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248
Abstract
This article does not focus on translation per se but on cultural exchange and intercultural
influences as precipitated and mediated by translation. Manga is a prime example for this kind
of exchange. With the translation of manga into German and the ensuing popularity, German
artists started producing manga of their own. Some of these manga were (and some still are)
an amalgam of elements of European comics and Japanese manga and tried to find new ways of
expression within the format. Others, however, have all the characteristics of a simulacrum: They
look like manga translated from Japanese into German. However, as with every simulacrum, there
is no original. In the case of these manga, there is no original Japanese version.
large proportion of the translational data are or have become invisible. All known
cultures have made prestigious external texts part of their canon, most often in
translation. (Lambert 1995: 161)
Translators are generally more aware of this fact than are other members of
society. Publications that have a historical perspective on literary translation
and the canon are available (Mueller-Vollmer & Irmscher (eds.); Poltermann
(ed.) 1995). However, these publications tend to focus on texts with a high
status in their culture of origin and on the influence they have had, again, on
the high culture in the target community. In an essay in the Mueller-Vollmer
volume, Cyrus Hamlin speaks of “Transplanting German Idealism to American
Culture” (Hamlin 1998). The idea of transplanting appeals: The organ that is
transplanted will never lose its foreign origin, but it will, in the best case, become
a vital part of the organism into which it is transplanted. However, transplants
are normally replacements for vital organs that have lost their function. With
cultural transplants, we are rather faced with an additional organ that may or
may not take over from the original organ.
It is often left to specialists outside translation studies to deal with texts (no
matter in what medium) that are part of popular culture. These texts may be both
popular and high culture, but very often they will be considered low culture, as
for example detective stories, mainstream cinema and TV shows.
Manga falls into both categories. There are artistic manga of breathtaking
quality, but as with all kinds of cultural expression, these have a small
fan following only. Their influence on the target culture is an influence on
a subculture. Mainstream manga, however, have become a mainstream
phenomenon in Germany, too. Some of them are simply mass-produced eye
candy, but such texts can, and do, build canons and influence the target culture’s
cultural production.
0907-676X/06/04/248-12 $20.00 © 2006 Heike Jüngst
Perspectives: Studies in Translatology Vol. 14, No. 4, 2006
Jüngst. Manga in Germany 249
up of noble and low characters. The low characters are strongly influenced
by Toriyama’s Dragon Ball style whereas the noble characters could appear in
manga for grown-ups or in shōjo manga.
Naglayas Herz must be read back to front, like Japanese manga. Moreover,
Marx uses letters from the Japanese syllable alphabets as well as kanji. They
have mainly decorative purposes but at the same time make the text look like a
translated manga where the onomatopoeia was left in its original shape.
The case of Labs is different. Many pages in his first manga Dragic Master
could as easily be classified as comics than as manga, while others have manga
elements in abundance, e.g. speedlines and lively panel arrangements. The
characters are designed in manga style too. As, in the early 2000s, comics did not
sell while manga did, publishers were well-advised to market them as manga.
Labs uses rather few manga elements except for speedlines, panel arrangements
and character design. He also made a “How to draw manga” series for the
German shōnen manga monthly Banzai!, where he also published the manga
series Crewman 3. Some of Labs’ recent publications still show manga elements,
but he has clearly developed an individual style, which could be classified as
manga as well as as comics and has consequently moved from part-imitation to
world comics as such.
Although Labs and Marx paved the way for German manga today most
successful German manga artists are young women (cf. Böckem 2006).
Apart from Labs and Marx, who, at least in some of their work, imitate
Japanese manga, there were other German comics artists who were interested
in manga but who did not resort to imitation. Two of the earliest German manga
(which were marketed as manga with a view to the manga audience) are world
comics in Gravett’s sense. As early as 2002, the German comics artists group
Moga Mobo (interestingly a Japanese name which means ‘modern girl – modern
boy’) met with the Japanese group Nou Nou Hau for a comics jam and published
the results. In 2000 Jürgen Seebeck, originally a translator of manga, published
252 2006. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology. Volume 14: 4
under 16, one-page 16 years and older (the age refers to the contestants, not the
audience) on a given topic. The topics of the past years ranged from “Friendship”
to “Sports”. But there are also manga magazines where the less ambitious can
send in one-page fan arts and stand a good chance of having them printed even
if they do not look 100 per cent professional.
