first complete new tube for 60 years.

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No definen ni distinguen al antecedente sino que solamente dan una informacin adicional del antecedente. Van siempre entre comas y aunque se precinda de ellas no cambia el sentido general de la frase, igual ocurre en espaol. Peter has a sister, who works at the U.N. headquarters in Geneve.(implica que solo tiene una hermana). Observaciones: 1. No se puede usar nunca el pronombre THAT. 2. Se pueden dividir en dos oraciones. 3. Van siempre entre comas. 4. El pronombre relativo no se puede suprimir nunca aunque no sea el sujeto de la oracin, si es persona WHO (sujeto)/WHOM (objeto) y si es cosa WHICH: Liz Taylor, who acted in Anthony and Cleopatra, judged the competition. The London train, which should arrive at 2.30, is ten minutes late. George Sand spent many holidays in Majorca with Chopin, whom she first met in Paris. The headmaster has recently been to Canada, which he described in detail in a lecture. Tipos de pronombres relativos: 1. Pronombres relativos como sujeto: On the sunny days which/that began their holiday, they really appreciated the peace and quiet. 2. Pronombres relativos como objeto: se pueden suprimir en las especificativas: Jennifer was home for one of the few weekends (which/that) she had during his training. 3. Pronombres relativos con preposicin; stas van al final de la oracin de relativo: The man (who/that) I worked for isnt the most generous man in the world. 4. WOSE siempre precede a la cosa poseida: The girl whose foot you trod on happens to be my girlfriend. 5. WHERE (in which), en estos contextos actua como adverbio relativo: Trust Arthur to find the one place where it had been raining. 6. WHY: Surely the reason why he stole the money is obvious. 7. Adverbio relativo: BEFORE: On the eveing before they were due to live, Arthur telephoned his mother. 8. Adverbio relativo: AFTER: It began to rain during the week after they arrived. ORACIONES TEMPORALES Las oraciones temporales son las introducidas por las conjunciones: when, as soon as, whenever, after, before, as, while, until, etc... Se clasifican en ingls en tres tipos de acuerdo a la correspondencia verbal:
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1. Oraciones temporales referidas al presente: Correspondencias verbales Oracin Principal Oracin Temporal Simple Present Simple Present Mary takes her umbrella with her when it rains. Arthur has his supper as soon as he gets home. I turn the radio off whenever they play pop. 2. Oraciones temporales referidas al pasado: Oracin Principal Simple Past Simple Past Past Perfect Simple Past Past Progresive Oracin Temporal Simple Past Past Prefect Simple Past Past Progressive Simple Past

I turned the TV on when I got home. Mr Steele went to the office as soon as he arrived. Mary had already left before Arthur arrived. We saw an accident as/when we were going to work. I was listening to the radio when the telephone rang. 3. Oracines temporales referidas al futuro: Present Continuous Simple Present Future Simple Present Going to form Present Perfect Auxiliar modal en prsente Present Perfect Im going to have a bath when I get home tonight. Ill do my homework before I go to bed. Arthur cant go home until he has finished work. Were going out as soon as weve had dinner. Observaciones: 1. Cuando se usa el pasado simple en las dos oraciones indica que la segunda accin sigue inmediatamente a la primera. 2. Cuando se utiliza en alguna de ellas el pasado perfecto o pluscuamperfecto, es cuando nos referimos a una accin anterior a otra accin pasada. 3. Cuando se utilizan pasados continuos en las dos nos indica que las dos acciones son simultaneas. Nota importante: La subordinada temporal nunca puede ir en TIEMPO FUTURO. ORACIONES FINALES Hay dos tipos de oraciones finales en ingls: 1. Aquellas en las que el sujeto de la oracin principal es el mismo que el de la subordinada, o en las que el complemento directo de la oracin principal es el sujeto de la subordinada. 2. Las que tienen sujetos distintos (diferentes), es decir que el sujeto de la oracin principal es distinto del de la oracin subordinada.

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El primer tipo de oraciones se suele expresar por madio del infinitivo con to o bien con in order o so as seguidos del infinitivo con to: I went ro London to see you. That boy is working hard in order to pass his exam. In order y so as se emplean cuando la oracin final es negativa y cuando el complemento de la oracin principal (si es una persona) no es el sujeto de la subordinada: I have taken my umbrella so as not to get wet. Yesterday John took his brother to the cinema so as to feel less lonely. La segunda clase de oraciones se expresan con so that + will/would o can/could o may/might o shall/should + infinitivo sin to y con in order that + may/might o shall/should + infinitivo sin to. Las formas verbales can, will, may (raramente shall) se emplean cuando el verbo principal est en presente, futuro o pretrito perfecto. Si el verbo principal est en pasado se emplean could, would, might o should: Peter has bought a car so that his children can go for a ride every Sunday. She puts on the light so that they will able to read. He learnt French so that his friends could be impressed.

Cuando las oraciones son negativas, se expresa del mismo modo, poniendo el verbo auxiliar en negativa: He finished his homework so that his father wouldnt be able to punish him. Pero ms frecuenta que esta frmula de negacin es el uso de to prevent o avoid from, seguidos de gerundio (-ing): He lent us some mney to prevent us from going to the bank.

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POSITION OF ADVERBS Adverbs of MANNER a) Adverbs of MANNER after a short object: He repeated the word SLOWLY. He explained the exercise CAREFULLY. b) Adverbs of MANNER before a long object: He repeated SLOWLY everything the teacher said. He explained CAREFULLY what he wanted the students to do. c) Adverbs of MANNER before the verb for emphasis: He SLOWLY repeated all the words. SLOWLY he repeated all the words. He CAREFULLY explained what had to be done. CAREFULLY he explained what had to be done. Adverbs of INDEFINITE TIME Adverbs of INDEFINITE TIME before the verb: The king ALWAYS asked the same questions. The students GENERALLY speak in English. We NEVER see Dick nowadays. The soldiers OFTEN came from countries far from Prussia. They SOON learned enough to understand it. Adverbs of DEFINITE TIME a) Adverbs of DEFINITE TIME at the end: I came here YESTERDAY. They left London EARLY. The news came ONE MORNING. Say the sentences AGAIN. This never happened BEFORE. Well go back home TOMORROW. b) Adverbs of DEFINITE TIME at the beginning, for emphasis: YESTERDAY I came here. ONE MORNING the news came. BEFORE this never happened. TOMORROW we shall go back home. Adverbs between auxiliary and participle: Such a thing had NEVER happened. We had RECENTLY joined Frederick's army. The king was ALWAYS shouting. We have OFTEN been in London. Adverbs of DEGREE Adverbs of DEGREE before verb or participle: The soldier HARDLY spoke German. The king JUST asked a few simple questions. The king NEARLY fell off his horse. He could HARDLY speak. Adverbs after "TO BE" not before: We were NEVER happy in that town. I am ALWAYS at home. The young soldier was JUST twenty. Jhon is SELDOM ill. SUFFIXES Suffixes (adjectives)
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-FUL -LESS -Y -WARD (adj.) -WARDS (Adv.)

careful, fearful, hopeful,useful, beautiful. cloudy, foggy, hilly, noisy, rainy, stormy, sunny. careless, fearless, hopeless, useless. homeward, downward, upward, southward. homewards, downwards, upwards, southwards. Suffixes (nouns) baker, butcher, driver, painter, writer, builder actor, author, conductor, doctor, sailor, tailor. policeman, fireman, fisherman, businessman. dressmaker, shirtmaker, watchmaker, shoemaker. artist, dramatist, pianist, violinist. metal-worker, coachbuilder, shopkeeper, car-driver. Suffixes (abstract nouns) kingdom, freedom, wisdom, dukedom. childhood, manhood, fatherhood, neighbourhood. carefulness, happiness, hardness, likeness

-ER -OR -M AN -MAKER -IST -ETC.

-DOM -HOOD -NESS

Prefixes = negative unable, unafraid, uncertain, uncommon, unhappy indistinct, impossible, illegal disagree, discontinue, dishonest, disloyal in several directions disperse, distend, display, disseminate. bad, badly too much too little a mistake, a misdeed, a misunderstanding, to mislay to overeat, to overcharge, to overflow, to overload, to overestimate, to overheat, to overwork, to overdo. to underpay , to undercharge, to undervalue, to underestimate.

67

GLOSSARY BACHILLERATOS
Aprobar un exmen = TO PASS Aprobar, dar aprobacin a algo, aprobar una medida = TO APPROVE (OF) I passed the exam. I approve the law. Suspender un exmen = TO FAIL : I failed the exam. Suspender, tener colgado algo = TO SUSPEND : I suspended the clothing. Copiar un exmen, engaar = TO CHEAT : I cheated the exam. Asignatura = SUBJECT: I have eight subjects. Firma = SIGNATURE: I like your signature. Firmar = TO SIGN: I signed the paper. Ao Acadmico = YEAR / LEVEL: I study 3rd year/level. Cursillo = COURSE: I attended to English course. I haven't passed the course. Carrera Universitaria = UNIVERSITY COURSE: He studies a University course. Carrera Profesional = CAREER: This career is very (dangerous) difficult. Carrera de correr = RACE: The race will be tomorrow. Ttulo Universitario = DEGREE: He has a degree. Ttulo de Bachiller / Licenciado = BACHELOR DEGREE: He has a bachelor degree. Doctorado (Letras) MASTER OF ARTS // (Ciencias) MASTER OF SCIENCE Your uncle is Master of Arts / Sciences Catedrtico = (Proffesor) DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY // PHILOSOPHY DOCTOR His father is Doctor of Philosophy Notas = MARKS/QUALIFICATIONS: Your marks are good Hacer un exmen (lo hace el alumno) = TO TAKE: The pupil took an exam. Hacer un exmen (lo prepara el profesor) = TO MAKE: The teacher made an exam. Apuntes = NOTES: He lost his notes. Presentarse a un exmen = TO SIT IN // TO SIT FOR: The pupil sat for an exam. Deberes escolares = HOMEWORK: My son did his homework yesterday. Tarea de casa = HOUSEWORK: My mother is making the housework. Derecho(s) = RIGHT(S): Deber(es) = DUTY/DUTIES: People have rights and duties. Colegio Privado = Public/Private/Independent School: I study in a public school. Colegio Pblico = STATE SCHOOL: He studies in a state school. Guardera = NURSERY SCHOOL: In this nursery school there are few children. Escuela Primaria = PRIMARY SCHOOL: The primary school starts at six years old. Escuela Secundaria = SECONDARY SCHOOL: The secondary school starts at 11. Selectividad=ADVANCED LEVEL EXAMINATION: I'll take the advanced level exams. Educacin Superior = HIGHER EDUCATION The higher education starts at 14. UNIVERSIDAD: - Ingenierias = Polytechnic: In Vigo there is a Polytechnic. - Magisterio = College of Education: In Vigo there is a College of Education. - Dems Carreras = University: In Vigo there is a University. F.P. 2 Grado = College of Further Educaction In Vigo there is a College of .....

