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INDIAN HISTORY
ANCIENT INDIA

I. Harappa Digest
Indus Valley civilizations covering approx 1/2 million miles of Northern Indian subcontinent is
the largest ancient civilization in history till now. Since both stone and copper are used it is a
chalcolithicivil.The Indus Valley people are highly artistic and skilled. Their chief features include
a highly organized urban setup and a strong economy.
The IVC economy is flourishing with extensive cultivation of wheat, barley. The Indus river is
used for transport, weights are all very accurate and highly standardized and traders have own
personalised seals.

Fashion: The exact origin of the IVC people is disputed but appears to belong to four ethnic
types including the Protoaustioloids, Mediterraneans, Mongoloids and Alpines. People enjoy a
comfortable life with a variety of luxuries like ornaments in agate and gold, cosmetics (kajal)
and elaborate toys for children. Painting on pottery is skillful and covers various themes while
small sculptures in terracotta (animals, toys), soft stone (bearded man) and metal jewels
abound.
The greatest artistic skill is in the seals. These engravings of animals, flowers and other symbols
have artistic, religious and economic value.

Town Planning: The city of Mohenjo Daro is testimony to the town planning activities of the
IVC. Cities are divided into lower dwellings & the Citadel which houses important buildings. The
streets form a grid system and are of modulated width. Bricks of fixed sizes are used for
building while stone and wood are also used.Municipal authorities who are responsible for the
whole of the valley also regularly maintain a highly efficient drainage system.Buildings in the
lower area are rather monotonous, being mainly functional rather than decorative. But many
houses are 2 storeyed.

Architecture-Great Bath: Mohenjo Daro has a sophisticated system of water supply &
drainage and its brickwork is highly functional and the amazing part of it is - that it is
completely waterproof. The granaries are also intelligently constructed, with strategic airducts
and platform is divided into units.The Dock at Lothal is to be used for inland & foreign trade.

Religion: The culture and religion of the IVC overlap and perhaps repetitive symbols such as
the pipal leaf and swastika have religious significance. Human dieties include a "proto type of
Shiva" and a mother goddess. Animal symbols such as the bull and unicorn and those of tree
spirits and water deities are also common.

Trivia: The IVC script is pictorial and never more than 20 consecutive symbols. There are a
total of 300 symbols, these probably evolved from highly elaborate pictures but no further
development took place in all these years. A two or three line linear. Inscription begins from left
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to right, then reverses in the next line. The IVC script remains a mystery though theories as to
what its character is abound.

II. Alexander Times (336 Bc-323 Bc)

India, 336 BC: Alexander has launched an attack on the Indian sub-continent: The throne of
Macedon in south-east Europe has been occupied by Alexander. Having defeated the last of the
Persian rulers and conquered the Acharmenian empire, Alexander has vowed to conquer the
Indian satraps. His army has crossed the Hindukush mountains and is strengthening its position
near Kabul. He has captured the fortresses of Massaga and Aornos. Alexander is from a far off
land called Greece. This is reportedly beyond the horizon.

The astonishing fact about this he is just 21 years old! It's known from well-placed sources that
he is planning to launch a major attack on the Pauravan king across the Jhelum river. The
Pauravan king is planning a massive counter attack.

Alexander defeats the Pauravan King and marches ahead!!
India, 326 BC: Alexander moves through the dense jungles of Ohind. Then, having crossed the
Indus river and secured the help of the Ambhi, king of Taxila, Alexander marches on to the
Jhelum. The Pauravan king with an army of 30,000 soldiers, horses and elephants provided
fierce resistance but was eventually defeated.
When Alexander asked the Pauravan king to bow, the latter answered, "Act like a King".
Impressed by the Pauravan king's efforts he has given him back his kingdom. Alexander leaves
India

Alexander has moved further. He concentrated on capturing the Chenab and Ravi plains upto
Beas. This strategy of Alexander is typical of the great Greek rulers. Having conquered several
tribes and satraps, Alexander has received many presents including brocades, gems, tigers, etc.
He wanted to move further towards the Ganges valley, but has been stopped by his tired
troops.

So with a heavy heart, Alexander has retraced his steps to the Jhelum. He has been severally
wounded while storming one of the citadels of the powerful tribe of Malavas. Through the
desserts of Baluchistan and with terrible sufferings, he has reached Babylon. And in 323 BC ,
not very long after his return to Babylon, Alexander dies.

"The hold of the great king [Alexander] on the Indian frontier slackened considerably in
the fourth century BC. The arduous campaigns of Alexander restored the fallen fabric of
imperialism and laid the foundation of a closer contact between India and the Hellenic
world. The Macedonian empire in the Indus valley no doubt perished within a short time.
But the Macedonian had welded the political atoms into one unit and thus paved the way
for the permanent union under the Mauryas."


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III. Chandragupta Maurya (322-298 BC)

322 BC: Chandragupta Maurya captures Magadha - Establishes First Indian Empire:
Chandragupta, with the help Chanakya (Kautilya), who is also known as the Indian Machiavelli,
destroyed the Nanda rulers of Magadha and established the Mauryan empire. It is said that
Chanakya met Chandragupta in the Vindhya forest, after being insulted by the Nanda king.

Alexander's invasion prompted Indians to develop a centralised state. Chandragupta declared
war and defeated Selucus Nicator, the Macedonian ruler of the Northwestern territories captured
by Alexander the Great.