The rules for manga competitions often state that all entries must be in
Japanese reading direction. It often seems as if the simple fact of drawing a
comic back to front makes it a manga. In the case of “Manga Talente”, the
finalists’ entries are published in a book, so that there is a good basis to compare
them even years after the competition. The entries differ considerably, but the
influence of various manga genres and a certain preference for shōjo manga and
funny manga can be detected over the years. Normally, the jury is faced with
between 2000 and 2300 entries, although in 2007 the entries dropped to 1400,
probably due to the larger number of competitions open to the public. Those
entries that did not make it onto the shortlist are collected in folders and can
be perused by the visitors at the Leipzig Book Fair (updated information about
these events can be found on www.comicsinleipzig.de).
German manga found a platform in the manga magazines Banzai! (shōnen
manga) and Daisuki (shōjo manga). Whereas Banzai! was discontinued after five
years in December 2005, due to the fact that Shueisha cancelled some licenses
(personal communication from Carlsen), Daisuki is still popular. Much was made
of a fan competition in Daisuki, where readers could send in short stories and
other readers could then decide on who would win the shortlist competition.
The winner’s short story (“Schokolade macht glücklich” [Chocolate Makes You
Happy] by 16-year-old Stefanie Cattes) was made into a manga by the manga
artist Zofia Garden and appeared in Daisuki (December 2006: 220-246). The
manga shows almost all the characteristics of German shōjo manga which will
be discussed below.
The free catalogues with manga previews which the big manga publishers
Jüngst. Manga in Germany 253
shōnen manga magazine Banzai! as well as fan art that does not bear any
reference to existing series.
The back-to-front reading direction has already been mentioned. It is used
as the prime signal that the reader is about to read a manga, not a comic. This
feature has remained, although manhwa from Korea, which use the same
style elements as manga but are read front-to-back, have become popular in
Germany too. But even the German mangaka Judith Park, who is of Korean
origin, still uses the back-to-front style. She started her career in manga before
manhwa became popular and has not given up on the original Japanese system.
Sometimes, the reading order for the panels is problematic, though. Mio’s
manga Geeks needs arrows to help the reader find out the correct reading order
in one instance (44).
With manga in Japanese, the speech balloons are vertically oblong. This suits
the top-to-bottom writing. Western comics normally have flattish, horizontally
oblong balloons. Here, a development can be seen. Whereas Naglayas Herz
has distinctively Western speech balloons; today, the manga not only by
professionals but also by most “Manga Talente” contestants imitate the Japanese
style. Double speech balloons, that is, two speech balloons that blend into each
other, are particularly popular.
Elements of the typical shōjo manga style that are not part of the drawing style
abound in German manga. After all, the readers have genre expectations which
the artists strive to fulfil. Some of the authors provide character portrait pages
with descriptions of the characters’ hobbies, likes and dislikes. All the female
authors use aside boxes where they address their readers directly, mention how
they got the idea for a particular scene or give information about themselves.
They also use these boxes for the typical humble excuse that is so popular
with Japanese female mangaka: They tell the readers how horrifyingly bad the
manga is and how grateful they are that the readers have nevertheless chosen
to buy and read it. Virtually all female German mangaka do this. Comments
254 2006. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology. Volume 14: 4
between the panels which give more specific information about how to interpret
a character’s expression are less common (but found in Büttner (2007) 15, 28).
Where the drawings are concerned, the slim, doe-eyed heroes and heroines are
the staple of German shōjo manga. A feature of manga also popular with German
artists is the use of SD (super-deformed) or chibi (child’s body) characters. These
small, chubby versions of the heroes and heroines are used for comic relief as
in the Japanese models. DuO (2006) tend to represent themselves in SD style in
their asides, but there are also SDs in White Pearl by Nadine Büttner (2007).
