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OBJECTS IN MOTION

1st Edition 15 May, 1999 Tuscaloosa, Alabama

Copyright 1999 by Randall Hopkins, all rights reserved. The author grants the use of these materials for nonprofit educational use only. Any other use of these materials requires written permission from the author.

Table of Contents
Chapter Title Preface 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Units and Unit Conversions Velocity and Acceleration Forces Mass and Weight Newtons Laws Satellite Orbits Introduction to Aircraft Flight Pressure Density The Standard Atmosphere and the Ideal Gas Law What Makes an Airplane Fly The Bernoulli Principle and How Wings Work Bernoullis Equation (optional) Application of Bernoullis Principle Real Aircraft References Index Page iii 2 8 11 14 16 21 32 33 35 37 46 59 62 64 69 71 72

Preface
AE120: Aerospace Science for Educators is a unique college course. Few offerings across the Colleges of Engineering and Arts & Sciences span such a broad range of topics, including aircraft flight, satellite orbits, construction of a scale model solar system from observable data, an introduction to practical astronomy which includes observing sessions, and an introduction to meteorology. Supporting course topics include Newtons laws of motion, the law of gravitation, unit conversions, definitions of pressure and density, the ideal gas law, forces, Bernoullis principle, and others. Field trips include a trip to the U.S. Space & Rocket Center, astronomy sessions, a visit to the local airport to examine aircraft, and a visit to a local elementary school where AE120 students teach the fundamentals of Newtons Laws to the 4th grade. Instructors in AE120 do not lecture. Instead, the course is designed around cooperative learning. Students are grouped and work through problems daily; daily lessons are based on the learning cycle. Evidence strongly suggests that students comprehend more in this type of environment, rather than in a typical lecture setting, since their misconceptions are confronted during the daily science activities and experiments, forcing them to reconsider their understanding of basic science principles. Finding a textbook that encompassed all of these topics was impossible. Therefore, it became necessary for the instructors of the course to create workbooks specifically designed for the course content and pedagogical style. Objects in Motion is the result of four years of teaching AE120. The author hopes that the activities contained in this workbook will help students become more adept at science, and more interested in science, once they see that it is within their reach.

OBJECTS IN MOTION

Randall Hopkins The University of Alabama

Motion

1. Units and Unit Conversions

Chapter 1. Units and Unit Conversions

You have spent several weeks now building a model of nearby space, complete with planet orbits to scale out to Mars. If you look down on the solar system disk that you made, you can imagine the planets moving in their orbits -- they move counterclockwise around the sun. It takes tiny Mercury only 88 days to complete one orbit, but it takes Pluto (which would be nearly two meters away from the sun on your disk!) 247 years to complete one orbit. But what keeps the planets moving in nearly perfect circles ? Why dont they just fly off into outer space ? And why does Mercury move around the sun so quickly ? How can an aircraft weighing 500,000 pounds manage to fly, and why does it have to be moving at a high speed ? How does the pilot control the direction of the aircraft ? In this unit, we will answer these questions. However, in order to proceed, you must understand units of measurements. Examples of units of measurement are miles per hour (mph), feet per second(ft/s), square yards (yd2), etc. The first few activities of this section of the course review the concepts of units, and give you practice in converting from one set of units to another, such as converting from miles to kilometers. This unit assumes that you are familiar with the metric and English systems of measurement. The following two pages are for reference during this part of the course. You will refer to these often for formulas for volume and for conversion factors used to change kilometers to miles, for example.

Motion

1. Units and Unit Conversions

FORMULAS FOR THE VOLUME OF SOME COMMON SHAPES r r r H L W

V = r 2 h

V=

1 3 r h 3

V = LWH

V=

4 3 r 3

THE METRIC (meter-kilogram-second) SYSTEM OF UNITS Base Units mass length time temperature kilogram meter second Kelvin kg m s K

(= degrees C + 273)

Derived Units (Nicknamesgiven to certain common combinations) force pressure length: volume: Newton Pascal N Pa 100 cm = 1 m

kg m s2 N kg or 2 m m s2

1000 mm = 1 m 1000 m = 1 km 3 1000 mL = 1 L 1 mL = 1 cm

THE BRITISH (traditional) SYSTEM OF UNITS Base Units mass length time temperature slug foot second Rankine slug ft s o R

(= degrees F + 460)

Derived Units (Nicknamesgiven to certain common combinations) force pressure length: pound pound/square inch 5280 ft = 1 mile lb psi

slug ft s2 lb in 2

12 in = 1 ft 39.37 in = 1 meter

2.54 cm = 1 in

Motion

1. Units and Unit Conversions

Use this table to convert quantities of measurement.*


To convert from AREA 2 foot 2 in 2 mile DENSITY 3 slug/ft FORCE pound to meter 2 meter 2 meter kilogram/meter Newton meter meter meter meter kilogram kilogram Pascal Pascal meter/second meter/second meter/second meter/second meter
3 3 2

multiply by 0.0929 0.000645 2,590,000 515 4.45 0.305 0.0254 1610 1850 0.001 14.6 101,000 6890 0.305 0.278 0.514 0.447 0.0283

LENGTH foot inch mile (U.S. statute) mile (nautical) MASS gram slug

PRESSURE atmosphere 2 lb/in (psi) SPEED foot/second kilometer/hour knot (nautical mi/hr) mile/hour (mph)

VOLUME 3 foot

How to use this chart. (1) Find the units that you are trying to convert from in the first column. (2) Find the units that you are trying to convert to in the middle column. (3) Multiply your number by the conversion factor in the third column. If the units that you are converting from are in the middle column and the units that you are converting to are in the first column, then divide by the conversion factor. Example. How many meters is 4 feet ? The conversion factor from foot to meter is 0.305, so the answer is 4 0.305 = 1.22 meters . Example. How many feet is 3 meters ? 3 0.305 = 9.84 feet .

* Adapted from: Wegener, What Makes Airplanes Fly ?, Springer-Verlag: New York, 1991.

Motion

1. Units and Unit Conversions

Activity 1. Review of Length, Area, and Volume


In this activity, you will measure certain parts of the classroom. Sounds easy, except for one thing -- you cant use a measuring stick! The meter sticks at the front of the classroom must not be removed. Instead, you must create your own device and use it answer the following questions. 1. What is the height of our classroom door in meters? In millimeters?

2. What is the length of our classroom in meters and kilometers?

3. Determine the area of the classroom doorway or one of the windows. Express the area in metric units and in square feet (ft2). Remember: when you multiply numbers, you multiply the units also!

4. What is the volume (in m3) of our classroom?

Motion

1. Units and Unit Conversions

5. Big Al weighs 2,000 pounds. In metric units, what is the force (in kN) he exerts on the Earth? (N is the symbol for Newton, a metric unit similar to the pound. The lowercase k in front of the N means kilo, or 1000 Newtons. You will find a conversion factor from pounds to Newtons on the conversion sheet on page 3.)

6. Lets pretend that Big Al can be modeled as a cylinder of radius 0.25 m with a height of 5 feet. (In other words, Big Al looks like a huge soda can.) How much space does he occupy (i.e., what is his volume) in cubic meters? Note that the units of distance in this problem are in both feet and meters.

Motion

1. Units and Unit Conversions

Now that you have some experience working with unit systems and estimating measurements, it is time to put your skills to work in the eal r world. Answer the following questions with not only a numerical answer but also an explanation as to how you obtained the measurement. (For any calculations, please be sure to show all of your work!) The materials at your disposal for these activities are a bucket, a graduated cylinder (used for measuring liquid volume), water, and a rock. 7. Describe a procedure for determining the volume of your unknown object.

8. What is the volume of your unknown object in cubic centimeters ?

9. What is the volume of your unknown object in cubic meters ? Cubic inches ?

Motion

2. Velocity and Acceleration

Chapter 2. Velocity and Acceleration


Before we proceed to discuss the motion of planets, aircraft, and rockets, we need to familiarize ourselves with the definitions of distance, velocity (speed), and acceleration. Distance. Distance is how far something must travel to get from one location to another. The distance between Tucson and the Grand Canyon is about 350 miles. Velocity. Velocity is the distance an object travels divided by the amount of time that it took the object to move between the two locations. In other words, velocity = distance traveled time of travel

For example, if it takes a car 2 hours to travel 100 miles, then the velocity of the car was 50 miles per hour (which can be written 50 mph or 50 miles/hr). Acceleration. An object accelerates when its velocity changes. Acceleration is defined as the change in velocity divided by how long it took to change the velocity, or ending velocity - starting velocity acceleration = time Usually in this course the starting velocity will be zero. For example, if a rocket leaves the launch pad and is moving at 12 m/s after 2 seconds, then its acceleration is 6 m/s2.