Along with the the astute advice of Chanakya, Chandragupta also seized Punjab, Kabul,
Khandahar, Gandhara and Persia from Seluces. Seluces' daughter was married to
Chandragupta.

"Selucus failed and had to conclude a treaty with Chandragupta by which he surrendered a
large territory including, in the opinion of certain writers, the satrapies of Paropanisadai (Kabul),
Aria (Herat), Arachosia (Qanadahar) and Gedrosia (Baluchistan), in return for 500 elephants.
The treaty was probably cemented by a marriage contract. A Greek envoy was accredited to the
Court of Pataliputra."

The most important result of this treaty was that Chandragupta's fame spread far and
wide and his empire was recognised as a great power in the western countries. The kings
of Egypt and Syria sent ambassadors to the Mauryan Court.

Chandragupta's birth shrouded in mystery: Chandragupta Maurya's origins were shrouded
in mystery. Having been brought up by peacock tamers, he could be of low caste birth.
According to other sources, Chandragupta Maurya was the son of a Nanda prince and a dasi
called Mura. It is also possible that Chandragupta was of the Maurya tribe of Kshatriyas.

Mauryan Administration: Maurya empire was the first really large and powerful centralised
state in India. It was very well governed, with tempered autocracy at the top and democracy at
the city and village levels. Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador at the court of Chandragupta
Maurya in Pataliputra, had expressed his admiration for the efficient administration of the
empire. His book 'Indica' is a collection of comments of other Roman & Greek travelers, and
Megasthenes wrote about the prosperity of the Mauryan cities.

He further reported that agriculture was healthy, water abundant and mineral wealth was in
plenty. Speaking of the general prosperity, Megasthenes wrote, "the Indians, dressed in bright
and rich colors, they liberally used ornaments and gems." He also spoke of the division of
society according to occupation and the large number of religious sects and foreigners in the
empire.

Chandragupta Maurya's son Bindusara became the new Mauryan Emperor by inheriting an
empire including the Hindukush, Narmada, Vindhyas, Mysore, Bihar, Bengal, Orissa, Assam,
Baluchistan & Afghanistan.
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IV. South India between 600-1200: The Chalukyas

850: The Chalukyas gained Importance: The Chalukyas rose to power in the Deccan from
the fifth to eighth century and again from the tenth to twelfth century. They ruled over the area
between the Vindhyan mountain and the river Krishna. The Chalukyas were sworn enemies of
the Pallavas and rose to power in Karnataka. The first great ruler of the Chalukya dynasty was
Pulakesin I. He founded Vatapi (modern Badami in Bijapur district) and made it his capital. He is
said to have performed Ashwamedha Yagna (horse sacrifice). The kingdom was further
extended by his sons Kirtivarman and Mangalesa by waging many successful wars against the
neighbours including Mauryans of the Konkans.

608-642: Reign of Pulakesin II: Pulakesin II was the son of Kirtivarman. He was the the
greatest ruler of the Chalukya dynasty. He ruled for almost 34 years. In this long reign, he
consolidated his authority in Maharashtra and conquered large parts of the Deccan from the
banks of the Nerbudda to the reign beyond the Kaveri. His greatest achievement was his victory
in the defensive war against Harshvardhan in 620. In 641, the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang,
visited the kingdom and said that the king was served by his nobles with perfect loyalty.
However the last days of the king were not happy. Pulakesin was defeated and killed by the
Pallav king Narasimhavarman in 642. His capital Vatapi was completely destroyed.

End of Chalukya Dynasty: Pulakestin was succeeded by his son Vikramaditya who was also as
great a ruler as his father. He renewed the struggle against his southern enemies. He recovered
the former glory of the Chalukyas to a great extent. Even his great grandson Vikramaditya II
was also a great warrior. He actually entered the Pallava capital. In 753, Vikramaditya and his
son were overthrown by a chief named Dantidurga who laid the foundation of the next great
empire of Karnataka and Maharashtra, that of Rashtrakutas.

South India between 600-122: The Cholas
850 he Cholas gained Importance
985-1018 Reign of Rajaraja I
1018-1048 Reign oI Rajendra Chola

850: The Cholas gained Importance: The territory south, of rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra
extending upto Cape Comorin is known as South India or Carnatic region. South India was
divided into three kingdoms namely the Cholas, the Chera and the Pandyas of which Cholas was
the most famous kingdom. The Cholas occupied present Tanjore and Trincnopoly districts with
some adjoining areas. Till eight century the Chola kingdom was very small but gained
importance from the ninth century onwards.

The Chola dynasty rose to prominence when in 850 their ruler Vijayalaya defeated the Pallavas
and snatched Tanjore from them. Then Tanjore became the capital of the Chola kingdom. In the
ninth century Aditya Chola and Parantaka I were the successors of Vijayalaya.

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985-1018: Reign of Rajaraja I: The most important ruler of Chola was Rajaraja I. He was
one of the greatest kings of the South India and was known as "Rajaraja the Great". Rajaraja I
and his able son Rajendra, conquered nearly the whole of the present Madras Presidency.
Rajaraja defeated the eastern Chalukyas of Vegi, the Pandyas of Madurai and the Gangas of
Mysore. His kingdom extended from Cape in the north to Comorin in the south. He conquered
Sri Lanka, the Maldive Islands and Sumatra and other places in Malay Peninsula.

He was not only an able administrator but also a great builder. He built a magnificent temple at
Tanjore and which is named as Rajarajeshwar after his name.

