Exam 4 Notes

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Module 24: Intelligence

Intelligence: The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations Factor Analysis- a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (factors) on a test General intelligence (g): A general intelligence factor that Spearman and others believed underlies intelligence. Measured by every task on an intelligence test Theories of Intelligence Evidence for Multiple Intelligence o Brain damage o Savant Syndrome 8 types of Intelligence 1. Linguistic 2. Musical 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Spatial Logical- Mathematical Intrapersonal Interpersonal Bodily-Kinesthetic Naturalist

Sternberg distinguishes three aspects of intelligence Analytical (academic problem-solving)- answering well-defined problems with a single correct answer Creative- reacting and adaptively to new situations and generating novel ideas Practical- required for everyday tasks, frequently ill-defined with multiple solutions

Vocational Performance Fallacy

Traditional intelligence tests predict school performance well, but not vocational success - Sternberg and Wagners (1995) test of pratical managerial intelligence measures: Writing effective memos How to motivate people When to delegate tasksand responsibilities How to read people How to promote your own career * This test predicts performance ratings and earnings of high salaries Emotional Intelligence- the ability to perceive, express, understands, and regulates emotions. Characteristics include: Being self-aware Not getting overwhelmed by emotions Delaying gratifications in pursuit of long-term rewards John Mayor and Peter Salvory Intelligence Test- A method for assessing an individuals mental aptitude and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores Simon Binet created the first intelligence test (1857-1911) Mental Age- A measure of intelligence test performance. Its the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance Lewis Turman brought Binets test to America Results were not the same, changed test to Stanford-Binet Intelligence test Eugenics movement believer William Sterns developed the intelligence quotient (IQ) IQ is (mental age/ chronological age) x 100

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale- The most widely used intelligence test, contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtest Principles of Test Construction

1. Standardization- defining scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested standardized group Flynn Effect- test scores tend to increase over time Normal Distribution- a bell shaped pattern of scores that forms the normal curve, standardized tests result to form this 2. Reliability- the extent to which a test has consistent results Alternative forms Test/ Retest Split-Half 3. Validity- Extent to which a test measures or predicts what is it supposed to do Content Validity Criterion- Related Validity

Genetic and Environmental Influences on intelligence - Twins/ adopted studies and kids raised in enriched/ neglected environments indicate that both genes and environment contribute to individual differences in intelligence scores Controversial Issue: o Intellectual brightness- Social positions o Social standings- unequal opportunities o Schooling/ Intelligence Relationship -Genetic difference within groups does not mean genetic differences between groups Stereotype Threat- a self- confirming concern that one will be evaluated based upon a negative stereotype -Blacks -Women Racial groups differ in their average score on intelligence tests: - Average intelligence score for whites is 100 - Average intelligence score for African Americans is 85 - Average intelligence score for Hispanics is between 85-100

- The gap has dropped in recent studies due to the factors weve talked about Other differences European New Zealanders outscores native Maori New Zealanders Israeli Jews outscore Israeli Arabs Most japs outscore the jap minorities, Burakumin Those who can hear outscore the deaf

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Module 38: Social Influence

The Power of the SituationIn the early 1970s, Craig Haney, Curt Banks, Carlo Prescott, and Philip Zimbardo conducted a landmark situational study at Stanford University. The experiment tested the fundamental attribution error: our tendency to attribute causes of behavior to personal factors, underestimating the influence of situational conditions. For this study, a small group of college students volunteered to be subjects and were carefully tested for sound psychological and physical health. Half of the students were randomly selected to act as prisoners, the other half to act as guards. The study took place in a simulated jail facility in the Stanford University Psychology Department. Once the study subjects entered the simulated jail, uniforms, rules, and other details distinguished the two groups from each other, and blurred the line between the reality of the study and life in prison. The students spent much of the day cramped in tiny cells, undergoing physical trials, and enduring the overall claustrophobic atmosphere of a small jail 24 hours a day. The guards, however, were allowed to return to their homes and normal surroundings after their shifts. What happened during the study, originally planned to last two weeks, was more dramatic than anyone had anticipated, even the researchers themselves. As the days passed, the boundary between roles and real life disappeared. Civilized students became aggressive guards, while formerly active students became listless, disengaged prisoners who passively underwent their trials and became depressed or disoriented. Some of the prisoners were so overpowered by the situation that they developed extreme stress reactions and had to be released from the study. Eventually, after only six days, the study was forced to end. The behavior induced by the situation and physical environment shocked everyone, both students and researchers. But through this extreme example of situational manipulation, new understandings of social psychology, as well as the dynamics of life in a prison environment, were gained. When the study was over, the students returned to their normal lives, and extensive follow-ups have shown no negative long-term effects on the students.