Activity 1. Velocity and Acceleration


1. List some common units for the following terms. Try to include both English and metric units. time distance velocity _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________

acceleration _________________________________
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Motion

2. Velocity and Acceleration

2. If an airplane travels 150 miles in 30 minutes, how fast is the airplane moving in miles per hour and miles per minute ?

3. If an airplane flies at a constant velocity of 600 km/h, how many meters does the airplane travel in one minute? In one second?

4. If you drive to Birmingham at a constant speed of 80 mph, how many feet do you travel in one minute? In one second?

Motion

2. Velocity and Acceleration

5. A rocket leaves the launch pad and accelerates upwards. After 2 seconds, the rocket is moving at 20 meters per second (20 m/s). Calculate the acceleration of the rocket.

6. A car accelerates from a stop sign. After 10 seconds, the car is moving 60 miles per hour. Calculate the acceleration of the car in ft/s2. (Hint: it is easier to convert the speed of the car to feet per second before calculating its acceleration.)

7. A rocket leaves the launch pad and accelerates upward. The acceleration is 10 m/s2. How fast will the rocket be moving 5 seconds after launch ?

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Motion

3. Forces

Chapter 3. Forces
When objects move, such as aircraft, automobiles, or planets, the path that they take through the air, over the ground, or around the sun is governed by Newtons Laws, of which there are three. These three fairly simple laws are very powerful tools in science and engineering. Before stating Newtons Laws, however, lets examine some terms frequently used. Force. Whenever you pull on a doorknob, you are exerting a force on the door. When you stand, you are exerting a force on the floor. Jet engines exert a force on the aircraft, pushing it forward. When you throw a baseball, you exert a force on the ball while it is in your hand, causing the ball to accelerate. Forces also have direction. Some forces push horizontally, such as when you slide furniture across the floor. Some forces push vertically, such as when you lift a sack of groceries out of the trunk of your car. Rocket engines push the Space Shuttle straight up from the launch pad. Scientists and engineers draw arrows on figures and sketches to show where the forces are and in which direction they push or pull. For example, if a person is using a rope to pull on a wagon, as shown in Figure 3-1(a), then we can replace the rope with an arrow showing the direction of the force that the rope exerts on the wagon, as shown in Figure 3-1(b).

(a)

(b)

Figure 3-1. The force that the person exerts on the wagon by pulling on the rope can be replaced in a diagram by a single arrow representing that force.

Certain forces are so common that they are given special names. For example, everything here on earth has weight, which is a force due to the gravitational attraction of the object to the earth. The earth is pulling on you right now, causing you to have weight. Every object has mass, which is a

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3. Forces

measure of how much matter the object contains. A block of steel has more mass than a block of wood the same size, and we can easily feel this because the earth pulls more strongly on the block of steel, making it weigh more. The important thing to remember right now is that weight always points straight down toward the center of the earth (for objects on or near the earth). Therefore, we can add another arrow to our sketch of the wagon, as shown in Figure 3-2. We will label this arrow with a to symbolize weight. W

W Figure 3-2. The wagon in the previous figure with an arrow for weight added to the sketch.

We have one more force to consider, however. The wagon is touching the ground, so the ground has to push back on the wagon to support it. This may seem strange at first, but right now the desk in which you are sitting is pushing back on you with a force equivalent to your weight. If you dont believe this, then imagine someone setting a 50 pound weight on your stomach. You would have to push back to keep your stomach from caving in. We dont have a special name for this force, but we can draw it as shown in Figure 33.
W Figure 3-3. The wagon in the previous figure with arrows showing the force that the ground exerts on the wagon.

One final note before we move on. We could have used two smaller arrows to show the weight of the wagon, and placed one of these arrows at each wheel, since that is where the weight of the wagon acts on the ground.

Of course, there are a few other forces so common that we give them special names as well, such as thrust, lift, and drag, when talking about aircraft. The direction that these forces act, as well as weight, is shown in Figure 3-4. Drag always opposes the motion of the object. You feel drag when you try to walk quickly in waist-deep Lift water. Lift is a force created by the wings, Thrust overcoming weight and Drag keeping the airplane in the air. Thrust is the force that the engines exert on the Weight airplane, propelling it Figure 3-4. The Forces on an Aircraft in Flight.
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3. Forces

forward through the air. Thrust is the opposite of drag, such as if someone were pushing you from behind as you tried to walk quickly through waistdeep water. In summary, then we see that forces can have different names: Weight: the force an object exerts due to gravity; Thrust: the force moving or propelling an object; Lift: the force which keeps an object with wings in the air; Drag: the force that opposes the motion of an object.

Activity 1. Sketching Forces.


In each of the sketches below, draw arrows showing all the forces that are present.

The car is not moving.

Bean counter is standing still.

The Space Shuttle is sitting on the launch pad with the engines off.

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Motion

4. Mass and Weight

Chapter 4. Mass and Weight


Drop an apple and it falls to the earth. Drop a pencil from the same height and it takes it the same amount of time for it to fall to the earth. An astronaut once performed an experiment on the moon. He dropped a hammer and a feather at the same time from the same height, and both struck the surface at the same time! Unless an object is so light that the resistance of the air makes a difference in how fast it falls, all objects accelerate toward the earth at the same rate. After performing several experiments, we would find that all objects accelerate toward the earth at a rate of 9.8 m/s2. Since this acceleration is due to the pull of the earths gravity, most scientists and engineers use the letter g to symbolize this number in most equations. Therefore, acceleration due to earths gravity, g = 9.8 m/s2 How much an object weighs depends upon its mass and the acceleration due to gravity. The more massive an object, the more it weighs. A very simple equation can be used to calculate the weight of an object if we know its mass. It is stated in both verbal and equation form: weight of object = mass of object acceleration due to gravity or W = mg where m is the mass of the object (in the metric system, lets use kilograms in this class as units of mass) and g is the acceleration due to gravity, which is 9.8 m/s2 on earth. Common units of weight and mass are listed in the table below for both the metric and traditional (English) system. Common abbreviations are shown in parenthesis. metric kilogram (kg) Newton (N) English slug pound (lb)

mass weight

If you look on page 4 you will see conversion factors for Newtons and pounds (units of force) and slugs and kilograms (units of mass).

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4. Mass and Weight

Example: How much does a 2 kilogram bottle of ketchup weigh ? W = mg = 2 kg 9.8 m/s = 19.6 kgm/s = 19.6 N (19.6 Newtons).
2 2

Whenever you see the following units:


2 kgm/s ,

We can also convert the above weight to pounds by using the conversion factor on page 4:
Example: How many pounds is 19.6 N ? Ans: 19.6 4.45 = 4.40 lb.

replace them with N. The Newton is a nickname for these units, making it easier to write. See page 3 for a complete list of nicknames in the metric system.

Activity 1. Calculating Weight and Mass


1. How much force does a 100 kg block of wood exert on the floor ? (How much does it weigh ?)

2. If a person weighs 445 Newtons, determine that persons mass in kilograms.

3. How many pounds does the person in the problem above weigh ?

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Motion

5. Newtons Laws

Chapter 5. Newtons Laws


Now lets look at Newtons Laws. These three laws can be used to understand and predict the motion of objects. Newtons First Law Newtons first law states that objects at rest will stay at rest and objects in motion will stay in motion in a straight line unless acted upon by an unbalanced force. Forces are balanced if they are equal in size but opposite in direction. For example, in Figure 3-4 (page 12) thrust and drag point in opposite directions. If thrust is equal to drag, however, then those forces are balanced, and the aircraft will continue to fly at the same speed. If thrust is bigger than drag, then the aircraft will accelerate. Figure 5-1 below provides another example of balanced and unbalanced forces and their effect on motion.

(a) The forces on the ball are unbalanced here, so the ball accelerates to the right.