1018-1048: Reign of Rajendra Chola: Rajendra Chola was also a able ruler like his father.
He even went upto Bengal. He was victorious upto the banks of Ganges. He assumed the title of
"Gangaikonda" (the victor of Ganges). On his way he built up a new capital called
Gangaikondacholapuram. His greatest achievements was the conquest of Andaman and Nicobar
islands. During his reign the kingdom was called the "Golden Age of Cholas." After his death the
Chola kingdom began to decline. His successors were weak and so the kingdom started
disintegrating.

Administration and Art: Chola empire was prosperous. The empire was divided into
mandalams or provinces, further sub-divided into valanadus and nadus. The Cholas also built
many temples. Numerous sculptures were also found. They include bronze image of Nataraja,
the divine dancer Shiva, dancing the dance of death and destruction.

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MEDIEVAL INDIA

I. Chronology of Slave Dynasty

Qutbuddin Aibak (1206-1210): In 1206, when Muhammad of Gour died, Qutbuddin became
the Sultan of India. He was originally a slave of Turkestan. As he started his career as a slave,
the dynasty founded by him in India is known as "Slave Dynasty". The construction of
Qutabminar was started during his regime. Since he was very generous, the people called him
"Lakh Baksh".

Aram Shah (1210-1211): Qutbuddin was succeeded by his son Aram Shah. He was
incompetent and so was defeated by Iltumish, Qutbuddin's son-in-law, in 1211.

Iltumish (1211-1236): After defeating Aram Shah, Iltumish occupied the throne. As he
started his career as slave of Qutbuddin, he was called "Slave of slave". He brought the silver
coins called the tanka. He completed the construction of Qutab Minar. He died in 1236.

Rukhuddin Firoz Shah (1236): Iltumish's son Rukhuddin Firoz was raised to the throne of
Delhi. But as he was unfit, he was dethroned and was killed in November 1236.

Razziya Sultan (1236-1240): After Rukhuddin Firoz was dethroned, Iltumish's daughter
Razziya was accepted as the ruler. But being a woman, she faced opposition from many of her
sardars in the court. She was put to death by the rebellious nobles in October 1240. She was
the first and only woman ever to ascend the throne of Delhi.

Muizuddin Bahram (1240-1242): Razziya's two successors were Bahram and Masad. But
they were incompetent and worthless. Bahram died on May 15, 1242.

Nasiruddin Mahmud (1246-1266): Nasiruddin Mahmud, the youngest son of Iltumish, was
raised as the Sultan of Delhi in 1246. He used to spend most of the time in prayer. So his Prime
Minister Ghiyasuddin Balban used to manage the state of affairs. Nasiruddin died in February
1266.

Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266-1286): After the death of Nasiruddin, Ghiyasuddin seized the
throne. He subdued the rebellious sardars in Sindh, Ayodhya and Bengal. The Sultan paid more
attention to the production of arms and weapons and the result was that the Mongols could not
penetrate in to India. He died in 1286.

Muizuddin Kaiquabad (1287-1290): Muizuddin was very young and paid no attention to the
state affairs. He was finally killed in 1290 and Jalaluddin Firuz ascended the throne on June 13,
1290.


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II. Contribution

First Battle of Panipat: The battle was fought between Mongol prince Zahir-ud-Din
Muhammad 'BABUR' and Afghan Sultan of Delhi Ibrahim Lodhi. It developed over few years as
Ibrahim lost control over his noblemen and wazirs.

Sultan Ibrahim Lodhi of Delhi: The handsome Ibrahim Lodhi multiplied his rigors at Delhi.
Mian Bhua the vazir of his father was first thrown in prison then given a cup of poisoned wine.
Noblemen like Azam Humanyun (Not Babur's son) and Hussayn Khan Farmuli were
assassinated. Daulat Khan Lodhi governor of Lahore was ordered to appear at Delhi,he excused
himself and sent his son in his place. Sultan took his son to prison and was shown the bodies of
rebels hanging from the walls. "now you know what awaits those who disobey me" said Ibrahim
Lodhi to the frightened boy.

Daulat Khan appealed to Babur. "For 30 years " Babur said to him "you have eaten the salt
of Lord Ibrahim and of his father, why this?". "It is true that my father and grand father have
spent many years in their service,but this sultan prosecutes most faithful of his vassals. Without
cause he has put to death 23 of his best men and ruined their families. That is why the nobles
have sent me to you to convey their homage,they wait you anxiously."

III. Khalji Dynasty

1290 Accession of Jalaluddin Firuz Khalji
1292 Alauddin Khalji captures Bhilsa
1301 Capture of Ranthambhor by Alauddin Khalji
1302-1303 Capture of Chitor
1316 Death of Alauddin Khalji

With the accession of Jalaluddin Firoze Shah, the rule of a new dynasty -- the Khaljis -- was
established in Delhi.

Jalaluddin was first not liked by the nobles. However as Barni writes, the "excellence of his
character, his justice, generosity and devotion gradually removed the aversion of the people,
and hopes of grants of land assisted in conciliating, though grudgingly and unwillingly, the
affections of his nobles".

An Advanced History of India
1296: Alauddin Khalji introduces controversial policies: The New Emperor of Delhi, Alauddin
Khalji, murdered his uncle Jalaluddin Firoze to gain the throne. It was his ambition to establish
a vast empire. He introduced more controversial policies. All religious lands were confiscated
and marriages between noble families were sanctioned by the King. The Emperor also
introduced market and price control for foodgrains, cloth and other essentials. The land revenue
was raised and made more efficient. Thus the Emperor enforced a highly centralised system of
government.

