Computational Fluid Dynamics

Course code - ME880 Instructor: Kuldhir Singh Bhati

This CFD book is truly for beginners.. ..Absolutely no prior knowledge of CFD is assumed on your part-only your desire to learn something is taken for granted.. ..It is not state-of-art treatment of the modern, sophisticated CFD of today.

This book is in part the product of the authors experience in teaching a week short course titled Introduction to CFD for ten years at the Von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics at Sint-Genesius-Rode Belgium.

1995 Edition 2012 Reprint

All the mathematical sciences are founded on relations between physical laws and laws of numbers, so that the aim of exact sciences is to reduce the problems of nature to the determination of quantities by operations with numbers. -James Clerk Maxwell, 1856

Commonly used methods in CFD:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Finite Difference Method (FDM) Finite Volume Method (FVM) Finite Element Method (FEM) Boundary Element Method (BEM) Immersed Boundary Methods (IBM) Boundary Integral Method (BIM) Spectral Volume Method Spectral element Method

Early development of CFD in 1960-70s was driven by the need of Aerospace industry. Man always wanted to fly faster and higher (low drag). Experimental facilities (wind tunnels) were not available for all flight regimes. CFD was able to calculate complete 3-D flow field for complete aircraft. However theory and experiment hold own importance and will never be replaced by CFD.

Governing Equations
CFD is based on fundamental governing equations of fluid dynamics i.e. mass, momentum and energy conservation. Depending on type of model applied to flow field (Control volume/control mass, Lagrangian/Eulerian), particular mathematical form of governing equation appears. CFD algorithms based on these different form of governing equation (conservative non-conservative, integral differential) behave differently in terms of accuracy and stability. These algorithm solve governing equations (G.E.) subjected to appropriate boundary conditions.

Models of Flow
Solid body in translation motion velocity of all parts SAME Fluid in motion velocity may be DIFFERENT. BIG QUESTION of HOUR is: How to visualize moving fluid so as to apply physical principles to it? Models of flow help us in visualizing flow & applying physical laws to it FOUR models for continuum fluid: Finite Control Volume (FCV) closed volume drawn within finite region of flow. Fluid only in this region is analyzed. Leads to integral form of G.E. 1. FCV fixed conservative form 2. FCV moving non-conservative form Infinitesimal Fluid Element (IFE) differential fluid element but large enough to form continuum. Give differential form of G.E. 3. IFE fixed conservative form 4. IFE moving non-conservative form 5. Statistical Model Microscopic approach.

Substantial Derivative
- It, apart from .V , is frequently used in governing equations of fluid flow. Consider general unsteady flow field: u=u(x,y,z,t) v=v(x,y,z,t) w=w(x,y,z,t) = (x,y,z,t) When fluid element move from 1 to 2 change in density by Taylor series is given as:

2 = 1 +

( x2 x1 ) + ( y2 y1 ) + ( z2 z1 ) + (t2 t1 ) + x 1 z 1 t 1 y 1
Higher order terms of x y, y z, z x, x t etc. neglected

Average rate of change of density when fluid move from 1 to 2

x2 x1 y2 y1 z2 z1 Lim = Lim + Lim + Lim + t2 t1 t t t2 t1 t t t2 t1 t t t2 t1 t t x y z t 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1

D =u +v +w + Dt x y z t
Instantaneous rate change of density as fluid move through point 1

2 1

Substantial / Total / Material derivative operator in Cartesian coordinates

D u +v +w + Dt x y z t
Convective derivative Local derivative

Using nabla or del vector operator :

+ +k i j x y z
Coordinate independent form:

D + (V . ) Dt t

Vector represents spatial variation of along direction of maximum change of represents change of , particle experience as it moves with velocity V

V .

e.g. Grasshopper moving in field of colorful flowers and changing its color.

Divergence of velocity
Mass of FCV remain same but its volume and hence density changes with time as it moves in space.

V = (t ).dS

Area vector

displacement Total change in volume of C.V. over a period of time t, As t is constant for complete C.V.,

V = .dS t s

V = (t ).dS
s

when t 0,

DV = .dS Dt s
Material/Substantial derivative

Applying Gauss Divergence Theorem,

DV = (. )dV Dt v
Let C.V. shrunk to very small volume V, such that . is constant within V

D( V ) = (. ) V Dt

1 D( V ) . = V Dt
Divergence of velocity means time rate of change of volume per unit volume of fluid. In general, this will be constant within V if volume of C.V. tend to zero.