(b) If the two people push with the same force, then the forces on the ball are balanced here, so the ball does not move.

Figure 5-1. A demonstration of balanced and unbalanced forces.

Newtons Second Law Newtons second law states that the sum of all forces acting upon a body is equal to the bodys mass times its acceleration. In equation form this is: F = ma where F represents the sum of all the forces, m represents mass, and a represents acceleration. The forces that you add together are the forces that are parallel to the direction of motion. For example, in Figure 5-1 above, we would not include weight when adding the forces since weight points straight

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5. Newtons Laws

down at the center of the earth, which is not the direction that the ball is going to be moving. However, the force that the person is exerting on the ball would be important. In Figure 5-1(a), there is only one person and one force that affects the balls rolling across the floor. In Figure 5-1(b), there are two people, and two forces, that must be added together. Again, weight is not included in he sum of the forces, or F,because weight does not point in t the direction that the ball will be moving. However, since the two people are pushing in opposite directions, then one of the forces will be considered positive and the other negative. In other words, we would subtract them, and if they are equal in size, then they would add up to be 0, meaning that they are balanced and the ball is not going to accelerate. Newtons Third Law Newtons third law states that for every action there is an opposite and equal reaction. If you push on a wall, the wall pushes back. The ball in Figure 5-1(a) pushes back on the person, on page 13 the launch pad pushes back on the Space Shuttle with a force equal but opposite in direction to the shuttles weight, and on page 12 the ground pushes back on the wagon with a force equal but opposite in direction to the wagons weight.

Activity 1. Applying Newtons Laws.


1. What are the units of the following things ? Try to include both English and metric units. distance ____________________ velocity force thrust drag time ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________

acceleration ____________________ weight lift mass ____________________ ____________________ ____________________

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5. Newtons Laws

2. The acceleration due to gravity on the Earth is 9.8 m/s2. On the moon it is 1.6 m/s2 and on Jupiter it is 3,000 m/s2. Big Als mass is 90 kg. (a) On what planet would he weight the most? The least? Why? (b) Calculate Big Als weight on the Earth.

(c) Calculate Big Als weight on the moon.

(d) Which of Newtons laws are at work here?

3. A rocket sits on the launch pad. Its mass is 50,000 kg. (a) Show what forces, if any, are acting on the rocket. (b) If there are forces acting, are they balanced or unbalanced? (c) If there are forces acting, calculate their magnitudes (how big are they?).

(d) Which of Newtons laws are at work here?

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5. Newtons Laws

4. Now our rocket wants to make its way into space. As it leaves the launch pad it travels straight up. Ten seconds after launch, the rockets velocity needs to be 120 m/s. (a) Show what forces, if any, are acting on the rocket. (b) If there are forces acting, are they balanced or unbalanced? (c) If there are forces acting, calculate their magnitudes.

(d) Which of Newtons laws are at work here?

5. Calculate the acceleration of the rocket-powered car when the engines fire. The car weighs 49,000 N and has three rocket engines, each producing 20,000 N of thrust. (Hint: first get the mass of the car since you will need this in Newtons second law.)

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5. Newtons Laws

6. The rocket in the sketch weighs 49,000 Newtons and the thrust of the engines is 124,00 Newtons. (a) Sketch the forces acting on the rocket. (Note: it no longer is touching the launch pad.) (b) Determine the rockets acceleration as it leaves the launch pad.

7. How much thrust must the engines produce if the rocket in the sketch above is to hover in the air. In other words, the rocket is not moving or accelerating.

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6. Satellite Orbits

Chapter 6. Satellite Orbits


How fast does the Space Shuttle go when orbiting the earth? How long does it take the shuttle to complete one orbit? Does the orbital speed and time to complete one orbit change as a spacecraft orbits closer to a planet? Do planets nearer the sun move at a faster, slower, or identical speed to those farther away? All of these questions can be answered with some simple equations. In this chapter, we will assume that the orbits of the planets, spacecraft, and satellites that we will examine are circles. Most of the orbits of the planets are close enough to circles that we can do this, but the orbits of comets and interplanetary spacecraft are highly elliptical. We will not study the equations for these types of orbits, but will only come to a general understanding of how the speed of the comets and interplanetary spacecraft changes the closer they get to the sun. Figure 6-1 illustrates the difference between circular and elliptical orbits. The orbit equation can be found using Newtons Laws. The following procedure will not appear on exams, but is meant to be a review exercise in algebra. It is the final equation in which we are interested.

Earths orbit is very close to a perfect circle.

Most comets have highly elliptical orbits. The mathematics describing these orbits is fairly complex.

Figure 6-1. An Illustration of Circular and Elliptical Orbits.

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6. Satellite Orbits

Activity 1. Deriving the Orbit Equation


We will need Newtons First and Second Laws, which are restated here for convenience. (It isnt all that important that you remember which is 1st, 2nd, etc., but that you just remember the three laws.) It is important to remember that the following derivation is only good for circular orbits. Newtons First Law: An object at rest stays at rest, or if in motion stays in motion with constant speed and in a straight line unless acted upon by an external force.

Newtons Second Law:

F = ma

Force is equal to mass times acceleration

Now, in order to derive the orbit equation, we need to know two things about the equation for Newtons Second Law: (1), what is the force, F, that the satellite feels when it is in orbit around a star or planet, and (2), what is the acceleration of the satellite when in orbit ?

The force that a satellite feels is another one of Mr. Newtons discoveries. In addition to his three laws of motion, he also formulated his Universal Law of Gravitation, which is stated in equation form below. This equation tells us the force that the satellite feels depends on the mass of the satellite (lower case m), the mass of the object that it is orbiting (upper case M), the distance between the satellite and the center of the object that it is orbiting (r), and some number G which Newton called the universal gravitation constant. The equation is: Force due to gravity:

Just in case you are not impressed with Mr. Newton, perhaps you should hear the rest of the story. Isaac Newton left college without completing his degree and returned home for two years. In that time, he formulated his laws of motion and the universal law of gravitation. He returned to college with a new understanding of the world around him. One of his professors was so impressed, he resigned his position so that Newton could have it ! How often do you think that happens ?

F=

GMm r2

G is the universal gravitational constant M is the mass of the object that the satellite is orbiting m is the mass of the satellite r is the distance from the center of the object to the satellite

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6. Satellite Orbits

Now lets look at the acceleration that the satellite feels when moving in a circular orbit. Anything moving in a circular path feels an acceleration toward the center of the circle. A satellite moving in a circular orbit can be visualized as having a rope attached to it with the other end anchored in the center of the planet or star that the satellite is orbiting. The tension of the rope would be the force that the satellite feels. Before we go further, we need to redefine the term acceleration. In Chapter 2 we defined acceleration as a change in velocity over time (in other words, speeding up or slowing down). However, that is not the only type of acceleration; there is another. Even if your speed is constant, you accelerate if you change direction. Go around a sharp curve in a car and you are thrown to the side, up against the door. That is a form of acceleration. A popular amusement park ride is a large spinning wheel in which people stand erect facing the center of the wheel. When the wheel is spinning fast enough, the floor under each person drops down, but the people do not fall through the floor. They are stuck against the wall because of the acceleration from the spinning motion pushes them against the wall; the feeling is the same as when you accelerate strongly in a straight line in a car - you feel a push in the back. Therefore, we refine our definition of acceleration on page 8 to include the following: Acceleration is a change in speed or a change in direction. Anything moving in a circular (or curved) path is accelerating. We are not going to worry about calculating the acceleration of an object moving in a curved path. We only need to know a relationship for acceleration along a curved path so that we can derive the orbit equation. What is the satellites acceleration when moving in a circular orbit ?
Anything moving in a circular path has centripetal acceleration, such as a ball being slung around on the end of a rope.

Centripetal acceleration:

V2 a= r

V is the velocity of the satellite r is the radius of the satellites circular orbit You can easily demonstrate centripetal acceleration by tying a ball to the end of a rope and slinging it around in a circle. The faster the ball moves, the harder you have to hold on to the other end of the rope. The faster the ball moves, the greater the centripetal acceleration.