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He extended the boundaries of the Delhi Sultanate and brought almost the whole of India under
his sway. Alauddin conquered Gujarat, Ranthambhor, Chitor, Warangal, the Hosala & Pandaya
kingdoms. He also took effective measures to keep the Mongols out of his Indian empire, and so
followed the policy of strengthening the defense force. Alauddin died in 1316.
After Alauddin died, Malik Kafur tried to establish control but was murdered and then two others
from the Khalji dynasty came to the throne until 1320.

Did you know?
Alauddin Khalji introduced the first permanent standing army in India. The emperor was
the commander-in-chief of the army, followed by the Ariz-i-mamalik (war minister).
Khaljis' army also introduced the huliya whereby a description was recorded of each
soldier and the cavalry used the "dagh" (branding of the horses) with the royal insignia.
These became permanent features in medieval Indian armies.
According to legend, Rani Padmini, the queen of Chittor, was renowned for her beauty.
When Khalji defeated Rana Ratna Singh of Chittor, he demanded to see Padmini. He was
thus shown her face in a hall of mirror as custom prevented him from seeing her face-to-
face. Later, Padmini and all the royal women of Chittor committed "Jauhar" (self-
immolation) to prevent their capture, as that was the Rajput custom.

IV. Tughlaq Dynasty

1320 Usurpation of Nasiruddin Khusrav; His Overthrow by Ghiyasuddin Tughluq
1325 Accession of Muhammad bin Tughluq
1328 Mongols invade India
1334 Capture of Anegundi by Muhammad bin Tughluq
1336 Traditional date of the foundation of Vijayanagar
1351 Death of Muhammad bin Tughluq
1388 Accession of Ghiyasuddin Tughluq II
1389 Death of Tughluq II


1325-1351: Muhammad bin Tughlaq: In 1320, Ghazi Tughlaq, the governor of the north-
western provinces took the throne under the title Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq. In 1325 the Sultan met
an accidental death and was succeeded by his son Jauna under the title Muhammad bin
Tughlaq. During his reign, the territorial expansion of Delhi Sultanate reached its farthest limits.
His empire covered the regions from Peshawar in the north and Madurai in the South, and from
Sindh in the west to Assam in the east.

The capital was transfered from Delhi to Devagiri. However, it had to be shifted back within two
years as there were no adequate arrangements in the new capital. Muhammad also introduced
copper and brass coins as "token coins" and ordered that these coins should be considered at
par with the silver and gold coins in value. This resulted in forged coins and as a result token
currency was withdrawn. He died in 1351.

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1351-1388: Firoz Shah Tughlaq: Firoz Shah, cousin of Muhammad came to throne in 1351.
He was not successful and could not control the rebellions which broke out in the different parts
of the empire. What he did was to increase the numbers of schools and hospitals. He
established new towns like Ferozabad, Fatehbad, Jaunpur, Hissar, Firoza and Firozpur.

Timur's invasion and End of the Sultanate of Delhi: After the death of Firoze Tughlaq,
there were civil wars. Nasiruddin Muhammad (1394-1412) was the last of the Tughlaq Sultans.
During his reign, in 1398, the Mongol ruler Timur invaded India. Muhammad fled and Timur
captured the city. Thousands of people were killed. After fifteen days, Timur returned to
Samarkhand carrying away a large booty with him. Muhammad Tughlaq re-occupied Delhi.

After his death in 1414, Khizi Khan Sayyid occupied the throne. Sayyid was succeeded by the
Lodis. Ibrahim Lodi was the last Sultan of Delhi. Finally Babar, the ruler of Kabul-Kandhahar,
invaded India in 1526, defeated Ibrahim at the first battle of Panipat and established the rule of
Mughals in India. And thus ended the Sultanate of Delhi.

Did you know?

The reign of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq as Sultan of Delhi from 1325-1351 was dogged by
constant controversy. Tughlaq was suspected of having murdered his father to gain the
throne and though a deeply learned man, Tughlaq lacked practical knowledge. His
experiments with taxation and issue of token currency ended in total failure and his
decree to force a migration from Delhi to Daulatabad left hundreds dead. His plans to
extend the Empire were unsuccessful and as rebellions grew, Tughlaq ordered
indiscriminate assassinations. Much of the good he effected was overshadowed by these
controversies and speculation exists that by the end of his rule, Tughlaq was insane.

V. The Portuguese in India

1497-98 First voyage of Vasco-da-Gama
1510 Portuguese captures Goa
1513 Death of Albuquerque
1661 Cession of Bombay to the English

Vasco-da-Gama discovers new sea route to India: Many sailors from different countries of
Europe set sail to discover a new sea route to India. Many voyages were undertaken during the
last decade of the fifteenth century. In 1492, Columbus, an Italian sailor, set out from Spain to
reach India and discovered America. However Vasco-da-Gama, a Portuguese sailor, succeeded
in the effort. He rounded South Africa and finally landed at the famous port of Calicut on May
17, 1498. The ruler of Calicut bearing the hereditary title of Zamorin welcomed him cordially.

