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Oman: An Indian Ocean Empire
Misbah
Princeton’s First Magazine Exploring Islam and the Muslim World
2
Misbah Magazine
Exploring Islam and the Muslim World
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF CONTRIBUTORS
Babur Khwaja ’09 Shagufta Ahmed GS ’07
Nour Aoude ’10
EXECUTIVE EDITOR Ahson Azmat ‘10
Joy N. Karugu ’09 Nancy Coffin
R. David Coolidge GS ’08
SENIOR EDITOR George Hatke
Aman Kumar ’10
Wasim Shiliwala ’09
Barbara Romaine
Sohaib Sultan
DESIGN AND LAYOUT
Waqas Jawaid ’10
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viduals and generous grants from the following sources: zine explores the ideas, history and development of Muslims and Islam
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COVER IMAGE
length and clarity.
The cover photograph, titled “Dhows Coming Back Home,” was taken
by Ld Germain, and is used under the Creative Commons License. It
features the traditional arab ship used in the Indian Ocean, the Dhow.
Contents
Editor’s Note 2
Editor’s Note
Dear Readers,
Sincerely,
Babur Khwaja
Editor in Chief
Harry Potter
and the Two Traditions
by Ahson Azmat
The controversy between those who see our species and our
society as a lucky accident and those who find an immanent
teleology in both is too radical to permit of being judged from
some neutral standpoint.
In year 6 of Harry Potter’s schooling, he talks to a professor
at his school about “horcruxes,” which, we learn, are pieces of
the soul a wizard can separate from himself in order to cheat
death. Through a complicated alchemical process, the wizard
breaks his soul into distinct pieces, stores them inside vari-
ous little objects, and preserves his life so long as any of these
objects remain intact. The idea is very taboo, even in the
wizarding world. Notions of defeating death and conquering Harry Potter’s library. Photo by Aaron Jacobs.
mortality are considered aspects of “Dark” magic, practiced
only by the corrupt and evil, the “bad guys,” as it were. II
Harry’s professor, quite understandably, hesitates to talk The reconciliation of Islam and the West is a very popular
to Harry about this subject. After much pressure, he finally project in American-Muslim media. Events, conferences,
explains the process to him, though he admonishes him books, whole periodicals are devoted to this reconciliation, the
for asking about such a Dark idea. In the end, however, he attempt to harmonize, or at least bring to common ground,
concedes, “it’s natural to feel curiosity about some of these Islamic culture on the one hand and Western culture on the
things…wizards of a certain caliber have always been drawn other. The two are not alien, this project asserts. They are dif-
to that aspect of magic.” ferent in some ways, yes, but they are not mutually exclusive,
This observation is, I believe, applicable beyond children’s and there is much they can learn from one another.
literature into diverse fields, such as religion, psychology, poli- I believe, to the contrary, that this insistence on common
tics, and philosophy, among others. What I’d like to comment ground and similarity is either superficial or false, from the
on here is its insight into a very general field of comparative ground up. I believe that the respective intellectual frame-
religion, or culture, or sociology. My thesis is this: certain works within which each operate, and through which each
people (or more specifically, a certain type of people) tend proceed to generate a discourse in and about the world,
towards a certain type of thinking. This thinking is creative, are indeed mutually exclusive, and that common points
confident, dynamic, independent, and assertive. It pushes are semantic, incidental, inconsequential, and, ultimately,
boundaries and breaks rules, justifying its behavior on the al- misleading. The “West,” of course, is not a monolith; what I
tar of self-preservation, self-importance, and self-centeredness. have in mind is a growing contingent of liberal, twenty-first
It is found and indeed characteristic of a growing, liberal, century college graduates, cognizant of post-colonial as well
humanistic West, is absent in the classical Islamic tradition, as colonial criticism, critical of postmodern as well as modern
and the binary therein represents an impasse beyond which thought, subjectivist as well as positivist trends.
mutual understanding is distinctly unpromising. Here, I do not intend to make a normative argument one
Mitigating Subjectivity
The Primacy of Qur’anic Memorization (Hifdh) for the Future of Islam in America
by R. David Coolidge memorizing the entire Qur’an, now one can attain a PhD in
any field (even Islamic Studies) while barely knowing how
In the Name of God, The Entirely Merciful, The Especially Merciful to recite the final 30th of the Qur’an (juz’ ‘amma). From
And when you recite the Qur’an, seek refuge in God from an Islamic paradigm of knowledge acquisition, this is highly
the accursed Devil. Truly, he has no power over those who be- problematic, despite the coherence of such an approach based
lieve and put trust in their Lord. His power is only over those on alternative paradigms.