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6. Satellite Orbits

Activity 1 (contd). Deriving the Orbit Equation


We can find an equation that will tell us how fast our satellite must go to orbit. If you take the expression for gravitational force (below) and the expression for acceleration (also below) and plug these into Newtons second law (F = ma), you can solve for velocity (V). This equation will tell you how fast you must go to stay in orbit above the planet, moon, or star whose mass is M. Derive the equation in the space below. Show your work! Be sure to have your instructor check your work. Look back on the previous two pages to see what each variable represents. Gravitational Force is: F = GMm r2 the mass of the satellite is: m

and centripetal acceleration is: a =

V2 r

An equation for finding how fast a satellite must go to stay in orbit:

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6. Satellite Orbits

In your equation, G is the universal gravitational constant and M is the mass of the large object that the satellite is moving around. While it is not easy to find these numbers (how would you find the mass of the earth, for example!), G and M together can be found quite accurately. For our purposes, lets just give G and M multiplied together a new name - U. Therefore, your equation begins to look fairly simple:
Most of the time, we will already know the value of U. Around the earth, U is always 398,600 km3/s2.

The Orbit Equation

V=

U r

Most of the time, we will know the value of U. Around the earth, U will always be 398,600 km3/s2. Those are some strange units, so lets make sure that they work in the orbit equation.

Activity 2. The Units of U in the Orbit Equation


For this exercise, dont worry about any numbers, only units. Plug in the units of U in the orbit equation, and let the units of r be in kilometers. What do the units on the right side of the orbit equation come out to be ? Simplify them as much as you can, and then take the square root. The units should be units for velocity, since that is what is on the left side of the orbit equation. Work it out below.

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6. Satellite Orbits

Activity 3. How Fast Does the Space Shuttle Go ?


You can now figure out how fast the space shuttle has to go to stay in its orbit. First, the scientists at NASA tell us that if something is orbiting the earth, then the value of U is U = 398,600 km3/sec2 if orbiting earth As long as you are orbiting the earth, that value is the same. However, if you are orbiting the sun, moon, or another planet, U will probably be different since it depends on the mass of the sun, moon, or planet.

The space shuttle orbits the earth about 200 km above the surface. But the r in our equation is the distance from the satellite to Dashed line is shuttles orbit. the center of earth. The radius of the Earth is 6380 km, so the radius of our orbit is 6580 km. What will our orbit velocity need to be in kilometers per second ? miles per hour ? (ans: 7.78 km/s)

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Activity 4. How Long Does it Take the Space Shuttle to Orbit the Earth Once ?
Now that we know the velocity required to enter orbit 200 kilometers above the Earth, lets find out how long (in minutes) it takes to complete one orbit. (Hint: velocity is distance divided by time and the circumference of a circle is 2r.)

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6. Satellite Orbits

Activity 5. Applying the Orbit Equation Backwards


How do scientists at NASA know the value of U for the earth ? The answer is they watch satellites orbit the earth many times, and if they know how fast the satellite is moving and how far it is from the center of the earth, then they can solve the orbit equation for U, since V and r are known. 1. (a) Lets say that we are watching a weather satellite that is 35,860 km above the earths surface. (Remember, the radius of the earth is 6380 km). We notice that it takes the satellite 24 hours to complete one orbit. How fast does the satellite move, in kilometers per second, in its orbit ?

(b) Using your velocity that you found in (a), what is the value of U for the earth ? Does your answer look familiar ?

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6. Satellite Orbits

Activity 6. Applying the Orbit Equation to Orbits Around Other Planets, Moons, and the Sun
The equation that we used to calculate the velocity for a spacecraft orbiting the earth can also be used for calculations of any two bodies in space, such as the earth and the sun, or Mercury and the sun. (a) Assume that we know that the earth takes 365.25 days to completely orbit the sun, and that the earth is 149,500,000 km away from the sun. (Remember how far an astronomical unit is ?) How fast does the earth move, in kilometers per second, in its orbit ? Convert your final answer to miles per hour.

(b) Using your velocity that you found in (a), what is the value of U for an orbit around the sun ? (Its going to be a huge number!)

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Activity 7. Forces on an Orbiting Body


The figure below is a rocket orbiting the earth. Lets assume that the rocket is high enough to be completely out of the atmosphere (no drag and no lift), and the engines are not running (no thrust). Draw all of the forces acting on the rocket.

How does the speed of the rocket change over time ? Why ?

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6. Satellite Orbits

Activity 8. Are the Shuttle Astronauts Weightless ?


Most of us have seen film of astronauts on the Space Shuttle floating around in the cabin. Are the astronauts weightless ? Why or why not ?

Activity 9. What is a Geosynchronous Satellite ?


We make use of several geosynchronous satellites. What does that term mean ? (Look back a page 28 for a hint.) What does geo mean ? What does synchronous mean ? What are the benefits of having a geosynchonous satellite ? How high above the earth are these satellites ?

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7. Introduction to Aircraft Flight

Chapter 7. Introduction to Aircraft Flight


In the late 1700s, the Montgolfier brothers thought that they had discovered a new gas after observing smoke and ashes rising from a fireplace. They trapped the unknown gas in silk bags and watched as the bags floated about the room. Later, they built balloons that carried people to great altitudes. The unknown gas, of course, was nothing more than hot air. In the late 1800s, the rich Brazilian Alberto Santos-Dumont was attaching engines with propellers to his balloons so that he could control the direction of the balloon, rather than be at the mercy of the wind. At about the same time, Otto Lilienthal and Octave Chanute were experimenting with gliders, as well as two other men, Wilbur and Orville Wright. On December 17, 1903, the Wright brothers Kitty Hawk Flyer successfully flew 852 feet, using an engine designed by bicycle mechanic Charlie Taylor. By World War I, aircraft had advanced enough to be useful for reconnaissance, but the pilot occupation was one of romance more than anything else. That would change in World War II, however, where aircraft contributed significantly to the victory of the Allies. One could argue that WWII was the fuel that ignited aviation technology. The war was barely over when, in 1947, Charles Yeager became the first person to fly faster than the speed of sound. The aircraft was the Bell X-1, a rocket powered aircraft that had to be dropped from the wing of a larger plane. That speed record would be broken many times. In 1962, the North American X-15, another rocket plane, achieved a speed 6.7 times the speed of sound, a record that would stand until the advent of the Space Shuttle. Commercial aircraft began service in the 1920s. These early aircraft were cramped, noisy, and shaky, and tickets were very expensive. Most people could not afford to fly aboard these 120-mph aircraft. A major advancement in commercial aviation occurred in the 1950s when the first commercial jetpowered aircraft entered service, built by the British de Havilland company. The American company Boeing soon followed by introducing the 707 in 1958, a large, comfortable aircraft that could reach speeds of over 500 mph. All of these aircraft, from the first gliders, to the rocket-powered Bell X-1, to the Boeing 707, depend on the same principle to fly. As the aircraft moves through the air, the wings generate a force called lift that overcomes the weight of the aircraft. How wings create lift is the focus of these chapters.

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8. Pressure

Chapter 8. Pressure
Pressure is not a force, but forces cause pressure. We have already seen how to calculate weight, which is the force that you exert on the floor due to the earths gravity. When you stand, all of your weight is being concentrated where your feet contact the floor. Since the definition of pressure is Pressure = then the pressure under your feet is Pressure you exert on the floor = How much you weigh The area of the soles of your shoes Force Area

Activity 1. The Difference Between Force and Pressure


Take a large notebook or textbook and lay if flat in the palm of your hand. You can feel the weight of the book in your hand, and you can also feel the pressure due to the book. Next, have a group member hold a pencil vertically in your hand (with the eraser down!) and let the entire weight of the book come to rest on the pencil (you will have to hold the book steady). (a) Do you feel any difference when the weight of the book is concentrated on the pencil ? Describe it.

(b) What is the name of the force that you are feeling in you hand (thrust, weight, lift, etc.)

(c) Is the force the same in both cases ?

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8. Pressure

(d) Suppose that the book weighs 2 pounds (8.9 Newtons). When the book is resting flat in your hand, the weight is spread out over about 12 in2 (77.4 cm2). Calculate the pressure on your hand in English and metric units.

(e) When the book is resting on the end of the pencil, the entire weight of the book is concentrated on an area of about 0.0625 in2 (0.403 cm2). Calculate the pressure on your hand in English and metric units.