68

Formas de expresar la edad He is 40. He is 40 years old. He is 40 years of age. He is about/around 40. He is about/around 40 years old. He is in his fourties (40-49) He is in his early fourties (40-45) He is in his late fourties (45-49) He is fourty something (40 y algo) He is a baby ( 0 - 2) He is a child ( 2 - 8) He is a boy ( 8 - 14) He is a teenager ( 13 - 19) He is a young man ( 19 - 35) He is a middle-aged man ( 35 - 55) He is an elderly man (anciano)

False Friends miserabe # miserable (triste) No tiene donde caerse muerto = He is poor because he hasn't any money. Eres un miserable, tacao = You are a mean man and egoistic. He is miserable (triste) because his father was dead. Realize # realizar (= darse cuenta) // realizar = do/make/carry out/ perform They realized that she was wrong. They made a cake. Actually # actualmente (= realmente) // actualmente = at present/currently/nowadays in fact, indeed Actually it is wonderful. At present he is a singer. Actual # actual (= real) // actual = modern/current/present/fashionable The story is actual It's a current issue (tema de actualidad). Boring # bored, etc. adjs. (= aburrido =es aburrido // = aburrido=estar aburrido) Story # history (cuento, (historieta) // historia (asignatura)) End # ending (fin/final) = finish,close,purpose,extremo // final, conclusion, desenlace After # afterwards (prep, conj.// adverb.) Know # meet (saber, conocer // encontrarse con, toparse con) Exit # Success (salida // xito) Notice # News Program / Programme On the one hand / On the other hand To realise something / to make a dream come true

69

Avoid # prevent (evitar, eludir // impedir a uno que haga algo) Follow / Continue (seguir, entender // seguir, continuar) Cook # Cooker ( cocinar, cocinera // cocina, electrodomJstico) Econimic = econmico, rentable (developmen, growth, policy) Economical = econmico (method/style/appliance), puede ir con more, less, very etc. Classic = clsico, tpico, memorable (study, text, play) Classical = clsico, culto (theory/idea/method/music) Work # job (inc.=trabajo, empleo // con.= trabajo, empleo, tarea) Travel = viaje, viajar en general Trip = viaje, excursin (incluye estancia) Journey = viaje, trayecto (solo desplazamiento) Like / as (para comparaciones, ejemplos // como, en calidad de) Solve # Resolve (= solucionar/solution // decidir/resolution/decide) They solved the problem. They resolve to go to the party. Used to // Usually (= hbitos en el pasado // hbitos en el presente) They used to sleep longer in summer They ussually sleep less in winter. Another (sing,) uno ms igual al anterior. Please, give me a book ..... give me another (book). Other (sing. o plural) otro ms distinto al anterior. Please, give me a book ..... give me other (# book). Pass (movement, go by) I passsed in front of you and you didn't look at me. Spend (occupy time, spend time = pasar el tiempo) (buy things, spend money = gastar dinero) I spent my holidays in Italy. I spent a lot of maney. Waste (malgastar el dinero) (perder el tiempo) I wasted my money. I wasted the time. Be (in position, place = estar en un lugar) He is in Vigo. Stand (on your feet = estar de pi) He is tired because of standing in the bus. Stay (not to go away = quedarse) He didn't go to the party, he stayed at home. I'm sitting = estoy sentado. I'm standing = estoy de pi. I'm kneeling = estoy arrodillado. I'm lying = estoy tumbado.
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To lie

lied lied = mentir He used to lie. To lie lay lain = yacer, tumbarse She lies in peace with her husband. When she was dead, she lay in peace. To lay laid laid = poner horinzontal (la mesa), colgarse When she starts to lay from the tree, she broke one leg. To raise raised raised = (tr) levantar, alzar The soldiers raised the flags. To rise rose risen = (intr) levantarse, salir el sol I like to see the sun rising. To hang hanged hanged = colgar, ahorcar, ejecutar a uno The thieves were hanged by the police. To hang hung hung = colgar, estar colgado Mary hung the clothes. Hard (adj.): difficult (adv.): much Hardly (adv.): scarcely = apenas To live (verb) = vivir lives (3rd person) = vive life (sust. sing.) = vida lives (sust. plur.) = vidas live (adj.) = en vivo, en directo alive (adj.) = vivo no muerto (not dead) living (adj.) = que tiene vida interna, funcionamiento interno (inner working) The problem is hard. I'm tired because I worked hard. I'm not tired because I hardly worked. I live in Vigo. He lives in Vigo. My life is very happy. Their lives are very sad. The live concert was very good. He isn't dead, he is alive. it is a living essence.

Last = the final one (no hay m<s despuJs) This has been my last exam in COU. = the one before (el inmediatamente anterior) Last night i went to the party. Latest = the most recent (el m<s reciente): the latest one I have just read Cela's latest novel (adn no muri\ y puede escribir m<s) The last one = the last one up to now (el dltimo hasta el momento) I have just read Shakespeare last novel (ya muri\, no puede escribir m<s) Latter: the former ... the latter (el primero ... el dltimo de una enumeraci\n) We went there with Peter and Mary; the former (Peter) invited us, the latter (Mary) paid for our dinner. Late = after the time fixed (llegar despuJs de un tiempo) You are always late. Later = comparativo de "late" You are always later than me. SINNIMOS look watch worried preocupied love like
71

hate dislike

break crash

talk speak

mend repair

see observe glance gaze scan

anxiuous nervous afraid frightened scared

enjoy keen on adore be fond of

loathe detest can't stand can't bear

crack split destroy crush smash fracture

chat fix converse say whisper exclaim dialogue gossip critic

mad crazy insane fool nuts

friend collegue partner classmate folk pal comrade Distintos significados segn la pronunciacin

ROW /rou/ = remar/remo (paddle) /rou/ = fila de butacas: /rau/ = bronca, discusi\n: LEAD /li:d/ = dirigir, conducir: /led/ = plomo: LIVE /liv/ = (verb) vivir /laiv/ = (adj.) en vivo, en directo CONTENT /acento en "O"/ = contenido: /acento en "E"/ = contento:

The row (paddle) is broken. The last row in the cinema. The row was very violent. He led us towards that old castle. Lead is a metal. I live in Vigo. The live concert was very good. The content of that film was very good. I'm content because I passed the exam.

OBJECT /acento en "O"/ = objecto: What is the object? /acento en "E"/ = poner observacin a algo: OBJECT TO: I object to the law. DESERT /'dezet/ = desierto: /di'ze:t/ = desertar, abandonar: DESSERT /di'ze:t/ = postre: WIND /wind/ = viento: /waind/ = dar cuerda: I went to desert. The soldier deserts the battle. What is there for dessert?

The wind blew the roof. The company didn't give wind to the problem

72

ATTEND = asistir: = atender: ASSIST = ayudar

He attended to school. He attended his ill brother.

RIGHT = derecho:Go straight/along the King Street, turn to the right and you get the coach station = de acuerdo I'll see you tomorrow. All right! = derechos (rights): People have rights and duties. WILL = (aux. futuro): = testamento: I'll see you tomorrow. The will was written by Mary.

FOOD = comida comprada en supermercado: When we go to supermarket I buy food. MEAL = comida que se sirve en la mesa: Mary makes the meal every day. LUNCH = comida del medioda He always have lunch at 2.00 a.m. BREAKFAST = desayuno We always have breakfast at 7.30 a.m. DINNER = cena We always have dinner at 6.00 a.m. SUPPER = cena This is the last supper. Prepositions ON con das (si se menciona el da): DAYS week On Monday. date On February 24th, 1953 On weekends On holidays On Christmas Day On my birthday On Christmas Eve IN con unidades de tiempo menor o mayor que un da: centuries In the 20th century years In 1999 seasons In Winter months in January Partes del da In the morning/afternoon/evening. Edades cronolgicas In the Middle Age. AT con horas, clock, time // y excepciones de las anteriores: At night/at noon/at dawn/at midday/at Christmas/at Easter at midnight/at the moment/at lunchtime/at the age of. etc.

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PROVERBS
Silence gives consent. From smoke into smother. March winds and April showers bring forth May flowers. The nearer the church, the farther from God. That is true which all men say. Bussiness is bussiness. Travellers tell strange tales. Birds of a feather flock together. Ill weeds grow apace. Every dog has his day. It is no use crying over spilt milk. Misfortunes never come singly. It never rains but it pour on the poor. Watched pot never boils. Quin calla, otorga. De Herodes a Pilatos Marzo ventoso, Abril lluvioso sacan a Mayo florido y hermoso. Detrs de la Cruz est el diablo. Voz del pueblo, voz del cielo. Los negocios son los negocios. A luengas tierras, luengas mentiras. Cada oveja con su pareja. Mala hierba nunca muere. A cada puerco le llega su San Martn. A lo hecho, pecho. Las desgracias nunca vienen solas. A perro flaco, todo son pulgas. El que espera, desespera, y el que viene, nunca llega. The longest day will have an end. No hay bien ni mal que cien aos dure. What is bred in the narrow comes out in the La cabra siempre tira al monte. bone. Like master like man. De tal palo, tal astilla. Health is better than wealth. La salud vale ms que el dinero. God helps them that help themselves. A dios rogando y con el mazo dando. The pan calls the kettle black. Dijo la sarten al cazo: "Apartate, que me tiznas. All is not gold that glitters. No es oro todo lo que reluce. Where there is a will there is a way. Querer es poder. Hunger is the best sauce. A buen hambre no hay pan duro. There is many a slip 'twist the cup and the lip. Del plato a la boca se pierde la sopa. Look before you leap. Antes que te cases, mira lo que haces. There is no smoke without fire. Cuando el rio suena, agua lleva. More noise than work. Mucho ruido y pocas nueces. The early bird catches the worm. Al que madruga Dios le ayuda. No pains no gains. No hay atajo sin trabajo. Those who live in glass houses should not El que vea la mota en el ojo ajeno, vea throw stones. la viga en el propio. Love me, love my dog. Quin bien quiere a Beltrn, bien quiere a su can. One cannot make an omelet without No se pescan las truchas a bragas breaking the eggs. enjutas Out of the frying pan into the fire. Salir de las llamas y caer en las brasas. There are none so deaf as those that won't No hay peor sordo que el que no hear. quiere oir. Enough is as good as a feast. Un "NO" a tiempo vale mucho dinero. Cat after kind (or king). Dios los cra y ellos se juntan. Deeds are fruits, words are but leaves. Hechos son amores y no buenas razones.

PROVERBS (2)
Its the last straw that breaks the camels back. The leopard cannot change its spots. Life is not al beer and skittles.
74

Es la gota que colma el vaso. Genio y figura hasta la sepultura. No todo el monte es organo. La vida no

es coser y cantar. No es color de rosa. Los nios tienen la costumbre de escuchar. Thats all nonsense. Todo lo grande o pequeo tiene sus A burnt child dreads the fire. problemas. Old birds are not caught with chaff. Gato escaldado del agua huye. No es fcil engaar a un perro viejo. Ms The child is father of the man sabe el diablo por viejo que por diablo. Viendo al nio que quiere saber que va a The cobbler should stick to his last. ser de mayor. Dont count your chickens before they are Zapatero a los zapatos. hatched. No hay que hacer castillos en el aire. Its no use crying over spilt milk. No vale la pena lamentarse de algo que no Every dog has his day. tiene arreglo. The early bird catches the worm. A todo cerdo le llega su San Martn. Even a worm will turn. A quin madruga Dios le ayuda. A la persona ms tranquila se le acaba la All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy. paciencia en un momento determinado. Todo el mundo necesita descanso y Take time by the forelock. diversin. Theres many a slip between cup and lip. Coger la oprtunidad por los pelos. Theres no smoke without fire. Del plato a la boca se pierde la sopa. You cant make silk purse out of sows bristles. Cuando el ro suene agua lleva. Aunque la mona se vista de seda, mona There is no royal road to learning. es y mona se queda. Rome was not built in a day. No se aprende sin esfuerzo. When poverty comes in at the door, love flies Zamora no se hace en una hora. out of the window. Poverty mrried life is a great danger. One swallow does not make summer. You cant make an omelette without breaking Una golondrina no hace verano. eggs. El que wuiere pesca que moje el culo. Dont look a gift horse in the mouth. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. A caballo regalado no le mires el diente. As you make your bed, so you must lie on it. Ms vale pjaro en mano que cien Birds of a feather flock together. volando. Blood is thicker than water. Quin mala cama hace en ella yace. You cant get blood out of a stone. Dios los cria y ellos se juntan. Son muy fuertes los lazos de parentesco. Those who live in glass houses shouldnt throw No se puede sacar agua de las piedras. stones. No le pidas peran al olmo. All is not gold that glitters. Nadie tira piedras contra su tejado. When Greek meets Greek, then comes the tug of war. No es oro todo lo que reluce. Make hay while the sun shines. A encounter between equals. Where ignorance is bliss, tis folly to be wise. Hacer el agosto. Aprovechar las circunsts. Its an ill wind that blows nobody any good. Es mejor ser ignorante, pues ser sabio In for a penny, in for a pound. crea problemas. The labourer id worthy of his hire. No hay mal que por bien no venga. What is sauce for the goose is sauce for the Preso por mil, preso por 1.500. gander. A cada uno hay que darle lo que le Little pitchers have big ears. That is all my eye and Betty Martin. Big fleas have little fleas.
75

Every cloud has a silver lining. A miss is as good as a mile. A fault confessed is half redressed. Never say die. A rolling stone gathers no moss. A stitch in time saves nine. One mans meat is another mans poison. It never rains but it pours. Let not the sun go down upon thy wrath. He who pays the piper calls the tune.

corresp. Lo que es bueno para uno, es bueno para el otro. No hay mal que por bien no venga aunque 100 aos dure. Lo mismo de librase por poco que por mucho. Si has cometido algo y lo ves compensado. nimo, mientras hay vida, hay esperanza. Si ests rodando continuamente, no llegas a ninguna parte. Ms vale prevenir que curar, pero pronto. Lo que para uno es bueno, para el otro es veneno. Llueve sobre mojado, una desgracia nunca viene sola. No te vayas a la cama sin hacer las paces. El que paga tiene derecho a escoger.