who make a friend of him, and those who ascribe partners Undoubtedly, it would be unrealistic to expect that every
unto Him (Qur’an, 16.98-100) American Muslim who graduates high school should also be
Ibn Khaldun (d. 1406/808), the famous Muslim histo- a Hāfidh. However, that theoretical goal should be one which
rian and sociologist, remarked that “instructing children in American Muslims attempt to realize on a communal level.
the Qur’ān is a symbol of Islam.” Qur’anic education was Also, American Muslims should believe that being a Hāfidh
universally conceived as forming an indispensable basis for (or Hāfidha, in the case of women) is an important qualifica-
pedagogy, because it laid “the foundation for all habits that tion for those who are publicly engaged in interpreting the
may be acquired later on,” and “the basis of all later (knowl- meaning and message of Islam, whether they are shaykhs,
edge).” The effect on the student was tremendous, for “the imams, professors, or something else. Mastery of the Qur’anic
first impression the heart receives is, in a way, the foundation text is crucial for sound Islamic interpretation, for many
of (all scholarly) habits.” Indeed, it is perhaps fair to say that reasons. It is the only complete text which Muslim scholars
all major scholars in the Islamic tradition, from the time of consider absolutely divine in origin, and simultaneously
the early community until recent history, have begun their absolutely pristine in its transmission throughout history
training with formal instruction in the proper recitation of (tawātur). As such, from an Islamic perspective it is unlike
the Qur’an (tajwīd), its etiquettes (adab), and the mastering any other text currently existing on the face of the planet. Its
of its text within their memory (hifdh). unique centrality as a text transcends all Islamic theological,
Undoubtedly, many American Muslim parents instruct their legal, mystical, and cultural divides. It is the only text whose
children in some form of recitation and memorization, often content can be considered absolutely objective, despite the
under the tutelage of someone properly trained in the craft. subjectivities of its interpreters. It is the mirror of reality, the
It is more common to find young American Muslims with an sign amidst the signs of the universe, and the firm hand hold
ability to recite properly than it is to find those who cannot which can never break.
properly do so. However, what is unique about the situation Much ink has been spilled in recent years about the process
of American Muslims is that while they are arguably one of of interpreting the Qur’an (tafsīr), and rightly so. Given the
the most wealthy and educated Muslim communities on centrality of the Qur’an, the process of Qur’anic interpreta-
the planet, they do not have a corresponding mastery of the tion will always be at the heart of the questions, “What is a
Qur’anic text on a communal level. Whereas in other times Muslim,” What should a Muslim do,” and “How should a
and places one did not become learned in anything until after Muslim be?” But the question that must be asked by all is,
“To what extent have I struggled with the Qur’an, and to text in Arabic, even if one does not understand what they
what extent have I allowed the Qur’an to struggle with me?” are saying. However, knowing the text is simply the begin-
Interpretation is not simply a one way street. Rather, the text ning of understanding the text. While memorization can be
one chooses to read and study transforms oneself. No one completed usually within two years of full-time study, under-
is ever the same after reading a new book, or re-reading an standing is the endeavor of a lifetime. Understanding involves
old one. But more importantly, no one is ever the same once connecting the objectivity of the text to the subjectivity of
committed to learning the entire Qur’an by heart. It is a jour- humanity, and has taken, and will take, myriad forms in his-
ney, a great journey, and one begins to look at the world with tory. However, the subjective nature of interpretation should
new eyes once one sets down that sacred road. not lead to the abandonment of the goal of objectivity, which
Each human being is a unique individual created by God, means attempting to see the world through the “eyes of God,”
unlike any other, and so it must be expected that interpreta- metaphorically speaking. That is the unattainable goal of the
tions of the Qur’an may be as numerous as the human beings greatest interpreters (mujtahidūn), who know that despite
on the earth. But does that mean that there are no standards their immense learning, “they will not encompass anything of
by which communities can choose which interpretations are His knowledge except what He wills.” (Qur’an, 2.255).