Activity 2. Typical Values for Atmospheric Pressure


Below is a table of some common units of pressure, and an example showing how the different systems of units compare. atmospheric pressure at sea level lb /in2 (psi) 14.7 psi lb/ft2 2116 lb/ft2 N/m2 (Pa *) 101,325 Pa

Right now in this room, the pressure is probably very close to 14.7 psi. This means that on one square inch of your body, there is a force of 14.7 pounds pushing in! On one square foot of your body, the force is 2116 pounds! Why dont you feel it?

__________________________ * A newton per square meter is given a ickname,the Pascal. In the metric system, we n usually just use the word Pascal, abbreviated as Pa, to denote pressure, or kiloPascal, abbreviated kPa. A kiloPascal is 1000 Pascals, so 100,000 Pa is the same as 100 kPa.

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9. Density

Chapter 9. Density
Lead is heavy; cork is not. Lead sinks, but cork floats. A block of lead would greatly outweigh a block of cork the same size. These two materials have different densities. The definition of density is density = mass of the object volume of the object

Activity 1. Calculating Density


Lets calculate the density of water. Suppose we have a fresh water aquarium whose volume is 2 m3 and the water weighs 19600 Newtons. Find the density of the water in the aquarium. (Hint: knowing the weight of the water, you can find its mass. Remember, g = 9.8 m/s2.)

Activity 2. The Units of Density


What are the typical units of density ? In this class, we will use the metric system most of the time. In the metric system, the most common units of density that aerospace engineers use are kg/m3. Notice that this has units of mass divided by units of volume. Can you think of any other units of density for the metric system ? List all that you can.

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9. Density

Activity 3. The Density of Air and Water


Lets compare water and air. Typically at sea level, the density of air is density of air at sea level = 1.23 kg/m3 . How many newtons does 1 m3 of air weigh ? How many pounds is this ? Compare this with the weight of the water in the aquarium.

Activity 4. Finding the Weight of a Volume of Liquid Knowing its Density


You are thinking of buying a large aquarium for your schoolroom but are not sure if the floor can support it. The aquarium that you want will hold 5 m3 of water. If the density of water is 1000 kg/m3, how much will the aquarium weigh in Newtons and pounds ?

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10. Std. Atmosphere and Ideal Gas

Chapter 10. The Standard Atmosphere and the Ideal Gas Law
Since aircraft fly in the earths atmosphere, it is important that we become familiar with three important atmospheric properties: temperature, density, and pressure. These three properties change with altitude. We are familiar with the snow-capped peaks of tall mountains, even in summer. Obviously the temperature decreases with increasing altitude, but just how cold does it get? Commercial jets are equipped with pressurized cabins because the air is too thin at high altitudes for humans to breathe and remain alert. Just how high can a person go and still be able to breathe normally? We begin by investigating what is called the standard atmosphere, which is the state of the atmosphere on an average, or typical, day over the middle latitudes, such as the U.S. and Europe. The exercises below also provide some practice in making and using graphs.

Activity 1. Examining the Standard Atmosphere


Step 1. The table on the next page lists pressure, temperature and density as a function of altitude for a standard atmosphere. Using this data, prepare three graphs: one for altitude (in kilometers) versus temperature (in C), one for altitude (in kilometers) versus pressure (in kilopascals), and one for altitude (in kilometers) versus density (in kg/m3). Be sure to label all axes and include the appropriate units! Put altitude on the vertical (y) axis on all of your graphs. Step 2. Using the graphs you have created, answer the following questions: 1. Are there any distinct egionson the atmospheric temperature graph ? Is r so, at what altitudes are they ?

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10. Std. Atmosphere and Ideal Gas

2. What happens to atmospheric temperature at an altitude greater than 20 km? Why does this happen?

3. What does ozone do ? Where do you think the ozone layer is ?

Table of atmospheric properties versus altitude. Altitude (km) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 Altitude (ft) 0 6,562 13,124 19,686 26,248 32,810 39,372 45,934 52,496 59,058 65,620 72,182 78,744 85,306 91,868 98,430 Temp. (K*) 288 275 266 249 236 223 217 217 217 217 217 218 220 222 224 226 Temp. (C) 15 2 -7 -24 -37 -50 -56 -56 -56 -56 -56 -55 -53 -51 -49 -47 Temp. (F) 59 36 19 -11 -35 -58 -67 -67 -67 -67 -67 -67 -63 -60 -56 -53 Pressure (kPa) 101.3 79.5 62.3 47.2 35.7 26.5 19.4 14.1 10.3 7.57 5.53 4.05 2.97 2.19 1.62 1.20 Density (kg/m3) 1.23 1.01 0.816 0.660 0.526 0.414 0.312 0.228 0.167 0.122 0.0891 0.0650 0.0470 0.0343 0.0250 0.0180

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10. Std. Atmosphere and Ideal Gas

Step 3. Using the data in the standard atmosphere table, you are to construct a new table. First, calculate a new parameter which we will call "R" using the following equation (in other words, solve it for : R)
R is another one of those constants, like U for an orbit. T is temperature, in Kelvins*, not oC. (rho) stands for density, in kg/m3

P=RT
P stands for pressure, in Pascals

Using pressure in Pascals (see p.34), density in kg/m3, and temperature in Kelvin (see the footnote below) from the table on the previous page, fill in the table below with your computed "R" values. Alt (km) 0 4 8 12 20 30 4. What conclusion can you draw about the parameter "R?" R

5. What are the units belonging to "R Work it out below. ?

____________________ *The Kelvin temperature scale is just another way to measure temperature, like Fahrenheit or Celsius. The special property of the Kelvin scale is that no temperature will be negative, no matter how cold. The coldest possible temperature, which is -273oC, is defined as 0 K (Kelvins), or absolute zero. Because of this, Celsius and Kelvin are always related by: oC + 273 = Kelvin temperature.

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10. Std. Atmosphere and Ideal Gas

The equation on page 39 is called the ideal gas equation. It is restated here for convenience: P=RT Again, P is the pressure in units of Pascals, is the density in kg/m3, T is the temperature in Kelvins, and R (the gas constant) has a value of R = 287 N m kg K

Look back at the table on page 38. If pressure and temperature change, then the density of the air will change. If density and pressure change, then temperature of the air will change. In fact, if anything changes we can use the ideal gas law to calculate the new values.
Example. Calculate the density of the air in a car tire. The pressure in a typical tire is 300 0 kPa. The temperature of the air in the tire is 20 C. Solution. We are given temperature and pressure, and want to find density. These three quantities are related by the ideal gas law, P = RT. First, we solve that equation for density:

P RT

Remembering that temperature must be in Kelvins, 20 C + 273 = 293 K. We are also given pressure in kiloPascals, so the pressure we will use is 300,000 Pascals. Now we can put in the numbers.

300,000 Pa = 3.57 kg / m 3 Nm (287 )(293 K) kg K


3

The units all cancel except kg/m , which are the correct units for density. You can see this by 2 substituting N/m for Pascal and canceling all that you can. Work it out below.

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10. Std. Atmosphere and Ideal Gas

Here is an easy way to figure out what units you are getting from the ideal gas law without having to do all of those unit cancellations. In the circle below are the units for density, pressure, and temperature. If two of the numbers that you put into the ideal gas equation have the units listed below, then the answer will be in the units of what is left over.

Of course, you must use R = 287 !

pressure in Pascals

temperature in Kelvins

density in kg/m3

In the example on the previous page, we put pressure in Pascals and temperature in Kelvins into the equation. The figure above tells us that the units of density that we get out of the equation are kg/m3. It is still a good idea, however, to check your units until you have practiced enough to be confident that you are doing things right. You must also make certain that you have done the algebra correctly. Below are several forms of the ideal gas equation. P = RT

P RT

T=

P R

Activity 2. Using the Ideal Gas Equation


We will restrict our calculations to only air, but the ideal gas law can be applied to any gas (R will just be different). Give the problems beginning on the next page a try. In one or more of the problems you may also have to use the definition of density (see page 5) in addition to the ideal gas equation. Remember: R = 287 (N m)/(kg K)

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10. Std. Atmosphere and Ideal Gas

1. On a typical spring day, the outside temperature is 15 0C and the atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa. What is the density of the air (in kg/m3) under these conditions?