Conformity- adjusting ones behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard What were the results of the Solomon Asch study? People will do the wrong thing, even if they know the right one, just to not feel uncomfortable. (Participants agreed with confederates even though they were obviously wrong, 75% of participants guessed the wrong line at least once, 1/3 of the time overall they guessed wrong) Conditions that strength conformity: If a person feels incompetent/ insecure If a person admires status/ attractiveness of the group When the group is unanimous with at least 3 people When a culture encourages respect for social standards

Reasons for conformity: Normative Social Influence- influence resulting from a persons desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval Informational Social Influence- influence resulting from ones willingness to accept others opinion about reality Obedience- following the outright commands, usually from someone in a position of authority Milgram Study- delivered shocks to incorrect answers, shocks increased in pain, students would beg to not be shocked, but the testers refused to shock even though they felt terrible, 63% of people went the entire way through all of the shocks (450 bolts), people were shocked even if answer was right due to researchers telling the testers to shock them (the people never actually were shocked, the tester was being tested, not the student) Obedience was the highest when: - The experimenter (authority figure) was nearby - The experimenter was perceived to be legitimate - The experimenter was supported by a prestigious institution - The learner/ victim was at a distance or depersonalized

- The participant saw no one else disobey the experiment Take home message from the conformity and obedience studies - Under strong social influence, ordinary people can be perpetrators of terrible acts. These studies have been applied as an explanation of the Holocaust and fraternity hazing rituals

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Module 37: Social Thinking

Social Psychology- The scientific study of how we think about influence and relate to one another Attribution Theory- We tend to give a casual explanation for someones behavior by crediting the situation or the persons disposition Fundamental Attribution Error- When analyzing anothers behavior, we tend to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of the personal dispositions We make external attributes for our own behavior We make internal attributions for others behavior

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Appendix B: Psychology at Work

Industrial/ Organizational Psychology This field applies psychology to the workplace, it involves: o Matching people to work o Enhancing satisfaction and productivity o Exploring effective management of people Sub-Fields of I/O Psychology Personnel Psychology o Selecting and evaluating workers Organizational Psychology o Worker motivation, moral satisfaction and productivity o Designing Employee attitude surveys and training programs Human Factor Psychology o Assesses how machines and environments can be designed to fit human abilities and expectations

Personnel Psychology: Selecting and Assessing Employees Selection aims to match peoples strengths with work that requires those strengths. Here are some things a personnel psychologist does: o Conduct job analysis to identify KSAs (knowledge, skills, and abilities) o Create a test that measures KSAs o Gather data to ensure test predicts performance on the job Flow- the involved focused state in which one loses track of self and time resulting from optimal engagement of ones skills (in the zone) Interviewer Illusion- Interviewers are overconfident in their ability to predict long-term performance based on an unstructured interview. Better predictors include: Aptitude tests Work samples Job knowledge tests

Peer ratings of past job performance Mental ability tests

Structured Interview Interviews use pre-designed questions to measure KSAs Interviewers treat all applicants the same Candidates present with work situations and asked to explain how they would handle them now or in the past Reduce memory distortion and biases Leadership Transformational Leadership o High standards o Individualized attention to workers o Motivate others to identify and commit to the groups mission Motivating Achievement Achievement Motivation- the desire for significant accomplishments for mastering skills or ideas, and for rapidly attaining a high standard Performance= Ability x Motivation

Managing Well Effective leaders harness strength, set goals and choose an appropriate leadership style o Harness strength- fit people to jobs that utilize their strengths or modify the jobs to fit the people o Set goals- challenging reasonable goal + feedback = achievement o Leadership style- Task (focuses on goals and organizing work) vs. Social leadership (builds teamwork) *All depends on situation, but effective leaders use two or all three *Voice effect- employees are more likely to accept a result when they are given a voice/opinion when deciding a solution Human Factors Psychology: Perception and the Human Factor

Simple designs that can reduce human frustration and accidents