- PROVERBS - (Cont.)
absence actions apple bed beggars bed bird bitten blood boys brooms cake cat charity chickens cloud coat cooks courtesy dog drowning Absence makes the heart grow fonder. Acttions speak louder than words. An apple a day keeps the doctor away. As you make your bed so must you lie on it. Beggars must not bechoosers. Early to bed, early to rise Makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. An early bird catches the worm. Birds of a feather flock together. Once bitten, twice shy. Blood is thicker than water. You cannot get blood out of a stone. Boys will be boys. New brooms sweep clean. You cannot eat your cake and have it. A cat may look at a king. When the cat's away the mice will play. Charity begins at home. Don'count your chickens until they are hatched. Every cloud has a silver lining. Cut your coat according to your cloth. Too many cooks spoil the broth. Courtesy costs nothung. Barking dogs seldom bite. Every dog has his day. Let sleeping dogs lie. A drowning man will clutch at a straw.
76

eggs enough example exchange feathers fire first fool fortune friend fruit frying-pan God grasp habit hanged haste hay heads heart honesty hunger hungry imitation lamb late laugh leak least listeners loaf look meat miss necessity news pence penny

Don't pull all your eggs in one basket. Enough is as goos as a feast. Example is better than precept. Exchange is not robbery. Fine feathers make fine birds. Where there's smoke there's fire. First come, first served. A fool and his money are soon parted. Fortune knocks one at every man's door. A friend in need is a friend indeed. Forbidden fruit tastes sweetest Out of the frying-pan into fire. God helps those who help themselves. Grasp all, lose all. Habit is second nature. As well be hanged for a sheep as a lamb. More haste, less spped. Make hay while the sun shines. Two heads are better than one. Faint heart never won fair lady. Honesty is the best policy. Hunger is the best sauce. A hungry man is an angry man. Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery. A pet lamb is a croos ram. Better late than never. Laugh and grow fat. He laughs best who laughs last. A small leak will sink a grat ship. Least said soonest mended. Listeners hear no good of themselves. Half a loaf is better than no bread. Look before you leap. One man's meat is another man's poison. A miss is as good as a mile. Necessity is the mother of invention. No news is good news. Look after the pence and the pounds will look after themselves. A penny saved is a penny gained. In for a penny, in for a pound. Penny wise, pound foolish.
EXERCISE.-

1.- Don't pull all your eggs in one basket. 2.- A rolling stone gathers no moss. 77

A.- People mix with those who have tates similar to their own. B.- Live within your means.

3.- One man's meat is another man's poison. 4.- Make hay while the sun shines. 5.- Empty vessels make most noise. 6.- Cut your coat according to your cloth. 7.- Birds of a feather flock together. 8.- Every cloud has a silver lining. 9.- Out of the frying-pan into the fire. 10.- Don't count your chickens before they are hatched

C.- It is unwise to reckon your gains until you actually get them. D.- Even when things seem gloomy there is alwasy hope. E.- You should not risk all you have in a single speculation. F.- What suits one prson may not suit another. G.- In trying to get yourself out of trouble you often get into a worse one. H.- It is the people who have nothing in their heads who talk most. I.- One who often changes his job will never be rich. J.- Work while you can; don't put things off till tomorrow.

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PHRASAL VERBS Verbos con adverbio/preposicin To BREAK - away = irse, escaparse - down = averiarse, abatirse desglosar, descomponer - in = adiestrar, acondicionar - into = violentar - off = desgajar, dejar sin terminar - out = estallar, hacer estallar - through = abrirse camino - up = levantar la sesi\n To COME - about = suceder, acaecer - across = atravesar, tropezarse con - off = desprenderse - on = avanzar, adelantar - out = salir, nacer, adelantarse - over = suceder - round = volver en s, restablecerse - up = surgir To GET - away = huir - down = bajar, apearse, entristecerse - off = bajarse de un vehiculo - on = subirse a un vehiculo progresar, llevarse bien con alguin - on with = progresar, llevarse bien con alguin - out of = salir de - over = recuperarse, deshacerse de - up = levantarse To HOLD - up = parar, atracar - on = esperar, aguantar - out = aguantar, mantenerse firme - over = aplazar, diferir To KEEP - back = retener, suprimir, preservar - down = sujetar - on = seguir, proseguir - up = mantener, conservar, continuar To LOOK - at = mirar a - after = cuidar de - down on = despreciar - into = examinar - for = bucar - forward to = desear, tener ganas de - out = tener cuidado - over = ojear, echar un vistazo - up = visitar, buscar en un diccionario, listin, etc. To CARRY - on = continuar, seguir, comportarse - out = sostener - through = terminar To BRING - about = originar, provocar - back = devolver - round = persuadir - out = revelar, publicar - up = educar To GO - about = circular, emprender, intentar - back = volver - back on = retractarse - for = ir en busca de, favorecer, apoyar - in = entrar - in for = tomar parte en, favorecer - into = meterse - off = dispararse, morirse - on = seguir, ocurrir - round = dar la vuelta - through = atravesar, pasar, sufrir - with = estar de acuerdo con, acompaar - without = pasarse sin To PUT - down = depositar, poner abajo - off = posponer, apagar, desconectar - on = ponerse, conectar - up = levantar, hospedar - up with = soportar

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To GIVE - away = regalar, dar - back = devolver - off = despedir, echar - on to = dar a - out = cansarse, rendirse - up = rendirse, dejar de (+-ING) To SEE - off = despedir, ir a despedir - about = averiguar - through = comprender, conocer - to = atender To TAKE - aback = dejar atnito, desconcertar - after = parecerse a - away = apartar, quitar - back = hacer volver, retroceder - down = escribir, tomar nota - in = incluir, admitir, engaar - on = aceptar, comprender - out = extraer, quitar - off = quitarse la ropa, despegar un avin - over = tomar posesin de - up = empezar, adoptar

To RUN - away = huir - away with = fugarse - down = difamar, hablar mal de - into = chocar, toparse con - out of = quedarse sin existencias - over = atropellar To MAKE - for = contribuir - out = descubrir, descifrar, componer - over = ceder - up = inventar, maquillarse, costear To TURN - down = bajar el volumen, doblar - into = convertirse en - off = apagar, desconectar - on = encender, conectar - up = aparecer - out = apagar, resultar, suceder - over = entregar, invertir - to = redundar en To WORK - out = calcular

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THE GENDER
Kinds: 1.- Male 2.- Female 3.- Either male or female 4.- Neither male or female These concepts reflected in grammatical gender of nouns 1) Masculine: man, bull 2) Femenine: woman, cow 3) Common words: student, friend 4) Neuter: tree, table Sex in Modern English Grammar is expressed in various ways: 1) By the meaning of the noun itself: COMMON MASCULINE FEMENINE parent child spouse youth sovereign horse sheep deer (=ciervo) swine (cerdo) fowl father boy son husband lad king stallion ram stag boar cock mother girl daughter wife lass queen mare ewe doe (hind) sow hen FEMENINE widow bride spinster niece lady aunt mistress bitch (breach) duck sister nun lady witch goose hen

Some words have only masculine form: MASCULINE widower bridegroom bachelor nephew lord uncle master dog (hound) drake brother monk gentleman wizard (brujo) gander (ganso) cob (swan) cisne

2.- Masculine and Femenine are also indicated by addition of a suffix: a) The most common femenine suffix is -ESS: MASCULINE
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FEMENINE

abbot actor baron duke emperor god host lion major prince negro tiger waiter b) Other femenine suffixes are: -TRIX -INE -INA -ETTE MASCULINE administrator victor prosecutor executor hero Joseph Gzar Baron fianc proteg masseur comedian -I

abbess actress baroness duchess empress goddess hostess lioness majoress princess negress tigress waitress -EUSE -ENNE FEMENINE administratix victrix prosecutrix executrix heroina Josephina Gzarina Baronette fiance protege masseuse comedienne

3.- By using an extra word which clearly shows the gender, either as suffix or prefix: MASCULINE FEMENINE doctor lady doctor male nurse nurse boyfriend girlfriend dog fox bitch fox (wixen) Jackass Jenny ass billy goat nanny goat (=niZera) laundry man laundry woman milkman milkmaid (milkwoman) landlord landlady tom cat tabby cat cock pigeon hen pigeon cock robin Jenny robin

4.- By use of pronouns = personal pronouns which refer to the nouns are the most common gender indicators in English. The 3rd. person singular pronouns have different forms for masculine, femenine or neuter: The student hadn't got her book with her. My friend said that he had sold his house. Sometimes the 3rd. person singular pronouns are prefixed to words to distinguish gender:
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MASCULINE a he-donkey a he-devil a he-bear

FEMENINE a she-dankey a she-devil a she-bear

5.- Sometimes the words MALE/FEMALE are prefixed to othe words: MASCULINE FEMENINE a male cat a female cat a male rabbit a female rabbit COMMON GENDER.In English there are many words for animate beings that do not indicate their gender. That is to say, these words indicate both masculine and femenine: cousin friend person fool neighbiur When making a sentence using one of these words, when the gender is not known you can use "he/she/they": Your cousin wrote but he/she didn't say his/her name. All substantives coming from verbs to denote agents are common gender: reader teacher drunkward inhabitant copyist liar Some substantives coming from other substantives also denote common gender: criminal librarian musician prisoner Because of social conditions many common gender words are used only of: 1) males: baker, tailor, merchant, soldeir, shoemaker, captain 2) females: nurse, milliner (sombrerera), cook, flirt (maja), dressmaker Some words having masculine or femenine forms have become common gender by using one of the forms to denote the genus: Masculine: man, dog, lion, jew Femenine: duck, goose, hen, bee

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UNNATURAL GENDER.Names of people.- They become neuter when the idea of personality is little developed: baby. She was a baby. It is a girl. When we wish to speak scornfully of a person we use the pronoun "that" or "it": Would you like to be married to that? Fancy seeing it every day. Name of animals.- domestic and large beasts are normally personified according to their sex: I have a dog. His name is Sam. With smaller animals and birds, the neuter is generally used, but some are referred to as masculine and some as femenine: Masculine: cuckoo, rabbit, mouse. Femenine: dove, sparrow, lark, thrush, mole, bee, hare. Name of things.- countries and cities are generally neuter, but in literary English they can be referred to as femenine: England ruled the seas thanks to its/her navy. Sexless things.- generally referred to as femenine: moon, nature, sea, ships, engines, aircraft, motor-cars ... and abstract ideas. Sexless things.- referred to as masculine: sun, rivers, mountains, war, death etc. GENDER IN PRONOUNS.First and second person pronouns do not denote gender because it is clear from context: I me my mine you your yours For the third person there are three forms: Masculine, femenine and neuter. Sometimes this causes difficulties in expression: it is necessary to use constructions like "he/she/they": Nobody knows how to do that, do they? The reader's heart, if he or she has a heart ... Some pronouns are two-sex and some no-sex: two-sex Interrogative Who? Relative Who Indefinite somebody anybody everybody no-sex what? which something anything everything