Vasco-da-Gama carried spices from India to Portuguese and made very heavy profits. So the
Portuguese sent other expeditions to India and they established trade centres at Calicut, Cochin
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and Cannanore. The sea route went round the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and so was
called the "Cape Route to India".

Portuguese Possession in India: Franciso-de-Almedia was the first Governor of the
Portuguese possession in India. He maintained supreme power of the Portuguese on the sea
and confined their activity to trade and commerce. It was Alfanso-de-Albuquerque who laid the
real foundation of Portuguese power in India. He first came to India in 1503 as the commander
of a squadron and in 1509 was appointed as the Governor of Portuguese affairs in India.
In November 1510, he captured Goa, then belonging to the Bijapur Sultanate, and made it the
capital of Portuguese territories in India. He was very kind to Hindus but was very cruel to
Muslim and treated them as his enemies. He also passed an order abolishing the practice of
Sati. Alfanso died in 1515 when the Portuguese were left as the strongest naval power in India.

Decline of Portuguese: After Alfanso, his successors continued to expand their territories.
They added Diu, Daman, Salsette, Bassein, Chaul and Bombay in Western India, San Thome
near Madras and Hooghly in Bengal to their possessions. However, they were not as capable as
Alfanso.

Several causes led to the decline of the Portuguese in India:

1. Religious interference: the Portuguese were very cruel to Indians, and they also tried to
force people to embrace Christianity.
2. Their desire to earn quick profits and so they plundered the Arab ships.
3. The discovery of Brazil drew the colonising activities of Portugal to the West.
4. They failed to compete successfully with the other European Companies, who had come in
their wake.
They started losing all their territories except Diu, Daman and Goa which were retained until
1961.

VI. Babur rules the Whole of North India

The period between 1526 and 1707 is known as the Mughal period in Indian History. The
Mughal rule was established in India by Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur in 1526.

Babur defeats the Rajputs: As a result of the Battle of Panipat in 1526, Babur became the
ruler of Delhi and Agra. He now had to fight against two other enemies, the Afghan nobles of
Bihar and Bengal, and the Rajputs under Rana Sanga of Mewar. Babur sent his nobles to
unconquered parts of the country to expel the Afghans chiefs from there, while he was engaged
in collecting the resources to wage a war against the Rajputs.

Rana Sanga was a brave warrior. He was joined by some Muslim supporters of the Lodi dynasty.
He marched with an army of 120 chiefs, 80,000 horses and 500 war elephants, and the rulers
of Ajmer, Gwalior, Amber, Marwar against Babur. Babur's army was comparatively small and
were struck with terror and panic. So Babur appealed to his men to fight bravely. His men
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promised to support him. The Mughals and the Rajputs met in the decisive battle of Khanwa in
on March 16, 1527.

The Rajputs fought bravely but Babur used the same tactics that he used in the battle of
Panipat and thus defeated the Rajputs. Rana Sanga escaped with the help of some of the
followers but died after about two years. This victory facilitated Babur's task as it enabled him
to establish the rule of the Mughals in India.

Babur defeats the Afghans Chiefs: Babur then turned to the Afghans chiefs who had formed
a confederacy against him under the Ibrahim Lodi's brother Mahmud Lodi. He met the Afghans
on the banks of Ghagra, near the confluence of that river with the Ganga above Patna. Babur
defeated the Afghans on May 6, 1529.

Thus as a result of these three victorious battle (Battle of Panipat, Battle of Khanwar and Battle
of Ghagra), Babur became the master of the whole of northern India.
Agra became the capital of Babur's empire.

MODERN INDIA

I. List of Governors General

I. Governors-General of Fort William in Bengal

(Regulating Act of 1773)
1774 (October) Warren Hastings
1785 (February) Sir John Macpherson
1786 (September) Earl (Marques) Cornwallis
1793 (October) Sir John Shore (Lord Teignmouth)
1798 (March) Sir A. Clarke
1798 (May) Earl of Mornington (Marquess Wellesley)
1805 (30th July) Marquess Cornwallis (for the second time)
1805 (October) Sir George Barlow
1807 (July) Baron (1st Earl of) Minto (I)
1813 (4th October) Earl of Moira (Marquess of Hastings)
1823 (January) John Adam
1823 (1st August) Baron (Earl) Amherst
1828 (March) William Butterworth Bayley
1828 (4th July) Lord William Cavendish-Bentinck

II. Governors-General of India

(Charter Act of 1833)
1833 Lord William Cavendish-Bentinck
1835 (20th March) Sir Charles (Lord) Metcalfe
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1836 (March) Baron (Earl of) Auckland
1842 (February) Baron (Earl of) Ellenborough
1844 (June) William Wilberforce Bird
1844 (July) Sir Henry (Viscount) Hardinge
1848 (January) Earl (Marquess) of Dalhousie
1856 (February) Viscount (Earl) Canning