2. While flying to Colorado for a week of skiing the pilot announces that you are flying at a velocity of 470 knots at an altitude of 35,000 feet. First, as a review of previous work, determine the velocity of the airplane in km/h, ft/s, and mi/h. Then determine the temperature and pressure of the air outside your window seat. Assume that it is a typical day over the U.S.

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10. Std. Atmosphere and Ideal Gas

3. When returning from Colorado, your airplane flies at an altitude of 12 km. The cabin is pressurized to the equivalent of an altitude of 2 km. The window next to your seat has an area of 0.1 m2. Compute the force exerted on the window in Newtons and give its direction (into the plane or out of the plane). What will the force be in pounds?

4. Is a golf ball more dense or less dense than air ? To answer this question, you need to calculate the density of air and the density of a golf ball. Lets assume that the air temperature and pressure are 15 0C and 101.3 kPa. The mass of a typical golf ball is 49 grams and its diameter is 42.672 millimeters. (You will need to express the density of both the air and the ball in the same units.)

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10. Std. Atmosphere and Ideal Gas

5. A large tank that has a volume of 10 cubic meters is used to store high pressure air for operating a supersonic wind tunnel. If the air pressure and temperature inside the tank are 20 atmospheres (1 atmosphere = 101.3 kPa) and 300 K, respectively, what is the mass of air in the tank?

Activity 3. How Thick is the Atmosphere


For this activity, you will need a 30cm ruler, a meter stick, a length of string, and a photograph showing how the earths atmosphere appears from space. Using the photograph, measure the thickness of the atmosphere in centimeters. (What should you measure ?) Then measure the radius of the earth as best you can. You may find that a length of string is useful for this measurement. Compare the atmospheres thickness with the earths ra dius. a) from the picture, measure: b) radius of real Earth: Earths radius Earths atmosphere ___________ cm ___________ cm ___________ km

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10. Std. Atmosphere and Ideal Gas

c) now calculate the thickness of our actual atmosphere (in kilometers).

d) Comment on the comparison

e) If the earth was the size of the globe at the front of the class, how thick would its atmosphere be ? (work it out below) ____________________ cm. What object is of comparable thickness ? _______________________

f) Looking at the photograph, does the atmosphere appear to get thicker, thinner, or stay the same as altitude increases ? ___________________ Why ?

g) Does the atmosphere appear to have a distinct nd or top ? e ________________________.

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11. Aircraft Flight

Chapter 11. What Makes an Airplane Fly


Activity 1. The Forces on the Aircraft
The first step in understanding aircraft flight is to understand the forces that act on an aircraft that is not changing speed or direction and is flying level with the ground. Newtons laws tell us that these forces must be balanced. The figure below is an aircraft flying level. Can you show all the forces acting on the aircraft ?

Activity 2. Investigating the Shape of the Wing


If we were to take an aircraft, saw the wing in half as shown in the figure, and then look at the wing from the side, what would it look like? Is it flat like a piece of plywood? Draw what you think it would look like below.

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11. Aircraft Flight

What part of the aircraft do you think is responsible for keeping it in the air ?

What is it that this part of the aircraft does that keeps the airplane in the air ?

Can you speculate on how it works ?

Being able to use math to calculate the forces on an aircraft gives engineers a valuable tool to use in aircraft design. Can you speculate on why math would be so important ? Why couldnt an aircraft designer just build an aircraft from scratch without the use of any mathematics ?

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11. Aircraft Flight

Activity 3. Something Happens When Air Speeds Up


Materials. For this experiment you will need a 5 7piece of x note paper. Procedure: STEP 1. Hold or attach the piece of paper to the pencil as shown in the figure to the right. STEP 2. Now hold the pencil and paper so that your mouth rests on the pencil. Blow gently across the top of the paper as shown below. Experiment by blowing gently and strongly. Question: What happened when you blew across the top of the paper ? Sketch what happened below. Did how hard you were blowing make any difference ?

pencil

In the space to the left below, draw arrows representing the pressure acting on the paper before you began blowing. In the space to the right, draw arrows representing the pressure acting on the paper while you were blowing.

Forces before you started blowing on the paper.

Forces while you were blowing on the paper.

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11. Aircraft Flight

LIFT

By now you have probably figured out that it is the wing that enables aircraft to fly. Nature provides many examples -- birds, insects, even giant manta rays, all having something that resembles wings. But why do wings enable flight ? Wings generate lift, a force that overcomes the weight of the bird or aircraft or insect, and enable it to fly. But how do wings work ? Do wings have a particular shape, and can their shapes change while the bird or aircraft is flying ? You probably have seen slow-motion video of birds flying and landing. Do they change the shape of their wings when landing ?

WEIGHT

Activity 4. Further investigation of the relationship between air pressure and air speed.
Materials: For this experiment, you will need a soda straw and a cup about 3/4 full of water Procedure: Fill the cup about 3/4 full of water. (A little food coloring in the water makes the results even more visible.) Cut the soda straw in half. Immerse one half of the straw in the water as shown. While being sure to hold the other straw at a 90-degree angle, blow hard through it. You want the air to pass over the end of the straw that is in the water, not down into it. Question: What happened ? Why did this happen ? Focus on the forces on the water in the straw.

air

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11. Aircraft Flight

Activity 5 (Demonstration). Further Investigation Using the Wind Tunnel.


Materials: For this experiment, you will need to visit the University of Alabama Low Speed Wind Tunnel located downstairs.
Same pressure on both sides Pressure is lower on left side

Instruments. After you arrive at the wind tunnel, your instructor will point out a device typically used in measuring pressure, a liquid filled tube called a manometer. We have a shaped tube filled with colored U water. If the pressure on one side of the The water manometer tube is lower than the pressure on the other side, the water level will be higher on that side. Procedure: STEP 1. Your instructor will use a straw to blow across the top of one of the openings of the manometer, similar to Activity 4 on the previous page. Sketch the water level in the diagram below.

soda straw air initial water level

Question: Why did the water level change ? Focus on the forces acting on the water.

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11. Aircraft Flight

STEP 2. Now your instructor will use a straw to blow directly into one of the openings to the manometer. Sketch the water level in the diagram below.

soda straw air

initial water level

Question: Why did the water level change ? Focus on the forces acting on the water.

Activity 6 (Demonstration). Further Investigation Using the Wind Tunnel.


Materials: For this experiment, you will need to visit the University of Alabama Low Speed Wind Tunnel located downstairs. Instruments. For this activity, you will use a manometer with multiple tubes, each filled with red oil, and a small wing with holes on the top used for measuring pressure. On the next page is a sketch of the wing that will be used in this activity. Each small hole on top of the wing will measure the pressure at that location. Each tube that comes out of the side of the wing is connected to one of the small holes. Using a rubber tube, we can connect each of these to one of the tubes on the manometer. This will enable us to measure the pressure at certain locations on the wing, allowing us to see how the pressure changes with speed.
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11. Aircraft Flight

Each tube on the wing is connected to one of the tubes on the manometer.

initial oil level

red oil manometer (front view)

Procedure. STEP 1. For this step, the airspeed in the tunnel should be zero. Note the oil levels in the tubes on the manometer that are connected to the wing. They should look similar to the diagram above. There is an oil reservoir on the back side of the manometer (have the instructor point it out), so this manometer is similar to the shaped manometer of Activity 5. USTEP 2. Now the instructor will start the tunnel. For this step, we will set the tunnel speed to 50% of its maximum. Watch the level of the oil in the tubes.

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11. Aircraft Flight

Question. What happens to the oil levels ? Sketch the oil levels in the figure above. Why did the oil level change ? How is this related to Activities 4 and 5 ? How is this related to lift ?

Activity 7 (Demonstration). How Speed Affects the Pressure Acting on the Wing
Materials: For this experiment, you will need to visit the University of Alabama Low Speed Wind Tunnel located downstairs. Instruments. Same as Activity 6. Procedure. Aircraft do not just float into the air from rest. In order to take off, they first increase their speed to some minimum value. Lets see why. STEP 1. For this step, the airspeed in the tunnel should be initially set to 50% maximum. Note the oil levels in the tubes on the manometer that are connected to the wing. They should look similar to the oil levels that you drew in Activity 6. Sketch them again in the figure below.
Each tube on the wing is connected to one of the tubes on the manometer.

oil level when air is still

red oil manometer (front view)

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11. Aircraft Flight

STEP 2. Now the instructor will increase the airspeed in the tunnel to 80% of its maximum. Watch the oil levels as the speed increases. Question. What happens to the oil levels at the higher speed ? Sketch the oil levels in the figure above. What can you say about the relation between pressure and velocity ?