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VERBS USED WITH PREPOSITIONS

1.- The following verbs are used without a preposition in English, but with preposition in Spanish: to abuse Never abuse friendship abusar de to approach He approached the house acercarse a to attend I attended the meeting asistir a to lack The poor man lacked means carecer de to mock They mocked me burlarse de to marry John married Mary casarse con to stop He stopped working dejar de to cease I ceased working cesar de to finish He finished working terminar de to begin He began working empezar a to distrust I distrust Michael desconfiar de to enjoy He enjoys good health disfrutar de to doubt I doubt his word dudar de to enter They entered the shop entrar en to smoke He smokes a pipe fumar en to play They played football jugar a to ride I like riding horses montar a to sound This sounds hollow sonar a 2.- The following verbs are used with a preposition in English, but without a preposition in Spanish: to ask for to listen to to hope for to look at to look for to operate on to pay for to point at to search for to wait for to rob of to steal from to remind of He asked for a book They listened to the radio We hoped for a fine day She looked at the picture I was looking for my watch They operated on Mary I will pay for the ticket He pointed at me He searched for his papers I was waiting for the bus They robbed me of my watch They stole my watch from me That reminds me of England pedir escuchar esperar mirar buscar operar pagar sealar buscar esperar robar robar recordar

3.- The following verbs are used with a preposition in English, but a different preposition in Spanish: to buy from to congratulate on to consist of to demand of to depend on to fall into to live on to marvel at to play a trick on to think of to translate into to dream of to smell of to taste of I bought a book brom the bookseller I congratulated him on his success All consisted of doing it They demanded too much of John It depends of the circumstances He fell into the river He lives on charity He marvelled at the news They played a trick on John He thought of his children Translate this into English I dreamt of you last night This smells of soap This tastes of fish Comprar a felicitar por Consistir en exigir a Depender de caerse en vivir de Maravillarse de gastar una broma a pensar en traducir al soar con oler a saber a

VERBS FOLLOWED BY THE PREPOSITIONS: OF/FROM/IN/ON/TO/AT/FOR and WITH

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OF: accuse, approve, assure, beware, boast (or ABOUT), complain (or ABOUT), consist, convince (or ABOUT), cure, despair, dream (or ABOUT), expect (or FROM), hear (or FROM), be/get rid, smell, suspect, taste, think (or ABOUT), tire(d), warn (or AGAINST) FROM: borrow, defend (or AGAINST), demand (or OF), differ, dismiss, draw, emerge, escape, excuse (or FOR), hinder, prevent, prohibit, protect (or AGAINST), receive, separate, suffer IN: believe, delight, employ(ed), encourage, angage(d), experience(d), fail, help (or WITH), include, indulge, instruct, interest(ed), invest, share, involve(d), persist. ON: act, base(d), call, comment, concentrate, congratulate, consult (or ABOUT), count, decide, depend, economize, embark, experiment, insist, live, rely, lean (or AGAINST), operate, perform (or IN), write (or ABOUT), pride (oneself), vote (ON a motion; FOR someone). TO: accustom(ed), amount, appeal, apply (or FOR), attach(ed), attend, belong, challenge, compare (or WITH), condemn(ed), confess, consent, convert, entittle(d), listen, mention, object, occur, prefer, react (or AGAINST), respond, reply, see, submit, surrender, turn, yield. AT: amuse(d) (or BY), arrive (or IN), astonish(ed) (or BY), exclaim, glance, guess, knock, look, point (or TO), shock(ed) (or BY), stare, work (or ON), surprise(d) (or BY), wonder (or ABOUT). FOR: account, ask (or OF), act (or ON), apologize, blame, beg, call, charge, exchange, hope, look, mistake, mourn, pay, prepare, provide, search, thank, vote (or ON), wait (or ON). WITH: agree, begin, communicate, compare (or TO), complete (or AGAINST), comply, confuse, contrast (or TO), cope, correspond, disgust(ed), finish, help (or IN), interfere (or IN), mix, occupy(ied), part, please(d), quarrel (or ABOUT), reason, satisfy(ied) (or BY), threaten(d).

WORDS FOLLOWED BY FOR/WITH/OF/TO/AT/FROM/IN/ON and ABOUT

FOR: eager, enough, famous, fit, gateful (or TO), qualified (or IN), sorry, ready (or TO), responsible, sufficient, thankful (or TO), valid. WITH: angry (WITH someone; AT something), busy (or AT), consistent, content, familiar (or TO), identical, patient, popular. OF: afraid, ahead, aware, capable, careful (or WITH), certain, conscious, envious, fond, guilty, ignorant, independent, jealous, kind (or TO), north/south/east/west, short, shy, sure, worthy. TO: close, contrary, cruel, dear, equal, faithful, fatal, harmful, inferior, indifferent, liable, new, obedient, obvious, polite, previous, rude, similar, sensitive, useful. AT: bad, clever, efficient, expert (or IN), good, indignant, quick, slow, sad (or ABOUT), skilful (or IN). FROM: away, different, far, safe. IN: deficient, fortunate, honest, weak. ON: dependent, intent, keen. ABOUT: curious, doubtful (or OF), enthusiastic, relunctant (or TO), uneasy, right (or IN).

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This section consists of a list of verbs, adjectives and particles with the particular preposition that usually f compiled in the form of sentence examples. The adjective and particle lists give a phrase only:
They abandoned their fellow soldiers TO the enemy (left) They were alsolved FROM blame for the mistake He was too absorved IN his work to hear the bell She had to answer/account TO her father for her behaviour They were accused OF stealing They were acquitted OF blame for the mistake libertar absolver He was accustomed TO a large breakfast She acquainted him WITH the situation (informar a uno sobre) Money problems only added TO their unhappiness He could not adjust TO thr new conditions The question admits OF several answers He admitted TO being the thief (confesarse culpable de) They admitted him TO their plans They agreed ON/ABOUT the question She agreed TO his suggestion He agrred WITH his father on the plan He aimed the gun AT the target He apologized TO her for his behaviour (disculparse con) Delighted, she approved OF his behaviour He armed himself AGAINST possible danger She asked at the hotel FOR her friend (ask to see) She asked at the hospital ABOUT her friend (ask how s/o is) She asked a favour OF her (ask s/o to do domething) They would not associate WITH his friends Wise investments assured him OF large income She was very attached TO her aunt (fond of) He attached his caravan TO his car She asked him to bear WITH her temper (tolerate) He began BY playing a concerto He began WITH a concerto They believed strongly IN internationalism That book belongs TO me He boasted OF his success at billiards She borrowed a pond FROM his sister Thieves broke INTO the bank He broke himself OF smoking She broke WITH him after a row He brushed the dust FROM/OFF his coat She burst INTO tears at the news The smouldering rags burst INTO flames She did not care ABOUT/FOR reading her uncle He changed his scooter FOR a car He changed FROM elementary to an intermediate class She changed INTO something warmer (put on - warmer clothes) How much were you charge FOR dinner? He was charged WITH careless driving They commented ON his behaviour (speak about) He compared her WITH her friend He compared her TO a flower They competed WITH one another FOR the job She complained TO him ABOUT his friend They concealed the news FROM him (keep from) We concentrated ON doing one job at at time She concluded FROM his remark that he was angry (deduce) He confused her WITH her friend She was confused BY his directions I congratulated him ON winning Her father consented TO her engagement Civilisation consists IN having a constructed attitude Porridge consists OF oatmeal and water It downed ON them that they had been tricked (realise ) A greengrocer deals IN vegetables We deal WITH the greengrocer at the corner She delighted IN listening to music He depends ON his father for allowance They deprived the prisoner OF his property and money The word isosceles derived FROM the Greek She asked him not to refer TO the matter again He reflected ON her attitude character (think about ) He released her FOM her promise She relied ON her father for everything He died FOR his beliefs He died FROM/OF starvation My ideas differ FROM yours We differ IN our ideas We differ ON this idea We differ WITH each other ON this She directed her remarks AT her father She directed him TO the station He disagreed WITH her ON/OVER the matter The dustman disposed OF five tons of rubbish yesterday They dreamt OF winning a fortune Wide-eyed, they drank IN the beauty of the place They drank TO better days The evening ended IN confusion (result) The evening ended WITH a dance (conclude ) We must enrol FOR the exam before next week He exchanged his house FOR a bigger one They excluded him FROM the club (deny entry to) They excused him FOR his absence (for not bring there) They excused him FROM attending (allow not to be there) She failed IN her exam She failed IN trying to pass the exam He fell INTO the habit of not attending They feed mostly ON vegetables She fed him WITH a spoon She told him not to fuss OVER her He was gladdened BY her good news In passing they glanced AT him He asked them to glance THROUGH the notebook She grieved AT the bad news She grieved FOR the missing child He grieved OVER the past She helped him IN/OVER this matter She helped him WITH the English They hid FROM her in the celler They hinted AT the idea that she was wealthy They improved ON the old engine with the new one He inculcated knowledge UPON her She insisted ON coming with us He was inspired WITH courage by her example He was inspired BY her He instilled knowledge INTO her She joined IN the singing She joined WITH us in singing the song They judged her BY/ON her performance Unkindly they laughed AT her In support they laughed WITH her He was leaning AGAINST the wall smoking He leaned ON his brother for support Don't meddle IN/WITH other people's affairs They objected TO her bahaviour (dislike, complain ) The doctor operated ON him for a cyst Although panniless she would not part WITH her jewellery They were prohibited FROM buying arms He played FOR England at Lord's It is rude to point AT someone You may however point TO someone or something (indicate) They presented him WITH a clock when he retired They presented a clock TO him when he retired They prevented him FROM buying a house He provided FOR her in his will He provided her WITH a car They quarrelled ABOUT/OVER money They quarrelled WITH their neighbours She reckoned ON inheriting a few thousand when he died She had to reckon WITH his mother (deal with, take into account ) He soon recover FROM flu She succeeded IN passing the exam She succeeded TO her father's property He supplied her WITH a car He supplied a car TO the hotel

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She soon replied TO their letter He reprimanded them FOR arriving late Illness resulted FROM lack of food The game resulted IN a draw He ruled ON the case very carefully (give judgement ) He ruled OVER a large kingdom This serviette ring serves AS an egg-cup He served the summons ON the debtor She served WITH the W.R.N.S. during the war His creditors settled FOR anything they could get He retired and settled IN a seaside town He settled WITH his creditors She shared IN her husband's worries She shared the money WITH him They sheltered FROM the storm, by standing in a doorway The markman shot AT the clay pigeon He shouted AT the man who annoyed him (speak badly) He shouted ACROSS the valley TO his friend (call to) She spoke OF the man as an old friend She spoke ABOUT/OF a matter I thought was secret He spoke TO his friend The general spoke WITH the soldiers

She suspected him OF stealing They swore AT the man for his bad driving He swore ON the Bible he was telling the truth She sympathised WITH him in his loss He threatened them WITH the police He threw the book AT them in anger He threw the coin TO a poor man She was treated FOR the complaint by a specialist He treated her TO a drink She translated an English novel INTO Finnish He asked the operator not to trouble herself ABOUT looking up the number We trust IN him (believe in) We trust TO his honesty (believe in) We would trust him WITH everything we have These figures vary FROM the official ones (differ) The tides vary WITH the moon (alter) She vouched FOR her friend's honesty They watched hopefully FOR the sign that he was getting better The mother watched OVER her child(take care of, guard ) He wrote to his friend ABOUT the exhibition They yielded TO the enemy's demands