Continuity Equation
Conservation of Mass (Physical Law) 1. FCV fixed in space: Continuity Equation (Various Mathematical forms)

Model of flow

Net mass flow rate going OUT of C.V.= Time rate of decrease of mass inside

.dS = t dV s v

dV + .dS = 0 t v s
Integral, conservative form of continuity equation.

2. FCV moving in space:

dV = const
v

V is changing as C.V. moves in space with time. But mass remains same.

D dV = 0 Dt v
Integral, non-conservative form of continuity equation.

3. IFE fixed in space (in Cartesian coordinate): There is mass flow across the element. By m = A ( u) dxdydz Net OUTFLOW in x-direction =

( w) ( v) dxdydz dxdydz Similarly y and z in y & z

directions respectively.

Using same mass conservation principle, Net mass flow rate going OUT of I.E.= Time rate of decrease of mass inside

( u ) ( v) ( w) dxdydz = ( dxdydz ) + + x y z t
Since volume of element dont change with time,

( u ) ( v) ( w) + + + =0 t x y z
In Coordinate independent form,

+ .( ) = 0 t
Differential, conservative form of continuity equation.

4. IFE moving in space (in Cartesian coordinate): This has fixed mass but its volume and shape will be changing as it moves in space.

m = ( x, y, z, t ) V
D( m) D D( V ) = V + =0 Dt Dt Dt
D 1 D( V ) + =0 Dt V Dt D + . = 0 Dt

Differential, non-conservative form of continuity equation.

All forms are same mathematically

FCV to IFE (fixed in space):

dV + .dS = 0 t v s
Since volume of FCV dont change with time,

t dV + .dS = 0 v s
Using Gauss Divergence Theorem,

t + .( ) dV = 0 v
FCV is drawn arbitrary in space. So integrand has to be zero at every point within FCV

+ .( ) = 0 t

IFE (fixed in space) to IFE (moving in space):

+ .( ) = 0 t
Expanding divergence term,

+ . + . = 0 t
Substantial derivative

D + . = 0 Dt
In integral equation, separate consideration need NOT be given to account for discontinuities in flow like shock wave. Hence these eq. are more fundamental. Differential form of G.E. assume flow properties are differentiable, hence continuous.

Momentum Equation
Applying Newton II law to our fourth model of flow. (Other models lead to other form of momentum equation analogous to continuity equation.) Fx=max Fy=may Fz=maz Consider only this eq

1. Long range force or Body force=fx(dxdydz) 2. Short range force or Surface Force due to: a) Pressure b) Shear & Normal stresses

 ij denotes stress in j direction exerted on plane perpendicular to i axis.

Directions are as per convention that positive increase in velocities occur in positive directions of axes, which result in tugging and dragging action on faces. Balancing forces in x-direction,

p xx yx zx + + + dxdydz + f x dxdydz = Fx = max y z x x

m=dxdydz As we are considering moving fluid element model, ax=Du/Dt This gives

p xx yx zx Du = + + + + fx x x y z Dt

This is Navier Stokes eq in non-conservative, scalar form. Similar equations can be written for y & z directions.

From definition of substantial derivative and differentiation,

Du u ( u ) = + .u = u + .( u ) u.( ) t t Dt t
0 (by continuity eq of 3rd model)

Du u = u + .( ) + .( u ) t Dt t

Substituting this in momentum eq we obtain its conservative form,

( u) p xx yx zx + .( u ) = + + + + fx t x x y z
Newton found that shear stress is proportional to velocity gradients for some fluids. Such fluid are called Newtonian fluids. Physical significance of Normal stress: Normal stresses causes time rate of change of volume of fluid element and hence are related to velocity gradients (physical meaning of divergence of velocity).

Energy Equation
We again uses moving IFE model and apply 1st law of thermodynamics to it.

Rate change of = Net heat flux IN Rate of work done BY element Energy of element = Net heat flux IN + Rate of work done ON element 1. Rate of work done by forces ON element : Work done by body force acting in x-direction = uFbx = ufxdxdydz (This is positive because velocities are considered to be positive axes direction. Hence forces in positive direction do positive work, while forces in negative direction do negative work.)