Another popular style element taken from manga is the use of screentone,
often imported at considerable cost from Japan. Flowery backgrounds are
popular for shōjo manga.
Japanese Settings
Often, the settings of German manga are specified as Japanese, even though
sometimes the backgrounds are generic and cannot be placed culturally.
Characters’ names, however, tend to be English rather than Japanese. In
many cases, English and Japanese names are mixed, but this seems to be for
aesthetic rather than for culture-imitation reasons. However, some artists use
Japanese names, or at least names that sound Japanese to German readers. In
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The use of kanji and kana in German manga is not particularly common. Sascha
Nils Marx is one of the few manga artists who uses kanji and kana regularly,
also on his homepage. However, he cannot be considered influential.
In Manga Fieber 2 we find kana and kanji without explanation in one
instance. They appear in Langeweile [Boredom] by Fabian Leitgeb and represent
inscriptions on buildings (195). Obviously, as mentioned above, Leitgeb uses
Japanese background settings. The manga can be read and understood without
the slightest competence in kanji reading.
As mentioned before, Japanese names (and not just characters’ names) can
appear in Japanese but in Latin letters, rōmaji, and do so, for example in Eri
Maruyama’s contribution to Manga Fieber 1 (72). Many characters’ names from a
variety of manga fall into this category, too.
Again, Christina Plaka is the one German mangaka who focuses on the
Japaneseness of her texts and uses kanji frequently in her work. This is not really
surprising as she is studying for a degree in Japanese language and culture and
as the kanji and kana she writes look professional. As mentioned before, she
uses Japanese settings for her backgrounds, so it does not come as a surprise
that shop signs etc. are in Japanese (e.g. Yonen Buzz 1: 22 et passim).
Between the chapters of the manga, Plaka has drawn photograph-style
portraits of her heroes. The years in which the “photographs” are supposed
to be taken are given underneath, with the kanji for year (Yonen Buzz 1: 10, 66,
122), and although Plaka never says explicitly what the kanji itself means, she
explains to the readers that these photographs are meant to show the band
members in former years (77). If the characters in the manga read magazines,
the writing on the magazines is also in kanji and kana (67). Plaka is therefore the
German author who tries hardest to make her manga look like Japanese manga;
as the text is in German, they consequently look like translations of Japanese
Jüngst. Manga in Germany 257
someone who is in the know. Judith Park uses Japanese emoticons in her asides
to the readers where she comments on her work (the manga has no pagination);
so do Christina Plaka, DuO and Alexandra Völker. The readers know how to
read these emoticons from the pages about Japanese culture and language that
manga magazines such as Daisuki carry. A German course in Japanese in the
manga format (originally serialized in Banzai!) directed at manga lovers also has
an information box about Japanese emoticons (Kerner and Baron 2006: 27).
The little open cross, either three-armed or four-armed, that appears so
frequently in Japanese comics to signify emotions (often confusion or anger)
has also caught on with German mangaka. It appears in almost every German
manga. Another manga-specific symbol that has become popular is the little
steam clouds that signify anger. This may be due to the fact that German has the
idiom ‘to let off steam’ which means ‘to vent one’s anger’ and that consequently
this symbol fits in neatly with German expectations. And the torrential flows
of tears from the eyes of SD characters has also been adopted by German
mangaka.
manga artists is so manifest that even the news magazine Der Spiegel ran a story
on them, claiming that German girl manga artists even surpass their Japanese
role models (Böckem 2006). The German monthly comics review Comixene ran
several stories about German female mangaka in autumn and winter 2006. All
these artists are still very young, in their twenties or even in their late teens.