III. Governors-General and Viceroy

1858 (1st November) Viscount (Earl) Canning
1862 (March) 8th Earl of Elgin (I)
1863 Sir Robert Napier (Baron Napier of Magdala)
1863 Sir William T. Denison
1864 (January) Sir John (Lord) Lawrence
1869 (January) Earl of Mayo
1872 Sir John Strachey
1872 Lord Napier of Merchistoun
1872 (May) Baron (Earl of) Northbrook
1876 (April) Baron (1st Earl of) Lytton (I)
1880 (June) Marquess of Ripon
1884 (December ) Earl of Dufferin (Marquess of Dufferin and Ava)
1888 (December) Marquess of Landsdowne
1894 (January) 9th Earl of Elgin (II)
1899 (6th January) Baron (Marquess) Curzon of Kedleston
1904 (April) Lord Ampthill
1904 (December) Baron (Marquess) Curzon of Kedleston (re-appointed)
1905 (November) 4th Earl of Minto (II)
1910 (November) Baron Hardinge of Penshurst (II)
1916 (April) Baron Chelmford
1921 (April) Earl of Reading
1925 2nd Earl of Lytton (II)
1926 (April) Lord Irwin
1929 Lord Goschen (during the absence of Lord Irwin on leave)
1931 (April) Earl of Willingdon
1934 (May-August) Sir George Stanley (Offg.)
1934 Earl of Willingdon
1936 (18th April) Marquess of Linlithgow

IV. Governors-General and Crown Representatives

(Act of 1935)
1937 (31st March) Marquess of Linlithgow
1938 (June-October) Baron Brabourne (Offg.)
1938 Marquess of Linlithgow
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1943 Viscount (Earl) Wavell
1945 Sir John Colville (Offg.)
1947 (March-August) Viscount (Earl) Mountbatten
(last Viceroy of United India, First Governor-General of the Indian Domiion, 1947-1948)

II. The Beginning of the British Raj

1661 Cession of Bombay to the English
1740 The Marathas invade Arcot
1742 Maratha invasion of Bengal
1747 Invasion of Ahmad Shah Abdali
1749 Madras restored to British
1750 War of Deccan and Carnatic succession
1751 Treaty of Alivardi with the Marathas
1756 Accession of Siraj-ud-daulah
1757 The British capture Chandernagore
1759 Forde defeats the Dutch at Bedara
1760 Battle of Wandiwash
King Charles II marries Portuguese Princess

Receives Bombay as dowry: 1661: King Charles II of Britain married the Portuguese
princess and received Bombay, an island along India's west coast, as part of the dowry. Later,
the King rented Bombay to the British East India Company.

Soon after, the British East India Company already had several trading establishments in India,
at Surat, Masulipattam and Fort St.George (Madras). King Charles II also gave the Company
the right to issue currency, erect forts, exercise jurisdiction over English subjects and declare
war/peace with natives.

The Company faced competition from the French, Dutch and Portuguese, all of whom had
trading interests in India.

British East India Company takes control
French defeated in Battle of Wandiwash: English and French had their companies in India.
Madras and Pondicherry were the chief trading centres for the English whereas the French
centre was on the Coromandel Coast. The relations between both the companies were
uncertain.

The Carnatic region was totally disturbed politically. The governor was so engrossed with
Marathas and Northern India that he hardly had any time for the Carnatic. Later the governor
was killed by the Marathas. The appointment of the new Nawab worsened the problems of the
Carnatic region. But till this time the English and French did not take active interest in Indian
politics.

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In 1740, England and France took opposite sides in the War of the Austrian Succession. This
brought the two companies in India technically in the state of war. Madras had been besieged
by French both by sea and land. So in June 1748 to avenge the capture of Madras, a large army
was sent under Rear Admiral Boscawen. But by October the War of Austrian Succession had
been concluded and under the treaty Madras was restored to English.

Then during the second Carnatic War, where Duplex, governor of Pondicherry, opened
negotiations with the English and the treaty was concluded. The English and the French have
decided not to interfere in the quarrels of the native princes and took possession of the
territories which are actually occupied by them during the treaty.

In the third Carnatic war, the British East India Company defeated the French forces at the
battle of Wandiwash ending almost a century of conflict over supremacy in India. From 1744,
the French and English fought a series of battles for supremacy in the Carnatic region. This
battle gave the British trading company a far superior position in India compared to the other
Europeans.

III. Pitt's India Act, 1784

Pitt's India Act, 1784: After the Regulating Act of 1773 to regulate the affairs of the Company
in India, the second important step taken by the British Parliament was the appointment of a
Board of Control under Pitt's India Bill of 1784. It provided for a joint government of the
Company (represented by the Directors), and the Crown (represented by the Board of Control).

A Board of six members was constituted with two members of the British Cabinet and four of
the Privy Council. One of whom was the President and who soon became, in effect, the minister
for the affairs of the East India Company. The Board had all the powers and control over all the
acts and operations which related to the civil, military and revenues of the Company.

The Council was reduced to three members and the Governor-General was empowered to
overrule the majority. The Governors of Bombay and Madras were also deprived of their
independent powers. Calcutta was given greater powers in matters of war, revenue, and
diplomacy, thus becoming in effect the capital of Company possessions in India.

By a supplementary the Bill passed in 1786, Lord Cornwallis was appointed as the first
Governor-General, and he then became the effective ruler of British India under the authority of
the Board of Control and the Court of Directors. The constitution set up by the Pitt's India Act
did not undergo any major changes during the existence of the Company's rule in India.

The Charter Act of 1813 abolished the trading activities of the Company and henceforth became
purely an administrative body under the Crown. Thereafter, with few exceptions, the Governor-
General and the Council could make all the laws and regulations for people (Indians and
British).