In this list the short forms s/o, s/th have been used for someone and something:
abridgement OF a book absent FROM class agreeable TO a suggestion alive TO a possibility alive WITH ideas/insects aloof FROM a situation angry WITH someone angry AT her behaviour antipathetic TO an idea anxious ABOUT/FOR someone apparent FROM a remark apparent IN her behaviour apparent TO everyone appreciative OF someone apprehensive FOR s/o's safety apprehensive OF someone apt + infinitive with TO ashamed OF someone attentive TO someone auxiliary TO something averse TO an idea avoidance OF s/o or s/th aware OF something awkward AT doing something awkward IN a situation basis FOR agreement basis IN fact blind TO something bound FOR somewhere capable OF something cautious OF acting celebrated FOR a performance characteristic OF someone comparable TO something compatible WITH something conditional (UP) ON something conductive TO something consistent WITH something deaf TO an appeal deficient IN something grateful TO someone BY something hatred OF someone hostile TO s/o or s/th identical WITH something impassive TO something impatient AT an obatacle impat ient OF success impatient WITH someone (im)polite TO someone destructive OF an abstract idea destructive TO something concrete detrimental TO something devoid OF a quality different FROM s/o or s/th disappointed BY soemthing disappointed WITH someone disgusted AT/WITH s/o or s/th disgusted BY something displeased AT something displeased WITH someone eager FOR something eligible FOR something employed AT a place employed BY someone employed IN a job envious OF s/o or s/th equivalent IN (literally) What is the equivalent TO (figuratively) What is dog equivalent TO in Latin? evident FROM a statement exception TO a rule exclusive OF tax except FROM tax faithful TO someone/something familiar TO someone (known to someone) familiar WITH someone (onclose terms with) familiar WITH something famous FOR something favorable FOR something favorable TO someone filled WITH something full OF something equivalent OF dog in Latin? good AT games good FOR you (health) good OF you to do s/th (kind) good TO a needy (charity) good WITH children (understanding) good WITH food (accompany) qualified BY experience FOR a job quick AT a subject quick IN movement reckless OF danger regardless OF consequences related BY marriage related IN other ways related TO each other responsible TO someone FOR something

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inappropiate FOR someone inappropiate TO something incapable OF something indebted TO someone FOR something independent IN attitude independent OF someone indifferent TO someone/something injurious TO health innocent OF something inseparable FROM someone/something (ir)relevant TO something jealous OF someone/something kind Of you to call kind TO friends liable FOR something TO someone liable TO do something loyal TO someone mad AT someone mad WITH pain noted FOR something obidient TO someone/something oblivious OF something the (an) opportunity OF an oportunity TO orthodox IN something parallel TO/WITH something particular ABOUT something peculiar TO somewhere pleased BY something pleased WITH someone/something popular WITH someone presumptuous OF him proud OF someone/something

revenge ON someone FOR something rich IN minerals safe FROM something (an enemy) safe WITH someone schooled IN something sensible OF something (aware, grateful for) sensitive TO unkindness sick OF doing something sick WITH an illness solicitious OF something sufficient FOR one's needs suitable FOR a purpose suitable TO one's needs or position surprised AT/BY something surprised INTO doing something suspicious OF someone sympathetic TOWARDS someone terrified BY someone/something thoughtful FOR/OF people thoughtless OF people tolerant IN a matter unequal IN skill unequal TO demands unjust TO someone unmindful OF something valued IN ,50 valued FOR her good qualities vexed AT something vexed WITH someone ABOUT/FOR something void OF something weak AT languages weak IN vitamins

COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING WITH SUITABLE PREPOSITIONS: 1. She admitted him ______ her plans. 2. Burglars broke ______ their flat. 3. The surgeon operated ______ him for appendicitis. 4. He presented the fireman ______ a medal.

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NOMBRES COMPUESTOS
BError! Marcador no definido. BLACK-OUT = mareo, amnesia temporal BLAST-OFF = lanzamiento BREAKDOWN = interrupcin, fracaso avera, crisis BREAK-OUT = evasin, fuga BREAK-THROUGH = descubrimiento BREAK-UP = separacin BUILD-UP = concentracin de fuerzas BY-PASS = carretera de circunvalacin C CALL-UP = reclutamiento CARRY-ON = embrollo, lo CARRYINGS-ON = relaciones amorosas ilicitas CAVE-IN = socavn, derrumbamiento CHANGE-OVER = cambio CHECK-UP = chequeo CLEAN-OUT = limpieza a fondo CLOSE-UP = primer plano COMEBACK = rehabilitacin, acciones BONDS = obligaciones COMEDOWN = humillacin, revs, bajn CUTBACK = corte D DOWN-FALL = caida, ruina DOWNPOUR = chaparrn, aguacero D. Day = da, momento crtico DRAWBACKS=inconveniente, desventajas DRESSING-DOWN=reprimenda, rapapolvo DROPPING-OFF = bajada en N de ..... DROPPING-OUT = darse de baja, retirarse F FALL-OUT = polvillo radioactivo FLARE-UP =arranque de clera,ria, estallido sbito, manisfestacin, ruptura de hostilidades FLASH-BACK = escena retrospectiva FRAME-UP = conspiracin G GET-AWAY = escapada GET-UP = atavos GO-AHEAD = luz verde, permiso o seal para construir GO-BETWEEN = intermediario GOINGS-ON = actividades/conducta sospechosas S SEND-OFF = despedida (por todo lo alto) H HANG-OVER = resaca (bebida/guerra) HANGERS-ON = parsitos, pegotes HIDE-OUT = escondrijo, guarida HOLD-UP = retraso, demora, ATRACO I INTAKE = admisin, entrada (alumnos) L LAY-BACK = trampa habitual LAY-OFF = paro involuntario LAY-OUT = plan, trazado, distribucin LET-DOWN = decepcin, chasco LEFT-OVERS = sobras (comida etc.) LET-UP = calma, respiro, tregua, RELAX LOOKER-ON = espectador, mirn/mirona LOOK-OUT = vigilancia, puesto de observacin LOOK-OVER = echar un vistazo LOW-DOWN = informes confidenciales M MIX-UP = confusin, lRo O OFF-SHOOT = vstago (Bot), ramal sucursal subsidiaria OFF-CHANCE = posibilidad remota OUT-BREAK = brote, estallido, epidemia OUT-BURST = explosin OUTCOME = resultado OUT-CRY =grito, protesta pblica (ruidosa) OUTLAY = desembolso, inversin OUT-LET = punto de venta, salida OUTLOOK = perspectiva, punto de vista, ACTITUD OUTPUT = produccin ONSET = comienzo, ataque, arremetida P PAY-OFF = momento decisivo, COLMO coyuntura crtica R ROUND-UP = redada, rodeo, investigacin a gran escala RUNNER-UP = subcampen/subcampeona U UPBRINGING = educacin
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SETBACK = revs, contratiempo SET-TO = bronca, pelea (coloquial) SET-UP = situacin, tinglado SHAKE-UP = reorganizacin, conmocin SHOWDOWN = confrontacin, conflicto SPLASHDOWN = amerizaje STAND-BY = persona de toda confianza, recurso seguro STAND-IN = suplente (CINE = doble) SHOW-OFF = presumido, ostentoso (pers.) T TAKEOVER = toma de posesin, entrada en funciones, ABSORCION TAKING-TO = rapapolvos TIE-UP = enlace, paralizacin (por huelga) embotellamiento (trfico) TIP-OFF=advertencia clandestina, SOPLO aviso TURN-OUT=concurrencia, N de asistentes entrada, pdblico TURN-OVER=volumen de negocios,ventas rotacin de existencias, N de mercancias

UPKEEP = mantenimiento, conservaci\n UPSHOT = resultado, consecuencia UPSTART = arribista, insolente, presumido UP-SURGE = acceso, aumento grande UPTAKE = entendimiento, aprensin UPTURN = mejora, aumento W WALK-OUT = salida, huelga, retirada WASH-OUT = fracaso total, calamidad WRITE-OFF = perdida total, depreciacin (coche inservible) WRITE-UP = reportaje/crnica muy Elogiosa

Uses of main verbs DO and MAKE The general rule is that DO means "perform an action", while MAKE has a much more concrete meaning of "build", "prepare" etc. In addition to this, there are, of course, many idiomatic expressions where this basic rule is not always observed; the most common of these expressions are: DO = PERFORM AN ACTION MAKE = CREATE do something make a chair do nothing make a noise do some work make friends do an exercise make money do an examination make profits do good make the beds do wrong make war do a task make peace do well make a fuss do badly make a face do a favour make a trip do justice make room of do business make trouble do one's duty make one's heir do one's hair make a scene

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VERBOS IRREGULARES INGLESES

Infinitive
to be to bear to beat to become to begin to bend to bite to bleed to blow to break to bring to build to burn to burst to buy to catch to choose to come to cost to cut to dig to do to draw to dream to drink to drive to eat to fall to feed to feel to fight to find to fly to forbid to forgive to forget to freeze to get to give to go to grow to hang to have to hear to hide to hit to hold to hurt to kneel to know to lay to learn to leave to lend to let to lie to light to lose to make to mean to meet

Pasado
was/were bore beat became

Participio
been borne/born beaten become begun bent bitten bled blown broken brought built burnt burst bought caught chosen come cost cut dug done drawn dreamt drunk driven eaten fallen fed felt fought found flown forbidden forgiven forgotten frozen got given gone grown hung had heard hidden hit held hurt knelt known laid learnt left lent let lain lit lost made meant met

Significado:
ser o estar soportar, sufrir golpear, vencer hacerse empezar doblar, torcer morder sangrar soplar romper traer construir, edificar quemar estallar, reventar comprar coger, atrapar escoger, elegir venir costar cortar cavar hacer dibujar, tirar de soar beber conducir comer caer, caerse alimentar, dar de comer sentir, palpar luchar encontrar volar prohibir perdonar olvidar helar, congelar conseguir, obtener dar ir crecer, cultivar colgar haber, tener oir esconder pegar, golpear sostener, agarrar herir arrodillarse saber, conocer poner horizontal aprender abandonar, salir, marchar prestar permitir, dejar, alquilar yacer, tumbarse encender perder hacer significar, querer decir encont rarse

began

bent bit bled blew broke brought built burnt burst bought caught chose came cost cut dug did drew dreamt drank drove ate fell fed felt fought found flew forbade forgave forgot froze got gave went grew hung had heard hid hit held hurt knelt knew laid learnt left lent let lay lit lost made meant met

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Infinitive
to pay to put to read to ride to show to shut to sing to sit to ring to rise to run to say to see to seek to sell to send to set to shake to shine to shoot to sleep to slide to smell to speak to spell(ed) to spend to spin to spit to spoil(led) to stand to steal to stink to strike to swear to sweep to swell to swim to swing to take to teach to tear to tell to think to throw to tread to undergo to understand to undertake to wake to wear to win to wind to wring to write

Pasado
paid put read rode showed shut sang sit rang rose ran said saw sought sold sent set shook shone shot slept slid smelt spoke spelt spent spun/span spat spoilt stood stole stank/stunk struck swore swept swelled swam swang took taught tore told thought threw trod underwent understood undertook woke wore won wound wrung wrote

Participio
paid put read ridden shown shut sung sit rung risen run said seen sought sold sent set shaken shone shot slept slid smelt spoken spelt spent spun spat spoilt stood stolen stunk struck sworn swept swollen swum swung taken taught torn told thought thrown trodden undergone understood undertaken woken worn won wound wrung written