better or worse? Is the interpretation offered by someone who All scholars are agreed that one must be instructed in the
simply glances at a translation of the text as valuable as one Qur’an by a knowledgeable and pious teacher, who was
offered by someone who has made it their primary task to instructed by a pious and knowledgeable teacher, all the way
memorize and understand the original text in all of its rich- back to the original teacher, the Prophet Muhammad (may
ness and nuance? While everyone has the right to struggle to the peace and blessings of God be upon him). The imbuing
understand the text on their own terms, it is only natural and of oneself with the text is thus not cut off from the historical
logical that there should be communal standards which privi- process by which Islamic civilization has spread throughout
lege the efforts of those who have memorized the entire text. the world, namely the spread of human beings who have
Clearly, the memorization of the Qur’anic text is not a endeavored to live Islam to its fullest. As person meets person,
panacea for all of the interpretive problems of the American so is the text transmitted, creating a continuity of change,
Muslim community. The spiritual rewards of memorizing the as well as strengthening the bonds of humanity which are so
text are irrefutable. There are numerous authentic sayings vital to the Islamic ethos. The process of taking the text from
of the Prophet (may the peace and blessings of God be upon a teacher also helps remind one that this text is not simply
him) which indicate the great value of reciting the Qur’anic theirs, but rather belongs to the whole ummah. As one is sit-
Reflections on the
Essence of Ramadan
by Sohaib N. Sultan campuses, even observe all days of the fast with Muslims
Ramadan is the holiest month in the Islamic calendar. It to experience something of the month’s spiritual and social
visits us with its many blessings every year in the ninth month vibrancy.
of the lunar calendar. It is a time of spiritual birth and rebirth The natural question that follows this description of Rama-
for individuals and communities across the globe. At its most dan is what makes this month particularly sacred and special?
essential outer core, Ramadan is known as a time of fasting or And, why is the spiritual discipline of fasting employed to
refraining one’s self from food, drink from dusk to dawn. For mark the month of Ramadan over any other spiritual practice?
Muslims, observing this fast fulfills one of the five pillars of And, lastly, what lasting impact does this month seek to have
Islam. In ritual law fasting during the month of Ramadan is on an individual believer and on a community of believers?
recognized as an obligation (fard) upon every healthy Muslim
who has reached an age of maturity. In spiritual treatises it is Ramadan to Honor Guidance
recognized as a special invitation or opportunity (tawfiq) to The Qur’an states, “Ramadan is the month in which the
spiritually feast with God. Qur’an was revealed as guidance for humanity, and as a clear
This intensely spiritual month is also associated with an articulation of that guidance, and as the criterion to discern
immensely social period in which
Muslims are encouraged to invite
their neighbors and friends for
opening (suhoor) and breaking (if-
tar) the fast together. Mosques hold
special night long prayers (tarawih/
tahajjud) during which worshippers
commune with one another while
enjoying Qur’anic recitation. New
relationships are established and old
ones reestablished. There is a unique
spirit of community, generosity,
and good-will during the whole
month. Many Muslims list Rama-
dan as their favorite time of the year
because of this atmosphere.
Today, Ramadan is also seen,
culturally, as a time to celebrate and
appreciate the Muslim presence in
society. It is commonplace to hold
interfaith conversations and din-
ners throughout the month and
many politicians, public figures, and
businesses send Ramadan greetings
to their Muslim constituents. The
White House invites Muslim leaders
every year to break the fast with
the president and other high level
government officials. Some non-
Muslims, particularly on university
Ramadan Food Fair in Istanbul, Turkey. Photo by Shagufta Ahmed GS’07.
Oman
An Indian Ocean Empire
by George Hatke jam who assassinated ‘Ali in the mosque of Kufa in 661.
By the eighteenth century, Arabia entered the modern age Ibadis today, however, reject any connection with the
as its diverse polities began gradually to take on their current Kharijis, whom they reproach for their fanaticism and for
form as states. Some themes of this political evolution which their condemnation of non-Khariji Muslims as infidels. Thus,
are familiar today, such as Wahhabism, were already making while the other Khariji sects put to the sword those Muslims
their influence felt outside Arabia, as is evident from Saudi with whom they disagreed on matters of doctrine, the Ibadis
raids on Iraq at the turn of the nineteenth century. However, have traditionally maintained a more conciliatory stance vis-
influential though Saudi Arabia may be in the present-day à-vis their coreligionists. Rather than branding non-Ibadis as
Islamic world, the early Saudi state never succeeded in estab- unbelievers they view them instead as simply “unbelievers in
lishing a lasting foothold abroad. In fact, of the states of the God’s grace” (al-kuffar bi’l-ni’ma), who are still accepted as
Arabian Peninsula only Oman created a true empire. fellow Muslims, and with whom free association is permis-
Though it reached its zenith in the first half of the nine- sible. Indeed it is perhaps as a result of their moderation that
teenth century, the Omani empire was the end result of a the Ibadis are the only Khariji sect to survive to the present.