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IV. 1802: Treaty of Bassein

25 Oct 1795 Peshwa Madhavrao Narayan committed suicide
13 Mar 1800 Death of Nana Phadnavis
26 Apr 1798 Lord Wellesley arrived as a Governor-General
31 Dec 1802 Treaty of Bassein signed


1795-1798: Marathas after Kharda: After being victorious over the Nizam at Kharda, Nana
Phadnavis' influence in Poona was enhanced. But soon the Marathas indulged in internal
quarrels. Tired of Nana Phadnavis' dictatorship, Peshwa Madhavrao Narayan committed suicide
on October 25, 1795. After various plots and counter-plots on December 4, 1796, Baji Rao II,
son of Raghoba, became the Peshwa and Nana Phadnavis as his chief minister. Taking
advantage of the instable situation among the Marathas, the Nizam recovered the territories
which were taken by the Marathas after his defeat at Kharda.

Wellesley's move towards Subsidiary Alliance: When Lord Wellesley arrived as a Governor-
General on April 26, 1798, he engineered the policy of Subsidiary Alliance. He was of the firm
conviction that the best way of safeguarding the interest of England was to reduce the whole
country into a military dependence on the East India Company. Though there was no conflict
between the English and the Marathas, the English began to gain more strength.

The English prospects were brightened after the death of Nana Phadnavis on March 13, 1800.
Thus the last chance of keeping the Marathas in order was wiped out. This has been nicely said
in the words of Colonel Palmer, the British resident at Poona: "With him departed all the wisdom
and moderation of the Maratha government." It was Nana who could forsee the danger of
Subsidiary Alliance. Nana's death meant the removal of the barrier that had checked to a great
extent the disruptive activities of the Maratha chiefs.

Both Daulat Rao Sindhia and Jaswant Rao Holkar entered into a fierce struggle with each other
for supremacy at Poona. The Peshwa favoured Sindhia and finally became a puppet in his hand.
On April 12, 1800 Wellesley advised the Poona Residents to manage the secret treaty with
Poona for turning out Sindhia. But the Peshwa remained unmoved and the Resident suggested
that only immediate destruction will make the Peshwa bow.

1802: Treaty of Bassein signed: Matters among the Marathas were becoming worse by the
Peshwa's own intrigues. It worsened more when the Peshwa murdered Vithuji Holkar, brother of
Jaswant Rao Holkar in April 1801. This made Holkar rise in rebellion with a huge army and on
October 23, he defeated the combined armies of Sindhias and the Peshwas at Poona and
captured the city. Jaswant Rao Holkar made Amrit Rao's son Vinayak Rao the Peshwa and on
the other hand Baji Rao took refuge in Bassein. And in this helpless situation, Baji Rao had no
hesitation to accept the Subsidiary Alliance and signed with the East India Company the Treaty
of Bassein on December 31, 1802.

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Provisions of the Treaty: The treaty provided for an English force of 6,000 to be permanently
stationed with the Peshwa, and for its maintenance the districts yielding twenty six lakh rupees
were to be given to the Company. It also stated that the Peshwa could not enter into any treaty
or declare war without consulting the Company and that the Peshwa's claim upon the Nizam
and Gaekwar would be subject to the arbitration of the Company. The Peshwa also renounced
his claim over Surat.

On May 13, 1803 Baji Rao II was restored to Peshwarship under the protection of the East India
Company. This treaty of Bassein was an important landmark in the history of British supremacy
in India. This led to expansion of the sway and influence of the East India Company over the
Indian subcontinent. However, the treaty was not acceptable to both the Marathas chieftains -
the Shindes and Bhosales. This directly resulted in the Second Anglo-Maratha war in 1803.

V. The First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46)

Preparation of War by the British
There were dissensions among the Sikh chiefs and many thought that if the powerful Sikh army
was destroyed fighting against the English, they would find it easy to establish their power in
the kingdom. The new Governor-General Lord Hardinge took vigorous measures to strengthen
the British's military position. He increased the army force to 32,000. 57 boats were brought
from Bombay for making bridges over Sutlej. Special training was given to the soldiers. The
British troops were fully equipped in the newly-conquered Sind for an attack on Multan. To the
Sikh army, all this was "held to denote", writes Cunningham, " a campaign, not of defence, but
of aggression."

First Battle at Mudki
Consequently, the Sikh troops crossed the Sutlej, between Hariki and Kasur on December 11,
1845 and took offensive against the English troops commanded by Sir Hugh Gough. On
December 13, 1845, Governor-General Lord Hardinge issued a proclamation of war and
declared all Sikh possessions on the left bank of the Sutlej confiscated and annexed to the
British dominions. The first bloody battle was fought at Mudki between the British troops
commanded by Sir Hugh Gough and the Sikhs under Lal Singh. The Sikhs were fighting very
bravely but at the last moment, they were ditched by Lal Singh who sent a message that he
would be keeping back his force for two days from joining the Infantry or Regulars. The Sikhs
suffered heavy damages, and so did the British. Two British Major-Generals -- Sir Robert Sale
and Sir John MaCaskill -- were killed.

Second Battle at Fereozshah
The next attack by the British army was at Fereozshah on December 21, 1845. Here also the
Sikhs warrior fought bravely but once again they were betrayed by their general Tej Singh, who
left the field all of a sudden. Finally the Sikhs gave up and retreated across Sutlej. In this battle
the Sikhs lost 8,000 men and 73 guns while the English lost 694 men and 1,721 were injured.
This was the second bloody battle fought between the English and the Sikhs.