Significado:
pagar poner leer cabalgar, montar mostrar, ensear cerrar cantar sentarse sonar, timbrar levantarse, salir sol correr decir ver buscar vender enviar establecer agitar brillar disparar dormir deslizarse oler hablar deletrear gastar, pasar el tiempo hacer girar escupir desarramar, estropear estar de pi robar oler mal golpear, pegar blasfemar barrer hinchar nadar mecer, balancear tomar, llevar ensear rasgar decir, contar, ralatar pensar, creer arrojar, tirar pisar sufrir entender, comprender emprender despertar llevar puesto, usar ganar dar cuerda retorcer escribir

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TOP FORTY OF THE MOST FATAL MISTAKES 1,. DIvide your writings into paragraphs.2.- WORD ORDER: - S.V.O. - Remember nothing can come between the verb and its object. - Adverbs and adverbial phrases of time, place and manner usually come at the end of the sentence. - Adverbs of frequency and degree are usually placed before the main verb. - Adjectives come before the noun (Multiple Premodification) 3.- VERBS: - If you are telloing a story in the PAST, use the PAST. - If the verb is irregular, you should know its forms too. - Don't forget the -s or -es of the third singular person. - With some verbs you have to use a certain pattern, be careful with: * Modal verbs (all of them take an infinitive withouit TO, except OUGHT TO and USED TO). * Make somebody do something. * Want somebody to do something. * Explain something to somebody. * Be/Get used to doing something. * Used to do something (expresses a habit in the past only, to refer to a habit in the present use the Present Simple with an adverb of frequency). * Suggest doing something (includes the speaker). * Suggest that somebody should do something. * Allow somebody to do soemthing. * Look forward to doing something. * Enjoy something/Enjoy doing something/Enjoy oneself. * Like or Dislike doing something. * I wish with the Simple Past expresses a wish regarding the PRESENT. * I wish with the Past Perfect expresses a wish regarding the PAST. 4.- DETERMINERS and PRONOUNS: - A/ An. - Revise the use of definite and indefinite articles. - Be careful with This and These - Another/Other - Neither/None 5.- PREPOSITIONS: - Think OF/ABOUT. - At that moment. - Arrive AT/IN. - UNTIL with expressions of TIME // AS FAR AS with expressions of PLACE. - Based ON - Get married TO somebody/Marry somebody (never WITH). - Fall OFF a bike, a horse, a table, etc. - ON with dates or days of the week. - IN with months, seasons (except AT Christmas/Easter), years, centuries, parts of the day (except AT night/midday). - ON television/Channel 2, etc. - BY goes with the agent of the passive voice. - ON the coast. - Depend ON. - Consist OF - Interested IN - If a verb is followed by a PREPOSITION, the GERUND (-ing form) must be used. 6.- NOUNS: - Be careful with irregular plurals (men, women, children, feet ...). 94

- Use a plural verb with a plural noun (people, police ...). - Remember every verb needs a subject but don't double IT. - The Saxon Genitive: use it only for people, be careful with the order of elements, the articles and plural possessors. 7.- GRAMMAR IN GENERAL: - To express purpose use the infinitive with TO. - The construction FOR + GERUND is used when you are describing an object. - To express purpose it is also possible to use IN ORDER TO/SO AS or SO THAT, the problem is that the latter is only used when there are two different subjects: (e.g. I study English IN ORDER TO get a better job, but I've opened the window SO THAT we can breathe some fresh air). - Relative Clauses. * Use the appropiate relative in each case. * If the relative is the subject of the clause do not use another one. * Punctuation is crucial for the meaning. The distinction between Defining and Non-defining should be clear. * Double negatives. 8.- SPELLING: - Nationality words with CAPITALS. - Days of the weeks with CAPITALS. - Double consonats. 9.- VOCABULARY: - BORING / BORED, etc. (adj=aburrido=es aburrido/adj=aburrido=estar aburrido) - ACTUALLY (adv=realmente, en realidad) - STORY / HISTORY (cuento, historieta/historia (asignatura)) - END / ENDING (fin/final) - AFTER / AFTERWARDS (prep,conj./adv.) - KNOW / MEET (saber, conocer/encontrarse con, toparse con) - EXIT / SUCCESS - WORK / JOB - TO REALISE SOMETHING / TO MAKE A DREAM COME TRUE - TRAVEL / TRIP / JOURNEY - NOTICE / NEWS - ON THE ONE HAND / ON THE OTHER HAND - PROGRAM / PROGRAMME - ATTEND / ASSIST - CAREER / UNIVERSITY COURSE - LIKE / AS - AVOID / PREVENT - FOLLOW / CONTINUE - LAST / LATEST - COOK / COOKER - ECONOMIC / ECONOMICAL - CLASSIC / CLASSICAL - PASS / SPEND

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These pairs of words frequently occur together in English, joined by and. Say which is the order in which they are generally used. Then put them into sentences that will illustrate their meanings and uses: example: seek Answer: hide and seek hide Sentence: The children are playing hide and seek in the garden. chips fish & pros & cons weather wind & cat & dog fast hard & good & chattels women men & women & children ink pen & drakes ducks & forks knives & dry high & tear wear & spick & span song & dance far & wide ladies & gentlemen rules & regulations collar & tie tooth & nail bits & pieces sound safe & shoulders head & buried dead & steak & kidney blood flesh & bricks & mortar sick & tired high-water hell & to & fro simple pure & thunder blood & prim & proper cock & bull dried cut & eggs ham & by & large figures facts & needles pins & waifs & strays sticks & stones odds & ends

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GRAMTICA ESPAOLA

1.- El Artculo:
Es el que va colocado delante del nombre para determinar o sealar su gnero y su nmero. Singular: DETERMINADO Plural: Singular: INDETERMINADO Plural: ARTCULOS CONTRACTOS:

el, la, lo los, las un, una

(masculino, femenino, neutro) (masculino y femenino) (masculino y femenino) (masculino y femenino)

unos, unas al (a + el); del (de + el)

El artculo concuerda con el nombre en gnero y nmero.

2.- El Adjetivo
Es la parte de la oracin que sirve para expresar ciertas cualidades del sustantivo o para limitar su sugnificacin. Ej.: Mesa grande (cualidad) Esta mesa (se trata de una mesa en concreto) Por tanto el adjetivo se divide en determinativo y calificativo. DETERMINATIVO Son los que limitan la significacin del sustantivo con indicacin de lugar, posesin, nmero ... etc. Por tanto se dividen en: Demostrativos, Posesivos, Numerales e Indefinidos

1) Demostrativos: Acompaan al nombre e indican su proximidad o lejana con

relacin al que habla. Masculino Singular 1 persona: 2 persona: 3 persona: Plural 1 persona: Femenino

este ese aquel

esta esa aquella estas esas aquellas

estos 2 persona: esos 3 persona: aquellos

2) Posesivos: Acompaan al nombre e indican que lo expresado por el sustantivo

pertenece a algun dueo. Masculino 97 Femenino

singular Singular 1 persona: 2 persona: 3 persona: 1 persona: 2 persona: 3 persona:

plural

singular

plural

mi tu su nuestro vuestro su

mis tus sus nuestros vuestros sus

mi tu su nuestra vuestra su

mis tus sus nuestras vuestras sus

Plural

3) Numerales: Son los que limitan la extensin del sustantivo indicando nmero u orden.
Ej.: veinte marcas de vehculos; segunda vez ... etc. CLASES: a) Cardinales: que expresan nmero: uno, dos, tres ... mil etc. b) Ordinales: que indican el lugar que un objeto ocupa en una serie ordenada de objetos. Ej.: las primeras industrias regionales.

4) Indefinidos: Son aquellos que completan la significacin del sustantivo, pero de

un modo vago y general. Ej.: algunos empleados; ciertas piezas .... etc. CLASES: Indefinidos cuantitativos Mucho bastante otro alguno Poco tanto tal unos Todo cuanto cualquiera ambos Varios demasiado cierto entrambos Indefinidos distributivos cada sendos unos ... otros

CALIFICATIVOS Son los que dicen como son las personas, animales o las cosas. Ej.: carretero serio; mulas tordas; ruedas verdes El gnero y nmero del adjetivo siempre es el mismo que el de los sustantivos. Ej.: caballo delantero; mulas tordas. Segn el gnero los adjetivos pueden ser de dos terminaciones: buen-o/-a; o de una terminacin: verd-e, az-ul, valient-e. Para la formacin del femenino o del plural, el adjetivo sigue generalmente las mismas reglas que el sustantivo. Apcope del adjetivo: Hay adjetivos calificativos que suprimen algunos de sus sonidos finales cuando van delante del sustantivo. Ej.: grande ... gran; bueno ... buen; santo ... san; malo ... mal.

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Grados del Adjetivo Los grados del adjetivo expresan las cualidades de un sustantivo poseidas en unas proporciones distintas. Ej.: el coche es rpido; el tren es ms rpido; el avin es rapidsimo. Grados de significacin del Adjetivo:

1) Positivo: Indica simplemente la cualidad: conquista prodigiosa. 2) Comparativo: Establece relacin de la cualidad poseda entre dos sustantivos.
FORMAS: de IGUALDAD: de INFERIORIDAD: de SUPERIORIDAD: el coche es el coche es el coche es tan rpido como el tren. el tren. el tren.

menos rpido que ms rpido que

3) Superlativo: Expresa la cualidad de un sustantivo poseda en el ms alto grado:

Ej.: avin rapidsimo CLASES:

ABSOLUTO: Es el que no compara la cualidad con ningun otro objeto Ej.: avin muy rpido o rapidsimo.

RELATIVO: Es el que expresa la cualidad de un sustantivo, poseda en el ms alto grado, pero comparndola con la de otros: Ej.: Luis es el ms alto de la clase. Comparativos y Superlativos Irregulares Positivo bueno malo grande pequeo alto bajo interno Comparativo mejor peor mayor menor superior inferior interior Superlativo ptimo psimo mximo mnimo supremo nfimo ntimo

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3.- El Pronombre
El pronombre es la palabra que hace las veces del nombre, es decir, que se pone en en su lugar para evitar su repeticin. CLASES:

1) PERSONALES
Singular Yo Me Mi Conmigo T Te Ti Contigo l, ella, ello le, le, lo se, se Plural Nosotros, Nosotras Nos Nos Vosotros, Vosotras Vos Vos Os Os Ellos, Les se Ellas Les se

1 Persona

2 Persona

3 Persona

2) DEMOSTRATIVOS Masculino ste se Aqul stos sos Aquellos Femenino sta sa aquella stas sas aquellas 3) POSESIVOS 1 Persona Masculino Mio Mios Nuestro Nuestros Tuyo Tuyos Vuestro Vuestros Suyo Suyos Femenino Mia Mias Nuestra Nuestras Tuya Tuyas Vuestra Vuestras Suya Suyas Neutro (lo) mio (lo) nuestro (lo) tuyo (lo) vuestro (lo) suyo Neutro Esto Eso Aquello Estos Esos Aquello

Singular Plural

2 Persona

3 Persona

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4) REFLEXIVOS Singular Yo mismo Me T mismo Te l mismo Ella misma (ello mismo) se Plural Nosostros mismos Nosotras mismas Nos Vosotros mismos Vosotras mismas Os Ellos mismos Ellas mismas (ellos mismos) se

1 Persona 2 Persona 3 Persona

5) RECPROCOS Plural (uno a otro: dos) (unos a otros: + de dos) Nos (uno a otro: dos) (unos a otros: + de dos) Os (uno a otro: dos) (unos a otros: + de dos) Se 6) RELATIVOS Masculino Femenino Singular: que, el que, cual, el cual, quien, cuyo Plural: que, los que, cuales, los cuales, quienes, cuyos Singular: que, la que, cual, la cual, quien, cuya Plural: que, las que, cuales, las cuales, quienes, cuyas 7) INTERROGATIVOS Si los pronombres relativos se colocan al comienzo de la frase, sirven entnces para interrogar o preguntar y por eso de denominan INTERROGATIVOS, stos siempre llevan acento () y no tienen antecedente

