Chapter 44 The Nervous System

Bonus topics: CNS Subdivisions (Table 44.3) sleep and arousal lateralization of function

Nervous System Organization

Sensory receptors = detect stimulus Motor effectors = respond to it The nervous system links the two consists of neurons and supporting cells Vertebrates have three types of neurons:
sensory neurons (afferent neurons) motor neurons (efferent neurons) interneurons (association neurons)

 Central nervous system (CNS)

brain and spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

sensory and motor neurons somatic NS stimulates skeletal muscles autonomic NS stimulates smooth & cardiac muscles, glands
sympathetic and parasympathetic NS counterbalance each other

Neurons: basic structure

cell body dendrites axon

Neurons
supported by cells called neuroglia Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes produce myelin sheaths surrounding axons

CNS: oligodendrocytes myelinated axons form white matter dendrites/cell bodies form gray matter PNS: Schwann cells axons are bundled to form nerves

Nerve Impulse Transmission

A potential difference exists across every cells PM negative pole positive pole resting potential
ranges from - 40 to - 90 millivolts (mV) (average about - 70 mV in neurons)

The inside of the cell is more negatively charged than the outside because of
1. sodium-potassium pump (see Fig. 44.5) 2. ion leakage channels

buildup of positive charge outside and negative charge inside the membrane electrical potential is an attractive force to bring K+ ions back into the cell balance between diffusional and electrical forces leads to the equilibrium potential resting membrane potential can be viewed using a voltmeter and two electrodes

Two types of potentials: graded potentials and action potentials graded potentials = small transient changes in membrane potential due to activation of gated ion channels

chemically-gated (ligand-gated channels)

ligands are hormones or neurotransmitters induce opening and cause changes in cell membrane permeability

Depolarization: membrane potential becomes more positive Hyperpolarization: makes it more negative summation is the ability of graded potentials to combine

Action potentials
threshold potential caused by voltage-gated ion channels two different channels are used: voltage-gated Na+ channels voltage-gated K+ channels when the threshold voltage is reached, Na+ channels open rapidly transient influx of Na+ causes the membrane to depolarize in contrast, potassium channel opens slowly efflux of K+ repolarizes the membrane the action potential has three phases:
rising, falling and undershoot

action potentials are always separate, all-or-none events with the same amplitude do not add up or interfere with each other intensity of a stimulus is coded by the frequency, not amplitude, of action potentials

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Movement of the AP along a membrane:

each action potential, in its rising phase, reflects a reversal in membrane polarity positive charges due to influx of Na+ can depolarize the adjacent region to threshold the next region produces its own action potential the previous region repolarizes back to the resting membrane potential

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Conduction velocity: 1. axon diameter

influences resistance to current flow large diameter axons found primarily in invertebrates

2. myelination
action potential is only produced at the nodes of Ranvier impulse jumps from node to node (saltatory conduction)

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Synapses intercellular junctions

presynaptic cell postsynaptic cell

two basic types:

electrical synapses chemical synapses
synaptic cleft synaptic vesicles neurotransmitters

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action potential triggers influx of Ca2+ synaptic vesicles fuse with cell membrane neurotransmitter is released by exocytosis diffuses to other side of cleft and binds to chemical- (or ligand)gated receptor proteins neurotransmitter action is terminated by enzymatic cleavage or cellular uptake

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Acetylcholine (ACh)
neuromuscular junction excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) acetylcholinesterase (AChE)

Amino acid neurotransmitters

glutamate glycine and GABA (-aminobutyric acid) produce a hyperpolarization called an inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

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Biogenic amines epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine dopamine serotonin Neuropeptides substance P intensity of pain perception depends on enkephalins and endorphins Nitric oxide (NO) a gas ; produced as needed from arginine causes smooth muscle relaxation

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Synaptic integration
integration of EPSPs (depolarization) and IPSPs (hyperpolarization) occurs on the neuronal cell body small EPSPs add together to bring the membrane potential closer to the threshold IPSPs subtract from the depolarizing effect of EPSPs therefore deter the membrane potential from reaching threshold two ways that the membrane can reach the threshold voltage
spatial summation temporal summation

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Memory
involves many regions and connections essential regions in the temporal lobe
amygdala hippocampus

short-term memory is stored in the form of transient neural excitations long-term memory appears to involve structural changes in neural connections memory consolidation
facilitation structural changes

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Spinal Cord
cable of neurons extending from the brain down through the backbone bodys information highway
relays messages between the body and the brain

enclosed and protected by the vertebral column and the meninges functions in reflexes
the knee-jerk reflex is monosynaptic however, most reflexes in vertebrates involve an interneuron

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Sensory neurons:
axons enter the dorsal surface of the spinal cord and form dorsal root of spinal nerve cell bodies are grouped outside the spinal cord in dorsal root ganglia axons leave from the ventral surface and form ventral root of spinal nerve cell bodies are located in the spinal cord

Motor neurons:

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 functions in reflexes
the knee-jerk reflex is monosynaptic however, most reflexes in vertebrates involve an interneuron

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 functions in reflexes
the knee-jerk reflex is monosynaptic however, most reflexes in vertebrates involve an interneuron

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Monosynaptic reflex arc:

involves only 1 synapse example: knee jerk reflex

Polysynaptic reflex arc:

involves interneurons most reflexes in vertebrates examples: withdrawal (also called flexor reflex) and crossed extension reflex note: for all of these reflexes, other interneurons ascend through the s.c. to the brain (you are aware of the various stimuli and how your body is responding)

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The Peripheral Nervous System

consists of nerves and ganglia The Somatic Nervous System
skeletal muscle contraction conscious command or reflex actions antagonist muscle inhibition composed of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions, plus the medulla oblongata

The Autonomic Nervous System

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The Autonomic Nervous System

composed of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions in both, efferent motor pathway has 2 neurons preganglionic neuron: exits the CNS and synapses at an autonomic ganglion postganglionic neuron: exits the ganglion and regulates visceral effectors (smooth or cardiac muscle or glands)

see Table 44.5 Autonomic Innervation of Target tissues * how can Ach have excitatory effect on skeletal muscle but have an inhibitory effect on heart muscle?

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ANS
Sympathetic division preganglionic neurons originate in the thoracic and lumbar regions of spinal cord most axons synapse in two parallel chains of ganglia right outside the spinal cord Parasympathetic division preganglionic neurons originate in the brain and sacral regions of spinal cord axons terminate in ganglia near or even within internal organs

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ANS

autonomic effects are mediated by the action of G protein-coupled receptors receptor is activated by binding to its ligand the G protein is activated; activates the effector protein review G-protein coupled signaling (chapter 9)

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