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The final decisive Battle
In January 1846, the Sikhs under Ranjur Singh Majhithia crossed the Sutlej and attacked the
frontier station at Ludhiana. On January 28, 1846, Sir Henry Smith defeated the Sikhs at Aliwal,
to the west of Ludhiana. The final battle of Sobraon on February 10, 1846 proved decisive. Due
to the treachery of their generals Lal Singh and Tej Singh, who gave all the information
regarding the trenches to the English, the battle resulted in a great slaughter of the Sikh troops.
With this victory, the English were relieved from the danger of the bravest and steadiest enemy
ever encountered in India. The English army occupied Lahore on February 20 and treaty was
concluded on March 9, 1846.

The terms of the Lahore treaty were as follows:

1. The Sikhs were required to cede to the British all the territories to the south of the Sutlej,
together with the extensive Jullundur Doab, lying between the Sutlej and the Beas.
2. Heavy war indemnity of Rs 1.5 crores was demanded. 50 lacs were paid in cash. As
equivalent for Rs 1 crore, all hill forts, territories, rights and interest in hill countries which
are situated between the rivers Beas and Indus, including the provinces of Kashmir and
Hazarah, were transferred to the company in perpetual sovereignty.
3. The Sikh army was limited to 20,000 infantry and 12,000 cavalry
4. The minor Dalip Singh was recognised as Maharaja with Rani Jindan as Regent of the state
and Lal Singh as wazir.
5. Sir Henry Lawrence was the British resident appointed under the treaty. The Company
was not to interfere in the internal administration of the Lahore state.

Mountain Ranges
This is a list of mountain ranges organized alphabetically by continent.
Africa
Aberdare Range, Kenya
Ahaggar Mountains, Algeria
Atlas mountains, Morocco and Algeria
Cherangany Hills, Kenya
Drakensberg, South Africa and Lesotho
Ethiopian Mountains
Ahmar Mountains
Livingstone Mountains
Mitumba Mountains, Congo
Ruwenzori Range ("Mountains of the Moon"), Uganda
Tibesti Mountains
Virunga Mountains
Antarctica
Queen Maud Range

Australasia
Barisan Range, Sumatra
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Crocker Range, Borneo (Mount Kinabalu)
Flinders Ranges, South Australia
Great Dividing Range, Queensland and New South Wales
Snowy Mountains, New South Wales
MacDonnell Ranges, central Australia
New Guinea Highlands, New Guinea
Bismarck Range
Star Mountains
Thurnwald Range
Pegunungan Maoke, New Guinea
Owen Stanley Range, New Guinea
Southern Alps, New Zealand
Western Australia Mountains
Hammersley Range
Asia
Altai Mountains
Arabian Mountains
Caucausus
Elburz Mountains
Japanese Alps
Ghats, India
Himalayas
Great Himalaya
Hindu Kush
Karakoram
Pamir
Khingan Mountains
Kunlun Shan
Sayan Mountains
Stanovoi Range
Taurus Mountains
Tian Shan
Ural Mountains
Zagros
Europe
Alps
Julian Alps
Jura
Apennines
Cantabrian Mountains
Carpathian Mountains
Tatra mountains
Transylvanian Alps
Ore Mountains
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Harz Mountains
Pyrenees
Scandinavian Mountains
Sierra Nevada (Spain)
Sudeten
Karkonosze
Ural Mountains
Vosges
North America
Alaska Range
Aleutian Range, Alaska
Appalachian Mountains, eastern United States
Adirondack Mountains, New York
Catskill Mountains, New York
Blue Ridge, North Carolina and Virginia
Great Smoky Mountains
White Mountains, New Hampshire
Black Hills, South Dakota
Brooks Range, northern Alaska
Cascade Range, California to British Columbia
Coast Ranges, Mexico to Alaska
Chugach Mountains, southern Alaska
Coast Mountains, British Columbia
Diablo Range, California
Saint Elias Mountains, southern Alaska, British Columbia
San Gabriel Mountains, California
Wrangell Mountains, southern Alaska
Olympic Mountains, Washington
Ouachita Mountains, Oklahoma and Arkansas
Laurentians, Quebec
Ozark Mountains, Missouri
Rocky Mountains, western United States and Canada
Absaroka Range, Wyoming
Bighorn Mountains, Wyoming
Bitteroot Range, Montana and Idaho
Columbia Mountains, British Columbia
Cariboo Mountains
Monashee Mountains
Purcell Mountains
Selkirk Mountains
Front Range, Colorado
Salmon River Mountains, Idaho
Sangre de Christo Mountains, Colorado
San Juan Mountains, Colorado
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Sawatch Range, Colorado
Teton Range, Wyoming
Uinta Mountains, Utah
Wasatch Range, Utah
Wind River Range, Wyoming
Sierra Madre, Mexico
Sierra Madre Occidental
Sierra Madre Oriental
Sierra Nevada (USA), California
Spring Mountains, Nevada
South America
Andes
Cordillera Occidental of Colombia
Cordillera Oriental of Colombia
Cordillera Central of Peru
Cordillera Occidental of Peru
Cordillera Oriental of Peru
Cordillera de Merida, Venezuela
Cordillera Real, Bolivia
Pakaraima Mountains, Venezuela, Guyana, Brazil
Serra da Manitqueira, Brazil
Serra do Mar, Brazil
The Moon
Alps
Apennine Mountains
Carpathian Mountains
Caucasus Mountains
Cordillera Mountains
Haemus Mountains
Montes Pyrenaeus
Riphaeus Mountains
Inner Rook Mountains
Outer Rook Mountains