1 Persona 2 Persona 3 Persona

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8) INDEFINIDOS INDEFINIDOS: Son aquellos que designan las personas, animales o cosas de una Manera vaga, general, sin concretar claramente. Ej.: Algo tiene que comer. (ALGO indica un alimento pero no concreta de Cual se trata) Los ms usados son: Para PERSONAS: alguin, nadie, cualquiera, uno. Para COSAS: algo, nada OTROS: alguno ninguno varios mucho poco Variables todo uno cierto cualquiera otro quienquiera bastante demasiado Invariables alguien nadie algo nada

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CONJUGACIN ESPAOLA (Resumen)

Tiempos Verbales (simples) Presente Preterito Imperfecto Preterito Indefinido Futuro Simple Condicional Simple

HABER
He haba hube habr habra

SER
soy era fu ser sera

Las tres conjugaciones: AM-AR, TEM-ER, ConjugacionesIndicativo 1 -AR 2 -ER Presente Pretrito Imperfecto Pretrito Indefinido Futuro Simple Condicional Simple ConjugacionesSubjuntivo Presente Pretrito Imperfecto Pretrito Indefinido Futuro Simple Condicional Simple -o -aba - -ar -ara -o -a - -er -era

PART-IR 3 -IR
-o -a - -ir -ira

1 -AR
-e -ara/-ase ---------are ---------

2 -ER
-a -iera/-iese -----------iere ----------

3 -IR
-a -iera/-iese -----------iere -----------

Los tiempos compuestos o perfectos que Simples Presente Pretrito Imperfecto Pretrito Indefinido Futuro Simple Condicional Simple

corresponden a los tiempos simples son: Compuestos Pretrito Perfecto Pretrito Pluscuampecfecto Pretrito Anterior Futuro Perfecto Condicional Compuesto

Para formar los tiempos compuestos: se hacen con el correspondiente tiempo simple del verbo
HABER + el Participio perfecto o Pasado de verbo que se conjuga: Pretrito Anterior de amar: Yo hube amado

Para formar la VOZ PASIVA: se hace con el tiempo correspondiente del verbo SER + el
Participio Perfecto o Pasado del verbo que se conjuga: Pretrito Imperfecto Pasivo de amar: Yo era amado

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Correspondencia de tiempos espaoles con los tiempos ingleses Tiempos simples Espaoles Presente Simple Pretrito Imperfecto Pretrito Indefinito Futuro Simple Condicional Simple Tiempos simples Ingleses Simple Present Simple Past Simple Past Simple Future Simple Conditional Tiempos compuestos espaoles Pretrito Perfecto Pret.Pluscuamperfecto Pretrito Anterior Future Perfecto Cond. Compuesto Tiempos compuestos ingleses Present Perfect Past Perfect Past Perfect Future Perfect Perfect Conditional

1.- TABLE OF TENSES - ACTIVE VOICE Simple Continuous Perfect Perfect Continuous Past I sang I was singing I had sung I had been singing Present I sing I am singing I have sung I have been Singing Future I shall sing Conditional I should sing

I shall be I should be singing singing I shall have I should have sung sung I shall have been I should have been singin singing

Formas no personales del verbo Simple Infinitive Continuous Infinitive Perfect Infinitive Present Continuous Infintive Present Participle Past Participle Perfect Participle to sing to be singing to have sung to have been singing singing sung having sung

2.- TABLE OF TENSES - PASSIVE VOICE Simple Continuous Perfect Perfect Continuous Past I was sung I was being sung I had been sung I had been being sung Present I am sung I am being Sung I have been sung I have been being sung Future I shall be sung I shall be being sung I shall have been sung I shall have been being sung Conditional I should be sung I should be being sung I should have been sung I should have been being sung

Formas no personales del verbo Simple Infinitive Continuous Infinitive Perfect Infinitive Present Continuous Infintive Present Participle Past Participle To be sung To be being sung To have been sung To have been being sung Being sung Having been sung

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LAS ORACIONES y SUS CLASES

ORACIONES SIMPLES

Por el tono del verbo

Copulativas Transitivas Activas Intransitivas Reflexivas Pasivas Recprocas Impersonales

Por la ndole del verbo

Enunciativas Interrogativas Deliberativas Exhortativas

COORDINADAS

Copulativas Disyuntivas Distributivas Adversativa Ilativa (Sin conjuncin) Sujeto Complemento Directo Complemento Indirecto Complem. Circunstancial Complem. Nominal Aposicin (Hacen el oficio de un adjetivo) Finales Concesivas Lugar Modales (modo) Temporales (tiempo) Causales (causa) Consecutivas Condicionales

ORACIONES COMPUESTAS

YUXTAPUESTAS

SUSTANTIVAS (COMPLETIVAS)

SUBORDINADAS

ADJETIVAS o de RELATIVO

ADVERBIALES

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Expressing personal opinions In my opinion From my point of view In my view Personally As far as Im concerned Expressing facts As a matter of fact In fact Actually Giving examples For example / For instance Such as Causes and results Because of this / that For this / that reason Thats why Therefore As a result of Consequently So... Personal letters Thanks for your letter It was great to hear from you Im writing to tell you Hows it going By the way, hows your sister Well, Middleford isnt very big Anyway, I must stop writing now Write soon and tell me all your news Best wishes. Formal letters Dear Sir / Madam Im writing to you about I look forward to hearing from you Yours faithfully Yours sincerely

Expressing contrast However Nevertheless On the one hand On the other hand Although In spite of / Despite Adding information Apart from this / that Moreover / In addition Rephrasing That is (to say) In other words Modifiers To a certain extent More or less At least Basically Especially In particular Above all Writing dialogues Really? You know, its fast and cheap It doesnt fill you up, do you know what I mean? On the top of all that, its so fatty To tell you the truth, I love fast food Youre joking! Of course not. Time connectors First of all Next / Then After that While In the meantime All of a sudden Finally In the end

Summarising: In short / In conclusion On the whole / To sum up

CONJUNCIONES Y CONECTORES DE FRASES 1.- Tipos y usos:

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Conjunciones coordinantes: and, or, but b) Conectores: however, indeed c) Conjunciones subordinantes:
a)

- Temporales After As long as Before Till When Whenever

-

As As soon as Since Until While Etc.

de lugar: where, wherever causales: because, since, as de finalidad: so that, in order that consecutivas: as a result, so, then, so + adjetivo/adverbio + that, such + nombre + that concesivas: although, though, even though de manera: as, as if, as though 2.- Significados 2. 1 Relacin aditiva And As well Furthermore Both ... and ... In addition to this And whats more Not only ... but also... 2.2 Relacin alternativa Or, either ... or... Neither ... nor... Whether ... or... 2.3 Relacin contrastiva But Still Whereas Yet Despite
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Also Besides Likewise Too Moreover Again As well as Otherwise Or else Etc. However Nevertheless While Notwithstanding On the other hand

2.4 Relacin de causa-efecto So Consequently Due to the fact that 2.5 Relacin de ordenacin -

Therefore Because Etc.

Cronolgica: conjunciones temporales Lgica: Firstly ..., secondly..., and finally

Comprensin de texto: Respuestas According to the text... The text states that... The text mentions... The text refers to... The text says that... Resumen del contenido del texto: Introducelo diciendo The text is about... The author states This is the story of... /suggests/criticizes/explains/points The text deals with... out /lists/highlights/argues/puts forwards... Preguntas hipotticas: Respuestas Where would you like to spend your next few years? I would like to... Preguntas que solicitan tu opinin: Respuestas I think that... What do you think of...? Well, personally, I feel... Do you believe...? I believe... In my opinion... From my point of view...

ASKING ABOUT LANGUAGE Asking for definitions Possible Answers What does leather mean? Its a sort of... Whats a tracksuit? Its a kind of... Whats the meaning of shy? Its used to... Do you know the meaning of garden centre? Its an object/thing ... used to/for... Asking for explanations Asking for repetition How do you say (...) in English? Pardon? What do they call (...)? Excuse me? How could I say (...) in English? Could you repeat it, please? Do you know any other word/expression for (...) I didnt hear you. Can you say it again? How do you spell/write (...)? I cant understand you. Can you say it more slowly? 108

Read and learn this dialogue: Laura: Richard, please. What does leather mean? Richard: Excuse me? Laura: Whats the meaning of leather? Richard: Its a kind of material made of animal skin. It is used to make shoes, jackets ... Laura: How do you spell it? Richard: L-E-A-T-H-E-R. Laura: Thank you. Just another question. How could I say I dont feel very well in other words? Richard: Well, you can say I feel down, or I feel blue. Laura: Thanks a lot. Youre a really good friend. ABOUT DIFFERENT FEELINGS AND ATTITUDES Asking how someone feels Saying you are curious Are you all right/OK? Is everything OK? Can someone tell me what is going on? Are you sure you are all right/OK? Im interested to know... Youre not nervous/worried/unhappy (about)..., are you? Can someone tell me about...? Is anything the matter? Id like to know more about... How do you feel about...? Whats wrong? How are you doing? Expressing optimism Expressing pessimism Mm, Im not so sure. Everything will be fine. I doubt that. You wait and see. Its all going to be OK. Im not at all sure. Things will work out fine/all right. I dont really believe... I feel quite sure (about)... There is no way... Im not too happy about... Read and learn this dialogue: John: Hello, Mary! Is everything all right? Mary: Yeah, I guess John: Are you sure you are OK? You arent worried about anything, are you? Mary: Well, I dont want to bore you with my problems. John: Please, Im interested to know what is happening to you. Mary: Im not sure my maths teacher like me. In fact, I think he hates me. John: Why are you saying that? I doubt it. He is a very pleasant man who seems to like everyone. I dont Really believe he can dislike you. Mary: Are you sure about that? I took a maths exam I dont think Im going to pass. John: You wait and see. Itll all turn out fine, and Im sure that you will pass. Mary: I really hope so. EXPRESSING LIKES AND PREFERENCES Asking and answering about likes Asking and answering about preferences Do you like/enjoy (+ noun or ing)...? Do you prefer (+ noun or ing) to (+ noun or ing)? Are you keen on...? We can ... or ..., what do you think? What are your feelings about...? Do you like ... better/more than ...? I like/enjoy/adore/love/hate/dislike... Which do you prefer ... or ...? Im (not) keen on... Id rather (+ inf. s/to) than (+ inf. s/to). Ive always liked/hated/loved/enjoyed... I like/enjoy ... better/more than ... Ive been mad about... I much prefer ... to ... I think ... is great/brilliant/fantastic/fun. ... appeals to me more than ... Theres nothing I like/enjoy more than... Read and learn the following: Student 1: Do you enjoy jazz festivals? Student 2: Well, Im not very keen on jazz. Student 3: We can go to a concert or to the cinema. What do you prefer? Student 4: I much prefer listening to music to watching a film. Student 5: Laura, do you enjoy listening to classical music? Student 6: Theres nothing I enjoy more than listening to classical music. 109