long relationship between trade and politics. For thousands of Adhering to an ideal of equality among believers, the Ibadis
years, maritime trade had bound Oman to the outside world, have long believed that political leadership should be open
and in the sixth century BCE the country was annexed by the
Achaemenid Persians. Iran continued to periodically exert po-
litical influence over Oman as late as 1744, when the last era
of Persian occupation was brought to an end by Ahmad bin
Sa’id, who went on to reign until 1783 as the first sultan of
the Al Bu Sa’id Dynasty. The Al Bu Sa’id established Muscat
as the country’s capital and holds sway over Oman to this day.
In the long term, however, it was the Arabs who had the
greatest impact on the country. Many of the Arab tribes
which settled in Oman hailed from Yemen. Chief among the
Yemeni groups that settled in Oman in pre-Islamic times was
the Azd confederation, some factions of which would later
settle in Syria-Palestine, Mesopotamia, and the western littoral
of the Arabian Gulf. Their presence in southern Mesopotamia
grew in the aftermath of the Islamic conquests of the seventh
century, when large numbers of Azdis took up residence in
the garrison town of Basra. Ties with other Azdis still living in
Oman may have helped diffuse to the latter the doctrines of
the Ibadi sect, which enjoyed widespread popularity in Basra.
The sect had emerged in the milieu of the Khariji move-
ment, which according to Islamic tradition began when some
12,000 troops deserted from the army of ‘Ali bin Abi Talib at
the Battle of Siffin in Syria in 657. Displeased by ‘Ali’s agree-
ment to an arbitration with his adversary, Mu’awiya—the
governor of Syria and future caliph—these soldiers not only
withdrew their support from ‘Ali but remained a constant
threat to his authority for the rest of his reign. Ultimately it
was a Khariji from Yemen named ‘Abd al-Rahman bin Mul- Photo by Amy Rathgeb
Misbah - Exploring Islam and the Muslim World ISLAM IN THE WORLD
21
ture in 1913, Serbs regained control of the region. As a part
of former Yugoslavia and subject to the communist rule of
Josip Tito, both the practice of Christianity and Islam were
relegated to the private sphere. Islam and religiosity were not
only painted as counter to modernization, but those who
were religious had to pay a price for their religious devotion.
Some personal accounts point to religious individuals who,
regardless of their qualifications, were prevented from advanc-
ing in their professional careers. Turks and their religion of
Islam were conveyed as counter to modernization. As a result,
religious devotion was discouraged.
In the many years of Milosevic’s rule over Kosovo, any
public expression of Albanian nationalism, which included at
times the practice of the Muslim faith (though not targeted as
such), were stifled and restrained. Therefore, in part, a taper-
ing off of religious expression was a product of the political
situation of the times. As a result, the practice of Islam by
Kosovars may have become increasingly diluted from one
generation to the next.
With independence, Kosovars now have more freedom
in terms of their religious expression. Just as the economic
marketplace has opened up, so too inevitably will the religious
marketplace. With such an opportunity available to them,
it may be possible that in a few generations the practice of
“Islam-Lite” will be replaced by a stronger practice of the
The Blue Mosque is a recent construction in a country rediscovering
religion. Photo by Litscher used under the Creative Commons License. faith.