Question. How does the lift change as the aircraft increases its speed ?

Activity 8 (Demonstration). Effect of Angle of Attack on the Pressure on the Wing


Materials: For this experiment, you will need to visit the University of Alabama Low Speed Wind Tunnel located downstairs. Instruments. Same as Activities 6 and 7. Procedure. Aircraft do not just float into the air from rest. In order to take off, they first increase their speed to some minimum value. Then they also raise the front of the aircraft, increasing the angle of attack of the wing. Angle of attack is the angle that the wing makes with the air. It is illustrated in the figure below. We can draw a line from the sharp rear edge of the wing out through its nose. This line will be a useful reference. The angle that line makes with the wind is the angle of attack. In the sketch on top, the wing is meeting the air head on, and the angle of attack is zero. In the sketch on the bottom, the nose of the aircraft is up, and the angle of attack is not zero. We could use a protractor to measure it. STEP 1. The instructor will set the angle of attack of the wing in the wind tunnel to zero and set the tunnel speed to about 50% of the maximum speed.

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11. Aircraft Flight

Note the oil levels in the manometer. Sketch them in the figure at the bottom of this page. STEP 2. Now the instructor will change the angle of attack of the wing to about what it is in the figure to the left. At this point during takeair off, the aircrafts nose is pointed upward, but the aircraft is still rolling down the air runway. Note the oil levels in the manometer. Sketch them in Both sketches are of an aircraft moving down the runway. In the top the figure sketch, the angle of attack of the wing is zero. In the bottom sketch, even though the aircraft is still moving along the ground, the angle of below.
attack is not zero. The effect that this has on the pressure on the wing is illustrated in this activity.

Each tube on the wing is connected to one of the tubes on the manometer.

oil level when air is still

red oil manometer (front view)

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11. Aircraft Flight

Question. What happened to the oil levels when the angle of attack was increased ? What can you say about the pressure on the top of the wing as the angle of attack increased ? How is this related to lift ?

Activity 9. Examining Some Aircraft Wings


Materials: Several examples of aircraft wing sections, including model airplanes and actual aircraft. Procedure: Your instructor has set up several stations where you can examine some aircraft wings. Of particular interest in this exercise is the shape of the wing when viewed from the edge, called the airfoil shape. Draw some representative shapes below.

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11. Aircraft Flight

Question: Which part points into the wind, the sharp edge or the rounded edge ?

Question: Do all of the airfoil shapes have some features in common ? What are these features ?

Question: Can you speculate as to why the airfoil is shaped the way it is ?

Activity 10. Performing Some Initial Calculations.


Give the problems below a try. Remember that pressure is force divided by area, so the total force on a wing can be calculated easily if the pressure is known. Looking back in your notes, you can find a problem where we calculated the force on an aircrafts window. Problem #1 below is very similar.

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11. Aircraft Flight

1. Consider a wing flying in the air with a velocity of 75 m/sec. Lets assume, to make the math simpler, that the wing can be modeled as a rectangular flat plate 1 meter by 5 meters. The pressure on the top of the wing is 98.5 kPa and the pressure on the bottom of the wing is 101.3 kPa. The density of the 3 air is 1.23 kg/m . a) Sketch the wing, clearly showing the forces due to pressure acting on it; b) Calculate the upward (lift) force felt by the wing; c) Determine the maximum weight the wing could have if it is to fly.

2. An interesting thing happens when some quantities associated with wings are arranged in a certain way. Find the units of the following combination by plugging in the units for each variable and canceling as many units as you can. Lift Force
1 2

(air density)(velocity)2 (wing area )

= CL

What units does this combination have?

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12. Bernoullis Principle

Chapter 12. The Bernoulli Principle and How Wings Work


In Activities 3 through 9, you have seen how pressure changes as the speed of the air changes. In general, as the speed of the air increases as it moves over an object, the pressure decreases. As the speed of the air velocity moving decreases, the pressure pressure increases. The relationship can be pictured as a seesaw, with pressure on one side and velocity on the other. In Activity 3, the high speed air moving across the top of the paper caused a decrease in pressure which pulled the paper up. In Activity 4, the high speed air moving across the opening of the straw caused a decrease in pressure which pulled the water up into the straw. In Activity 6 the high speed air moving across the top of the wing caused low pressure which pulled the oil in the manometer up into the tubes. On a real aircraft, the high speed air moving over the top of the wing causes low pressure which sucks the airplane up into the air. In Activity 5, we saw an exception to this. If the high speed air was moving directly into the tube rather than across it, the pressure increased rather than decreased, which forced the water to move down into the manometer. This makes sense. Consider a car moving down the highway. The ramming effect of the air at the front of the car results in an area of high pressure on the bumper, headlights, and front grill, while the motion of the air across the top of the car causes an area of low pressure on the roof and side windows. Based on this fact, can you determine why closed convertible tops often appear to be ulled upwhen the car is moving at high p speed on the interstate ? (See Activity 14)
Higher speed on top results in lower pressure on top.

Arrows show the direction the air is moving. Side view of the wing showing how the speed of the air changes as it moves over the top and bottom of the wing. The longer the arrow the faster the air.

The shape of most aircraft wings causes the speed of the air to increase over the top of the wing, while either keeping the speed the same or actually decreasing its speed over the bottom. Therefore, the high speed air on top results in low pressure on top, while the pressure on

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bottom may actually increase if the air is slowed down. Low pressure on top and normal or high pressure on bottom creates a net force pushing the aircraft up into the air. This force is called lift, and it balances the weight of the aircraft while flying level. It must be emphasized that it is what happens on top of the wing that is really important. The low pressure on top is mainly responsible for creating the lift. The small (if any) increase in pressure on the bottom of the wing is not a major contribution to lift. Therefore, the aircraft really gets sucked upwards into the air. But why does the air move faster over the top of the wing than over the bottom ? This is best answered with two photographs. The first figure below shows an airfoil sitting in flowing water with some sawdust floating in it. The water is flowing from the left to the right. Note the path that the sawdust takes. It appears as though water is actually pulled over the top of the wing. If you look closely, the water in front of the airfoils nose does not keep going straight until it hits the airfoils surface, but is deflected upwards and pulled over the top ! The water could be replaced with air, and the sawdust with smoke. It would look the same.

wind direction

Adapted from Prandtl and Tietjens, Applied Hydro- and Aeromechanics. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1934.

An interesting analogy to this is illustrated in the next figure, which shows a rotating (or spinning) cylinder in the same stream of water that the airfoil was in above. Note how the water, once again, is pulled over the top of the cylinder. The water is moving from left to right and the cylinder is rotating clockwise. Again, the water could be replaced with air and the sawdust with smoke trails; the picture would look the same.

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12. Bernoullis Principle

Now, think back to the relation between velocity and static pressure. When the water encounters the rotating cylinder, some of it is pulled over the top and is getting pulled along by the motion of the cylinder. The same effect would be if, while you were walking, someone in a car grabbed you and pulled you along for a few yards. This means the velocity of the water increases, which means that the pressure decreases ! So the pressure on top of the cylinder is low. On the bottom, the water is moving against the motion of the cylinder, so the waters velocity decreases, and the pressure increases. So the pressure on the bottom of the cylinder is high. Low pressure on top and high pressure on bottom generates lift. Replace the water with air and the same thing happens.
wind direction

The cylinder is spinning clockwise


Adapted from Prandtl and Tietjens, Applied Hydro- and Aeromechanics. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1934.