As is already seen, female mangaka are also most successful with their
tankobon. As Anike Hage says, this is probably because girls are more reliable
with deadlines (Böckem 2006).6 Christina Plaka, Judith Park, Anike Hage and
Nina Werner all started by winning manga competitions, then published their
first manga series in the German girls’ monthly manga magazine Daisuki! and
finally had them published as tankobon. In November 2006, only Judith Park
remained with Daisuki! where her next manga series just started. Christina
Plaka has since left Carlsen and embraced Tokyopop. These successful female
mangaka are those whose manga belong to the ‘fake Japanese’ group (and
consequently contribute to the simulacrum effect I have described) rather
than to world comics. This is even true for Park who has a Korean immigrant
background.
Daisuki! is instrumental in binding fans and mangaka. Apart from series by
Japanese and German mangaka, Daisuki! also publishes selected fan arts and
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has a competition for “best manga story”, which is then made into a manga
by not yet so well-known female artists as described above in the manga
competitions section. There seems to have been a genuine need for this kind
of manga fan community. Before manga came to Germany, girls would hardly
ever read comics (Barbie or horse-related comics have never been really popular
in Germany). With manga, many girls found a new interest – and a chance to
realize their own creative potential. Probably this is one of the main reasons
why manga are so popular with German girls: The artist ... could be you (cf.
also Böckem 2006). Moreover, these mangaka enjoy star status. EMA offer a film
about their mangaka as a download (www.manganet.de).
Conclusion
Whereas manga has definitely had an influence on the development of world
comics, there is also another side to manga production outside Japan: the
production of manga that look as Japanese as possible. However, these manga
are not written in Japanese but in the respective native tongues and consequently
look not like originals but like manga translated from the Japanese – but as
they are not translations, but rather remind the reader of translations, and as
there is no original on which a translation could be based, they have the status
of simulacra or pseudo-translation. Most successful German manga artists
who use this style were influenced not by the original Japanese manga (they
would not have the language competence to read them) but by the translations
of manga into German they read, and by the numerous anime broadcast on
German TV since 1973, when Wickie, the first German-Japanese co-produced
anime series, was first presented to a German audience. The anime were
dubbed; the manga were translated. Without translation, manga would not
have made their way towards a mass-audience phenomenon. The information
that readers could have taken from only pictures would not have been sufficient
for understanding the whole manga and certainly would have precented them
Jüngst. Manga in Germany 259
from reading a huge amount of manga. Understanding only the pictures makes
reading a tiring affair. Moreover, obtaining the original manga from Japan was
quite an effort before the days of the Internet. The look of manga translations has
therefore influenced manga production outside Japan considerably. Pictures,
character design, names, places and genres which appear in German manga
have been greatly influenced by the looks and contents of translated manga.
Still, the original text is in German. Manga are highly picture-dominated,
though. We can decide whether we would classify a comic as manga or not by
simply looking at it – without reading the text at all. A first look will also not
reveal whether the manga in question is a translation or a German original. It is,
however, impossible to imitate gerne and typical verbal elements (such as the
asides to the readers) without resorting to either the original text, or, if there is
a language barrier, to translations. Therefore, these simulacra are examples of
how translations can spark off a cultural phenomenon and testify to the fact
that translations are mandatory in cultural exchange, even if publications are as
picture-dominated as manga.
Notes
1. EMA made some early efforts in 1994 but without success.
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2. This is not the same as a genre mix. The idea of the prototypical supermanga sees
the elements mentioned here as necessary ingredients for every manga there is. Often
the idea of kinky sexual practices as an important manga topic is also included in this
prototype concept.
3. He designed a manga-style ad campaign for Nissan which ran in several countries in
2001.
4. Although dojinshi is normally a private fan publication, Schwarzer Turm chose to
offer a platform for just that. Dojinshi are manga magazines drawn by amateurs. They
are normally based on existing manga series; the authors invent new adventures for the
heroes or combine their favourite heroes from various series.
5. At cosplays, manga fans dress up as their favourite manga characters. It is possible to
buy the costumes; however, many fans make their own. At the end of a cosplay, there is
normally a prize-giving ceremony for the best costume.
6. Indeed there are rumours that Sascha Nils Marx had deadline trouble with the second
volume of Naglaya, which consequently appeared with a small press, not with Marx’s
previous publisher.