Rate at which work is done by surface forces acting in x-direction,

(up ) (u xx ) (u yx ) (u zx ) + + + + uf x dxdydz x x y z

Rate at which work is done by surface forces acting in y-direction,

(vp) (v xy ) (v yy ) (v zy ) + + + + vf y dxdydz x y z y
Rate at which work is done by surface forces acting in z-direction,

( wp ) ( w xz ) ( w yz ) ( w zz ) + + + + wf z dxdydz z x y z
Total rate of doing work on fluid element,

.( p )

(up ) (vp ) ( wp ) (u xx ) (u yx ) (u zx ) = + + + + + y z x y z x
+ (v xy ) x + (v yy ) y + (v zy ) z ( w xz ) ( w yz ) ( w zz ) + + + + f . dxdydz x y z

2. Net heat flux IN : = Volumetric Heat generation + Heat flow through boundaries into the element. (energy stored will be accounted by change in total energy of fluid element) Volumetric Heat generation rate = Qg dxdydz Net heat transfer in x-direction due to thermal conduction =

qx qx qx qx + x dx dydz = x dxdydz
Given by Fourier law of heat conduction Net Heat flow IN to the element

= Qg

qx q y qz + + dxdydz y z x

= Qg + .(k T ) dxdydz

3. Rate change of Kinetic Energy + Internal energy of element :

D 2 = e + 2 dxdydz Dt
per unit mass Substituting all three expressions in 1st law, we get

(u xx ) (u yx ) (u zx ) D 2 + + e + = Qg + .(k T ) .( p ) + x y z 2 Dt
+ (v xy ) x + (v yy ) y + (v zy ) z + ( w xz ) ( w yz ) ( w zz ) + + + f . x y z

This is Non- conservative form of energy equation in terms of total energy.

Multiplying non-conservative form of momentum eq with respective velocities and adding them up we get;

xx yx zx xy yy zy D( 2 / 2) = .p + u + + + + + v Dt x y z x y z

xz yz zz +w + + + f . y z x
Subtracting it from previous and using complementary nature of shear stresses we get;

De u v w = Qg + .(k T ) p. + xx + yy + zz Dt x y z

u v v w u w + yx + + zx + + zy + y x z y z x
This is Non- conservative form of energy eq in terms of internal energy. (Conservative form of energy eq can be obtained using similar approach as that followed in momentum eq. section)

This can further be written in terms of flow field variables alone i.e. u,v,w,T,, using Stokes relations for shear stress;

2 u xx = . + 2 3 x 2 v yy = . + 2 3 y 2 w zz = . + 2 3 z

v u yx = + x y u w zx = + z x w v yz = + y z

Continuity, momentum & energy eqs combined together are known as Navier-Stokes (N-S) equations. If we neglect effect of dissipative viscous forces and thermal conduction, we get invicid form of N-S equations; popularly known as Euler equation.

D + . = 0 Dt

D = p + f Dt

D 2 e + = Qg .( p ) + f . 2 Dt

(In non-conservative form)

N-S eqs are coupled quasi-linear PDEs. These represent flow flied around any object in universe. Uniqueness of flow is dictated by boundary conditions. Boundary conditions: 1. Velocities: No-slip: u=v=w=0 Free slip: Vin=0

2. Temperature: Constant wall temperature T=Tw Constant Heat flux

T n

=
w

qw k

0 for adiabatic Pressure and density falls out as a part of solution. Other boundary conditions: Inflow and Outflow boundary conditions.

Conservative form
The distinction CFD places between conservation and non-conservation forms is an outgrowth of the realities of numerical solutions-it is relevant to CFD only. Conservative form (also known as divergence form) provide computer programming convenience, as SINGLE expression can represent all eqs.

Flux variable e.g. , u etc.

U F G H + + + =J t x y z

Source term

Conservative form was obtained from IFE fixed in space, hence fluxes (represented by F,G,H) appear as dependent variable in eqs. e.g. for continuity eq., F=u=mass flux in x-direction for momentum eq, F=u2=momentum flux in x-direction Because the conservation form uses flux variables as the dependent variables and because the changes in these flux variables are small across a shock wave, the numerical quality of a shock capturing method will be enhanced by the use of the conservation form.

Shock capturing method: N-S eqs solved without special consideration of oblique shock eqs. Location of shock is unknown. Solution neither give exact location of shock due to grid refinement limits. Shock fitting method: Exact location of shock is known a priori. Combination with shock capturing method give good solution. [(Time dependent) Solution of steady flow problems can be obtained by pseudo time stepping where steady state is approached at large time. However steady flow solution can also be obtained by marching in spatial direction, subjected to mathematical nature of G.E. For such case transient term is set to zero.]