Student 7: Do you prefer folk music to opera? Student 8: Not really, I much prefer opera to pop music. ASKING FOR AND GIVING PERMISSION Would it be possible...? Would it be possible if I came back home later? Yes, of course. Formal Would you mind if...? Would you mind if she finishes my work? No, I dont mind it at all. I wonder if I could...? I wonder if I could see your dictionary. Sure./ Im sorry, but Im already using it. May I...? May I come in? Yes, you may. Do you mind...? Do you mind if Arthur comes to the party with us? No, I dont. Please tell him to come. Do you think I could...? Do you think I could go to the U2 concert tomorrow? Im afraid you cant. Could I...? Could I have a ham sandwich? Yes, here you are. Can I...? Can I go with my sister to the cinema tonight? Yes, you can. Informal Read these dialogues and find out which expressions are used when you talk to somebody for the first time: Amy, let me introduce David Lpez. This is Amy Anderson, the language coordinator. Please to meet you Mr Lpez How do you do Mrs Anderson? Is this your first time in Ireland? Yes, it is. And what do you think about it? (...) Hello, Liz. Im Iris. Your mother talked to you about me, didnt she? Yes, she did. Nice to meet you, Iris. Are you enjoying your stay in Dublin? Sure, Dublin is a wonderful city. Could you show me around? Of course, Lets see. First, we could go to the city centre and then visit Stephens Park. Then, ... IDIOMS An IDIOM is an idiomatic expression. There are many idioms in English and people like using them very much in conversation. They are quite colloquial. There are idioms related to colours such as to be the black sheep, to be in the red, to feel blue, to have got green fingers, etc. Most of them are body idioms which are related to parts of the body: Choose the right colour to complete these colour idioms. 1) She was white/green with envy. 2) The police caught the thief green/red-handed. 3) How are you?, Im in the pink/blue as my holiday starts today. 4) When I started driving i was very red/green and I had to learn a lot. 5) He was white/red in the face with cold. 6) A blue/white lie is sometimes justified. Read these situations and choose a body idiom for each one. 1) To turn ones ________ on somebody. 6) To make ones ________ stand on end. 2) To be wet behind the _______. 7) To be all ________ and thumbs 3) To put ones ________ down. 8) To pull somebodys ________. 4) To _________ the music. 9) To be a pain in the ________. 5) To _________ ones way. 10) To pay through the ________. You buy something and pay a very high price for it. You have done something bad and you are going to be criticised or punished for it. 110

You can use this expression when talking about a horror film. You say this about a person who cant do anything with his/her hands. If you do this to a friend, you dont help him/her when he/she needs it. When you go to s disco and there are many people, you do this to be able to move around. When a person doesnt have much experience of things and doesnt realised all the dangers of something. When you tell someone something that is not true and they believe you, but they will laugh when they realise that it is not true. You use this idiom to refer to a person you find very annoying and irritating. When you do this, you are firm in your position, you use your authority to prevent something from happening.

Practise the idioms above as in the example: - Ive bought a new CD. - How much was it? - 30. - You paid through the nose, didnt you?

EXPRESSING CERTAINTY, UNCERTAINTY, POSSIBILITY, AND IMPOSSIBILIY To express you are sure I am (completely) sure that... I know for sure that... I am a hundred per cent sure that... I am positive that... To say that something is possible or probable That will probably... Its possible/probable that... Its likely that... I bet that... Theres a good chance that... Perhaps/Maybe... To express you are not sure I am not really sure... I am not convinced that... I cant say for sure that... I am not certain that... To say that something is impossible or improbable Its impossible/not possible/not probable that... Thats unlikely... It is very doubtful that... I cant believe that... I dont think that is the case.

Example: A: I am positive this is a television. B: I dont think that is the case. Perhaps it is a computer. APOLOGIZING Apology Sorry, Im very sorry. It was my fault. Im terribly sorry. I apology for/about... Excuse Excuse me for... Please, forgive me for... Im afraid... 111 Responses Thats all right/OK. Dont worry. Forget it. Not at all.

Please, accept my apologies (for...) That was very foolish/careless of me, Im afraid. Make dialogues for these situations using varied structures. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

It doesnt matter at all. Please, think nothing of it. Its perfectly all right. Theres no reason to apologise (for)...

Apologise to a friend for arriving late for his party. Apologise to your brother/sister for forgetting his/her birthday. Apologise to your parents for coming back home late. Give an excuse. You are riding your bike. A person step off the pavement. You have to stop fast in order to avoid hitting him/her. You are angry. The other person is frightened. You are a customer of a hostel and the room is dirty and the bed hasnt got any sheets. Your partner is the receptionist who tries to apologise.

COMMUNICATING To maintain a conversation with an interlocutor is not easy. Sometimes, while you are talking, you may need some time to think of what you are going to say next. In these cases, you do not usually stop the conversation, but you use some expressions such as the following: Err, lets see/Let me see... Well, mm, you se... (...), I mean, (...) Taking some time to think Um, let me think/Lets think... (...), you know, (...) Oh, wait a second...

If you want to change topics, that is, what the conversation is about, you can say expressions like these: Changing topics during a conversation By the way, Oh, before I forget, ... While I remember, ... Oh, I almost forgot to tell you... Finally, when you have been talking for a while and want to finish your intervention, you can use expressions like these ones: Finish ones intervention In short, ... To sum up, ... Briefly, ... In conclusion, ... The point Im trying to make is... 112

Read this dialogue: Alex: So, what is it you wanted to say before? Mary: Lets see, what I wanted to say is that, you know, the working class conditions of factory workers have changed a lot over the years. Alex: But, that has been mentioned before, I mean, that is not the reason why we are here today. Mary: I think you didnt understand very well what I meant, mm, you see, our salary, job safety and so on, have improved. Maggie: By the way, I would like to know if we are going to fight for a pay rise this year. Alex: Why not? I have always been in favour of yearly pay rise. Mary: Oh, I almost forgot to tell you, the manager called this morning to tell me he wanted to talk to us about something very important. Alex and Maggie: And you tell us now! In conclusion, we have been wasting our time, he probably wants to talk to us about all this. Mary: But I thought...

DEBATING A debate is a conversation among several people who may have different opinions on a topic. In a debate there is a moderator, a neutral person who does not show his/her opinion on the topic, and the partcipants who show their point of view. The moderators job is to set the times for the participants to talk. Rules for debating Select people who have different opinions. Be well-informed on the topic. Respect the turns and the time. Follow the debate line. Respect other peoples opinions. Stating the facts For example, ... As we know, ... On the issue of... My point is... Disagreeing I see what you mean, but... Im afraid I dont agree... That argument ignores... Thats true, but... Im not sure... This is nonsense. Read this debates sample: Presenter: Good afternoon, everybody. Im Arthur Newton. Its seven oclock and this is another edition of Lets talk about. The subject of todays discussion is: extraterrestrial life. In the studio we have to guests to open the debate. If you want to take part, call 01-66-77-55. Our first guest is AB. 113 Beginnings Id like to start by saying that... I must say... Offering solutions Itd be much better... Why dont we...? I think we should...

AB: my point is... Presenter: thank you. Over to you, JJ JJ: I completely disagree. That argument ignores... Presenter: Thanks, so now its over to you, the viewers. Our first caller is...

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FUNCTIONS

Ive got a small problem... Im not sure what to do... Could you give some advice? Do you think I should/ought to...? What should I do? What would you advise me to do? What would you recommend?

Asking for advice

Giving advice
I (dont) think you should... I (dont) think you ought to... If I were you, I would... Youd better... You could... Why dont you....

Apologizing
Im really very sorry about... It was my fault. Sorry about.... How silly of me. Thats all right. Dont worry. Thats OK. Forget it.

Accepting

Agreeing
I quite agree with you I think you are right. Youre are absolutely right. Thats absolutely true. I couldnt agree with you more! Right!

Partially agreeing
I see what you mean, but... Yes, but on the other hand... I can see that, but... I suppose you could be right, but...

Disagreeing
Do you really think so? Im sorry, but I dont agree (with...) I think thats nonsense. You cant be serious.

Expressing boredom
I dont think thats very interesting How boring! *It turns me off! *So what?

Checking that someone has understood you

Do you see what I mean? Do you understand? Do you see? *OK? *Do you get it?

Saying something in a different way

I mean... What I mean is... What Im trying to say is...

Expressing excitement
How exciting! Thats fantastic!

Saying goodbye
Excuse a moment. Im afraid I really must go now. Bye for now. See you later

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Interrupting
Sorry to interrupt you, but... May I interrupt you for a second? Hold on a moment!

Introducing yourself
How do you do? My names is... Hello. Im...

Answer
How do you do? Im... Hello. My names.... *Hi

Introducing others
This is John How do you do? Please to meet you. Hi, nice to meet you. How do you do? Hello, John.

Invitations
Would you like to...? What about...? How about...? Do you fancy... ing? Why dont you....?

Accepting
Thank you very much. Thats very kind of you. That would be very nice. Lovely!

Declining
Thank you very much, but... I wish I could, but... Id love to, but... Im afraid I cant, because...

Asking about languages

How do you say...? How do you pronounce...? How do you spell...? Do you say... or ...? Is this right? When do we use...? What does... mean? Whats the meaning of...? Whats another word for...?

Presenting a gift
Please accept this... Allow me to present you with... It gives me great pleasure to present...

Thanking
Thats extremely kind of you. Im extremely grateful. I appreciate... very much.

Expressing regret
I wish I had / hadnt (done...) I should / shouldnt have (done...) If only I had / hadnt (done...) Im sorry I (did...) What a pity I (did...) How silly of me (to do...)

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Expressing pleasure
Im so glad... Thank goodness... Isnt it wonderful that...

Expressing relief
What a relief! Thank goodness for that!

Asking for an opinion

What do you think of...? How do you feel about...? Whats your opinion of...?

Giving an opinion
I think... I believe... Id say... Personally, I feel... In my opinion, ... It seems to me that... As far as Im concerned,...

Saying you are not sure

Im not really sure. I dont think...

Saying you dont know

Im afraid I dont know very much about... Ive no idea. I wish I knew.

Asking someone to repeat

Sorry? What did you say? Could you repeat that pleae? I didnt quite catch that. *What?

Expressing request
Could you...? Would you...? Will you...? Do you think you could...? Would you mind... ing?

Granting
Yes, of course

Refusing
Im afraid not.

Not, not at all.

Id rather not

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Suggesting
Shall we...? Lets... We could... Why dont we...? Why not...? I think we should... I suggest that we... I suggest (possessive) ing... How about... ing? What about... ing? SUBJECTS (note the stress) Latin mathematics (maths) science physics chemistry biology botany zoology geography history religious education (RE) physical education (PE)

Agreeing with suggestions

Thats a good idea. What a good idea! That sounds like a very good idea. Yes, why not! Yes, lets.

Disagreeing with suggestions

I dont think thats a very good idea. That doesnt sound like a very good idea to me. No, dont lets.

EASILY CONFUSED WORDS Course Career Marks Qualifications Qualities Subjects Degree Lecture

SOME EXPRESSIONS
Gets my goat, he wouldnt say Boo! to a goose mutton dressed as lamb pulls your socks up

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Personality: WHATS HE/SHE LIKE?

self-confident attractive hard-working good at helpful original witty, clever optimistic organised, efficient tidy conservative generous cheerful, good-humoured sympathetic, understanding shy, reserved ugly lazy, a shirker, a tease bad at unhelpful unoriginal dull pessimistic disorganised, inefficient untidy adventurous mean bad-tempered unsympathetic

Appearance: WHAT DOES HE/SHE LOOK LIKE?

He broad-shoulder bald He/She tall, average height well built of medium build fat, thin, slim fair, dark, red-haired weather-beaten suntanned pale wide, small, generous mouth long, hooked, broad, snub nose freckles wrinkles good-looking She a nice figure delicately built blonde, brunette a good complexion

Handsome

pretty, beautiful

CLOTHES Skirt Trousers Jeans

ACCESORIES bracelet earrings necklace

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MATERIALS Silk Satin Cotton

VERBS get

dressed undressed ready

Shirt Blouse Cardigan Twinset Sweater Pullover Waistcoat Tie bow-tie jacket suit pyjamas nightdress tights slippers Mini Maxi Midi Full Pleated Straight

chain brooch ring pearls belt handbag

Tweed Velvet Linen Wool Lace

changed wear put on a coat etc. take off try something on sit fit match go with shorten lengthen take in let out

a dress trousers etc.

IN FASHION/OUT OF FASHION

skirt

Flared bell-bottom narrow

trousers

SCHOOL SYSTEM Playgroup Playschool Kindergarten Compulsory education Junior Primary Comprehensive secondary school grammar public school

HIGHER OR FURTHER EDUCATION University Polytechnic Teacher Training College Trade School Night School evening classes day release

VERBS sit take an exam pass / fail do follow a course

pay attention to apply for a place at got to University lectures get a first class degree second do research (into)

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