This became increasingly evident during my return to newly
who I visited during Ramadan, accompanied me for the independent Kosovo in July 2008. Although the general
suhoor, or the pre-fast morning meal, out of a sense of respect population is still largely unobservant, I found that Kosovars
for their fasting guest. While they did not fast themselves, are slowly beginning to explore their Islamic identity.
they were familiar with the tradition of fasting and were I attended the Jumu’ah, or Friday prayer, at the newly
knowledgeable of the main tenets of Islam, and could pray the constructed Catalulla mosque in downtown Prishtina. While
Islamic prayer if they so desired. While there were those Turk- the number of mosques are few (under 30 in Prishtina), the
ish Muslims who heard the adhan, the call to prayer, and were mosque I attended was near full capacity. While one would
compelled to pray, others ignored the call to prayer altogether. expect the largest population of worshippers to be older than
But both unobservant and observant groups had a general sixty years of age, there was an even larger population of
awareness of Islamic traditions and beliefs. worshippers under the age of 25. I was surprised to see both
The lack of religious observance by Turks and Kosovars is young men and women rushing to the mosque to make the
distinguished by a key factor – a lack of general awareness in afternoon prayer and to see young boys standing beside their
Kosovo about Islamic traditions and beliefs. While a Turkish fathers in the prayer line.
Muslim’s decision not to practice Islam is more deliberate and In a way this signals that Kosovo is at critical point in its
conscience, it appears a Kosovar’s lack of religiosity is in part religious development. As a newly liberalized democracy, not
due to his general lack of Islamic knowledge. This can largely only is Kosovo taking conscience steps to define its economic
be explained by Kosovo’s political history. and political identity, but it is also inadvertently defining a
I found that I was not the only one with a superficial under- new religious identity. Both politically and socially, this is
standing of Kosovo’s relationship with Islam. Media reports bound to be a period of discovery and challenge, owing in
in the immediate days after independence painted Kosovo as large part to Kosovo’s communist past. How will a society that
a region that touts its practice of “Islam-Lite”, a more diluted, has for generations suppressed its religious traditions and faith
more laid back, and perhaps a less threatening version of now come to terms with its organic re-emergence? Perhaps I
Islam. However, such a representation of Islam failed to take will have the opportunity to uncover the answer in my future
into account the relationship (or lack of relationship) Kosovar travels to the region.
Albanians have had with Islam as a result of their political his-
tory. Religion in Kosovo has in large part been dictated, and Shagufta Ahmed received her master’s degree in public affairs from the
in ways been adaptive, to political circumstances. Woodrow Wilson School at Princeton in 2007. She can be reached at
After centuries of Turkish rule and their eventual depar- shaguftaiahmed@gmail.com.
Mahmoud Darwish
by Nancy Coffin
Photo by POOL/AFP
I Belong There
by Mahmoud Darwish
Translated by Carolyn Forché and Munir Akash
With great sorrow, the Arab world – and, indeed, lovers of poetry from all over the globe – mourned the passing of the pre-
eminent Palestinian poet Mahmoud Darwish on August 9 this past summer. Darwish died, at the age of 67, in a hospital in
Texas, from complications of open-heart surgery.
Born in 1941 in the Galilee in what was then British-Mandate Palestine, Darwish’s family sought refuge in Lebanon from
the Arab-Israeli war of 1948. When they managed to return, a year later, to the Galilee, the family found that their village had
been destroyed and replaced by two new settlements; thereafter, they lived in semi-clandestine fashion as “present absentees”,
an odd-sounding term used to designate Palestinian refugees within the newly-formed state of Israel. It was clear to Darwish as
he grew up that he was a second-class citizen, and his outspoken poetry became part of the Palestinian literature of resistance,
for which he was jailed and placed under house arrest while still in Israel.
After leaving Israel in 1971, Darwish began an itinerant existence, moving from Moscow to Cairo, Beirut, Tunis and Paris.
Over the years, he worked for the Palestine Research Center, served as editor-in-chief of the literary review al-Karmel, and
joined the Executive Committee of the PLO: it was he who wrote the Palestinian Declaration of Independence in 1988. But
always it was poetry that was his first love, and it was for his poetry that he was known and loved throughout the Arab world.
His poetry readings in the Arab world would attract thousands of listeners, from all walks of life.
He has published some twenty volumes of poetry, beginning in 1960 and his works have been translated into more than 22
languages. His words have given shape and meaning to the Palestinian experience, and he lives on, wherever his works are sung
or recited, or engraved in the hearts of his admirers.
Nancy Coffin is a lecturer of Arabic in the Near Eastern Studies Department at Princeton. The poem is taken from “Unfortunately, It Was Paradise”
by Mahmoud Darwish, translated and Edited by Munir Akash and Carolyn Forché with Sinan Antoon and Amira El-Zein. Copyright © 2003 by
the Regents of the University of California. Reprinted by permission of the University of California Press. All rights reserved.