The airfoil does not spin, of course, but the shape is extremely important. The curved top surface and the sharp rear edge cause more air to be pulled over round nose the top and the air velocity to increase, sharp rear edge resulting in relatively low pressure on top. If the Here are the characteristics of an airfoil shape that enable flight. pressure is lower on top, then the wing will create lift, a net upward force that overcomes the weight of the aircraft.
slightly curved top

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13. Bernoullis Equation

Chapter 13. Bernoullis Equation (optional)


There is one other point that we must address. If you look back at Activity 5, you will see that it made a difference if we blew across the opening at the end of the tube rather than into it. It definitely made a difference in the pressure on the water in the tube. When air moves across an opening, and not into U it, then the manometer is said to be measuring static pressure. Static pressure is the pressure that you would feel if you were moving along with the air. When the opening of the manometer tube is pointing into the wind, then the speed of the air is going to push against the water in the manometer, increasing the pressure. When air moves into an opening, and not across it, the manometer is said to be measuring total pressure. These two values of pressure are obviously different, and that difference has a name. The difference between static pressure and total pressure is called dynamic pressure. Dynamic pressure is related to the speed of the air. The faster the air is moving, the greater the dynamic pressure. All three are related by the equation: Total Pressure = Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure Now, lets clarify one thing. When we use the word pressure by itself, we are talking about static pressure. Static pressure is the eal thing. The other r two pressure measurements are really just ookkeeping. Static pressure is b the pressure that you feel, whether it be when riding a bike, swimming in deep water, or just sitting still. We can be more specific about dynamic pressure. It is defined as dynamic pressure = 1 V 2 2

where is the density of the air and V is the speed of the air. This means that the equation above page can be written as Total pressure = Static pressure + 1 V 2 2

This equation is called Bernoullis equation. The metric units of every term in the equation are Pascals. We can show that the units of dynamic pressure are also Pascals.

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13. Bernoullis Equation

units of

1 kg m kg m 2 kg m N V 2 = 3 = 3 2 = 2 2 = 2 = Pascal m s 2 m s m s m
2

Static pressure is measured by letting the air move across the opening of a tube connected to a manometer. Total pressure is measured by letting the moving air ram directly into a tube that is connected to the manometer. If we let one tube connected to the manometer measure static pressure and the other end measure total pressure, then the manometer is measuring the difference between the two, or dynamic pressure.
measuring static pressure

soda straw air measuring total pressure The difference in the water levels is the difference between total and static pressure, which is directly related to the speed of the air. The larger the difference, the faster the air must be moving.

The difference in the water level on both sides of the manometer increases as the speed of the air increases. One opening is measuring static pressure while the other is measuring total pressure. The difference in the water height between the two sides is related to dynamic pressure. We could put a scale on the tubes stating that if the water difference is a certain amount, then the aircraft is traveling at 100 mph, and so on. Pilots would rather have a dial much like a cars speedometer rather than have to watch a column of water, so instead of water aircraft have a needle linked to a device that reads the difference between the static and total pressures. This device is actually called an airspeed indicator by pilots. An old barometer that uses an air bladder is a good example of how the needle of the speedometer on the airspeed indicator works. Have your instructor demonstrate. If you examine an aircraft closely, you can see the tube opening used to measure the total pressure, which is usually located underneath the front of the wing, and the tube opening used to measure static pressure, which is usually located somewhere on the side of the aircrafts body (fuselage).

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14. Applying Bernoullis Equation

Chapter 14. Applying Bernoullis Principle


Now you have seen that the curved top and the sharp rear edge of the wing cause the air velocity to increase over the top, reducing the pressure and creating lift. Lets apply this knowledge in a few experiments and demonstrations.

Activity 1. An example of a rotating cylinder creating lift


Your instructor will demonstrate a spinning cylinder creating lift. For this experiment, we will use a table tennis ball and a straw. Observe the demonstration, paying close attention to the ball. Question: What happens ? Why ?

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14. Applying Bernoullis Equation

Activity 2: A Sure Bet


Your instructor may challenge you to blow the table tennis ball out of the funnel. Can you ? Watch the demonstration. Question: What happens ? Why is it impossible to blow the ball out of the funnel ? Sketch the ball in the funnel showing where the air is moving fast.

Question: Can you think of a way to blow the ball out ?

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14. Applying Bernoullis Equation

Activity 3. Application to Sports


Use your knowledge to explain why: (a) a golf ball curves sometimes.

(b) how a baseball pitcher throws a curve ball .

(c) why top spin on a tennis ball causes it to drop quickly once it gets over the net.

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14. Applying Bernoullis Equation

Activity 4. Convertible Automobiles


You may have noticed a strange phenomenon with convertible automobiles that are moving at high speed down the interstate. When the top is closed, it appears that some force is pulling the top up in the center, causing it to bulge unnaturally. Based on your knowledge of the relationship between velocity and pressure, explain why this happens.

Activity 5. Examining the Helicopter


How does a helicopter fly. It does not have fixed wings like an airplane, but it still flies. Take a look at the departments helicopter. Sketch the helicopter showing all forces acting on it during hovering flight (no thrust or drag) below.

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14. Applying Bernoullis Equation

What part of the helicopter is responsible for lift ? How does this part work ? Are there any low pressure areas ? Where are they ?

In what way(s) is this part similar to an aircrafts wing ?

Activity 6. Examining a Propeller


The propeller is responsible for creating the thrust necessary for some types of aircraft to fly. Examine the propeller. Look at it from the side. How does it create thrust ? Are there any low pressure areas ? Where are they ?

Are there any similarities between a propeller and a wing ?

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15. Real Aircraft

Chapter 15. Real Aircraft (Field Trip)


It is time to go take a look at a real airplane. Your instructor will provide you with directions on how to get to the airport. Bring this and the next page with you. These pages are to be completed while at the airport.

Activity 6. Airplanes at the Airport


What is the make and model of the airplane ? ____________________________ How much does the airplane weigh empty ? _____________________________ How much weight can this airplane carry ? _____________________________ How much fuel does it carry ? ______________________________ What is the airplanes maximum speed ? __________________________ What is the airplanes maximum altitude ? ___________________________ Are the wings swept or unswept ? ________________________________ What type of engine does this airplane have ? ____________________________ Does this airplane use a propeller or a jet engine ? _______________________ How does the airplane determine its speed ? (in other words, where is the speedometer ?) A sketch might help.

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15. Real Aircraft

Sketch the wings clearly showing the location of the ailerons and the flaps.

Sketch the tail section of the plane clearly showing the location of the rudder and the elevators.

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References
Kepler, Johannes, Astronomia Nova, 1609. Kepler, Johannes, Harmonice Mundi, 1619. Newton, Isaac, Principia, 1687. Prandtl and Tietjens, Applied Hydro- and Aeromechanics. McGraw-Hill: New York, 1934. Shevell, Fundamentals of Flight, Prentice Hall: 1989. Wegener, What Makes Airplanes Fly?, Springer-Verlag: New York, 1991.

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Index
Acceleration, calculating, 10 centripetal, 23 definition of, 8, 23 due to gravity (g), 14 Aircraft, airspeed indicator, 63 controls, ailerons, 70 elevators, 70 flaps, 70 rudder, 70 forces on, 12, 46 wing, angle of attack, 55 pressure on, 58, 59, 60 shape, 46, 52, 56, 60 Airfoil, 56 see also Aircraft, wing, shape Angle of Attack, see Aircraft, wing Atmosphere, see Standard atmosphere Bernoullis principle, 59 Density, definition, 35 units of, 35 Forces, 11 adding, 16,17 drag, 12, 13 due to pressure, 33 lift, 12, 13 sketching using arrows, 13 thrust, 12, 13 weight, 11, 13 see also Weight and Mass g, see Acceleration, due to gravity Gas Law, see Ideal Gas Law Geosynchronous, 31 Ideal Gas Law, 39, 40 values for R, 40 Lift, see Aircraft, wing, pressure on Kelvin temperature scale, 39 Manometer, 50 Mass, 11, 14, 15 relation to weight, 14, 15 Newton, as a unit of force, 14, 15 Newtons Laws of Motion, 16, 17, 22 Newtons Universal Law of Gravitation, 22 Orbit equation, 25 Orbits, 21 acceleration in orbit, 23 circular, 21 elliptical, 21 forces in orbit, 22, 30 Ozone, 38 Pascal, see Pressure, units of Pressure, definition, 33 units of, 3, 34 R, see Ideal Gas Law

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Standard atmosphere, 37 table of values, 38 thickness of, 44 U (values of for the orbit equation), earth, 25 Units conversion table, 4 English system, 3 metric system, 3 of common quantities, 8, 17 Velocity calculating, 9, 10 definition of, 8

Volume, 5, 6, 7 formulas, 3 Weight, 11,13 calculating, 13, 14, 15 definition of, 14 see also Mass Wing, see Aircraft

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